Sanitary and Environmental Engineering

Filtration
Filtration is the separation of non-settleable solids from water by passing it through a porous
media. Filtration also removes from water: color, taste, odor, iron, manganese and
microorganisms such as bacteria. In water treatment plants this is done in a unit known as the
filter.

Types of filter according to process workability:

1) Gravity filter:

a) Slow sand filter: They consist of fine sand, supported by gravel. They capture particles
near the surface of the bed and are usually cleaned by scraping away the top layer of
sand that contains the particles.
b) Rapid-sand filter: They consist of larger sand grains supported by gravel and capture
particles throughout the bed. They are cleaned by backwashing water through the bed
to 'lift out' the particles.

Diagrammatic section of a rapid sand gravity filter.

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2) Pressure filter:

Pressure filter.

Types of filter according to media:

1) Mono-media: as sand or anthracite.

2) Multimedia filters: They consist of two or more layers of different granular materials, with
different densities. Usually, anthracite coal, sand, and gravel are used. The different layers
combined may provide more versatile collection than a single sand layer. Because of the
differences in densities, the layers stay neatly separated, even after backwashing.
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Filter Media:
The choice of a filter medium is dictated by the durability required, the desired degree of
purification, and the length of filter run and ease of backwash sought. The ideal medium should
have such a size and be of such material that it will provide a satisfactory effluent, return a
maximum quantity of solids, and be readily cleaned with a minimum of wash water.

1) Sand: Sand, either fine or coarse, is generally used as filter media. The size of the sand is
measured and expressed by the term called effective size. The effective size, i.e. D 10 may
be defined as the size of the sieve in mm through which ten percent of the sample of sand
by weight will pass. The uniformity in size or degree of variations in sizes of particles is
measured and expressed by the term called uniformity coefficient. The uniformity
𝐷60
coefficient, i.e. (𝐷𝑈 = ) may be defined as the ratio of the sieve size in mm through
𝐷10
which 60 percent of the sample of sand will pass, to the effective size of the sand.

2) Gravel: The layers of sand may be supported on gravel, which permits the filtered water
to move freely to the underdrains, and allows the wash water to move uniformly upwards.

3) Other materials: Instead of using sand, sometimes, anthracite is used as filter media.
Anthracite is made from anthracite, which is a type of coal-stone that burns without smoke
or flames. It is cheaper and has been able to give a high rate of filtration.

Fine material Coarse material

1) Better effluent 1) Better utilization of the storage capacity
2) High head loss in upper layers of the bed. of the filter.
3) Short filter runs. 2) Permit deeper penetration of the floc.
4) Most difficult in cleaning upon backwash 3) Longer filter runs.
4) Easier cleaning upon backwash

Sand Anthracite Gravel

1) Clean, hard, and resistance. 1) Anthracite depth 1) Hard, rounded,
2) Not lose more than 5% by 600-700 mm. durable, free from flat,
weight after being placed in 40% 2) Effective size of 0.7 thin, and contain no
hydrochloric acid for 24 hr. mm. foreign material.
3) Sand depth 600-700 mm. 3) Uniformity 2) Effective size between
4) Effective size of 0.45-0.55 mm. coefficient of 1.75 0.8 to 2 mm.
5) Uniformity coefficient not less or less. 3) Uniformity coefficient
than 1.2 and not exceed 1.7. of not over 1.7.
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Filtration Mechanisms: There are four basic filtration mechanisms:

1) Sedimentation: The mechanism of sedimentation is due to force of gravity and the

associate settling velocity of the particle, which causes it to cross the streamlines and reach
the collector.
2) Interception: Interception of particles is common for large particles. If a large enough
particle follows the streamline that lies very close to the media surface it will hit the media
grain and be captured.
3) Brownian diffusion: Diffusion towards media granules occurs for very small particles, such
as viruses. Particles move randomly about within the fluid, due to thermal gradients. This
mechanism is only important for particles with diameters < 1 micron.
4) Inertia: Attachment by inertia occurs when larger particles move fast enough to travel off
their streamlines and bump into media grains.

The area of filter medium which is a function of particle size and bed depth, it follows that
increasing the size of the medium will require an increase in depth.
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Rapid Sand Filters (RSF):

Rapid filtration generally implies a process which includes coagulation, flocculation, clarification,
filtration, and disinfection.

Essential characteristics of a rapid filter:

1) The turbidity of water applied to the filters should not exceed 10 units and preferably 5
units,
2) High rate of filtration, 120 to 240 m/day,
3) Washing the filter units by revising flow of filtered water upward through the filter to
remove mud and other impurities which have lodged.

Filter component: As shown in the figures above:

A) Water head: Clearance, 600-900 mm in depth.

B) Filer bed (Sand layer), 600- 1200 mm in depth. The objectives of this layer:

i. Coarse to retain large quantity of solid particles.

ii. Fine to prevent the passage of small solid particles.
iii. Deep layer to allow long filtration run.
iv. Graded to permit good backwash cleaning.
Properties: Effective size (D10)= 0.45 -0.55 mm, Uniformity coefficient (Cu)= D60/D10
=1.2-1.7.
C) Gravel layer (bed), 400-600 mm in depth. The objectives of this layer:

i. Support the filter bed (sand layer).

ii. Permit the filtered water to move freely towards the underdrain system.
iii. Allows the washing water to move uniformly upwards to the filter bed.
Properties: clean, free from flat and thin shapes, hard, round, durable and ρs = 1600
kg/m3

D) Underdrain system: The objectives of this layer:

i. To collect the filtered water.

ii. To distribute the washing water evenly.
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Mathematical equation of filtration process:

Qf = Filtration discharge (flow through one filter) Qf (Influent)

𝑄𝑓 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑉𝑓

As =surface area of the filter. Porous

Vf = Filtration rate (m/day). Media

Qb= Backwash discharge (Washing water for one filter)

𝑄 = 𝐴𝑠 × 𝑣𝑏 Qb

vb = Backwash rate Filtered water (Effluent)

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑄
𝑄𝑏 = =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑤𝑎𝑠𝑕𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑉

* An expansion space for the filter media to move when backwashed

He
H = Height of the filter bed.

He = Height of the expanded filter bed when backwashed H

n = Porosity of the clean filter bed.

vb = Backwash velocity rate.

vs= Settling velocity of the filter media (Stoke ‘s settling velocity)

E) Trough: The objectives of this lateral channel to collect the backwash water.

Types of the troughs

Flat bottom V- bottom Rounded

b
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Q2
Y = 1.73 3
g .b 2
y = Height of the trough (m).

b = Width of the trough (m).

g = Acceleration of gravity (m/ sec2)

F) Gullet: The objectives of this main channel to collect the backwash water from the troughs.

Design Criteria

1) Filtration rate (vf) = 120 -360 m/day.

2) Backwash rate (vb) = 0.15 -0.9 m/min (216-1296 m/day).
3) Surface area (As) = 5 – 200 m2
4) Washing time = 5 -15 min.
5) Horizontal distance for backwash water to reach the trough is not to exceed one meter.
6) Filtration run = 12-72 hr (if the turbidity of the influent is: a. Low–long run, b. High–short
run).
7) Total head loss = 2.7 – 3.7 m
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Operation Problems In RSFs

1) Air Binding:
a) When the filter is newly commissioned, the loss of head of water percolating
through the filter is generally very small. However, the loss of head goes on
increasing as more and more impurities get trapped into it.
b) A stage is finally reached when the frictional resistance offered by the filter media
exceeds the static head of water above the bed. Most of this resistance is offered
by the top 10 to 15 cm sand layer. The bottom sand acts like a vacuum, and water
is sucked through the filter media rather than getting filtered through it.
c) The negative pressure so developed, tends to release the dissolved air and other
gases present in water. The formation of bubbles takes place which stick to the
sand grains. This phenomenon is known as Air Binding as the air binds the filter and
stops its functioning.
d) To avoid such troubles, the filters are cleaned as soon as the head loss exceeds the
optimum allowable value.

2) Mud accumulation: The mud from the atmosphere usually accumulates on the sand
surface to form a dense mat. During inadequate washing this mud may sink down into the
sand bed and stick to the sand grains and other arrested impurities, thereby forming mud
balls.

3) Sand Incrustation (cracking of filter): to solve this problem a-Skimming b-Use anthracite
as a top layer on the filter Media-Carbonation. The fine sand contained in the top layers of
the filter bed shrinks and causes the development of shrinkage cracks in the sand bed. With
the use of filter, the loss of head and, therefore, pressure on the sand bed goes on
increasing, which further goes on widening these cracks.
Remedial measures to prevent cracking of filters and formation of mud balls by:

a) Breaking the top fine mud layer with rakes and washing off the particles.
b) Washing the filter with a solution of caustic soda.
c) Removing, cleaning and replacing the damaged filter sand.

Backwashing of Rapid Sand Filter

1) For a filter to operate efficiently, it must be cleaned before the next filter run. If the water
applied to a filter is of very good quality, the filter runs can be very long. Some filters can
operate longer than one week before needing to be backwashed. However, this is not
recommended as long filter runs can cause the filter media to pack down so that it is
difficult to expand the bed during the backwash.
2) Treated water from storage is used for the backwash cycle. This treated water is generally
taken from elevated storage tanks or pumped in from the clear well.
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3) The filter backwash rate has to be great enough to expand and agitate the filter media and
suspend the floc in the water for removal. However, if the filter backwash rate is too high,
media will be washed from the filter into the troughs and out of the filter.
When is Backwashing Needed?

The filter should be backwashed when the following conditions have been met:

1) The head loss is so high that the filter no longer produces water at the desired rate; and/or
2) Floc starts to break through the filter and the turbidity in the filter effluent increases;
and/or
3) A filter run reaches a given hour of operation.

Principles of Slow Sand Filtration

1) In slow sand filter impurities in the water are removed by a combination of processes:
sedimentation, straining, adsorption, and chemical and bacteriological action.
2) During the first few days, water is purified mainly by mechanical and physical-chemical
processes. The resulting accumulation of sediment and organic matter forms a thin layer
on the sand surface, which remains permeable and retains particles even smaller than the
spaces between the sand grains.
3) As this layer develops, it becomes living quarters of vast numbers of microorganisms which
break down organic material retained from the water, converting it into water, carbon
dioxide and other oxides.
4) Most impurities, including bacteria and viruses, are removed from the raw water as it
passes through the filter skin and the layer of filter bed sand just below. The purification
mechanisms extend from the filter skin to approx. 0.3-0.4 m below the surface of the filter
bed, gradually decreasing in activity at lower levels as the water becomes purified and
contains less organic material.
5) When the microorganisms become well established, the filter will work efficiently and
produce high quality effluent which is virtually free of disease carrying organisms and
biodegradable organic matter. They are suitable for treating waters with low colors, low
turbidities and low bacterial contents.
 Slow sand filter.

Sand Filters vs. Rapid Sand Filters

1) Base material: In SSF it varies from 3 to 65 mm in size and 30 to 75 cm in depth while in

RSF it varies from 3 to 40 mm in size and its depth is slightly more, i.e. about 60 to 90 cm.
2) Filter sand: In SSF the effective size ranges between 0.2 to 0.4 mm and uniformity
coefficient between 1.8 to 2.5 or 3.0. In RSF the effective size ranges between 0.35 to 0.55
and uniformity coefficient between 1.2 to 1.8.
3) Rate of filtration: In SSF it is small, such as 100 to 200 L/h/sq.m. of filter area while in RSF
it is large, such as 3000 to 6000 L/h/sq.m. of filter area.
4) Flexibility: SSF are not flexible for meeting variation in demand whereas RSF are quite
flexible for meeting reasonable variations in demand.
5) Post treatment required: Almost pure water is obtained from SSF. However, water may be
disinfected slightly to make it completely safe. Disinfection is a must after RSF.
6) Method of cleaning: Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 cm thick layer is done to
clean SSF. To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed with or without compressed air.
7) Loss of head: In case of SSF approx. 10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is the final limit
when cleaning is required. For RSF 0.3 m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5 m is the final limit
when cleaning is required.
 Item SSF RSF

Particle Size: 3-65 mm Particle Size: 30-40 mm

Base material
Depth: 20-75 cm Depth: 60-90 cm

D10: 0.2-0.4 mm D10: 0.35-0.55 mm

Filter sand
CU: 1.8-3 CU: 1.2-1.8

Filtration rate 2.4-4.8 m/day 120-360 m/day

not flexible for meeting variation in flexible for meeting reasonable variations in
Flexibility
demand demand

Post treatment water may be disinfected slightly to make Disinfection is a must after RSF
required it completely safe

Method of Scrapping and removing of the top 1.5 to 3 To clean RSF, sand is agitated and backwashed
cleaning cm thick layer is done to clean SSF with or without compressed air

10 cm is the initial loss, and 0.8 to 1.2m is 0.3m is the initial loss, and 2.5 to 3.5m is the
Loss of head
the final limit when cleaning is required final limit when cleaning is required
 SOLVED PROBLEMS
Problem 9.1: A WTP is designed to treat 48,000 m3/day. For filtration 12 RSFs are used, each filter
is designed with 2 troughs of a square cross-sectional area. The filtration rate is 160 m/day and
the backwash rate is 864 m/day. Find
1) Dimensions of each filter, L and W (m) with or without washing? Also filter depth?
2) Dimensions of each trough, y and b (m) and gullet?
3) Volume of water (m3) to wash 2 filters at the same time for 5 minutes?

Solution: