Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Power System Structure

Generation,
Transmission and
Distribution systems
are the main
components of an
electric power system.
Generating stations and
distribution systems are
connected through
transmission lines.
Normally, transmission
lines implies the bulk
transfer of power by
high – voltage links Figure 1 Power System Diagram
between main load Figure 4 Transmission System
centers. On the other hand, distribution system is mainly Distribution networks are different than transmission
responsible for the conveyance of this power to the networks in many ways, quite apart from voltage
consumers by means of lower voltage networks. Electric magnitude. The general structure or topology of the
power is generated in the range of 11 kV to 25 kV, which is distribution is different and the number of branches and
increase by stepped up transformers ot the main sources is much higher. A typical distribution system
transmission voltage. At sub - stations, the connection consists of a step – down transformer at a bulk supply point
between various components are made, for example, lines feeding a number of lines with varying length from a few
and transformers hundred of meters to several kilometers. Several three –
and switching of phase step – down transformes are spaced along these
these components feeders and from these, three – phase four – wire networks
is carried out. of consumers are supplied which gives 230 V, single phase
Transmission level supply to houses and simular loads.
voltages are in the
range of 66 kV to
400 kV (or higher).
Large amounts of
power are
transmitted from
the generating
Figure 2 Power System Structure
stations to the load
centers at 220 kV or higher.
The power supply network can be divided int two parts,
transmission and distribution systems. The transmission
system may be dividided into primary and secondary Figure 5 Distribution System
distribution system. Most of the distribution networks A complete circuit diagram of a power system for all the
operate radially for less short circuit current and better three – phases is very complicated. It is very much practical
protective coordination. to represent power system using simple symbols – for each
component resulting in what is called a Single Line
Diagram. The single line diagram of a power system
network shows the main connections and arrangement of
the system components along with their data (such as
output rating, voltage, resistance and reactance, etc.). In
case of transmission lines sometimes the conductor size
Figure 3 Components of Power System
and spacings are given. It is not necessary tos how all the
components of the system on a single line diagram, e.g.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

circuit breakers need not be shown in a load flow study but (input line voltage must be high so that the losses will
are must for protection study. In a single line diagram, the decrease and the area of conductor will also decrease)
system components are usually drawn in the form of their
symbols. Generators and transformer connections – star,
delta and neutral earthing are indicated by symbols drawn
by the side of the representation of these elements. Circuit
breakers are represented by rectangular blocks.

Figure 6 Single Line Diagram of Power System

Power system engineers have devised the per – unit
system such that different physical quatities such as Figure 7 How Electricity is transfer?
current, voltage, power and impedance are expressed as a (1) Electricity leaves power plant, (2) its voltage is increase
decimal fraction or multiple of base quantities. In this at a step – up transformer, (3) the electricity travels along
system, the different voltage levels disapper and a power the transmission line to the area where the power is
network consisting synchronous generators, transformers needed, (4) there, in the substation, the voltage is
and lines reduces to a system of simple impedances. decreased with the help of a step – down transformer, (5)
Major Sources of Electrical Energy again, transmission line carries the electricity, (6) Electricity
1. The Sun reaches the final consumption points
2. The Wind Electric Supply System – the conveyance of electric
3. Water power from a power station to consumer’s premises.
4. Fuels Electric Supply System Components
a. Fossil Fuels 1. Power Station (Generators)
i. Coal 2. Transmission Lines
ii. Oil 3. Distribution System – connects other part of the power
iii. Natural Gas system such as transmission line through the help of
b. Nuclear Energy SUBSTATION.
5. Thermal and Geothermal Energy Classification of Electric Supply System
Importance of Electrical Energy 1. AC or DC system
1. Convenient Form – it can be easily converted into 2. Overhead or Underground system
other forms of energy such as light, heat, mechanical Parts of a typical AC Power Supply Scheme
energy, etc. (with the help of TURBINES) 1. Generating Stations
2. Easy Control – the electrically operated machines 2. Primary Transmission
have simple and convenient starting, control and 3. Secondary Transmission
operation. (switches) 4. Primary Distribution
3. Greater Flexibility – it can be easily transported from 5. Secondary Distribution
one place to another with the help of conductors. 6. System of Supply to individual consumers
(ASCR – Aluminum Conductor Steel Reinforced) A system network (or grid) is the name given to that part of
4. Cheapness – it is overall economical to use this form power system which consists of the sub – stations and
of energy for domestic, commercial and industrial transmission lines of various voltage rating.
purposes. Transmission Systems
5. Cleanliness – electrical energy is not associated with It includes all land, conversion structures and equipment at
smoke, fumes, and poisonous gases. the primary sources of supply, line switching and
6. High Transmission Efficiency – the electrical energy conversions stations between a generating or receiving
can be transmitted conveniently and efficiently from the point and the entrance to a distribution center or wholesale
center of generation to the consumer with the help of point, all lines and equipment whose primary purpose is to
overhead conductors known as transmission lines. augment, integrate or tie together sources of power supply.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Two Types of Electrical Transmission the number of wires it should carry. Line supports
1. Electrical Power Transmission consist of:
2. Electrical Communication Transmission a. pole structures which are made of wood,
Typical Electric Power Transmission and Distribution reinforced concrete or steel are used up to 66 kV
Scheme b. steel towers are used for higher voltages.
2. Underground System – this being especially suited
for densely populated areas though it is somewhat
costlier than the first method.
- employs insulated cables which may be single,
double or triple – core etc.
Transmission Lines
These are connecting links between the generating stating
and distribution system.
Principle Elements of High Voltage AC Transmission Lines
1. Conductors (R, L, C)
2. Step – Up and Step – Down Transformers
3. Line Insulators
4. Supports
5. Protective Device (fuses, relays, breakers)
6. Voltage Regulating Device (surge protective device)
CHOICE OF SUPPLY
Comparisons of DC and AC Transmission and Distribution

Figure 8 Electric Power Transmission and Distribution Scheme Figure 9 Transmission and Distribution by means of AC and DC
Purposes of Transmission DC Transmission
1. To transmit power from a water power site to a market. A. Advantages
2. For bulk supply of power load center from outlying 1. It requires only two conductors as compared to
steam stations. These are likely to be relatively short. three for ac transmission. It is also possible to
3. For interconnection purposes, that is, for transfer of transmit power through only one conductor by
energy from one system to another in case of using earth as returning conductor, hence much
emergency or in response to diversity in the system copper is saved.
peaks. 2. There is no inductance, capacitance, phase
Two Methods of Transmission displacement and surge problem in dc
1. Overhead System – transmission lines - power is transmission.
conveyed by bare conductors of copper or aluminum 3. Due to absence of inductance, the voltage drop in
which are strung between wooden or steel poles a dc transmission line is less than the ac for the
erected at convenient distances along a route. The same load and sending end voltage.
bare copper or aluminum wire is fixed to an insulator 4. There is no skin effect in a dc system. Therefore,
which is itself fixed onto a cross – arm on the pole. The the entire cross section of the line conductor is
number of cross – arms carried by a pole depends on utilized.

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5. For the same working voltage, the potential stress The best method is to employ AC system for generation and
1
on the insulation is 2 times less in case of dc distribution and DC system for transmission.
√ Transmission of electric power by DC system became
system than that in ac system. Therefore, dc line
possible because of introduction of mercury arc rectifiers
requires less insulation.
and thyratrons which can convert AC into DC and vice
6. A dc line has less corona loss and reduced
versa efficiently and at reasonable cost.
interference with communication circuits.
7. In dc transmission, there is no stability problems
and synchronizing difficulties.
8. The high voltage dc transmission is free from the
dielectric losses, particularly in case of cables.
9. Charging current, which contributes to continuous
loss even on no load, is eliminated.
10. Underground cables can be used because of less Figure 10 HVDC Transmission System
potential stress and negligible dielectric loss. The electric power is generated as AC; its voltage is
B. Disadvantages stepped up to high voltage by step – up transformer and
1. Electric power cannot be generated at high dc converted into DC by some suitable rectifying device. The
voltage due to commutation problems. transmission of electric power is carried at high DC voltage
2. The dc voltage cannot be stepped up for (500 kV). At receiving end, DC power is converted back into
transformation of power at high voltages. three phase AC using suitable converters and then stepped
3. The dc switches and circuit breakers have their down to low voltage for distribution by suitable step – down
own limitation. transformers.
AC Transmission The favorable conditions resulting from the use of
A. Advantages converters in the above system gives the following
1. The power can be generated at high voltages. additional advantages:
2. Maintenance of ac substation is easy and 1. Independence of frequencies at sending end and
cheaper. receiving end networks makes possible generation of
3. The ac voltage can be stepped up or stepped power at frequency different from that of load system.
down by transformers with ease and efficiency. 2. With the use of suitable converters, power can be
This permits to transmit power at high voltages reversed, increased or decreased in the system at will
and distribute it at safe potentials. and with rapidity i.e., the control is easy and rapid.
B. Disadvantages 3. Because of the absence of charging and stability
1. An AC line requires more copper than DC. problems, there is no limit to distance over which DC
2. The construction of an AC line is more power can be transmitted.
complicated than a DC transmission line. 4. Keeping in view the circuit breaker capacities, the short
3. Due to skin effect in the ac system, the effective circuit currents are not transmitted through lines and
resistance of the line is increased. hence a tremendous amount of saving is affected by
4. An AC line has capacitance, thus, there is a installing smaller circuit breakers.
continuous loss of power due to the charging 5. The smaller amount of power can be transmitted much
current even when the line is open. more economically.
5. In case of overhead lines spacing between the Comparisons of Overhead and Underground Systems
conductors is to be kept more to provide adequate Transmission and distribution of electric power can be
insulation and to avoid corona loss. carried out by overhead as well as underground systems.
6. The alternators are to be synchronized before Comparison between the two is given:
putting them in parallel. a. Public Safety: Underground system is safer than
7. The variation in speeds of alternators are to be overhead system.
controlled within very low limits. b. Initial Cost: Underground system is more expensive.
AC Distribution is undoubtedly superior to that by DC c. Flexibility: Overhead system is more flexible than
Distribution in terms of voltage control by the means of a underground system. In overhead system new
transformer. conductors can be laid along the existing ones for load

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

expansion. In case of underground system new and fog, per 160 km of a line a year. Most of the
conductors are to be laid in new channels. breakdowns which do occur are transient and none out of
d. Working Voltage: The underground system cannot be them can be rendered innocuous, as far as system is
operated above 66 kV because of insulation difficulties concerned, by using high speed automatic reclosing circuit
but overhead system can be designed for operation up breakers. Repairs, where necessary, can easily and quickly
to 400 kV or higher. be carried on site. The only real disadvantage of the
e. Maintenance Cost: Maintenance cost of underground overhead line is that it needs large electrical clearances and
system is very low in comparison with that of overhead it is sometimes not possible to get several circuits into
system. congested areas.
f. Frequency of Faults or Failures: As the cables are EHV power cables are used in congested or built – up
laid underground, so these are not easily accessible. areas, near airfields, line terminations and transformer
The insulation is also better, so there are very few banking connections where the use of overhead lines is not
chances of power failures or fault as compared to permitted because of space limitations, safety
overhead system. requirements, amenities, etc. The major factor against a
g. Frequency of Accidents: The chances of accidents greater use of insulated cables is the high price of the
in underground system are very low as compared to equipment.
overhead system. Influence of Working Voltage on Size of Feeders and
h. Voltage Drop: In underground system because of less Distributors in DC System
spacing between the conductors, inductance is very 1. It reduces the size (area of cross section of the core
low as compared to overhead lines, therefore, voltage carrying the current) of the feeders and distributors.
drop is low in underground system. 2. It increases the efficiency of transmission
i. Appearance: Underground system of distribution or Examples:
transmission is aesthetic because no wiring is visible. 1. What is the percentage savings in feeder copper if the
j. Fault Location and Repairs: Though there are very line voltage in a 2 wire DC system is raised from 220 V
rare chances of occurring fault in underground system, to 400 V for the same power transmitted over the same
but if it occurs it is very difficult to locate the fault and distance and having the same power loss?
its repair is difficult and expensive. 2. What is the percentage saving in copper feeder if the
k. Charging Current: Because less spacing between the line voltage in a 2 wire DC system is raised from 220 V
conductors the cables have much capacitance, to 500 V for the same power transmitted over the same
drawing higher charging current. distance and having the same power loss?
l. Jointing: Jointing of underground cables is difficult so Various Systems of Power Transmission
tapping for loads and service mains is not conveniently In practice, three phase three wire AC system is universally
possible in underground system. used for transmission and three phase four wire AC system
m. Damage Due to Lightning and Thunderstorm: is used for distribution of electric power but for special
Underground system is free from interruption of service purposes other systems may also be used. The various
because thunderstorm, lightning and objects falling systems of power transmission are:
across the wires. 1. DC System
n. Surge Effect: In underground system surge effect is a. DC 2 wire
smoothened down as surge energy is absorbed by the b. DC 2 wire with midpoint earthed
sheath. c. DC 3 wire
o. Interference to Communication Circuits: In 2. Single Phase AC System
underground system, there is no interference to a. Single phase, 2 wire
communication circuits. b. Single phase, 2 wire with mid – point earthed
High voltage transmission is carried out by overhead c. Single phase, 3 wire
system due to low cost. However, distribution in congested 3. Two Phase AC System
areas and in modern cities are carried out by underground a. Two phase, 4 wire
cables. b. Two phase, 3 wire
The overhead line as a mean of transmitting electrical 4. Three Phase AC System
power over long distances is cheap and efficient. It is a. Three phase, 3 wire
reliable – there are only one or two breakdowns due to b. Three phase, 4 wire
lightning, and one or two due to other reasons, such as frost
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The basis for comparison between the various systems of I1 =

P
Load Current
power transmission is usually economy. Since in a Vm
P 2
transmission system, the cost of the conductor material 2(
Vm
) ρl
accounts for a major part of the total cost, the best system WL = 2I12 R = A1
Line losses
for transmission of electrical power is that for which the 2P2 lρ
A1 = Area of cross section of conductor
volume of conductor material required is minimum. Thus, V2m WL
4P2 lρ
the requirement of volume of conductor material forms the Vc1 = 2A1 l = V2 W Volume of conductor material
basis of comparison between various systems. m L
required
In making comparison of the volume of conductor material 4P2 l2 ρ
required for various transmission systems, the basis will be Let K = V2 W
m L
the equal maximum stress on the dielectric. This is because Note: This system will be the basis for comparison with
the voltage is only limited by the problem of insulating the other systems.
conductors against disruptive discharge. 2. 2 wire with midpoint earthed, DC system
For comparing the amount of conductor material required
for different system two case arises:
1. When overhead system is employed for P
I2 = Load Current
transmission of power. In overhead system, the 2Vm
conductors are insulated from the cross arms and WL = 2I22 R =
2
supporting towers and as the towers and cross arms 2(
P
) ρl
2Vm
are earthed so the maximum voltage between each A2
Line losses
conductor and earth forms the basis of comparison of P2 lρ
volume of conductor material required. A2 = Area of
2V2m WL
2. When underground cables are employed for cross section of
transmission of power. In underground cables the conductor
maximum disruptive stress is between the two
conductors of the cable; the maximum voltage Figure 12 2 Wire with Midpoint Earthed,
between the conductors forms the basis of comparison DC System
of volume of conductor material required.
Comparisons of Various Systems Power Transmission Vc2 = 2A2 l = 4 Volume
K
of conductor material
(Overhead)
required
Assumptions:
3. 3 wire, DC system
1. Same power (P watts) transmitted by each system.
2. The distance (l meters) over which power is
transmitted remains the same.
3. The line losses (WL watts) are the same in each case.
4. The max voltage between any conductor and earth
(Vm) is the same in each case.
Let:
cos ∅ = power factor; VC = volume of conductor material Figure 13 3 Wire DC System
l = length; WL = line losses; Vm = maximum voltage P
I3 = Load Current
P = power to be transmitted; ρ = resistivity 2Vm
P 2
1. Two wire dc system with one conductor earth 2(
2Vm
) ρl
WL = 2I32 R = A3
Line losses
P2 lρ
A3 = 2V2 W Area of cross section of conductor
m L
Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire as half
of that any of the outers,
5
Vc3 = 2.5A3 l = 16 K Volume of conductor material
required
Figure 11 Two Wire DC System with One Conductor Earth

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

4. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire, with one 7. Two phase, 4 wire, AC system
conductor earth

P √2P
I4 = V m =V P
m cos ∅
√2
cos ∅ I7 = 2 Load current
√2Vm cos ∅
Load current

Figure 14 Single Phase AC System,

2 Wire with Conductor Earth
Figure 17 Two Phase, 4 Wire
2 AC System
√2P ρl
WL = 2I42 R = 2 ( ) Line losses
Vm cos ∅ A4 2 ρl
P
4P2 lρ WL = 4 ( Line Losses
)
A4 = V2 cos2 ∅W Area of cross section of conductor 2√2Vm cos ∅ A7
m L 2
P lρ
2K
Vc4 = 2A4 l = cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor material A7 = 2V2 cos2 ∅W Area of cross section of conductor
m L
K
required Vc7 = 4A7 l = Volume of conductor material
2 cos2 ∅
5. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire system with mid – required
point earthed 8. Two phase, 3 wire, AC system
P
I5 = Load current I8 =
P
Load current
√2Vm cos ∅ √2Vm cos ∅
P 2 ρl
WL = 2I52 R = 2(
√2Vm cos ∅
)
A5
Neutral current:
Line losses IN = √I82 + I82 = √2I8
P2 lρ
A5 = 2
Figure 18 Two Phase, 3 Wire AC
Vm cos2 ∅WL System
Area of cross section of
conductor Line losses:
2 2
P ρl P ρl
WL = 2 ( ) + (√2 ( ))
Figure 15 Single Phase AC √2Vm cos ∅ A 8 √2Vm cos ∅ A 8
System, 2 Wire with Midpoint
Earthed (2+√2)P2 lρ
A8 = 2V2 2 Area of cross section of conductor
K m cos ∅WL
Vc5 = 2A5 l = 2 cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor material Vc8 = 2A8 l + √2A8 l =
1.457K
Volume of conductor
cos2 ∅
required material required
6. Single phase AC system, 3 wire system 9. Three phase, 3 wire, AC system
P/2
I6 = V m Load current
cos ∅
√2
P 2
ρl √2P
WL = 2 ( Vm 2 )
A6
Line losses I9 = 3V Load
cos ∅
√2 m cos ∅
current per phase
Figure 16 Single Phase AC
System, 3 Wire
P2 lρ
A6 = V2 2 Area of cross section of conductor
m cos ∅WL Figure 19 Three Phase, 3 Wire AC System
Assuming cross section of neutral wire half of that of
any of the outers, √2P
2
ρl
5K
Vc6 = 2.5A6 l = 8 cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor WL = 3 ( ) Line losses
3Vm cos ∅ A9
2
2P lρ
material required A9 = 3V2m cos2 ∅WL
Area of cross section of conductor

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
0.5K 2P2 lρ
Vc9 = 3A9 l = Volume of conductor material A1 = V2 W Area of cross section of conductor
cos2 ∅ m L
required 4P2 lρ
10. Three phase, 4 wire, AC system Vc1 = 2A1 l = V2 W Volume of conductor material
m L
Assuming balanced required
load, there will be no Let K =
4P2 l2 ρ
current in neutral wire V2m WL
and copper losses will Note: This system will be the basis for comparison with
be same as in three other systems.
phase, three wire 2. 2 wire with midpoint earthed, DC system
system
This system is the
same as a 2 – wire DC
Figure 10 Three Phase, 4 Wire AC System system, so volume of
2P2 lρ conductor material
A10 = Area of cross section of required for this system
3V2m cos2 ∅WL
conductor is the same as that in a
Taking cross section of neutral wire as half of either 2 wire DC system.
outer, Figure 22 DC 2 Wire Midpoint Earthed
7K (Underground)
Vc10 = 3.5A10 l = 12 cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor
Vc2 = K Volume of conductor material required
material required
3. 3 wire, DC system
Comparisons of conductor material in Underground System
Conditions of Comparisons P
1. Same power (P watts) transmitted by each system. I3 = V Load Current
m
2. The distance (l meters) over which power is 2(
P 2
) ρl
Vm
transmitted remains the same. WL = 2I32 R =
A3
3. The line losses (WL watts) are the same in each case. Line losses
4. The max voltage between any conductor and earth
(Vm) is the same in each case.
Comparisons of Various Systems Power Transmission Figure 23 3 Wire DC System
(Underground)
(Underground)
Let: 2P2 lρ
A3 = V2 W Area of cross section of conductor
cos ∅ = power factor m L
VC = volume of conductor material Assuming area of cross section of neutral wire as half
l = length of that any of the outers,
5
WL = line losses Vc3 = 2.5A3 l = Volume of conductor material
4K
Vm = maximum voltage required
P = power to be transmitted
4. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire
ρ = resistivity
1. Two wire dc system

P √2P
P
I1 = V Load Current I4 = V m =V
cos ∅ m cos ∅
m √2
Load current
P 2
2( ) ρl
Vm
WL = 2I12 R = Line
A1
Figure 24 Single Phase, 2 Wire AC
losses System (Underground)

Figure 21 Two Wire DC System 2

ρl
(Underground) WL = 2I42 R = 2 (
√2P
Vm cos ∅
)
A4
Line losses

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

A4 = V2
4P2 lρ
Area of cross section of conductor 8. Two phase, 3 wire, AC system
2
m cos ∅WL
2K
Vc4 = 2A4 l = cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor material I8 = V
P
2 m cos ∅
required 2

5. Single Phase AC system, 2 wire system with mid – Load current per
point earthed phase
This system is the same as a √2I8
2 – wire single phase AC Current in middle wire
system, so volume of
conductor material of this Figure 28 2 Phase, 3 Wire AC System
(Underground)
case is also the same. 2 2

P ρl P ρl
WL = 2 ( ) + (√2 ( ))
Vm A Vm A
Figure 25 Single Phase, 2 Wire with 2 cos ∅ 8 2 cos ∅ 8
Midpoint Earthed AC System
2 2
(Underground) Line losses
2K (2+√2)P2 lρ
Vc5 = 2 Volume of conductor material required A8 = V2 2 Area of cross section of conductor
cos ∅ m cos ∅WL
6. Single phase AC system, 3 wire system Vc8 = 2A8 l + √2A8 l =
2.194K
Volume of conductor
Assuming balanced load, cos2 ∅
the system reduces to a material required
single phase, 2 wire AC 9. Three phase, 3 wire, AC system
system except that a neutral
conductor of half the cross
section is provided in P
addition. I9 = 3Vm Load current
Figure 26 Single Phase, 3 Wire AC cos ∅
√6
System (Underground)

2.5K
Vc6 = 2.5A4 l = cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor material Figure 29 Three Phase, 3 Wire AC
System (Underground)
required
7. Two phase, 4 wire, AC system 2
P ρl
WL = 3 (3Vm ) Line Losses
cos ∅ A9
√6
2P2 lρ
A9 = Area of cross section of conductor
V2m cos2 ∅WL
1.5K
Vc9 = 3A9 l = cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor material
required
10. Three phase, 4 wire, AC system
Assuming balanced load,
this system is reduced to a
3 phase AC system except
that an additional wire,
Figure 27 Two Phase, 4 Wire AC System (Underground)
called the neutral wire, is
In this system, each phase shares the half of the total
provided with half the cross
load. This system is equivalent to two wire AC system. In
Figure 30 Three Phase, 4 Wire AC section of the outer thus,
this case, cross section area of each conductor is taken System (Underground)
half of that of single phase two wire AC system but four 1.75K
wires are required in place of two wires, so the same Vc10 = 3.5A9 l = Volume of conductor
cos2 ∅
volume of conductor material is required. material required
2K
Vc7 = cos2 ∅ Volume of conductor material required The following points may be noted:
1. There is a great saving in conductor material if DC
system is adopted for transmission of electric power.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

However, due to technical difficulties, DC system is not same cross section as the two existing conductors.
used for transmission. Calculate the percentage additional load which can
2. Two phase, three wire system is obviously quite now supplied if the voltage between wires and the
unsuitable for long distance transmission and need no percentage power loss in the line remains unchanged.
further consideration. 7. A DC 2 – wire distribution system is converted into AC
3. Considering the AC system, the 3 phase AC system is 3 phase, 3 wire system by adding a third conductor of
most suitable for transmission due to two reasons. the same size as the two existing conductors. If voltage
Firstly, there is considerable saving in conductor between conductors and percentage power loss
material. Secondly, this system is convenient and remain the same, calculate the percentage additional
efficient. Considering other factors such as efficiency balanced load which can now be carried by the
of operation and convenience, three phase three wire conductors at 0.95 pf.
system is usually adopted. 8. A DC 2 wire system is to be converted into 3 phase, 3
Examples: wire AC system by adding a third conductor of the
1. A 50 – km long transmission line supplies a load of 5 same size as the two existing conductors. Calculate
MVA at 0.8 pf lagging at 33 kV. The efficiency of the percentage additional balanced load that can now
transmission is 90%. Calculate the volume of be carried by the conductors at 0.96 pf lagging.
aluminum conductor required for the line when: Assume the same voltage between the conductors and
a. single phase, 2 wire system is used the same percentage power loss.
b. 3 phase, 3 wire system is used. 9. A 2 phase, 3 – wire AC system has a middle conductor
The specific resistance of aluminum is 2.85 × 10−8 Ω – of same cross – sectional area as the outer and
m. supplies a load of 20 MW. The system is converted into
2. A 3 – phase, 4 – wire system is used for lighting. 3 – phase, 4 – wire system by running a neutral wire.
Compare the amount of copper required with that Calculate the new power which can be supplied if
needed for a 2 – wire D.C. system with same line voltage across consumer terminal and percentage line
voltage. Assume the same losses and balanced load. losses remain the same. Assume balanced load.
The neutral is one half the cross – section of one of the 10. A single – phase AC system supplies a load of 200 kW
respective outers. and if this system is converted to 3 phase, 3 wire AC
3. An existing single phase AC system comprising of two system by running a third similar conductor, calculate
overhead conductors is to be converted into a 3 phase, the 3 – phase load that can now be supplied if the
3 wire system by providing an additional conductor of voltage between the conductors is the same. Assume
same size. Calculate the percentage of additional load the power factor and transmission efficiency to be the
that can be transmitted by the three – phase system if same in the two cases.
the operating voltage and percentage line losses 11. A single – phase load of 5 MW is transmitted by a pair
remain the same in both systems. of overhead conductors. If a third conductor of the
4. An existing DC three wire system is to be converted same cross – section and material be added and 3
into a three phase 4 wire system by adding a fourth phase supply be thus substituted for the original single
wire equal in cross section to each outer of the dc phase, calculate the 3 – phase load which can now be
system. Assuming the same supply and load voltages transmitted if the voltage between the conductors and
to neutral and balanced conditions find the extra power the percentage loss in the lines remains unchanged.
at unity power factor that can be supplied by the AC 12. A substation supplies power at 11 kV, 0.8 pf lagging to
system. a consumer through a single – phase transmission line
5. A 3 wire DC system is converted to a 4 wire, 3 phase having total resistance (both go and return) of 0.15 Ω.
AC system by the addition of another wire equal in The voltage drop in the line is 15%. If the same power
section to one of the outers. For the same effective is to be supplied to the same consumer by two wire DC
voltage between outers and neutral at the consumer’s system by a new line having a total resistance of 0.05
terminals and the same percentage loss, find the Ω and if the allowable voltage drop is 25%, calculate
percentage additional load that can be supplied. the DC supply voltage.
Assume balanced load and in the AC system a power Choice of Working Voltage for Transmission
factor of 0.9. Advantages of High Transmission Voltage
6. A DC 2 wire system is to be converted into AC 2 phase, 1. Reduces the volume of conductor material and
3 wire system by the addition of a 3rd conductor of the reduces the cost of the supporting structure materials.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

2. Increase transmission efficiency since line losses and The present – day trend is to follow certain empirical
line currents are reduced. formula for finding the economical transmission voltage
3. Decreases percentage line drop and leads to better KW km load in kVA
voltage regulation. KV = 5.5√L + 100 or KV = 5.5√ 1.6 + 150
Limitations of High Transmission Voltage where:
1. The increase cost of insulating the conductors and the KW – power to be transmitted
earthed tower increases. This increases the cost of line L – length of transmission line in miles
supports. With the increase in distance of transmission, the cost of
2. More clearance is required between conductors and terminal apparatus is reduced resulting in higher economic
ground; hence, higher towers are required. transmission voltage. Similarly, if the power to be
3. More distance is required between the conductors; transmitted becomes large, the cost per kW of the terminal
therefore, longer cross arms are required. station equipment is reduced.
4. The increased cost of transformers, switchgear and As a rough guide the voltage for transmission is chosen as
other terminal apparatus. 625 volts per km though in practice the voltage per km
Economics of Power Transmission varies from about 400 to 900 volts for longer to shorter
1. Economic Choice of Transmission Voltage distances. The choice is usually limited in practice by the
2. Economic Choice of Conductor Size requirement of standardization and for satisfactory
Economic Choice of Transmission Voltage regulation without excessive equipment cost.
The method of finding the economical transmission voltage The voltages normally adopted for transmission are given:
is as follows. Power to be transmitted, generation voltage Distance in km 15 – 30 – 60 – 100 – 200 – 300 –
30 60 100 200 300 400
and length of transmission line are assumed to be known. Transmission
11 33 66 132 220 400
We choose some standard transmission voltage and work voltage in kV
Table 1 Typical Voltage Rating for given distances
out the following costs:
The most common transmission voltages are 33 kV, 66 kV,
1. Transformers, at the generating and receiving ends of
132 kV, 220 kV, 400 kV and 765 kV.
transmission line. For a given power, this cost
Examples:
increases slowly with the increase in transmission
1. Estimate the weight of copper required to supply a load
voltage.
of 100 MW at unity pf by a 3 – phase, 380 kV system
2. Switchgear. This cost also increases with the increase
over 100 km. The neutral point is earthed. The
in transmission voltage.
resistance of the conductor is 0.045 ohm/cm2/km. The
3. Lightning arrestor. This cost increases rapidly with the
weight of copper is 0.01 kg/cm3. The efficiency of
increase in transmission voltage.
transmission can be assumed to be 90 percent.
4. Insulation and supports. This cost increases sharply
2. 30,000 kW at power factor 0.8 lagging is being
with the increase in transmission voltage.
transmitted over a 220 kV, three phase transmission
5. Conductor. This cost decreases with the increase in
line. The length of the line is 275 km and the efficiency
transmission voltage.
of transmission is 90%. Calculate the weight of copper
The sum of all above costs gives the total cost of
required. Also, calculate the weight of copper had the
transmission for the voltage
power been transmitted over a single – phase
considered. Similar
transmission line for the same line voltage and losses.
calculations are made for other
Assume that the resistance of 1 km long conductor and
transmission voltages. Then, a
1 cm2 is 0.173 Ω and specific gravity of copper is 8.9.
curve is drawn for total cost of
3. Electric power of 50 MW is to be transmitted over a 132
transmission against voltage
KV, 3 phase, 3 wire transmission line. The length of the
as shown. The lowest point (P)
line is 300 km and the efficiency of transmission is
on the curve gives the
85%. Aluminum is used for conductor material which
economical transmission
has resistivity of 3 × 10−9 Ω – m. Calculate the volume
voltage. Thus, in the present Figure 31 Capital Cost vs
Transmission Voltage of conductor material required for a power factor of 0.8
case, OA is the optimum
lagging.
transmission voltage. This method of finding the
Economic Choice of Conductor Size
economical transmission voltage is rarely used in practice
The cost of conductor material is generally a very
as different costs cannot be determined with a fair degree
considerable part of the total cost of a transmission line.
of accuracy.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Therefore, the determination of proper size of conductor for Limitations of Kelvin’s Law
the line is of vital importance. The most economical area of 1. The assumption that annual cost because interest and
conductor is that for which the total annual cost of depreciation on the capital outlay is in the form P1 +
transmission line is minimum. This is known as Kelvin’s P2a is strictly speaking not true. For instance, in cables
Law after Lord Kelvin who first stated it in 1881. The total neither the cost of cable dielectric and sheath nor the
annual cost of transmission line can be divided broadly into cost of laying vary in this manner.
two parts, annual charge on capital outlay and annual cost 2. This law does not consider several physical factors like
of energy wasted in the conductor. safe current density, mechanical strength, corona loss
Annual Charge on Capital Outlay etc.
- This is because interest and depreciation on the capital 3. The conductor size determined by this law may not
cost of complete installation of transmission line. In always be practicable one because it may be too small
case of overhead system, it will be the annual interest for the safe carrying of necessary current.
and depreciation on the capital cost of conductors, 4. Interest and depreciation on the capital outlay cannot
supports and insulators and the cost of their erection. be determined accurately.
Now, for an overhead line, insulator cost is constant, 5. It is not easy to estimate the energy loss in the line
the conductor cost is proportional to the area of cross without actual load curves, which are not available at
– section and the cost of supports and their erection is the time of estimation.
partly constant and partly proportional to area of cross 6. In the case of cables there are sheath losses and with
– section of the conductor. Therefore, annual charge high voltages dielectric losses also. Dielectric loss
on an overhead transmission line can be expressed as: occurs continuously therefore load factor of dielectric
Annual charge = P1 + P2 a loss is 100%. Hence the cost per unit of energy lost as
where P1 and P2 are constants and a is the area of dielectric loss is less than cost per unit supplying line
cross – section of the conductor loss.
- A similar relationship exists for underground system. In Examples:
this system, the annual charge is because interest and 1. A 2 – conductor cable 1 km long is required to supply
depreciation on the cost of conductors, insulation and a constant current of 200 A throughout the year. The
the cost of laying the cables. Now, the cost of insulation cost of cable including installation is Php (20a + 20) per
is constant and the cost of conductor is proportional to meter where ‘a’ is the area of cross – section of the
area of cross – section of conductor. conductor in cm2. The cost of energy is 5P per kWh
Annual Cost of Energy Wasted and interest and depreciation charges amount to 10%.
- This is because energy lost mainly in the conductor Calculate the most economical conductor size.
due to I2R losses. Assuming a constant current in the Assume resistivity of conductor material to be 1.73 μΩ
conductor – cm.
throughout the year, 2. Determine the best current density in A/mm2 for a 3 –
the energy lost in phase overhead line if the line is in use for 2000 hours
the conductor is per year and if the conductor costing Php 3.0 per kg
proportional to has a specific resistance of 1.73 Ω – m and weighs
resistance. As 6200 kg/m3. Cost of energy is 10 P/unit. Interest and
resistance is depreciation is 12% of conductor cost.
inversely 3. A 3 – core, 11 kV cable supplies a load of 1500 kW at
proportional to the 0.8 pf lagging for 300 days in a year at an average of
area of cross – 8 hours per day. The capital cost per km of cable is
section of the Figure 32 Illustration of Kelvin's Law Php 8000 +20000a. The resistance per km of a cable
conductor, therefore, the energy lost in the conductor of cross – sectional area 1 cm2 is 0.173 Ω. If the energy
is inversely proportional to area of cross – section. loss cost is 2 centavos per unit, and the rate of interest
Thus, the annual cost of energy wasted in an overhead and depreciation is 12%, calculate the most
transmission line can be expressed as: economical current density and diameter of the
P3 conductor.
Annual cost of energy wasted = 4. The cost per km for each of the copper conductor of a
a
where P3 is constant and a is the area of cross – section a cm2 for a transmission line is Php (2800a +
section of the conductor 1300). The load factor of the load current is 80% and
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

the load factor of the losses is 65%. The rate of interest most economical current density to use for a
and depreciation is 10% and the cost of energy is 50 transmission requiring full load current for 60% of the
centavos per kWh. Find the most economical current year. The cost of generating electrical energy is 5
density for transmission line using Kelvin’s law. ρ = centavos/kWh. The resistance of the conductor one km
1.78 × 10−8 Ω − m. long and 1 cm2 cross – section is 0.18 Ω.
5. The cost of a 3 – phase overhead transmission line is 10. Describe the main limitations of Kelvin’s law. The cost
Php (25000a + 2500) per km where ‘a’ is the area of of a 3 – phase overhead transmission line having cross
cross – section of each conductor in cm2. The line is – sectional area A cm2 is Php (500+2000A) per km.
supplying a load of 5 MW at 33kV and 0.8 pf lagging Calculate the most economical current density for the
assumed to be constant throughout the year. Energy conductor if the rate of interest and depreciation is 12%
costs 4 centavos per kWh and interest and per annum. The cost of energy waste is Php 0.05/kWh.
depreciation total 10% per annum. Find the most The resistance of each conductor is 0.17/A Ω/km.
economical size of the conductor. Given that specific Take the load factor for losses = 12%.
resistance of conductor material is 10−6 Ω – cm. Requirements of Satisfactory Electric Supply
6. A 2 – wire feeder carries a constant current of 250 A The power station delivers power to consumers through its
throughout the year. The portion of capital cost which transmission and distribution systems. The power delivered
is proportional to area of cross – section is Php 5 per must be characterized by constant or nearly constant
kg of copper conductor. The interest and depreciation voltage, dependability of service, balanced voltage, and
total 10% per annum and the cost of energy is 5 efficiency to give minimum annual cost, sinusoidal
centavos per kWh. Find the most economical area of waveform and freedom from inductive interference with
cross – section of the conductor. Given that the density telephone lines.
of copper is 8.93 g/cm3 and its specific resistance is Voltage regulation. A voltage variation has a large effect
1.73×10−8 Ω – m. upon the operation of both power machinery and lights. A
7. Determine the most economical cross – section for a 3 motor is designed to have its best characteristics at the
phase transmission line, 1 km long to supply at a rated voltage and consequently a voltage that is too high or
constant voltage of 110 kV for the following daily load too low will result in a decrease in efficiency. If the
cycle: fluctuations in the voltage are sudden, these may cause the
6 hours – 20 MW at pf 0.8 lagging tripping of circuit breakers and consequent interruptions to
12 hours – 5 MW at pf 0.8 lagging service. Usually the voltage at the generator terminals,
6 hours – 6 MW at pf 0.8 lagging where this is done, in some cases the voltage variations at
The line is used for 365 days yearly. The cost per km the load may be made sufficiently small by keeping the
of line including erection is Php (9000 + 6000a) where resistance and reactance of the lines and feeders low.
‘a’ is the area of cross – section of conductor in cm2. Dependability. One important requirement of electric
The annual rate of interest and depreciation is 10% supply is to furnish uninterrupted service. The losses which
and the energy costs 6 centavos per kWh. The an industrial consumer sustains due to the failure of electric
resistance per km of each conductor is 0.176/a. power supply are usually vastly greater than the actual
8. Determine the most economical size of a 3 – phase line value of the power that he would use during this period. It
which supplies the following loads at 10 kV: is because the expense of idle workmen and machines and
100 kW at 0.8 pf (lag) for 10 hours other overhead charges. Interruptions to service cause
500 kW at 0.9 pf (lag) for 8 hours irritation and are sometimes positively dangerous to life and
100 kW at unity pf for 6 hours. property. For example, failure of power in hospitals, in
The above gives the daily load cycle. The cost per km crowded theatres and stores may lead to very grave
of the completely erected line is Php (8000a + 1500) consequences. Therefore, it is the duty of electric supply
where a is the area of cross-section of each conductor. company to keep the power system going and to furnish
The combined interest and depreciation is 10% per uninterrupted service.
annum of capital cost. Cost of energy losses is 5 Balanced voltage. It is very important that the polyphaser
centavos per kWh. Resistivity of conductor material = voltage should be balanced. If an unbalanced polyphase
1.72× 10−6 Ω – cm. voltage is supplied to a consumer operating synchronous
9. If the cost of an overhead line is Php 2000 A (where A or induction motors, it will result in a decrease in the
is the cross – section in cm2) and if the interest and efficiency of his machinery and a decrease in its maximum
depreciation charges of the line are 8%, estimate the power output. Motors called upon to deliver full load when
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

their terminal voltages are unbalanced are liable to disturbance. This objective can be achieved only if the
considerable damage due to overheating. One method of transmission and distribution system is so designed and
maintaining balance of voltage is by having balanced loads constructed that it is an efficient, technically sound and
connected to the circuit. reliable system. The line should have sufficient current
Efficiency. The efficiency of a transmission system is not carrying capacity to transmit the required power over a
of much importance. The important economic feature of the given distance without an excessive voltage drop and
design being the layout of the system to perform the overheating. The line losses should be small and insulation
requisite function of generating and delivering power with a of the line should be adequate to cope with the system
minimum overall annual cost. The annual cost can be voltage. The line should have sufficient mechanical
minimized to a considerable extent by taking care of power strength to cope with the worst probable weather conditions
factor of the system. It is because losses in the lines and and provide satisfactory service over a long period without
machinery are largely determined by power factor. the necessity of too much maintenance.
Therefore, it is important that consumers having loads of Electric power can be transmitted by Underground Cables
low power factor should be penalized by being charged at or by Overhead Lines.
a higher rate per kWh than those who take power at high Two main reasons why underground cables are rarely
power factors. Loads of low power factor also require used:
greater generator capacity than those of high power factor 1. The insulation cost for underground transmission is
(for the same amount of power) and produce larger voltage very high.
drops in the lines and transformers. 2. It is very difficult to provide proper insulation to the
Frequency. The frequency of the supply system must be cable to withstand high voltage required for economic
maintained constant. It is because a change in frequency transmission.
would change the motor speed, thus interfering with the Main Components of Overhead Lines
manufacturing operations. 1. Supports – this may be poles or towers and keep the
Sinusoidal waveform. The alternating voltage supplied to conductor at the suitable level above the ground. It
the consumers should have a sine waveform. It is because depends on the working voltage and region where
any harmonics which might be present would have these are used.
detrimental effect upon the efficiency and maximum power 2. Cross arms and Clamps – this provides support to
output of the connected machinery. Harmonics may be the insulator and made of either wood or steel angle
avoided by using generators of good design and by section and are used on pole structures.
avoidance of high flux densities in transformers. 3. Insulators – which are attached to support, take strain
Freedom from inductive interference. Power lines and insulate the conductors from the ground. It can be
running parallel to telephone lines produce electrostatic and pin, strain or suspension type.
electromagnetic field disturbances. These fields tend to 4. Conductors – which carry electric power from the
cause objectionable noises and hums in the apparatus sending end station to the receiving end station. It can
connected to communication circuits. Inductive interference be composed of copper, aluminum, ACSR or of any
with telephone lines may be avoided by limiting as much as other composition depending upon the current to be
possible the amount of zero – sequence and harmonic carried and the span of the line.
current and by the proper transposition of both power lines 5. Guys and Stays – braces or cables are fastened to
and telephone lines. the pole at the termination or angle poles to resist
Mechanical Design of Overhead Lines lateral forces.
Transmission and distribution lines are vital links between 6. Lightning Arrestors – to discharge excessive
generating stations and consumers as power from voltages built upon the line, to earth, due to lightning.
generating stations is transmitted at high voltage (such as 7. Fuses and Isolating Switches – to isolate different
132, 220, 400 or 765 kV) over long distances to major load parts of the overhead system.
centers and then the power is distributed to various 8. Continuous Earth Wire – is run on the top of the
substations located at various places and localities through towers to protect the line against lightning discharges.
distribution lines. Because of tremendous industrial growth, 9. Vee Guards – are often provided below bare overhead
requirement of power has increased manifold. Hence it lines running along or across public streets to make the
becomes imperative that transmission and distribution of line safe if it should break.
power from the generating stations to the various 10. Guard Wires – are provided above or below power
consumers is carried out with minimum possible loss and lines while crossing telephone or telegraph lines. The
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 14
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

guard wires and steel structures are solidly connected rigid anchoring towers at an interval of 1.5 km or so.
to earth. These anchoring towers are designed to withstand the
11. Phase Plates – to distinguish the various phases. breaking of one wire in three on one side as well as the
12. Bird Guards – a stick of ebonite with rounded top is transverse load.
fixed near the insulator on the cross arm to prevent - In case of rigid supports such as the lattice – steel broad
flashover due to birds pecking on the conductors (on – base structures equal strength is usually provided in
lines with pin insulators). both the longitudinal and transverse directions and every
13. Danger Plate – it is provided on each pole, as a tower is designed to withstand the unbalanced load
warning measure indicating the working voltage of the because of breaking of one wire in three on the same
line and the word “danger”. It is provided at a height of side. In addition, anchor towers are often provided, in
2.5 m from the ground. which the support can withstand the failure of two
14. Barbed Wire – is wrapped on a pole at a height of conductors out of three, or even all conductors on one
about 2.5 m from the ground for at least 1 meter. This side.
prevents climbing by unauthorized persons. Characteristics of Transmission Line Supports
15. Miscellaneous Items – such as vibration dampers, 1. High mechanical strength to withstand the weight of
top hampers, beads for jumpers etc. conductors, wind loads etc.
Transmission Line Supports 2. Light in weight without loss of mechanical strength.
- These are the supporting structures of overhead line 3. Cheap in cost and economical to maintain.
conductors on various types of poles and towers. 4. Longer life.
- It can carry the load due to insulators and conductors 5. Good looking
including the ice and wind loads on the conductors along 6. Easy accessibility of conductors for maintenance.
with the wind load on the support itself. Types of Transmission Line Supports
- A distinction is drawn between straight poles which lie in 1. Wooden Poles
direct line of transmission and normally only support the - these are made of
conductors and the special poles which may carry some seasoned wood and
load due to conductor tension. These latter supports may are suitable for lines
be angle towers, terminal towers, towers at tee – off of moderate cross –
parts, anchor towers, or towers for some special such as sectional area and of
for crossing the rivers. In case of telegraph or railway line relatively short span
crossing special requirements are to be met with. up to 60 m.
- The choice of line supports for a situation depends upon - Such support is
the line span, cross – sectional area, line voltage, cost cheap, easily
and local conditions. available, provide
- The design of an overhead line supports depends upon insulating properties
the fact whether the support is rigid or has a certain and therefore widely
amount of flexibility in the direction of the line. Wooden used for distribution
poles and some special types of steel structures are of purposes in rural
latter type and only the transverse wind pressure areas.
occurring upon the conductors and upon the support - In districts having a Figure 33 Single Pole Construction
itself is usually considered in their design. The plentiful supply of Showing Installation of Three –
Phase, 4 Wire Cable in Vertical
longitudinal pull of the conductors is normally balanced timber and where the Formation. A 2 Wire Service Tapping
on either side of the support but in the event of breaking cost of transporting Supplies Consumers Homes
of one or more conductors on one side, there will be an steel towers is high single and ‘H’ poles have been
unbalanced load which may be far in excess than used for overhead lines operating at voltages up to
transverse wind pressure. With flexible supports this 130 kV and average span lengths of 150 meters. Sal
unbalanced load is quickly absorbed by an increase in or chir wooden poles up to 11 meter length with
sag in undamaged span because of bending of the minimum circumference of 38 cm at the top and 66
supports on each side if the wrecked span towards the cm at the bottom are used.
adjoining spans. After three or four spans the longitudinal - are very eleastic and lines employing wooden
pull becomes negligible. A certain general rigidity in the supports are often designed throughout for the
longitudinal direction is provided for in practice by using transverse load. Longitudinal strength at terminals
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

and for anchor support is provided by means of guys. e. Required periodic inspection
Double pole structures of A and H types are often
employed by obtaining a higher transverse strength
than that could be economically provided by means
of single poles.
- The height of a wooden pole depends upon
clearance above the ground surface and secondly,
the number of cross – arms and other equipment to
be attached. Normally, the height of wooden pole is
10 to 12 m.
Types of Wooden Poles
1. Single member poles are
ordinary poles and are used in
all positions where there is no
undue stress or tension and
where no transformer or
switchgear are to be mounted
on them.
2. ‘A’ poles are used mainly
where bends in lines cause
strain and single poles are not
suitable. “A” poles consist of
two member poles spaced at
Figure 34 "A" Type Pole
the base and joined at the Utilized for 3 Phase 3
top, held together by cross – Wire HT Transmission
where route of cables
bars in the form of letter A. turns at an angle Figure 37 4 - Member Pole Construction with Transformer, Switchgear and
3. ‘H’ poles comprising two Fuses. LT Four Wire, 3 Phase Distributor is Tapped Off Transformer Secondary
single poles strapped together by steel or wooden to Supply a Village
cross – pieces are used 2. Steel Poles
mainly where transformers - are often used to substitute for wooden poles.
and switchgear are to be - It possesses greater mechanical strength, longer life
mounted on them. and permit longer span to be used (50 – 80m). Such
4. Four member poles poles are generally used for distribution in cities.
comprise of two ‘H’ units in - It needs to be galvanized or painted or prolong its
the form of a square joined life.
by cross – bars. They are - The average life of steel poles is more than 40 years.
used where extra heavy
transformers and
switchgear are required,
usually at the junction of
number of circuits.
Figure 35 "H" Pole
Supporting Transformer

DISADVANTAGES:
a. Tendency to rot below
ground level
b. Comparatively
smaller/shorter life
c. Less mechanical strength
d. Cannot be used for higher Figure 36 Wood Pole
voltage above 22 kV Figure 38 Steel Poles
with Protection Cap

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Types of Steel Poles lattice – steel towers are used for transmission
1. Tubular poles are of round cross section. The purposes at 66 kV and above.
advantages of tubular poles are that these are - The height of the
lighter in weight and easy to install though initial tower depends on the
cost is little more as compared to wooden poles. It line voltage and
does not require special equipment for its erection. length of span. The
Tubular poles in height of 9 to 11 m are generally legs of the towers are
used for distribution purposes in cities to give good set in special
appearance. concrete
2. Rail poles are of the shape of the track used for foundations. The
railways. Steel rail poles in height of 11 m and 13 forces to be
m are used for transmission purposes at 11 kV considered in the
and 33 kV respectively. design of a tower are
3. Rolled steel joints are of I cross section. vertical loads of Figure 40 500 kV DC Lattice Tower
3. RCC Poles conductors, insulators,
- the reinforced concrete poles fittings and tower itself, wind
become very popular as line pressure on conductors and
supports in recent years. wind pressure on tower itself.
- are extensively used for low - For protection against
voltage and high voltage corrosion the steel towers
distribution lines up to 33 kV. are periodically painted or
- It has a greater mechanical galvanized. The life of steel
strength, longer life and towers can be made almost
permit longer span (80 – 200 indefinitely large by a
m) than steel poles. reasonable amount of
- It gives good outlook, require Figure 41 Single Circuit attention to their
little maintenance and have Tower maintenance.
good insulating properties. Figure 39 Concrete Pole Characteristics of Broad – Base, Lattice Steel
Because of its heavy weight, Towers
such poles are often manufactured at the site to 1. Mechanically stronger and got longer life.
avoid cost transportation. 2. Long spans (300 m
- Their consruction should conform to the standard and above) can be
specification for RCC work, but in no case the used and are much
dimensions shall be less 25 cm × 25 cm at the useful for crossing
bottom and 13 cm × 13 cm at the top. fields, valleys,
- Prestressed concrete poles, called PCC poles, are railway lines, rive
less bulky and lighter than RCC poles. PCC poles etc.
are extensively used on 11 kV and its lines. 3. Even though these
Types of RCC Poles are two to four time
1. Square Cross Section costlier than wooden
2. Rectangular bottom and square top with poles, yet for tall
rectangular holes in it to facilitate insulating supports and longer
properties and resistance against chemical action. spans these prove
4. Lattice Steel Tower more economical. Figure 42 Double Circuit Tower
- Wooden poles are generally used for distribution 4. Reliability is of a high degree.
purposes in rural areas, the steel tubular poles and 5. Capable of withstanding the most severe
concrete poles are usually used for distribution in climatic conditions, and immune from
urban area to give good appearance and steel rails destruction by forest fires.
or narrow – base, lattice – steel towers are used for 6. The risk of service interruptions, due to broken
transmission at 11 kV and 33 kV and broad – base or punctured insulators, is considerably reduced
owing to use of large spans.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

7. Lightning troubles are also minimized as each Classification of Steel Towers

tower is a lightning conductor, whereas on 1. Tangent towers can be used for straight runs of
wooden pole lines shattered poles and wrecked the line and up to 2° - line deviation from the
line sections are not infrequent. straight run. The
8. Fabricated from painted or galvanized angle line is straight or
section which can be transported separately along the tangent
and the erection done on site. to the line route.
9. At a moderate cost these can be designed for In such towers
double circuit giving a further insurance against the stress is
discontinuity of supply. In case of breakdown to because of the
one circuit it is possible to carry out repairs while weight of the
maintaining the continuity of supply on the other conductors, ice
circuit. and wind loads. Figure 43 Steel Tower
The advantages and disadvantages of single circuit and In addition, extra
double circuit designs are given in the table: forces due to break in the line on one side of the
Single Circuit Design Double Circuit Design tower is also to be considered in the design of
Its structure is lighter in Its structure is heavier in towers. The base of such a steel tower may be
weight and required less weight and of more height. It square or rectangular. Insulators used with such
strong foundation because it requires relatively stronger towers are suspension types.
is subjected to low wind foundation. It is subjected to 2. Deviation tower are special angle towers with
pressure on conductors and more wind pressure.
line deviation exceeding 2°. They are used
structure itself.
It need much lower support It needs taller structure but
where the transmission line changes direction.
for equal conductor less way leave for equal Such towers have broader base and stronger
clearance to earth but it number of circuits. members as they are to withstand the resultant
requires more way leave for force due to change in direction in addition to
same number of circuits. the forces to which the tangent towers are
Two earth wires are required Only one earth wire is subjected. Insulators used with such towers are
for single circuit as these required for two circuits and of strain type. The cost of deviation tower is
cannot be disposed at the more protection against larger than that of a tangent tower because it is
top. lightning is had due to its designed to withstand heavy loading as
disposition at the top. compared to standard or tangent tower.
Danger of flashover is most There is always danger from
Deviation towers are further classified as:
unlikely and repairs can be the other live circuit.
carried out without danger to a. Small angle towers (2° to 15° change in
workmen from other circuits. direction)
Reliability regarding Reliability regarding b. Medium angle towers (15° to 30° change in
continuity of supply is less. continuity of supply is more. direction)
It is more expensive for two It is most economical and c. Large angle towers (30° to 60° change in
circuits than the double circuit cheaper. direction and dead end)
design. Conductor Materials
Greater spacing of Lesser spacing of conductors The conductor is one of the important items in a
conductors is required is required; hence the transmission and distribution system of electric power, the
resulting in greater inductive inductive reactance is less. cost of the conductor material accounts for a major part of
reactance.
the total cost. So, proper choice of conductor material and
The phase performance It gives better approach to the
size of the conductor is of utmost importance.
along the line is unbalanced triangular arrangement;
as the central conductor hence the phase Characteristics of Conductor
passes at the top of the performance will be more 1. High electric conductivity or low specific resistance
support, which is an obvious balanced. 2. High tensile strength to withstand the mechanical
drawback. stresses
Table 2 Comparison of Single Circuit to Double Circuit Design 3. Low specific gravity to give low weight per unit volume
4. Low cost to be used over long distances usually
involved in transmission lines
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 18
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

5. Easy availability conductor has about 75% of the ultimate strength

6. Should not be brittle of the equivalent copper conductor.
The most commonly used conductor materials for overhead d. For the same conductivity aluminum conductor
lines are copper, aluminum, steel – cored aluminum, having 1.66 times the cross section of copper is
galvanized steel and cadmium copper. Aluminum has required thus causes a greater surface for wind
replaced copper as the most common conductor metal for pressure and supporting structures are required to
overhead transmission. Although larger aluminum cross be designed for greater transverse strength.
sectional area is required to obtain the same loss as in a e. High towers must be employed with aluminum
copper conductor, aluminum has a lower cost, light weigh, conductors than would be required with copper
and the supply of aluminum is abundant. conductors having the same length of span.
Common Conductor Types f. The sag is greater in aluminum wires due to
1. Stranded Hard Drawn Copper is the best conductor reduced working stress permissible and because
owing to its high electrical conductivity and great the linear coefficient of expansion of aluminum is
tensile strength for all types of transmission. Through 1.4 times of the copper.
hard drawing (cold rolling and drawing) reduces the g. Aluminum conductors being liable to swing,
conductivity slightly but increase the tensile strength requires larger cross arms/
considerably. However, medium hard – drawn copper h. Low melting point thus it cannot withstand short
is suitable for distribution lines and soft – drawn copper circuits.
wires are suitable for secondary distribution circuits, i. Jointing is also difficult compared to copper.
and for service connections to buildings. Though AAC (All Aluminum Conductor) weighs only half as the
copper is ideally suitable for transmission and equivalent copper conductor and cost per unit length
distribution, but due to scarcity of materials, the trend of prevailing market rates, is considerably less. They
nowadays is to use aluminum in place of copper. The are mainly used for low voltage distribution overhead
use of cupper is being restricted for manufacturing of lines having short spans of up to 65 m.
the machines only. 3. AAAC (All Aluminum Alloy Conductor)
Characteristics: 4. ACAR (Aluminum Conductor Alloy Reinforced)
a. It does not corrode in normal atmosphere and is 5. Steel – Cored Aluminum or ACSR (Aluminum Copper
not subjected electrolytic troubles. Steel Reinforced) or Alumoweld (Aluminum – Clad
b. It has higher current density so lesser cross – Steel Conductor) consists of layers of aluminum
sectional area of conductor is required and so strands surrounding a central core of steel strands.
lesser area is subjected to wind loads. The Steel strands are galvanized to prevent rusting
c. It is quite homogenous, durable and of high scrap and electrolytic corrosion; the cross section are in the
value. ratio 1:6 but in case of high strength conductors their
d. It has long life and ease of jointing. ratio may be 1:4.
2. Aluminum is cheaper in cost and lighter in weight but Characteristics:
is poor in conductivity and tensile strength as a. Steel core takes a greater percentage of
compared to copper. These days there is great trend mechanical stresses while the aluminum carries
towards the aluminum as conductor material, because the bulk of current.
of its greater availability and cheapness in comparison b. Has the largest diameter than any other type of
to copper. conductor of same resistance, so corona losses
Characteristics: are reduced, but stronger supports are required
a. Its conductivity is 60% of that of copper and for a given span.
density is 0.303 times that of copper. c. Has high tensile strength and lighter in weight
b. Has a diameter about 1.26 times that of copper produces small sag and therefore longer spans
conductor of equal resistance but due to its low can be used thus number of line supports may be
density only half weight of aluminum is required to reduced by 25% and frequency of occurrence of
that of copper. fault is reduced.
c. The tensile strength is much lower than that of d. Skin effect is very predominating hence the
copper (45% to that of copper), but the larger resistance of the composite conductor is taken
cross – sectional area if metal neutralizes the equal to that of aluminum covering alone.
difference to some extent, and an aluminum
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

e. Reactance is taken to be equal to that of a non – All conductors used for overhead lines are preferably
magnetic conductor having diameter equal to that stranded to increase flexibility. Solid wires, except of
outside of the conductor. smaller sizes, are difficult to handle and when employed for
f. Critical voltage limit of the conductor can be raised long spans tend to crystallize at the points of support
by 30 to 50% as compared to copper conductors. because of swinging in winds.
g. Gets deteriorated in service to the atmospheric Stranded conductors usually have a central wire around
corrosion due to bimetallic action of zinc and the which these are successive layers of 6, 12, 18, 24 wires.
aluminum, electrochemical in nature. For n layers, the total number of individual wire is 3n(n+1)
6. Galvanized Steel – have been used to advantage for +1. If the diameter of each strand is d, then diameter of the
extremely long spans, or for short line sections stranded conductor will be (2n+1) d. In the process of
exposed to normally high stresses due to climatic manufacture adjacent layers are spiraled in opposite
conditions. These are found most suitable for lines directions so that the layers are bound together. The
supplying rural areas and operating at voltages of method of construction is called as ‘concrete lay’.
about 11 kV, where cheapness is the main With conductors of large cross section, however, another
consideration. They are not suitable for EHT lines for method known as ‘rope lay’ is sometimes employed to give
transmitting large amounts of power over a long more flexibility.
distance due to poor conductivity (13 % of copper), Mechanical
Properties
Copper Aluminum Steel Aluminum and
Steel
high internal reactance and due to eddy current and 1:3 1:4
hysteresis. Nowadays, their use is limited to Specific Weight
(kg/m3)
8900 2700 7860 3450 3700

telecommunication lines, stay wires, earth wires and Young Modulus 13000 5600 20700 7500 8300
(kg/mm2)
guard wires. Ultimate Tensile 40 18 40 to 120 120
7. Cadmium Copper – addition of 1 or 2% cadmium in Strength 320
(kg/mm2)
copper increases the tensile strength by about 40% Specific 0.01786 0.0287 0.178
and reduces the conductivity by 17% below that of pure resistance (Ω -
m/mm2)
copper. Use of Cadmium Copper will be economical for Resistance 0.0038 0.004 0.00496
a line with long spans and small cross section, where Temperature
Coefficient
the cost of conductor material is comparatively small in Table 3 Properties of Conductor Materials of Various Types
comparison to that of supports, etc. They are also Examples:
employed for telephone and telegraph lines where 1. A given amount of power is to be transmitted by an
currents involved are quite small. However, owing to overhead line. Compare the diameter and weight of
scarcity of copper, cadmium copper conductors on aluminum conductor with those of copper for the same
communication lines are being replaced by ACSR power loss in the line. The following data may be
conductors. assumed:
8. Copper – Clad Steel – is obtained by welding a copper Specific resistance of aluminum = 2.85 µΩ - cm
coating on a steel wire core. Line conductors made of Specific resistance of copper = 1.70 µΩ - cm
copper – clad steel are preferably stranded, and have Specific gravity of aluminum = 2.71
a considerably large tensile strength than the Specific gravity of copper = 8.89
equivalent all – copper conductors. The proportion of 2. Electric power of 30 MW at a pf of 0.8 lagging is to be
copper and steel is chosen that the conductivity of the transmitted by a 132 kV, 3 phase, 3 – wire transmission
composite wire is 30 to 40% of that of copper conductor line over a distance of 120 km. The efficiency of
of equal diameter. Such material appears to be very transmission is 90 %. Calculate:
suitable for river – crossings or other places where an a. Weight of material required in case of copper
extremely long span is involved. having resistivity of 1.78 x 10-8 Ω - m and specific
9. Phosphor Bronze – use if harmful gases such as gravity of 8.9.
ammonia are present in atmosphere and the spans are b. Weight of material required in case of aluminum
extremely long. In this conductor, some strands of having resistivity of 2.6 x 10-8 Ω - m and specific
phosphor bronze are added to the cadmium copper. gravity of 2.
10. Expanded ACSR – has filler such as fiber or paper Cross Arms
between aluminum and steel strands. The function of a line support (pole) is to support the line
Filler are used to increase the conductor diameter that will conductors at a safe distance from ground whereas the
reduce magnetic effects and reduce corona power loss.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

function of cross arms it to keep the conductors at a safe with disc insulators. The cross arm is fixed to the pole
distance from each other and from the pole. Cross arm is a in such a manner that the load of the conductors is
cross – piece fitted to the pole top end portion by means of taken by the cross arm and not the clamp or bolt that
brackets, known as pole brackets, for supporting insulators. fixes the cross arm to the pole.
Shape of Cross Arms
1. U – Shaped
2. V – Shaped
3. Zig – Zag Shaped
To prevent arcing, the construction of the cross arms
should be such that under the worst conditions, the spacing
between conductors, when swinging, would never be less
than that given in Table 4.
Working Voltage Spacing
6.6 kV 76 mm
11 kV 101 mm
33 kV 190 mm and so on
Table 4 Spacing for Cross Arms dependent on Working Voltage
Pole Brackets and Clamps
Pole brackets of different types are shown in the Figure 45.

Figure 44 Cross Arms

Types of Cross Arms
1. Wooden Cross Arms are commonly employed on 11
kV and 33 kV lines. These are made of sal wood,
seasoned sheesam wood or creosoted fire wood. It
should be lengthwise and completely free from knots Figure 45 Various Types of Pole Brackets
and are preferred owing to their insulating property Clamps are made of flat iron and are used for fixing or
which provides safety to line staff and minimizes holding service line stay wires, earth wire, shackle
flashover due to birdage. The usual lengths and cross insulators, cross arms etc. In case of service lines, one end
sections in use are: 1.5 mm x 125 mm x 125 mm for 11 of the clamp is made longer and provided with an ‘eye’
kV lines and 2.1 mm x 125 mm x 125 mm for 33 kV section, as shown in Figure 46.
lines. Wooden Cross Arms need replacement owing to
decay every 5 – 7 years depending upon weather
conditions.
2. Steel Cross Arms are stronger and are generally used
on steel poles. For LV distribution, the angle iron or
channel iron cross arms shall have a size not less than
50 mm x 50 mm x 6.4 mm and 76 mm x 38 mm. Its
length shall be suitable for the spacing of the
conductors and strong enough to withstand the
resultant forces caused by insulators, their pins and
dead weight of insulator attachments etc. To avoid
birdage on HT lines, V – shaped cross arms are used Figure 46 Various Types of Clamps

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

enough above the ground level so that the guy wire does
not meet the soil of the ground.
An egg type strain insulator is inserted in the guy wire for
safety. It isolates stay wire electrically from metal support.
The two ends of guy are threaded through the insulator in
such a way that the porcelain of the insulator is under
compression, making it possible to withstand a large pull.
Figure 47 Method of Fitting Cross Arm to Pole In case of breakage of porcelain, the guy will still be
Guys and Stays effective due to linking of two ends. Stay wires are
It becomes essential to stay overhead line supports at galvanized steel wires having a tensile strength of 7
angle and terminal positions as the poles takes the pull due tons/cm2 and are usually of stranded section.
to the conductors. The theoretical angle between the pole The stays are provided to angle poles, terminal poles, H –
and stay should be 45°, but in general practice it is not pole structures, where the span on the two sides of the pole
always possible to obtain this, and so stay design is are very much different and to supports subjected to
generally based on a minimum angle of 30° between stay uprooting pressure. Stay wires are placed on the poles and
and pole. stay rods fixed before stretching of line conductors on the
poles. This is very important, otherwise, in case the line
conductors are placed first, the poles would be pulled out
of the position. The stay wire is held up on the pole either
by means of guy hook or through the bolt or may be fixed
to the clamp. The stay wire is drawn up until the pole is
pulled over slightly towards the stay to keep the proper
tension.
Different stay arrangements are shown in Figure 49.

Figure 48 Guys and Stays

Stay set consists of MS rod of 19 mm diameter, stay bow,
checknut, timbles, stay wire, stay clamp and CI anchor
plate 450 x 450 mm having 4.8 mm hole in the center.
Except the plate all other parts are galvanized. Stay rod is
embedded in cement concrete 1:3:6 to a depth of not less
than 1.67 m keeping length of 46 cm of the rod projected
above the ground level. One end of stay wire is fixed to stay
rod at the bottom and to the stay clamp to the pole by
means of well spliced joints with a strain insulator and turn
buckle inserted in the middle and near the top respectively.
The stay or guy is tightened by means of stay bow and
anchor rod to the required tension. Mild steel thimbles are
used at both ends of the stay wire, otherwise strands of stay
wire may get damaged. The anchor rod is projected far
Figure 49 Stay Arrangements

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Conductors Configuration, Spacing and Clearances Table 5 shows some typical spacing values.
Conductor Configuration Line
Voltage in 0.4 11 33 66 132 220 400 765
Several conductor configurations are possible, but three kV
most common configurations are: Spacing in
0.2 1.2 2.0 2.5 3.5 6.0 11.5 14
a. Horizontal Configuration (horizontal disposition of meters
Table 5 Conductor Spacings
conductors) – all the conductors are mounted over one
Conductor Clearances
cross arm and needs supports of smaller height but a
The minimum vertical clearances between the ground and
wider right of way. Most Economical for Single Circuit
the conductor are shown in Table 6.
Lines. Line Voltage in kV
b. Vertical Configuration – use in congested areas where Clearance to 0.4 11 33 66 132 220 400
horizontal arrangement is not possible. The drawbacks Ground in meters
are taller towers and more lightning hazards. Most Across Street 5.8 5.8 6.1 6.1 6.1 7.0 8.4
Economical for Double Circuit Lines. Along Street 5.5 5.5 5.8 6.1 6.1 7.0 8.4
Other Areas 4.6 4.6 5.2 5.5 6.1 7.0 8.4
c. Symmetrical Delta or Triangular Configuration Table 6 Conductor Clearances
Span Lengths
Neglecting the influence upon the span length of such local
conditions as the necessity for the following the
configuration of roads, canals or railways, it is interesting to
note that there is one definite value for span length which
will give the minimum overall cost of the line. As the length
of span increases, the number of insulators and supports
decreases resulting in decrease in cost but at the same time
the height of the support will go up to allow for more sag
and the length of the cross arms must be increased to take
up increased spacing, this will cause increase in cost.
Figure 50 Triangular and Horizontal Formation Moreover, the insulators constitute the weakest part of
In unsymmetrical arrangement of conductors, the transmission line and reduction in number of towers per km
conductors are usually transposed at regular intervals to with the use of longer span increases the reliability of the
balance the electrical characteristics of various phases, and line. Thus, it is not possible to give any hard and fast rule
prevent inductive interference with neighboring as to the best span length to be adopted, and the only way
communication circuits. to determine it is to calculate the total cost per km for
Conductor Spacings several different span lengths, and plot the results to get the
The spacing of conductors is determined by considerations most economical span length.
partly electrical and partly mechanical. Larger spacing Many times, it happens that the conductor size determined
causes increase in inductance of the line and hence the from electrical calculations comes out rather small, it is
voltage drop, so that to keep the latter within a reasonable possible to reduce the total cost of line by using a thicker
value the conductors should be as close together as is and stronger conductor, and increasing the span length.
consistent with the prevention of corona. Sometimes it is not feasible to determine the height of the
The basic Consideration regarding Minimum Spacing line support and span length based on line cost alone as
between conductors are electrical clearances between lightning hazards increase greatly with the increase in
conductors under the worst condition (maximum height of conductors above the ground.
temperature and wind pressure) shall not be less than the The usual spans are:
limits of safety, particularly at the mid spans. Owing to the a. Wooden Poles: 40 – 50 m
action of the gusts of wind, conductor has tendency to move b. Steel Tubular Poles: 50 – 80 m
about in an elliptical path, therefore, in case of suspension c. RCC Poles: 80 – 200 m
insulators, the mechanical clearance to supporting d. Steel Towers: 200 – 400 m and above
structures should be calculated with a 45° swing of the For river – crossings exceptionally long spans up to 800 m
suspension string toward the structure. or so have been satisfactorily employed.
Spacing = √S + V/150
where S is sag in meters and V is line voltage in kV.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Sag and Tension (Stress) Analysis conductor from elastic stretching which tends to relieve
Overhead lines are supported on mechanical structures tension and sag increases.
consisting of components like insulators, cross arms, poles The elastic property of wire is measured by its modulus of
or towers etc. The strength of these components must be elasticity.
such that there is no mechanical failure of line, even under T
σ= kg/m2
the worst weather conditions. A
Analysis of sag and tension of conductor is an important where 𝜎 = stress per unit area
consideration in overhead transmission as well as T = conductor tension
distribution line design. The continuity and quality of electric A = actual cross section of conductor
service depend largely on whether the conductors have Elongation of the conductor due to the tension is
been properly installed. Thus, it must be determined in stress
e=
advance the amount of sag and tension to be given to the modulus of elasticity
conductor at a given temperature, maximum wind, and Elongation is high if modulus of elasticity is low. Thus, a
possible ice loading. To specify the tension to be used in small change in length of conductor causes large effect on
stringing the line conductors, the values of sag and tension sag and tension of conductor.
in summer and winter conditions must be known. Excessive Sag and stresses in conductors are dependent on the
tension may cause mechanical failure of the conductor itself following things:
because conductor tension contributes to the mechanical 1. Initial tension put on them when they are clamped in
load on structure angles in the line and at dead ends. place.
The main factors in the design and stringing of 2. Weight of the conductor themselves.
conductors on the supports 3. Ice or sleet changing on them.
1. Conductor load per unit length 4. Wind pressure.
2. Conductor tension (less than 50% of its ultimate tensile Stress depends on sag; any span can be used provided the
strength even when there is 12.7 mm radial coating of poles or towers are high enough and strong enough. The
ice and a wind pressure of the order 380 N/m2) matter is merely one of extending the catenary in both
3. Span, that is, distance between supports directions. Cost of towers sharply increase with height and
4. Temperature loading.
For determining the conductor load, the factors that need to Example:
be considered are: A galvanized steel tower member has original length of 22
1. Weight of conductor itself cm and cross – sectional area 13 cm2. With working axial,
2. Weight of ice or snow clinging to conductor tensile load of 125 kN, the change in length was 0.2 mm.
3. Wind blowing against conductor Calculate:
The maximum effective weight of the conductor is the a. Stress
vector sum of the vertical weight of the conductor and b. Strain
horizontal wind pressure. It is extremely important to c. Modulus of elasticity
include the most adverse condition. From the design point d. Percent elongation
of view, it is considered that the wind is blowing at right e. If ultimate stress is 110000 N/mm2, determine the
angles to the line and to act against the projected area of factor of safety.
the conductor, which includes the projected area of ice or Sag in Overhead Lines
snow that may be clinging to it. While erecting an overhead line, it is very important that
From the practical point of view, economic design dictates conductors are under safe tension. If the conductors are too
the following: much stretched between supports in a bid to save
1. Sag of conductor should be minimum to refrain from conductor material, the stress in the conductor may reach
extra pole height unsafe value and in certain cases the conductor may break
2. Sufficient clearance above ground level. due to excessive tension. To permit safe tension in the
3. To avoid providing excessive horizontal spacing conductors, they are not fully stretched but can have a dip
between conductors to prevent those swinging or sag.
together in mid span. SAG – the difference in level between points of supports
Sag of the conductor decreases because its tension pull the and the lowest point in the conductor.
conductor up. But at the same time, tension elongates the

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

length of span, etc. remain the same. Working tensile

strength of the conductor is determined by multiplying
the ultimate stress and area of cross section and
dividing by a factor of safety.
4. Temperature. All metallic bodies expand with the rise
in temperature and, therefore, the length of the
conductor increases with the rise in temperature, and
Figure 51 Conductor Suspended in Equal Supports so does the sag.
Figure 51 shows a conductor suspended between equal Two conditions are considered in making sag – tension
level supports A and B. the conductor is not fully stretched analysis:
but can have a dip. The lowest point on the conductor is O 1. At Minimum Temperature. The lowest sag and
maximum tension in conductor section occurs when
and the sag is S.
the temperature is minimum and wind maximum.
The following points can be considered: Tension on the conductor should not exceed the
1. When a conductor is suspended between supports at breaking strength of the conductor divided by a factor
the same level takes the shape of a catenary. of safety of 2.5.
However, if the sag is very small compared with the 2. At Maximum Temperature. On the other hand,
span, then the sag curve is said to be parabola. maximum sag occurs when temperature is maximum
2. The tension at any point on the conductor acts and there is no wind pressure.
tangentially. Thus, tension TO at the lowest pt. O acts wL2
horizontally as shown in Figure 52. S=
T
3. The horizontal component of tension is constant where w = weight of conductor in kg/m; L = length of the
throughout the length of wire. span in meters and T = tension in the conductor in kg
4. The tension at supports is approximately equal to the Calculation of Sag
horizontal tension acting at any point of the wire. Thus, In an overhead line, the sag should be so adjusted that the
if T is the tension at pt. B, then T = TO. tension in the conductors is within safe limits. The tension
is governed by conductor weight, effect of wind, ice loading
and temperature variations. It is a standard practice to keep
conductor tension less than 50 % of its ultimate tensile
strength. Thus, the minimum safety factor in respect of
conductor tension should be 2.
a. CATENARY CABLE (high sag)
- the unit weight is uniformly distributed along the cable
- for span of more than 300 meters

Figure 52 Conductor Tension

The factors affecting the sag in an overhead line are:
1. Weight of the Conductor. This affects the sag directly.
Heavier the conductor, greater will be the sag. In
locations where ice formation takes place on the
conductor, this will also increase in the sag. Figure 53 Free body diagram of portion cable
2. Length of the Span. Sag is directly proportional to the Consider Figure 53, If TO is the tension at the lowest point
square of the span length. Hence other conditions, (point O) on the wire and where the curve is horizontal and
such as type of conductor, working tension, T the tension at point B (distance l from the lowest point O),
temperature etc., remaining the same a section with the portion OB (length l) is in equilibrium under the action
longer span will have much greater sag.
of three forces, namely TO, T and the weight of the wire of
3. Working Tensile Strength. The sag is inversely
proportional to the working tensile strength of length l acting vertically downward through a center of
conductor if other conditions such as temperature, gravity, wl.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
2 4 6
wx wx wx
TO ( ) ( ) ( )
TO TO TO
So y = w
(1 + 2
+ 4
+ 6
− 1)

T
If the fourth and higher order terms are neglected,
wl
𝑇𝑂 wx 2 1 𝑤𝑥 2
TO 𝑦≅ ( ) ( )=
𝑤 TO 2 2𝑇𝑂
From Figure 55 the Tension T at point B is given by
Figure 54 The Force Triangle
The above three forces can be represented by a triangle T = √(TO )2 + (wl)2
shown in Figure 54 and from this triangle wx 2
wl T = √(TO )2 + (TO sinh )
tan θ = TO
TO
From the above triangle, we can say dl = T, dx = TO and dy wx 2 wx
T = TO √1 + (sinh ) = TO cosh
= wl. Thus, TO TO
dy
tan θ =
dx
dl 2 dy 2
and dl2 = dx 2 + dy 2 or (dx) = 1 + (dx)
dl 2 wl 2
( ) = 1 + tan2 θ = 1 + ( )
dx TO
Simplifying,
dl
dx = Figure 56
w 2 l2 If the line is supported between two points A and B at the
√1 + 2
TO same level and the length of the span is L (Figure 56), then
L
Integrating both sides, we get at the supports x = ± 2 and
TO wl wL
x= sinh−1 + C T = TO cosh
w TO 2TO
From initial conditions when x = 0 and l = 0, we get C = 0, The sag ymax is the value of y at A or B and is given by
thus, w L 2 wL2
TO wl wl wx T wx ymax ≅ ( ) =
x= sinh−1 or = sinh or l = O sinh 2TO 2 8TO
w TO TO TO w TO
dy wl w TO wx wx Length of line in a half span
Again dx = tan θ = T = T × w sinh T = sinh T
O O O O 𝑇𝑂 𝑤𝐿 𝑇𝑂 𝑤𝐿 𝑤 3 𝐿3
Integrating both sides, we get = sinh = [ + + ⋯]
𝑤 2𝑇𝑂 𝑤 2𝑇𝑂 48𝑇𝑂3
TO 𝑤𝑥
y= cosh +D Neglecting terms of order exceeding cube, we have
𝑤 𝑇𝑂 TO wL TO w 3 L3 L w 2 L3
From initial conditions when x = 0 and y = 0, we get D = ≅ × + × ≅ +
TO
w 2TO w 48TO3 2 48TO2
− w
thus, or length of line in full span length
TO wx TO TO wx w 2 L3
y= cosh − = (cosh − 1) =L+
w TO w w TO 24TO2
This is the equation of the curve called the catenary. wx
Tension, T = TO cosh
The function cosh is the hyperbolic cosine and is such that TO

wx 2 wx 4 wx 6 w2x2 w x 4 4
w2x2
( ) ( ) ( = TO (1 + + + ⋯ ) ≅ TO (1 + )
wx T T T ) 2TO2 24TO4 2TO2
cosh = 1+ O + O + O +⋯
TO 2 4 6
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

If x = L/2, then The maximum dip (sag) is represented by the

w 2 L2 w 2 L2 value of y at either supports A and B.
T = TO (1 + ) = TO + = TO + w(ymax ) At support B, set x = L/2 and y = S
8TO2 8TO
L 2
The maximum tension occurs when x = L/2 and is given w( )
2
as S(sag) =
2T
Tmax = TO + w(ymax ) wL2
S=
Approximation: 8T
w2 L2 Where:
Neglecting 8TO
, being very small compared with unity, T S = maximum sag
becomes nearly equal to TO and L = length of the span
wL2 w = weight per unit length of conductor
Sag, S = T = tension in the conductor
8T To get the approximate length of cable in the
w 2 L3 span,
Total length of wire = L +
24TO2 8ymax2
LC = L +
b. PARABOLIC CABLE (Approximate Solution) 3L
(low sag) ymax = S
- for span of 300 m or less Tension at the point of supports,
- the unit weight is assumed uniformly
wL 2
- distributed along the horizontal span l. TA = TB = √TO2 + ( )
- almost accurate for sag/span ratio less than 2
10% When the supports are at unequal levels (Parabolic
Cable)

Figure 57 Parabolic Cable

- assuming the curvature is so small that the
curve length is equal to its horizontal projection
(OP≈ x). 2 forces are acting on portion OP.
1. The weight wx of conductor acting at a
distance x/2 from O. Figure 58 Unequal Level
2. The tension T acting at O. Let:
Getting the moments at pt. O. L = span length
∑ MO = 0 w = weight per unit length of conductor
T = tension in the conductor
T = TO h = difference in levels between two supports
x
Ty = wx ( ) x1 = distance of support at lower level (horizontal)
2 x2 = distance of support at higher level (horizontal)
wx 2 S2 = vertical distance (sag) at point O from tower 2
y=
2T S1 = vertical distance (sag) at point O from tower 1
where: At x = x1 and y = S1
y = sag at any point y wx12
x = horizontal distance from the lowest point of Sag,S1 = 2T
the cable and
wx 2
S2 = 2T2

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Also, x1 + x2 = L → 1 m above water level, the horizontal distance between

w
S2 − S1 = (2T) (x2 − x1 )2 the towers being 400 m. If the maximum allowable
w tension is 2000 kg, find the clearance between the
= ( ) (x2 − x1 )(x2 + x1 ) conductor and water at a point midway between the
2T
But, h = S2 − S1 towers. The weight of the conductor is 1 kg/m.
wL 2hT 5. The towers of height 30 m and 90 m respectively
h = ( 2T ) (x2 − x1 ) or ( wL ) = x2 − x1 → 2 support a transmission line conductor at water
Equate 1 and 2 crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers
If x1 = L − x2 is 500 m. if the tension in the conductor is 1600 kg, find
2hT 2hT the minimum clearance of the conductor and water
x2 = x1 + ( ) = L − x2 + ( )
wL wL clearance midway the supports. Weight of conductor is
[2x2 = L + (2hT/wL) ] multiply by ½ 1.5 kg/m. Bases of the towers can be at water level.
L hT 6. An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is
x2 = + ( ) supported from two towers at heights of 50 m and 100
2 wL
If x2 = L − x1 m above the water level, the horizontal distance
2hT 2hT between the towers being 400 m. If the maximum
x1 = x2 − ( ) = L − x1 − ( ) allowable tension is 1,800 kg and the conductor weighs
wL wL
2hT
[2x1 = L − ( wL )] multiply by ½ 1 kg/m, find the clearance between the conductor and
water at a point mid – way between the towers.
L hT
x1 = − 7. A conductor is strung across a river, being supported
2 wL at the two ends at heights of 20 m and 16 m
Examples: respectively, from the bed of the river. The distance
1. A transmission line conductor has been suspended between the supports is 375 m and the weight of the
freely from two towers and has taken the form of a conductor = 1.2 kg/m. If the clearance of the conductor
catenary that has c = 487.68 m. The span between the from the river bed be 9 m, find the horizontal tension in
two towers is 152 m, and weight of the conductor is the conductor. Assume a parabolic configuration and
1160 kg/km. Calculate the following: that there is no wind or ice loading.
a. Length of the conductor 8. A transmission line conductor at a river crossing is
b. Sag supported from two towers at heights of 20 m and 60
c. Maximum and minimum value of conductor m above water level. The horizontal distance between
tension using catenary method the towers is 300 m. If the tension in the conductor is
d. Approximate value of tension by using parabolic 1800 kg and the conductor weighs 1.0 kg per meter,
method. find the clearance between the conductor and the
2. A 132 – kV transmission line has the following data: water level at a point mid – way between the towers.
weight of conductor = 680 kg/km Use approximate method.
ultimate strength = 3100 kg 9. A transmission line over a hillside where the gradient
length of span = 260 m is 1:20, is supported by two 22 m high towers with 300
safety factor = 2 m between them. The lowest conductor is fixed 2 m
Calculate the height above ground at which the below the top of each tower. Find the clearance of the
conductor should be supported. Ground clearance conductor from the ground. Given that conductor
required is 10 meters. weighs 1 kg/m and the allowable tension is 1500 kg.
3. A transmission line conductor at a river crossing is 10. A transmission tower on a level ground gives a
supported from two towers at heights of 70 m above minimum clearance of 8 meters for its lowest conductor
water level. The horizontal distance between towers is with a sag of 10 m for a span of 300 m. If the same
300 m. If the tension in conductor is 1,500 kg, find the tower is to be used over a slope of 1 in 15, find the
clearance at a point midway between the towers. The minimum ground clearance obtained for the same
size of conductor is 0.9 cm2. Density of conductor span, same conductor and same weather conditions.
material is 8.9 g/cm3 and suspension length of the 11. A transmission line conductor is supported from two
string is 2 meters. towers at heights of 70 m above water level. The
4. An overhead transmission line at a river crossing is horizontal distance between the towers is 300 m. If the
supported from two towers at heights of 40 m and 90 tension in the conductors is 1500 kg, find the clearance
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 28
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

at a point mid – way between the towers. The size of The density of ice is approximately 920 kg/m3, so the weight
the conductor is 0.9 cm2 and density of conductor of ice coating per meter length,
material is 8·9 gm/cm3. wi = 920 × πt(d + t) kg
12. An overhead line has a span of 260 m; the weight of = 2890.3t(d + t) kg/m
the line conductor is 0.68 kg per meter run. Calculate Due to weight of ice deposits on the line, and the wind
the maximum sag in the line. The maximum allowable pressure, the mechanical
tension in the line is 1550 kg. stress increases in the
13. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between the conductor and, therefore, the
level supports. The conductor has a cross – sectional line must be designed to
area of 2 cm2. The ultimate strength is 5000 kg/cm2. withstand these stresses and
The specific gravity of the material is 8.9 gm/cm3. If the tension. Under this condition,
wind pressure is 1.5 kg/m length of conductor, the weight of the conductor,
calculate the sag at the center of the conductor if factor together with weight of ice
of safety is 5. acts vertically downwards Figure 60 The Force Triangle
14. Two towers of height 40 m and 30 m respectively while the wind loading ww acts horizontally, as shown in
support a transmission line conductor at water Figure 60.
crossing. The horizontal distance between the towers Total weight of conductor per unit length
is 300 m. If the tension in the conductor is 1590 kg, find wt = √(wC + wi )2 + (ww )2
the clearance of the conductor at a point mid-way ww = Wind force in kg per meter length
between the supports. Weight of conductor is 0.8 kg/m. ww = Wind pressure per m2 of projected area × projected
Bases of the towers can be at the water level. area per meter length
Effect of Ice and Wind Loading ww = p × (d + 2t)
In areas where it becomes too cold in winter, there is a wt L2
possibility of formation of an ice coating on the line Maximum Sag =
conductors. The formation of an ice coating on a line 8T
When ice and wind are acting simultaneously, the lowest
conductor has a twofold effect – increase in weight and point of the conductor does not remain vertically down but
effective diameter of the conductor. In this condition the away from it at an angle θ given by the expression
weight of conductor, together with weight of ice acts wc + wi
vertically downwards. Thus, the total vertical weight acting θ = cos−1
wt
on the conductor per meter length is wC + wi where wC is
The maximum sag will not be vertical but will be slant sag
the weight of conductor in kg per meter length and wi is the
and vertical sag will be obtained by multiplying the slant sag
weight of ice coating per meter length, wC is known wi is
with cos θ
determined as follows:
wt L2
Let the diameter of conductor be d meters and radial Vertical sag = cos θ
thickness of ice coating be t meter, as illustrated in Figure 8T
59. The overall diameter of ice covered conductor, as Effect of Temperature Change
obvious from Figure 59, becomes equal to (d + 2t) meter. Sag and stress vary with temperature because of the
thermal expansion and contraction of the conductor.
Temperature rise of conductor increase the length of
conductor, and hence sag increases and tension
decreases. A temperature fall causes opposite effect.
Maximum stress occurs at the lowest temperature, when
the line has contracted and is also possibly covered with ice
and sleet.
If conductor stress is constant while the temperature
changes, the change in length of the conductor is
Figure 59 Ice and Wind Loading
∆l = l0 α∆t
Volume of ice coating per meter length of conductor
π where ∆t = t1 − t 0 ∆l = l1 − l0
= [(d + 2t)2 − d2 ] t0 = initial temperature
4 l0 = conductor length at initial temperature
π
= [4dt + 4t 2 ] = πt(d + t) m3 l1 = conductor length at t1
4
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

α = coefficient of linear expansion of conductor /°C supports are 600 m apart having 15 m difference of
If the temperature is constant while the conductor stress levels. Calculate the sag from the taller of the two
changes (loading), the change in length of the conductor is supports which must be allowed so that the factor of
l0 ∆T safety shall be 5. Assume that ice load is 1 kg per
∆l = meter run and there is no wind pressure.
MA
∆T = T1 − T0 8. A transmission line has a span of 214 meters. The line
where T0 = initial tension of conductor conductor has a cross – section of 3.225 cm2 and has
M = modulus of elasticity of conductor an ultimate breaking strength of 2,540 kg/cm2. If the
A = actual metal cross section of conductor line is covered with ice and provides a combined
Examples: copper and ice load of 1.125 kg/m while the wind
1. A transmission line has a span of 200 meters between pressure is 1.5 kg/m run.
level supports. The conductor has a cross – sectional a. Calculate the maximum sag produced. Take a
area of 1.29 cm2, weighs 1,170 kg/km and has a factor of safety of 3
breaking stress of 4,218 kg/cm2. Calculate the sag for b. Determine the vertical sag
a factor of safety of 5 allowing a wind pressure of 122 9. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level
kg per m2 of projected area. What is the vertical sag? supports. The cross – sectional area of the conductor
2. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level is 1.25 cm2 and weighs 100 kg per 100 m. The breaking
supports. The conductor has a cross – sectional area stress is 4220 kg/cm2. Calculate the factor of safety if
of 2 cm2. The tension in the conductor is 2000 kg. If the the sag of the line is 3.5 m. Assume a maximum wind
specific gravity of the conductor material is 9.9g/cm3 pressure of 100 kg per square meter.
and wind pressure is 1.5kg/m length, calculate the sag. 10. A transmission line has a span of 250 m between
What is the vertical sag? supports, the supports being at the same level. The
3. A transmission line has a span of 150 meters between conductor has a cross – sectional area of 1.29 cm2.
supports, the supports being at the same level. The The ultimate strength is 4220 kg/cm2 and factor of
conductor has a cross – sectional area of 2 cm2. The safety is 2. The wind pressure is 40 kg/cm2. Calculate
ultimate strength is 5,000 kg/cm2. The specific gravity the height of the conductor above ground level at which
of the material is 8.9. If the wind pressure is 1.5 kg/m it should be supported if a minimum clearance of 7m is
length of the conductor, calculate the sag at the center to be kept between the ground and the conductor.
of the conductor if factor of safety is 5. 11. A transmission line has a span of 150 m between level
4. The effective diameter of a line is 1.96 cm and it weighs supports. The conductor has a cross – sectional area
90 kg per 100 – meter length. What would be the of 2 cm2. The ultimate strength is 5000 kg/cm2. The
additional loading due to ice of radial thickness 1.25 cm specific gravity of the material is 8.9 gm/cm3. If the wind
and a horizontal wind pressure of 30 kg/m2 of projected pressure is 1.5 kg/m length of the conductor, calculate
area? Also, find the total weight per meter run of the the sag if factor of safety is 5.
line. Density of ice is 920 kg/m3. Location of Line
5. Two towers are supported at the same elevation. It has The routing of a transmission or distribution lines requires
a sag of 8 m when subjected to a tension T when a thorough investigations and for selecting the most desirable
wind load of 0.5 kg/m is considered. The sag increases and practical route, following points should be considered:
by 1.423 m maintaining the same tension. Determine 1. Cost of construction
the weight of the conductor. 2. Cost of easements
6. A transmission line has a span of 275 m between level 3. Cost of clearing
supports. The conductor has an effective diameter of 4. Cost of maintenance
1.96 cm and weighs 0.865 kg/m. Its ultimate strength Stringing Chart
is 8060 kg. If the conductor has ice coating of radial Under standard conditions, the sag is required to be
thickness 1.27 cm and is subjected to a wind pressure determined for worst probable conditions and the minimum
of 3.9 gm/cm2 of projected area, calculate sag for a ground clearance is to be maintained for these conditions.
safety factor of 2. Weight of 1 cc of ice is 0.91 gm. At the time of erection, the severe conditions do not prevail,
7. An overhead transmission line conductor having a the temperature is usually higher, the designer, therefore,
parabolic configuration weighs 1.925 kg per meter of should know the sag to be allowed and the tension in the
length. The area of cross – section of the conductor is line to be allowed, so that under no condition there should
2.2 cm2 and the ultimate strength is 8000 kg/cm2. The be any danger to the line.
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Stringing chart is helpful in knowing the sag and tension at Various values of f2 and S2 are calculated repeatedly for
any temperature. This chart gives the data for sag to be different temperatures. Now the graph of tension vs
allowed and the tension to be allowed at a given temperature and sag vs temperature can be plotted, as
temperature. shown in Figure 61. This graph is plotted for a fixed span
For preparation of stringing or sag chart first calculate the and is called stringing chart. This stringing chart is very
sag and tension on the conductor under the worst useful while erecting the transmission line conductors for
conditions, maximum wind pressure and minimum adjusting sag and tension properly.
temperature, assuming a suitable factor of safety in fixing
the maximum working tension for the conductor. Now
evaluate the sag and tension for a series of temperature in
steps within the working range of temperatures.
The equation for determining stringing chart of a line is
derived as below:
wx2 wL2
We know that T = TO ; y = 2T
;S = 8T
and span length
w2 L3
l = L + 24T2
Let w1, f1, l1, S1 and t1 be the load per unit length, the stress,
the span length, sag and temperature at the maximum load
conditions (with the ice and wind and low temperature
usually – 5.5°); w2, f2, l2, S2 and t2 be the values under
stringing conditions, a is the area of cross section of the
conductor, α is the coefficient of linear expansion and E is Figure 61 Tension vs Temperature and Sag vs Temperature Graph
the modulus of elasticity. Example:
w2 L3 w2 L3 8S2
Span length, l = L + = L+ 2 2 =L+ An overhead line having a span of 250 m is to be erected
24T2 24a f 3L
The span length at maximum load condition is at a temperature of 40°C in still air conditions. It is desired
w12 L3 that a factor of safety of 2 should be maintained under bad
l1 = L + weather conditions when the temperature is 10°C and the
24a2 f12 wind load is 378 N/m2 of projected area. The data for the
The temperature rise from t1 to t2 causes an increase in the ACSR conductor used for the line is: diameter: 1.95 cm,
span length of l1α(t1 – t2) which is practically equal to Lα(t1 area: 2.25 cm2, weight = 8.31 N/m, breaking load is 77,900
– t2). The fall in stress from f1 to f2 causes a decrease in the N, linear coefficient is 18.44 x 10-6 /°C, Young’s modulus:
f −f f −f
length of ( 2 1 ) l1 ≅ ( 1 2 ) L 91.4 x 103 N/mm2. Find the sag and tension under erection
E E
The new length l2 is thus given by conditions.
f1 − f2 Sag Template
l2 = l1 − L + (t 2 − t1 )αL For correct design and economy, the location of structures
E
w2 L3 on the profile with a template is very essential. Sag template
But l2 = L + 2 2 2 is a convenient device used in the design of a transmission
24a f2
w22 L3 w12 L3 f1 − f2 line to determine the location and height of structure. Sag
L+ 2 = L + 2 − L + (t 2 − t1 )αl template can be relied upon to provide the following:
24a2 f2 24a2 f1 E
w2 L2 E w22 L2 E 1. Economic layout
or f22 [(f2 − f1 ) + 24f1 2 a2 + (t 2 − t1 )αE] = 24a2 2. Minimum errors in design and layout
1
The equation is a cubic one and can be solved graphically 3. Proper grading of structures
or analytically. From this equation erection tension T1 = f1a 4. Prevention of excessive insulator swing
can be determined such that tension T2 = f2a under worst Generally, two types of towers are used:
probable conditions will not exceed the safe limit of tension. 1. The standard or straight run or intermediate tower
After determining f2, the corresponding sag can be 2. The angle or anchor or tension tower
determined from the equation The straight run towers are used for straight runs and
w2 L2 normal conditions. The angle towers are designed to
S2 = withstand heavy loading as compared to standard towers
8f2 a
because angle towers are used at angles, terminals and

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

other points where a large unbalanced pull may be thrown It is very tedious to make calculations of sag and tension
on the supports. for each span individually and then to make adjustment
For standard towers, for normal or average spans, the sag while erecting the transmission line. In the erection of a
and the nature of the curve (Catenary or Parabola) that the transmission line the conductors are run out through snatch
line conductor will occupy under expected loading blocks attached to the support arms equally tensioned at
conditions is evaluated and plotted on template. Template each end of a section of five or six blocks. When the
will also show the required minimum ground clearance by conductors are clamped to suspension insulator strings, the
plotting a curve parallel to the conductor shape curve. For equal tension is maintained by insulator swing. When the
the standard tower and same height, the tower footing line conductors are bound to pin type insulators, the flexibility of
can also be plotted on the template. Tower footing line is the support ensure equal tension.
used for locating the position of towers and minimum It is often convenient to make sag and tension calculations
ground clearance is maintained throughout. in terms of a hypothetical equivalent span, this tensions
being applied to each span within the section of overhead
line between the tensioning points. If there are n spans of
length L1, L2, L3, etc. which are to be given an equivalent
span Le, then the strung length of the equivalent line must
be the same as that of the individual spans. This may be
expressed as
w 2 L3e w 2 (∑ L3 )
n (Le + ) = ∑ L +
24T02 24T02
Since ∑ L = nLe
Figure 11 Sag Template Used for Locating Towers ∑ L3 ∑ L3
So L2e = =
Figure 62 shows the sag template used for locating towers. nLe ∑L

In fact, there are no clear – cut guidelines for locating the L3 +L3 +L3 +⋯
or Le = √L1 +L2 +L3 +⋯
tower positions and several other alternatives may be 1 2 3

examined. Ground clearance depends on voltage level and If the line tension T0 is determined for the equivalent span,
it gives the span length and ground clearance at different the sag for the individual spans may be calculated using the
voltage levels: approximate value of span.
Minimum NOTE: The method of sag template for locating the towers
Span Length should not be used for long spans as well as where the
Voltage Level Ground
(m) slope of the profile is very steep. In such cases, actual
Clearance (m)
0.4 kV 80 4.6 calculations for sag and tension should be made.
11 kV 100 4.6 Aeolian Vibration (Resonant Vibration)
33 kV 150 – 200 5.2 Overhead conductors will subject to normal swinging in
66 kV 200 – 300 6.3 wind and apart from that, may subject to vibration known as
132 kV 350 – 360 6.3 Aeolian vibrations or resonant vibrations. Aeolian vibrations
220 kV 360 – 380 7.0 have low amplitude (20 mm to 50 mm) and high frequencies
400 kV 400 8.8 (5 – 100 Hz). These are caused by the vortex phenomenon
Table 7 Ground Clearance for Different Voltage Level
in the low wind speed (5 – 20 km/hr).
u
Equivalent Span f = 50 ( )
It may not be possible to have a section of transmission line dc
consisting of successive spans of equal lengths because where: u = wind velocity (km/hr)
the location of the towers depends upon the profile of the dc = diameter of conductor (mm)
land along which the transmission line is to be laid. The length of a loop (half wave length) depends on tension
Sometimes, the towers are forced to be located to give T and conductor weight w and is given by
spans of different lengths so that minimum interference is 1 T
caused with the use of land. When the successive spans √
λ=
2f w
are of unequal lengths changes in tension in load or
temperature will cause unequal changes in tension in the These vibrations are very common to all conductors and
different spans. are always present. Since the vibrations are small in

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

magnitude, these are less harmful. The ACSR conductor Characteristics of Insulators
has high diameter to weight ratio and is subject to fatigue 1. High mechanical strength to withstand conductor load,
by these vibrations. wind load and ice loading if any.
A stock bridge damper is used 2. High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current to
to minimize these vibrations. It earth.
comprises of two masses at the 3. The insulator material should be non – ferrous, free
end of a short length of Figure 63 Stock Bridge Damper from impurities and cracks.
stranded steel cable suspended from the conductor about 4. High relative permittivity so that dielectric strength is
midway between two point (nodes) of the vibrations. high.
Movement of the damper is caused by the vibration and 5. High ratio of puncture strength to flashover.
energy is absorbed by the inter – strand friction in the steel 6. Ability to withstand large temperature variations, it
cable. The length of a typical damper is about 60 cm and should not crack when subjected to high temperatures
weighs about 5 kg or more. during summer and low temperatures during winter.
Galloping or Dancing of Conductors The dielectric strength should remain unaffected under
These vibrations are low frequency (0.25 – 2 Hz) and high different conditions of temperature and pressure.
amplitude (up to 6 m) and are generally caused by 7. The material used should not be porous and should be
asymmetrical layer of ice formation. This vibration is self – impervious to fluids and gases in the atmosphere.
excited type. When the ice coated conductor is acted upon Insulator Materials
by a light drift wind particularly where the ground slopes at 1. Porcelain
right angles to the transmission line vibration is initiated - is produced by firing at a high temperature, a
because wind travels up the slope and appears to get mixture of Kaolin, feldspar and quartz.
underneath the conductor. The stranding of conductors - most commonly used material for overhead line
significantly contributes to these vibrations. These insulators.
vibrations may cause flashover between conductors. It is - is mechanically stronger than glass.
difficult to prevent these vibrations. These vibrations may - gives less trouble from leakage, and is less
cause flashover between conductors. It is difficult to prevent susceptible to temperature variations and its
these vibrations but horizontal configuration of transmission surface is not affected by dirt deposits.
line can be used to reduce the impact of galloping or - is not homogeneous as glass thus its satisfactory
dancing of conductors. performance in service depends to a considerable
INSULATORS extent on its preservation which is only of the order
- provides necessary of 25 microns in thickness.
insulation between the line - fault cannot be detected easily since it is not
conductors and supports. transparent.
And thus, prevent any - tension is usually weak and does not withstand
leakage current from tensile stresses exceeding 5 kg/mm2.
conductor to earth. - dielectric strength and compressive strength of a
- are mounted on the cross mechanically sound porcelain are about 6.5
arms and the line conductors kV/mm.
are attached to the Figure 64 Parts of Insulator - complicated design for an operating voltage
insulators to provide necessary clearances between 2. Glass
conductors and metalwork. - cheaper than porcelain
- prevent short circuiting between the different phase - high resistivity and dielectric strength (14 kV/mm
conductors and provide necessary mechanical support of thickness of the material)
for the line conductors. - have simpler design and even one piece design
- one of the most important and vulnerable links in can be used for an operating voltage
transmission and distribution practice and, therefore, - quite homogeneous material and can withstand
proper selection is of utmost importance for the higher compressive stresses as compared to
successful operation of overhead transmission and porcelain
distribution system. - lower coefficient of thermal expansion which
minimizes the strains due to temperature changes
- transparent in nature
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

- moisture more readily condenses on its surface Flashover – an arc occurs between the line conductor and
and facilitates the accumulation of dirt deposits earth and the discharge jumps across the air gaps in its
thus giving high surface leakage path.
- in large sizes, great mass of material combined Puncture – the discharge occurs from conductor to pin
with irregular shape may result in internal strain through the body of the insulator.
after cooling Types of Insulators
- can be used in 25 kV under ordinary atmospheric 1. Pin Type Insulator
conditions and 50 kV in dry atmosphere - used for
3. Steatite transmission and
- naturally occurring magnesium silicate, usually distribution of
found combined with oxides in varying electric power at
proportions. voltage up to 33
- has much higher tensile and bending stress than kV.
porcelain - modern pin type Figure 65 Pin Type Insulators
- can be used at tension towers or when insulators are very reliable and inherent cracks in
transmission line takes a sharp turn porcelain are very rare and never occur with
4. Special artificial material toughened glass insulators.
- used in insulators for low voltages - life of modern
- can be easily molded into any shape without any porcelain insulators is
internal stress relatively long (expected
- metallic fittings can also be firmly embedded in the about 50 years)
material without difficulty - is designed to be
- they deteriorate rapidly in bad climatic conditions mounted on pin which in
and on being subjected to flashover their turn is secured to the cross
carbonized surface form a conducting path arm of the pole
Factors involved in Insulator Design - for lower voltages, one
1. Required to withstand both mechanical and electrical piece type of insulators are
stresses. Figure 66 One Piece Pin Type Insulator used.
2. Surface leakage path must have sufficiently high - for higher voltages,
resistance to avoid any current leakage to earth. stronger pin type insulators are used which
3. Design must be such that the stress developed owing consists of two or three pieces of porcelain
to contraction and expansion in any part of the cemented together
insulator does not lead to any defect. Advantages
4. In case of electrical breakdown due to flashover, the a. it is cheaper, since one piece pin insulator can do
insulator continues to act in its proper capacity after the work of two suspension insulators
event unless fractured by the heat of the arc, but after b. requires shorter pole to give the same conductor
a puncture, it is permanently damaged due to clearance above the ground since the pin insulator
excessive heat. raises the conductor above the cross arm while
5. Provide sufficient thickness of the porcelain in the suspension insulator suspends it below the cross
insulator to resist puncture by the combined effect of arm
the line voltage and any probable transient voltage rise c. it’s used above 50 kV is uneconomical since it
on the line. become very bulky and cumbersome when
6. The ratio of puncture strength to flash over voltage, designed on higher voltages
termed as factor of safety, must be high to provide a
good margin for the protection of insulators from
complete failure.
7. It is desirable that porcelain may not come in direct
contact with a hard metal screw thread. Normally,
cement is used between metal and the porcelain. The
cement used must not cause any fracture by
expansion or contraction. Figure 67 33 kV Pin Type Insulators Figure 68 66 kV Pin Type Insulator

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

2. Suspension Type Insulator – consists of number of The disadvantage of suspension type insulators is that
porcelain discs connected in series by metal ink in the large spacing between conductors are required than
form of string. with pin type insulators due to large amplitude of the
Advantages swing of the conductors, but this is not a serious
a. Suspension type disadvantage.
insulators are cheaper Types of Suspension Insulators
than pin type insulator 1. Hewlett or Interlinking Type of Suspension
for voltages beyond Insulators
50 kV. - is one of the earliest design
b. Each unit of disc of - each disc consists only of one piece of
suspension type Figure 69 Suspension Insulators porcelain, the
insulator is designed central bulbous
for low voltages, usually 11 kV and can be used portion of which
by connecting them in series, the number is provided with
depending upon the working voltage. two curved
c. If any insulator is damaged, the whole string does tunnels lying in
not become useless, planes at right
damaged disc can be angles to each
replaced. other. The short Figure 72 Hewlett or Interlinking
Type Suspension Insulators
d. It gives more flexibility steel strips
to the line and forming the connection between individual
mechanical stresses are discs are threaded through these tunnels and
reduced in this thus loop through each other, being
arrangement. The separated by a layer of porcelain which is
connection at the cross totally in compression.
arms is such that the - the main advantages are:
insulator string is free to a. simple in design
swing in any direction, b. high mechanical strength since the
and thus takes up a porcelain in between the two tunnels is
position where it under compression only
experiences only a pure c. no risk of breakage owing to the
tensile stress difference in expansion or contraction of
e. When used in the connecting links and the insulating
conjunction with steel materials
Figure 70 Suspension Insulator Parts supporting structures, d. no risk of interruption to the service in
has the advantage of case the porcelain between the links get
rendering the conductor less liable to be affected accidentally broken, since the links keep
by lightning disturbances. At every point of the the other units held together.
support the wire is hung below the earthed cross - are more liable to puncture than any other
arm, thus enabling the tower to function as a type of suspension insulators, owing to the
lightning rod. high electrostatic stress in the material
f. Additional insulation between the links.
required for the raise of 2. Cemented – Cap Type
voltage due to increased Suspension Insulators
demand can be obtained by - is the most commonly
adding one or more discs to used type and consists
the string. of a single disc –
g. In case of long spans Figure 71 Yoked Insulator shaped piece of
Strings
(river or valley crossings) porcelain grooved on
where heavy conductor load is to be sustained, the under surface to Figure 73 Cemented - Cap
two – disc insulator strings can be yoked. increase the surface Type Suspension Insulators
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 35
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

leakage path, and to a metal cap at the top, transmission lines, strain insulator consists of an
and to a metal pin underneath. assembly of suspension insulator.
- very uniform distribution of the electrostatic - The disc of strain insulator is used in vertical
stress in the material between the connecting plane.
link is obtained in such insulators
- main drawback has been that coefficients of
cubical expression of the three materials –
porcelain, cement and steel are different and
no provision is made for their expansion and
the sudden temperature changes occurring in
service are sufficient to set up internal stress
which ultimately crack the porcelain leading to
electrical failure.
- the cement itself is subject to volumetric
changes depending on its moisture content,
has often materially assisted in the process of
the failure of the insulator
- one way of improving the design is by way of
substituting the cementing of the pin by purely
mechanical fixing, such as the “spring – ring”.
3. Core and Link Type Suspension Insulators
- combines the advantages of the two previous
types and overcome their disadvantages
- each insulator disc is
symmetrically placed
and it conforms to
the electrostatic lines
of force, thus Figure 74 Strain Insulators
avoiding placing 4. Post Insulators
materials of different - are employed for supporting bus – bars and
permittivities in isolating switches, etc.
series. Figure 73 Core and Link Type - is like pin type insulator but has a metal bases with
- metalwork consists Suspension Insulators metal cap so that more than one unit can be
of pressed steel spiders, the legs of which are mounted in series.
fastened into the porcelain by an alloy having - is mostly a solid core insulator made of resin
approximately the same coefficient of cubical - porcelain is also used
expansion as the porcelain. Thus, high 5. Shackle Insulators
mechanical stresses on the porcelain, - in early days, shackle
whether due to sudden temperature insulator was used as
variations or to the employment of cement are strain insulator.
eliminated. - frequently used for low
- it allows discs to be formed out of quite thick voltage distribution
porcelain thereby allowing the disc to be one lines. Figure 75 Shackle Insulators

piece only. - the wet flash – over and dry flash – over are 10 kV
- has high puncture strength and 25 kV
3. Strain Insulators - puncture voltage is about 35 kV
- it is used for dead end of the line or corner or sharp - operating voltage is 1 kV
curve, the line is subject to a greater tension. - its weight, transverse mechanical load and total
- For low voltage lines, shackle insulator is used as creepage distance are 0.5 kg, 1150 kg and 63 mm
strain insulator. However, for high voltage respectively.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

- the tapered hole in the shackle insulator - the size used depends upon the tensile strength of
distributes the load more evenly and reduces the stay wire
possibility of breakage when heavily loaded. Failure of Insulators
- can be directly fixed to the pole with a bolt or to the 1. Cracking of Insulators
cross arm - very common in case of pin type insulators and
- are bell mounted to prevent water being held in cemented – cap type suspension insulators.
contact with the spindle. - occurs due to unequal expansion of steel,
- is used at all positions, either intermediate, porcelain and cement during the varying
terminal or angle. Where the angle exceeds 60° conditions of cold and heat and dryness and
deviation they are generally used in conjunction dampness.
with shackle straps. - develops high stresses in the porcelain near the
joint and it results in tension failure.
- can be avoided to some extent by using elastic
cushions between the shells.
2. Porosity of Material
- due to under – firing or other causes, always leads
to failure after a comparatively short period of
service.
- the pores usually absorb moisture from the
atmosphere or the cement, thereby decreasing
the insulation resistivity of the material.
- gives rise to leakage current flowing through the
porcelain, resulting in a gradual rise in the
temperature until porcelain is punctured.
- can be avoided by glazing the insulator, to some
extent.
3. Improper Vitrification
- another cause of puncture of the material
- can be avoided by carrying out suitable routine
Figure 76 Shackle Type Insulators Fitted to Poles tests during manufacture.
6. Stay Insulators 4. Flash – Over
- are of egg shape, also called as guy insulators - most common cause of insulator failure
- causes unequal expansion of the porcelain
thereby shattering the insulator with big cracks
and causes interruption of the supply
- can be avoided by providing arcing horns or rings
Figure 77 Stay Insulators which take up the arc and divert it away from the
- consists of porcelain piece pierced with two holes insulator.
at right angles to each other through which two 5. Mechanical Stresses
ends of the guy wires are looped. This keeps the - very rare because defective pieces are weeded
porcelain out in the routine factory test
between - occurs if the compressive strength is quite high yet
two holes at the tensile strength is not adequate and the
right angles insulator is always weak in tension and usually
to each fails because of it.
other Figure 78 Cross Section of Stay Insulators 6. Short Circuits
through - birdage means the short circuiting of conductor to
which two ends of the guy wires are looped. earth through the large birds or similar objects.
- are provided at a height of about 3 m from the - can be avoided by providing bird guards near the
ground level insulator on the cross arm, by increasing the

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

clearance of the conductor from earthed parts or b. Power Frequency Wet Flash – Over Test
using suspension insulators instead of pin type, - the insulator is mounted in a way it is to be
where the clearance between the earthed used and the voltage is applied gradually but
structure and the conductor is very large to in addition to this the insulator is sprayed with
warrant any birdage. water.
7. Deposition of Dust - the standard precipitation conditions are 3
- if the insulator material is not properly glazed, the mm per minute at an angle of 45°, the water
water will stick over it resulting into deposition of having a resistance of 10000 Ω per cm3 at
dust over it which is partially conducting and normal atmospheric temperature and
reduces flash – over distance. pressure. If the resistivity of pure water is
- the deposits of dust and like matter (salt, cement, more, it may be reduced by adding small
dust, etc.) on the interior surfaces can cause much quantities of a mineral salt or an inorganic
havoc under the condition of fog and mist. salt.
- can be easily avoided by cleaning the insulators - voltage should not be less than the given
periodically. standard.
Testing of Insulators c. Impulse Frequency Flash – Over Test
An insulator should have good mechanical strength to - the generator developing lightning voltage is
withstand the load conditions, large dielectric strength to used. It develops very high voltages at
withstand the normal operating voltage and over voltages, frequency of several hundred kHz. Such a
but it should be free from any pores or voids that may lead voltage is applied to the insulator and spark –
to breakdown. over voltage is noted.
Three distinct tests namely flash – over, performance and Impulse ratio =
Impulse spark − over voltage

routine tests are to be conducted. Spark − over voltage at power frequency

1. Flash – Over Tests - minimum acceptable flash – over voltages are

a. Power Frequency Dry Flash – Over Test given in standards.
2. Performance Tests
- is performed by gradually increasing the
a. Puncture Test
voltage between the electrodes of the
insulator mounted in a way it is to be used till - is performed to determine puncture voltage.
the breakdown of surrounding air with - the insulator is totally immersed in an
formation of a sustained arc occurs. insulating oil and is subjected to the voltage
- is repeated 5 or 10 times. being gradually increased till the puncture
takes place. The voltage at which conduction
- for 5 readings, the mean is taken as the
begins is called the puncture voltage.
correct flash – over voltage
- The puncture voltage for string should be at
- for 10 readings, commonly used method, the
least 30% higher than the power frequency
median is found by arranging 10 values in
wet flash – over voltage and pin insulators
ascending order and taking the mean of 5th
should not be less than that given in the
and 6th reading. The voltage obtained is
standards.
known as 50% dry flash – over voltage.
- as an acceptance test the voltage can be
- can also be performed by applying the same
rapidly increased to the value given in
voltage to 10 insulators together. The spacing
standards for pin insulators and 1.3 times the
between the insulators should be at least 4
wet flash – over voltage for string insulators.
times the length of each.
No conduction should take place.
- the voltage till which five insulators have
b. Porosity Test
flashed – over is called the 50% power
- sample of every batch of freshly fired
frequency dry flash – over voltage.
insulators are taken. The specimens are
- the voltage may be applied constantly and the
broken into pieces and immersed in a 1%
voltage which causes flash – over after one
solution of fuchsine dye in alcohol under
minute is called one minute dry flash – over
pressure of 150 kg/cm2. After sufficient time
voltage.
(the product of test duration in hours and
- the voltage should not be less than the given
pressure in kg/cm2 should not be less than
standard.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

1800) the pieces are removed from the 3. Routine Tests

testing pot and examined. a. Proof Load or Mechanical Test
- the slightest degree of porosity is indicated by - all types of insulators are assembled and then
a deep penetration of the dye into the body of subjected to tensile load which is 20 – 25%
specimen. more than the normal tensile load which the
c. Temperature Cycle Test insulators are likely to encounter in actual
- the insulators are quickly and completely operation. The load is applied for a duration
immersed in a water – bath maintained at the of 1 minute only.
temperature of 70°C above that of the cold b. Corrosion Test
water and left submerged for a period of T - the insulators with its fittings is suspended in
minutes. They then are withdrawn and quickly a copper sulphate solution at 15.6°C for one
and completely immersed without being minute. Then, the insulator is removed,
placed in an intermediate container, in a bath wiped, cleaned and again put in copper
of cold water for the same period of T sulphate solution. This is repeated four times.
minutes. This heating and cooling cycle is Now, an examination there should not be any
repeated 4 – 5 times and the insulators are deposition of metal over it.
then dried to observe any cracks in the c. High Voltage Test
glazing. - the pin insulators are inverted and are put into
T = (15 + 0.7M), where M is the mass of the water up to the neck. The water is also put
insulator in kg. into the spindle hole. Then high voltage is
d. Electromechanical Test applied for 5 minutes. There should be no
- performed with suspension type insulators damage to the insulator after carrying out this
only and in this test the insulators are test.
subjected to a power – frequency voltage POTENTIAL DISTRIBUTION OVER SUSPENSION
equal to 75 % of their dry flash – over voltage INSULATOR STRING
and simultaneously to a tensile load equal to For overhead lines operating at high voltages (33 kV and
½ of the specified minimum failing load. above) use of number of discs connected in series, through
- tensile load is then steadily increased at a metal links, is made. The whole unit formed by connecting
rate per minute of about 20% of the specified several discs in series is known as string of insulators. The
minimum failing load, until puncture or line conductor is secured to the bottom disc of the string
breakage occurs. and the top disc is connected to the cross arm of the pole
- puncture or breakage should not be less than or tower, as illustrated in the Figure. The number of discs
the specified minimum failing load. connected in series in an insulator string depends upon the
e. Mechanical Test line operating voltage and can be seen in Table 8.
- performed on pin type insulators to determine Number of Discs in
Operating
their ultimate mechanical strength. Suspension Tension or dead
Voltage in kV
- the insulator is mounted on a rigidly fixed pin Assembly – end Assembly
capable of withstanding, without appreciable 11 1 1
deformation, the loads to which it is subjected 33 2 3
66 5 6
during test.
132 9 10
- it is subjected to a load equal to one half of
220 14 15
the specified minimum failing load applied 400 21 22
perpendicular to its axis in the plane of the Table 8 Minimum Number of Insulator Discs Required for Transmission Lines
side groove by means of a wire rope The number of disc indicated in Table 8 is the usual number
encircling the groove. The load is then used. However, in the case of transmission lines operating
increased at a rate per minute of about 20% at 66 kV or more, one disc less than the number indicated
of the specified minimum failing load until in Table 8 is used on about 8 suspension structures near
breakage occurs. the substation. This is accomplished so that in the event of
- breakage should not occur at a load less than a lightning surge appearing on the line, the insulator string
the specified minimum failing load.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

will flash – over and prevent the surge from travelling to the Important points in solving String Efficiency Problems
substation thus safeguarding the equipment there. 1. Maximum voltage appears across the disc nearest the
The following points may be noted regarding the potential conductor.
distribution over a string of suspension insulators: 2. The charging current is given by the equation 𝐼𝐶 =
1. The voltage impressed on each string of suspension 𝑉𝑛
= 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑛 .
does not distribute itself uniformly across the individual 𝑋 𝐶

disc due to the presence of shunt capacitance. 3. The voltage across the string is equal to the phase
2. The disc nearest to the conductor has maximum voltage.
voltage across it. As we move towards the cross arms 4. Line voltage = √3 x voltage across the string
the voltage across each disc goes on decreasing. The voltage distribution across different nits of an insulator
3. The unit nearest to the conductor is under maximum string and string efficiency can be mathematically
electrical stress and is likely to be punctured. determined with the help of an equivalent circuit of the
Therefore, means must be provided to equalize the insulator string as shown in the Figure 80.
potential across each unit.
4. If the voltage impressed across the string were dc, then
the voltage across each unit would be the same. It is
because insulator capacitances are ineffective in dc.
Each type of suspension
insulator forms a
capacitor C which is
known as mutual
capacitance or self –
capacitance. If there
were mutual capacitance
alone, then the charging
current has been the
same through the entire
disc and consequently,
the voltage across each
unit would have been the
same. However, in
actual practice,
capacitance ‘C’ also Figure 79 Arrangement of Insulator Strings
exist between metal fittings of each discs and tower or earth
which is also called shunt capacitance. Due to shunt
capacitance, charging current is not the same through all
the disc and the voltage across each disc would not be the
same.
The ratio of voltage across the whole string to the product
of the number of discs and the voltage across the disc Figure 80 Equivalent Circuit for 4 String Insulator Unit
nearest to the conductor is called as String Efficiency. Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get
𝑉𝑛 I2 = I1 + i1
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯ 𝐼𝐶 = = 𝜔𝐶𝑉𝑛 𝐶𝑒 = 𝑘𝐶 ωCV2 = ωCV1 + ωC1 V1
𝑋𝐶
voltage across the string V2 = V1 (1 + k)
𝜂string = Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node B, we get
N × voltage acorss disc nearest to conductor
where: I3 = I2 + i 2
N = number of disc in the string ωCV3 = ωCV2 + ωC1 (V1 + V2 )
String Efficiency is an important consideration since it V3 = V1 k + V2 (1 + k) = V1 (1 + 3K + K 2 )
decides the potential distribution along the string. The Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node C, we get
greater the string efficiency, the more uniform the I4 = I3 + i 3
voltage distribution. ωCV4 = ωCV3 + ωC1 (V1 + V2 + V3 )
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

V4 = V1 k + V2 k + V3 (1 + k) = V1 (1 + 6K + when used on a 66 – kV line. Also, calculate the string

5K 2 + K 3 ) efficiency.
Finally, voltage between line conductor and earth 3. A 3 – phase transmission line is being supported by
V = V1 + V2 + V3 + V4 three disc insulators. The potentials across top unit
V = V1 (4 + 10K + 6K 2 + K 3 ) (near to the tower) and middle unit are 8 kV and 11 kV
Similar derivation can be had for string insulators consisting respectively. Calculate:
of any number of units. a. the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to
When the number of insulators in the string is large it the self – capacitance of each unit
becomes laborious to work out the voltage distribution b. the line voltage
across each unit, for such cases standard formula may be c. string efficiency
used. 4. Each line of a 3 – phase system is suspended by a
In general case if there are n units in the string, V is the string of 3 similar insulators. If the voltage across the
maximum voltage across the string, V1, V2, V3, … Vn denote line unit is 17.5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage.
the voltage across the insulators starting from top, C is the Assume that the shunt capacitance between each
capacitance between the links and KC be the shunt insulator and earth is 1/8th of the capacitance of the
capacitance between the links and earth, the voltage insulator itself. Also, find the string efficiency.
distribution across the mth unit (counted from top) is given 5. Each line of a 3 phase, 33 kV system is suspended by
as a string of 3 identical insulator discs. The capacitance
1 1 of each disc is 9 times the capacitance to ground. Find
2 sinh ( √K) cosh [(m − ) √K]
Vm = V 2 2 voltage distribution across each insulator and the string
sinh(n√K) efficiency.
and potential adjacent to the line conductor 6. An insulator string consists of three units, each having
1 1 a safe working voltage of 15 kV. The ratio of self –
2 sinh (2 √K) cosh [(n − 2) √K] capacitance to shunt capacitance of each unit is 8:1.
Vn = V
sinh(n√K) Find the maximum safe working voltage of the string.
When the insulators are wet the value of mutual Also, find the string efficiency.
capacitance C increases while C1 remains constant (except 7. A string of 4 insulators has a self – capacitance equal
for the unit nearest the cross arm) so the value of K to 10 times the pin to earth capacitance. Find:
decreases, more uniform potential distribution is obtained a. the voltage distribution across various units
and the string efficiency increases. expressed as a percentage of total voltage across
The value of K varies and depends upon the length of the the string
insulator string. The larger the number of insulator discs in b. string efficiency
a string, the longer will be the string. The longer the string, 8. A string of 5 insulators is connected across a 100 – kV
the greater must be the horizontal spacing between the line. If the capacitance of each disc to earth is 0.1 of
insulator disc and the support (pole or tower) to make an the capacitance of the insulator, calculate:
allowance of conductor swing. The greater the horizontal a. the distribution of voltage on the insulator discs
spacing between the insulator string and the support, the b. the string efficiency
lesser the shunt capacitance and vice versa. Thus, the 9. The three bus bar conductors in an outdoor substation
value of K is low for loner strings and high for shorter are supported by units of post type insulators. Each
strings. In practice, K varies from 0.1 to 0.1667. unit consists of a stack of 3 pin type insulators fixed
Examples: one on the top of the other. The voltage across the
1. In a 33 kV, overhead line, there are three units in the lowest insulator is 13.1 kV and that across the next unit
string of insulators. If the capacitance between each is 11 kV. Find the bus bar voltage of the station.
insulator pin and earth is 11% of self – capacitance of 10. A string of 4 insulators is connected across a 100 – kV
each insulator, find: line. If the capacitance of each disc to earth is 0.1 of
a. the distribution of voltage over 3 insulators the capacitance of the insulator. Calculate:
b. string efficiency a. The Distribution of voltage on the insulator disc
2. For a string insulator with four discs, the capacitance b. The string efficiency
of the disc is ten times the capacitance between the pin 11. Each conductor of a 3 – phase high voltage
and earth. Calculate the voltage across each disc transmission line is suspended by a string of 4
suspension type disc insulators. If the potential
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

difference across the second unit from top is 13.2 kV b. string efficiency
and across the third from top is 18 kV, determine the 20. A string of four suspension insulators is connected
voltage between conductors. across a 285 – kV line. The self – capacitance of each
12. A string of four insulators has a self – capacitance unit is equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance.
equal to 5 times pin to earth capacitance. Find: Calculate:
a. the voltage distribution across various units as a a. the potential difference across each unit
percentage of total voltage across the string b. the string efficiency
b. string efficiency Methods in Improving String Efficiency
13. A three – phase overhead transmission line is being The maximum voltage appears across the insulator nearest
supported by three – disc suspension insulators; the to the line conductor decreases progressively as the cross
potentials across the first and second insulator from arm is approached. If the insulation of the highest stressed
the top are 8 kV and 11 kV respectively. Calculate: insulator breaks down or flashover takes place, the
a. the line voltage breakdown of other units will take place in succession.
b. the ratio of capacitance between pin and earth to 1. By using Insulators with Larger Discs or by
self – capacitance of each unit providing each insulator unit with metal cap
c. the string efficiency - One method is to design the units such that the
14. A 3 – phase overhead transmission line is supported mutual capacitance is much greater than the shunt
on 4 – disc suspension insulators. The voltage across capacitance. This can be achieved by using
the second and third discs are 13.2 kV and 18 kV insulators with larger discs or providing each
respectively. Calculate the line voltage and mention insulator unit with a metal cap.
the nearest standard voltage. - The ratio K can be made 1/6 to 1/10 by this
15. In a 3 phase, overhead system, each line is suspended method.
by a string of 3 insulators. The voltage across the top 2. By using longer cross arms
unit (near the tower) and middle unit are 10 kV and 11 - The value of string efficiency depends upon the
kV respectively. Calculate: value of K, (K is the fraction of the self –
a. the ratio of shunt capacitance to self – capacitance capacitance in the string), thus to determine the
of each insulator shunt capacitance, Ce = KC. The lesser the value
b. the string efficiency of K, the greater the string efficiency. K can be
c. line voltage reduced by reducing the value of the shunt
16. Each line of a 3 – phase system is suspended by a capacitance, to decrease it, the distance of
string of 3 similar insulators. If the voltage across the conductor from tower must be increased and thus
line unit is 17.5 kV, calculate the line to neutral voltage larger cross arms must be used.
and string efficiency. Assume that shunt capacitance - The limitation of cost and mechanical strength of
between each insulator and earthed metal work of line supports do not allow the cross arms to be too
tower to be 1/10th of the capacitance of the insulator. long and it has been found that in practice it is not
17. The three bus bar conductors in an outdoor substation possible to obtain the value of K less than 0.1.
are supplied by units of post insulators. Each unit 3. By grading insulators
consists of a stack of 3 pin insulators fixed one on the - In this method, insulators of different dimensions
top of the other. The voltage across the lowest are so chosen so that each has different
insulator is 8.45 kV and that across the next is 7.25 kV. capacitance. The insulators are capacitance
Find the bus bar voltage of the station. graded, they are assembled in the string in such a
18. A string of suspension insulators consists of three way that the top unit has minimum capacitance
units. The capacitance between each link pin and earth and increasing to the bottom limit.
is 1/6 of the self – capacitance of each unit. If the - It can be shown that by this method complete
maximum voltage per unit is not to exceed 35 kV, equality of voltage across the units of insulator
determine the maximum voltage that the string can string can be obtained but this method needs
withstand. Also, calculate the string efficiency. many different sized insulators. This involves
19. A string of 4 insulators has self – capacitance equal to maintaining spares of all varieties of insulator
4 times the pin – to – earth capacitance. Calculate: discs which is contrary to the tendency of
a. the voltage distribution across various units as a standardization.
percentage of total voltage across the string - This method is not used in practice below 200 kV.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Consider a 4 – unit string. Let C be the capacitance of the Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node 1 in Figure 82, we
top unit and let the capacitances of other units be C2, C3 get
and C4 as shown in Figure 81. I + i1 ′ = I + i1
i1′ = i1
′
Similarly, i2 = i2
Also i1 = ωC1 V = ωKCV
i2 = 2ωC1 V = 2ωKCV
The potential causing current i1′ is 2V (voltage across two
units leaving the top one)
So i1′ = ωC2 × 2V = 2ωC2
Thus,
KC
C2 =
2
The potential causing current i′2 is V
So i′2 = ωC3 × V = ωC3 𝑉
Thus,
C3 = 2KC
In general, if there are n units
i1 = ωKC1 V and i1′ = (n − 1)ωC2 V
Figure 81 Grading Insulators KC
Assume C1 = KC or C2 = 1
n−1
2KC
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node A, we get similarly, C3 = n−21
I2 = I1 + i1 or the capacitance of the pth metal link to the line is given
ωC2 v = ωCv + ωC1 v as
C2 = C + KC = C(1 + K) pKC
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node B, we get Cp =
n−p
I3 = I2 + i 2 Arcing Horn and Grading Ring
ωC3 v = ωC2 v + ωC1 2v In the event of flash –
C3 = C2 + 2KC = C(1 + K) + 2KC = C(1 + 3K) over the insulator is
Applying Kirchhoff’s current law to node C, we get cracked or broken up due
I4 = I3 + i 3 to the heat of the arc.
ωC4 v = ωC3 v + ωC1 3v Grading ring, in addition
C4 = C3 + 3KC = C(1 + 3K) + 3KC = C(1 + 6K) to equalization of voltage
4. By Static Shielding distribution across the
- The potential across each unit in a string can be insulator units, when
equalized by using a guard ring which is a metal used in conjunction with
ring electrically arcing horn fixed at the
connected to the top end of the string
conductor and serves the purpose of
surrounding arcing shield and protects Figure Horn
83 Insulator String with Arcing
and Grading Ring
bottom. The guard the insulator string from
ring introduces flash – over whenever overvoltage (under normal or
capacitance abnormal condition) appears between the tower structure
between metal and the line conductor. They are designed to keep the arc
fittings and the line away from the insulator string until it is interrupted by the
conductor. The device protecting the line. The arrangement of the arcing
guard ring is Figure 82 Insulator with Guard horns on a 7 – unit string of suspension insulators is shown
contoured in such a Ring in Figure 83. The combination of the arcing horn and
way that the shunt grading ring provides path through the air medium and
capacitance currents are equal to the line
capacitance currents.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

discharges the energy contained in the abnormal voltage of the self – capacitance of the unit. Derive the formula
and thus saves the insulator string. used (Figure 86).
Examples: 7. Each line of a 3 – phase system is suspended by a
1. A string of 6 suspension string of 3 identical insulators of self – capacitance C
insulators is to be graded to farad. The shunt capacitance of connecting metal work
obtain uniform distribution of of each insulator is 0.2 C to earth and 0.1 C to line.
voltage across the string. If Calculate the string efficiency of the system if a guard
the pin to earth capacitance ring increases the capacitance to the line of metal work
are all equal to C and the of the lowest insulator to 0.3 C.
mutual capacitance of the 8. In a transmission line
top insulator is 10 C, find the each conductor is at 20
mutual capacitance of each kV and is supported by a
unit in terms of C (Figure 84). string of 3 suspension
2. The self – capacitance of insulators. The air
each unit in a string of three capacitance between
suspension insulators is C. each cap – pin junction
The shunting capacitance of and the tower is 1/5 of Figure 87
the connecting metal work of Figure 84 the capacitance of each
each insulator to earth is 0.15 C while for line it is 0.1 insulator unit. A guard ring, effective only over the line
C. Calculate: – end insulator unit is fitted so that the voltages in the
a. the voltage across each insulator as a percentage two units nearest the line – end are equal (Figure 87).
of the line voltage to earth a. Calculate the voltage on the line – end unit
b. string efficiency b. Calculate the value of capacitance Cx required
3. Each of three insulators forming a string has self – 9. Each of the three insulators forming a string has a self
capacitance of “C” farad. The shunt capacitance of – capacitance of C farad. The shunt capacitance of
each cap of insulator is 0.25C to earth and 0.15C to each insulator is 0.2C to earth and 0.1C to line. A guard
line. Calculate the voltage distribution across each ring increases the capacitance of line of the metal work
insulator as a percentage of line voltage to earth and of the lowest insulator to 0.3C. Calculate the string
the string efficiency. efficiency of the arrangement:
4. It is required to grade a string a. with the guard ring
having seven suspension b. without guard ring
insulators. If the pin to earth Nominal
Voltage
Phase Conductors

capacitance are all equal to C, (kV) Number of Aluminum Bundle Minimum Clearance
conductors Cross – Spacing
determine the line to pin per Bundle Section Area (cm)
Phase –
to –
Phase –
to –
capacitance that would give the per Phase Ground
Conductor (m) (m)
same voltage across each (ACSR)
insulator of the string. (kcmil)
69 1 - - - -
5. A string of 8 suspension 138 1 300 – 700 - 4 to 5 -
insulators is to be fitted with a 230 1 400 -1000 - 6 to 9 -
345 1 2000 – 2500 - 6 to 9 7.6 to 11
grading ring. If the pin to earth 345 2 800 – 2200 45.7 6 to 9 7.6 to 11
capacitance are all equal to C, Figure 85
500 2 2000 – 2500 45.6 9 to 11 9 to 14
500 3 900 – 1500 45.7 9 to 11 9 to 14
find the values of line to pin 765 4 900 – 1300 45.7 13.7 12.2
capacitances that would give a uniform voltage Nominal Suspension Insulator String Shield Wires
Voltage
distribution over the string (kV) Number of Number of Type Number Diameter
(Figure 85). Strings per Standard (cm)
phase Insulator
6. Define the string efficiency. Discs per
Calculate its value for a string Suspension
String
of 3 insulator units used if the 69 1 4 to 6 Steel 0,1 or 2 -
capacitance of each unit to 138 1 8 to 11 Steel 0,1 or 2 -
Figure 86 230 1 12 to 21 Steel or 1 or 2 1.1 to 1.5
earth and line be 20% and 5% ACSR

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
345 1 18 to 21 Alumoweld 2 0.87 to
1.5
- In case of ac system, the current due to corona is non
345 1 and 2 18 to 21 Alumoweld 2 0.87 to – sinusoidal. In practice, this non – sinusoidal current
1.5
500 2 and 4 24 to 27 Alumoweld 2 0.98 to
and the non – sinusoidal voltage drop caused by it may
1.5 be more important than the power loss.
500 2 and 4 24 to 27 Alumoweld 2 0.98 to
1.5
Effects of Corona
765 2 and 4 30 to 35 Alumoweld 2 0.98 1. A violet glow is observed around the conductor.
Table 9 Typical Transmission Line Characteristics 2. It produces a hissing noise.
Corona 3. It produces ozone which can be readily detected by its
- Occurs when an alternating potential difference is characteristic odor.
applied across two conductors whose spacing is large 4. The glow is maximum over rough and dirty surfaces of
as compared to their diameter, there is no apparent the conductor.
change in the condition of the atmospheric air 5. It is accompanied by a power loss – the wattmeter
surrounding the wires if voltage is low. However, when connected in the electric circuit will show a reading.
the potential drop is increased, then a point is reached 6. The charging current under corona condition increases
when a faint luminous glow of bluish color appears because the corona induces harmonic currents.
along the lengths of conductors and at the same time Factors Affecting Corona
a hissing sound is heard. This phenomenon is called 1. Atmosphere. As corona is formed due to ionization of
“visual corona”. air surrounding the conductors, therefore, it is affected
- Is always accompanied by the production of ozone by the physical state of atmosphere. In the stormy
which is readily detected because of its characteristic weather, the number of ions is more than normal and
odor. If the potential difference is further increased, as such corona occurs at much less voltage as
then the glow and hissing both increases in intensity till compared with fair weather.
a spark – over between the conductors takes place due 2. Conductor size. The corona effect depends upon the
to the breakdown of air insulation. shape and conditions of the conductors. The rough and
- The whole phenomenon – the hissing noise, the violent irregular surface will give rise to more corona because
glow, and the production of ozone gas is known as unevenness of the surface decreases the value of
corona. breakdown voltage. Thus, a stranded conductor has
- This phenomenon is very much evident in transmission irregular surface and hence gives rise to more corona
lines of 100 kV and above. that a solid conductor.
- If the conductors are smooth and polished, the corona 3. Spacing between conductors. If the spacing
glow is uniform along their length but if there is any between the conductors is made very large as
roughness, they will be picked up by relatively brighter compared to their diameters, there may not be any
illumination. corona effect. It is because larger distance between
- In the case of conductors with spacing shorter as conductors reduces the electrostatic stresses at the
compared to their diameters (interaxial difference is conductor surface, thus avoiding corona formation.
less than 15 times the diameter of the conductor), 4. Line voltage. The line voltage greatly affects corona.
sparking may take place without any visible glow. If it is low, there is no change in the condition of air
- If the potential difference between wires is direct surrounding the conductors and hence no corona is
instead of alternating, there is a difference in the formed. However, if the line voltage has such a value
appearance of the two wires. The positive wire has a that electrostatic stresses developed at the conductor
smooth glow about it whereas the glow about the surface make the air around the conductor conducting,
negative wire is spotty. then corona is formed.
- Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy which Triple Harmonic Currents Due to Corona
increases very rapidly once the visual critical voltage is Corona forms when the voltage of a conductor passes the
exceeded. Power loss, due to corona, heavily depends disruptive critical voltage and disappears when the voltage
upon weather condition – during humid and moist descends through the same value. This occurs on each
climate corona loss is much increased. conductor every half cycle, and develops a pulsation in the
- The energy loss accompanied by the phenomenon, voltage wave having three times the generator frequency.
called the corona, is dissipated in the form of light, In an earthed system, this triple frequency voltage causes
heat, sound and chemical action. a triple frequency current to flow through the capacitance of
the system to earth and back through the earthed neutral.
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This effect is accentuated by the fact that the effective Dielectric Strength of Air
capacitance of the conductors pulsates at triple frequency The value of potential gradient at which complete disruption
due to the increase and decrease of effective diameter of of air occurs, is called the disruptive strength or dielectric
conductors caused by the corona. Because of corona triple strength of air.
frequency currents flow through the ground in case of a non The breakdown strength of air at a barometric pressure of
– earthed system, the neutral has a voltage to earth of triple 760 mm, and temperature of 25°C is 30 kV/cm (maximum)
frequency. or 21.1 kV/cm (rms) and is denoted by g 0 . The value of
Advantages of Corona dielectric strength of air depends upon the density of air –
1. Due to corona formation, the air surrounding the g 0 is proportional to density of air over a wide range and
conductor becomes conducting and hence virtual thus directly proportional to the barometric pressure, and
diameter of the conductor is increased. The increased inversely proportional to the absolute temperature. Thus,
diameter reduces the electrostatic stresses between breakdown strength of at a barometric pressure of b cm of
the conductors. mercury and temperature of t°C becomes δg0 where
2. Corona reduces the effects of transients produced by b × 10 273 + 25 3.92b
surges. δ= × =
760 273 + 𝑡 273 + t
Disadvantages of Corona Disruptive Critical Voltage
1. Corona is accompanied by a loss of energy. This Let us consider the two –
affects the transmission efficiency of the line. wire line shown in Figure
2. There is a definite dissipation of power although it is 88, where r is the radius
not so important except under abnormal weather of the line conductors and
conditions like storms etc. d is the distance between
3. Corrosion due to ozone formation. their centers, where d is
4. The current drawn by the line due to corona losses is very large compared to r.
non – sinusoidal in character, hence it causes non – If a positive charge of q
sinusoidal drop in the line which may cause some coulombs per meter of
interference with neighboring communication circuits conductor length is given
due to electromagnetic and electrostatic induction. to conductor A, then a Figure 88 Two - wire Line
Such a shape of corona current tends to introduce a negative charge of q coulombs per meter of conductor
large third harmonic component. However, it has been length will be induced on conductor B.
found that corona works as a safety valve for surges. Consider point P at x meters from conductor A.
5. Particularly intense corona effects are observed at a Electric field intensity at point P due to charge on conductor
working voltage of 35 kV or higher. Hence, designs q
A = 2πε x acting towards B as shown.
must be made to avoid any corona on the bus bars of 0

substations rated for 35 kV and higher voltages during Electric field intensity at point P due to induced charge on
q
their normal operation. Corona discharge around bus conductor B = acting towards B as shown.
2πε0 (d−x)
bars is extremely undesirable because the intense Resultant electric field intensity at point P,
ionization of the air reduces its dielectric strength, q q q 1 1
Ex = 2πε x + 2πε (d−x) = 2πε (x + d−x)
makes it easier for the flashover to occur in the 0 0 0
insulators and between phases particularly when the Potential Drop between conductors A and B,
surfaces concerned are dirty or soiled with other d−r d−r
q 1 1
deposits. The ozone produced due to corona V = ∫ Ex dx = ∫ ( + ) dx
r r 2πε0 x d − x
discharge aggressively attacks the metallic q
components in the substations and switchgear, V= [log e x − log e (d − x)]d − r
2πε0 r
covering them with oxides. Moreover, the crackling q d−r
sound of the corona discharge in a substation masks = log e
πε0 r
other sounds like light crackling noise due to arcing in
Now, since r is very small as compared to d, d − r ≅ d
a loose contact, the sound of an impending breakdown
and, therefore,
or creepage discharge in the equipment, the rattling q d
noise due to the loosening of steel in a transformer V= log e
core etc. The timely detection of such sounds is very πε0 r
important if any serious breakdown is to be avoided.
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Now gradient at any point x from the center of the conductor Polished wires 1.0
A is given by Weathered wires 0.93 to 0.98
q 1 1 q d 7 – strand cables, concentric lay 0.83 to 0.87
Ex = ( + )= ∙
2πε0 x d − x 2πε0 x(d − x) Cables with more than 7 – strands 0.80 to 0.85
Substituting for q, we have Table 10 Irregularity Factor
πε0 V 1 d V d Examples:
Ex = ∙ ∙ = ∙ 1. A single phase overhead line has two conductors of
d 2πε0 x(d − x) d x(d − x)
log e r 2 log e r diameter 1 cm with a spacing of 1 m between centers.
where V is voltage between two conductors. If the disruptive critical voltage for air is 21.1 kV/cm, for
and Ex =
V′ d what value of the line voltage will corona commence.
d ∙ x(d−x)
2 loge
r
2. A 3 – phase line has conductors 2 cm in diameter
where V’ is the line to neutral voltage of the system. spaced equilaterally 1 m apart. If the dielectric strength
In case of three phase system, of air is 30 kV (max) per cm, find the disruptive critical
Line − to − Line Voltage VL voltage for the line. Take air density factor δ = 0.952
V′ = = and irregularity factor m0 = 0.9.
√3 √3
From the expression for the potential gradient for a given 3. A 3 – phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists
transmission system, the potential gradient increases as x of 1.2 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m at the corners
decreases, the potential gradient is maximum when x = r, of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the disruptive
the surface of the conductor, and this value is given by critical voltage between the lines. Irregularity factor =
𝑉 ′𝑑 𝑉′ 0.96; temperature at 20°C. Barometric pressure 72.2
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐸𝑟 = 𝐸𝑚𝑎𝑥 = ≅ cm of mercury. Dielectric strength of air = 21.1
d d
𝑟(𝑑 − 𝑟) log e 𝑟 log e kV(rms)/cm. Define the disruptive critical voltage.
r r
where r is the radius of conductors in cm, d is the spacing 4. A 132 – kV line with 1.956 cm diameter conductors is
in cm and V’ is the value of voltage of the conductors to built so that corona takes place if the line voltage
neutral, both gmax and V being expressed in rms values. exceeds 210 kV (RMS). If the value of potential
When the disruptive gradient of air is reached at the gradient at which ionization occurs can be taken as 30
conductor surface kV per cm, find the spacing between the conductors.
Vd0 5. Find the disruptive critical voltage for a transmission
g0 = line having:
d
r log e conductor spacing = 1 m
r
or disruptive critical voltage, conductor (stranded) radius = 1 cm
d barometric pressure = 76 cm of Hg
Vd0 = g 0 r log e
r temperature = 40 ⁰C
In practice, corrections must be applied to the above Air breakdown potential gradient (at 76 cm of Hg and
formula of air density and surface conditions of the at 25⁰C) = 21.1 kV (rms)/cm.
conductor and thus the complete formula becomes 6. A 3 – phase overhead transmission line operates at
d 132 kV, 50 Hz. The conductors are arranged in a 3m
Vd0 = g o δm0 r log e
r delta configuration. What is the minimum diameter of
d conductor that can be used for no corona under fair
Vd0 = 2.3g o δm0 r log10
r weather conditions? Assume air density factor of 0.95
Substituting the value of g0, and irregularity factor of 0.85.
d 7. Taking the dielectric strength of air to be 30 kV/cm,
Vd0 = 21.1m0 δr log e
r calculate the disruptive critical voltage for a 3 – phase
d line with conductors of 1 cm radius and spaced
Vd0 = 21.1m0 δr × 2.3 log10
r symmetrically 4 m apart.
The irregularity factor m0 depends on the shape of cross – 8. A conductor with 2.5 cm diameter is passed through a
section of the wire and the state of its surface. Its value is porcelain bushing having εr = 4 and internal and
unity for a smooth wire of one strand of circular section and external diameters of 3 cm and 9 cm respectively. The
less than unity for wires roughened due to weathering as voltage between the conductor and an earthed clamp
shown in Table 10. surrounding the porcelain is 20 kV rms. Determine

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whether corona will be present in the air space around stranded copper conductors spaced 2.5 m apart at the
the conductor. corners of an equilateral triangle. Air temperature and
Visual Critical Voltage pressure are 21°C and 73.6 cm Hg respectively. The
In the case of parallel wires, it is found that visual corona conductor diameter, irregularity factor and surface
does not begin at the voltage Vd0 at which the disruptive factors are 10.4 mm, 0.85 and 0.7, 0.8 respectively.
gradient of air g 0 , but a higher voltage Vv0 , called the visual 3. Find the disruptive critical voltage and visual corona
critical voltage. voltage (local corona as well as general corona) for a
Visual Critical Voltage is defined as the minimum phase to 3 – phase 220 kV line consisting of 22.26 mm diameter
neutral voltage at which glow appears all along the line conductors spaced in a 6 m delta configuration. The
conductors. Thus, when corona begins, the potential following data can be assumed: Temperature 25°C,
gradient g V at the conductor surface is higher than the pressure 73 cm of mercury, surface factor 0.84,
disruptive gradient g 0 . Contrary to what might be expected, irregularity factor for local corona 0.72, irregularity
g v , the apparent strength of air is not constant but depends factor for general (decided) corona 0.82.
on the size of the conductors, air being apparently stronger 4. Find the disruptive critical and visual corona voltages
at the surface of smaller conductors than larger ones. of a grid line operating at 132 kV. The following data is
Peek states that the disruptive critical voltage must be so given: conductor diameter 1.9 cm, conductor spacing
exceeded that the stress is greater than the breakdown 3.81 cm, temperature 44°C, barometric pressure 73.7
cm, conductor surface factor: fine weather 0.8, rough
value up to a distance of 0.3√δr cm from the conductor.
weather 0.66.
This visual corona will occur when the breakdown value is
Corona Power
attained at the distance r + 0.3√δr from the axis, instead Formation of corona is always accompanied by dissipation
of at the distance r. this requires that the voltage to neutral of energy. This loss will have some effect on efficiency of
0.3
be 1 + times the disruptive critical voltage. Thus, the the line but will not have any appreciable effect on the line
√δr
visual critical voltage is regulation.
0.3 D This loss is affected both by atmospheric and line condition.
Vv0 = mv g 0 δr (1 + ) log e Soon after the critical voltage is reached, the corona loss
√δr r
0.3 D increases as the square of the excess voltage.
Vv0 = 21.1mv δr (1 + ) × 2.3 log10 Under the fair – weather conditions, the following empirical
√δr r
formula for corona power loss has been ascertained due to
where mv is another irregularity factor having a value of 1.0
Peek
for smooth conductors and 0.98 – 0.93 for rough conductor
244 r 2
exposed to atmospheric severities and 0.72 for local corona PC = (f + 25)√( ) (Vph − Vd0 )
on stranded conductors. δ D
kw
Because of irregular surface of the conductor, the corona
−5 km
does not start simultaneously on the whole surface but it × 10
phase
takes place at different points of the conductor which are
where Vph is voltage to neutral in kV, Vd0 is the disruptive
pointed and this is known as local corona. For this mv =
0.72. for decided or general corona along the length of the critical voltage to neutral in kV and f is the supply frequency
conductor mv may be taken as 0.82. in Hz.
Examples: Under the stormy weather conditions, Vd0 is taken to be 0.8
1. Find the disruptive critical and visual corona voltage of times its fair – weather value and power loss due to corona
a grid line operating at 132 kV. is given by
kw
conductor diameter = 1.9 cm 244 r
PC′
2 −5 km
conductor spacing = 3.81 m =
δ
(f + 25)√( ) (Vph − 0.8Vd0 ) × 10
D phase
temperature = 44 ⁰C As a matter of fact, with perfectly smooth and cylindrical
barometric pressure = 73.7 cm conductors no loss occurs until the visual critical voltage is
conductor surface factor: reached. It then follows the quadratic law for higher
fine weather = 0.8 rough weather = 0.66. voltages. The empirical relation is derived by Peek has
2. Calculate the critical disruptive voltage and critical certain limitations and holds good only under certain
voltages for local and general corona on a three – conditions (the supply frequency lies between 25 and 120
phase overhead transmission line, consisting of three Hz; the conductor radius is greater than 2.5 mm and ratio

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
Vph
exceeds 1.8). Also, a small error in m0, the irregularity 6. Determine the corona characteristics of a 3 – phase
Vd0 line 160 km long. Conductor diameter 1.036 cm, 2.44
factor, will lead to wrong results when using the above m delta spacing, air temperature 26.67°C, altitude
formula. 2440 m, corresponding to an approximate barometric
V
When the ratio Vph is less than 1.8 Peterson’s formula is to pressure of 73.15 cm, operating voltage of 110 kV at
d0
50 Hz.
be applied for determining the corona losses and is given 7. Estimate the corona loss for a three phase, 110 kV, 50
as Hz, 150 km long transmission line consisting of three
2 kw conductors each of 10 mm diameter and spaced 2·5 m
21 × 10−6 f(Vph ) km
PC = ×K apart in an equilateral triangle formation. The
d 2 phase
temperature of air is 30ºC and the atmospheric
(log10 r )
V pressure is 750 mm of mercury. Take irregularity factor
where k is a factor which varies with the ratio Vph as given as 0.85. Ionization of air may be assumed to take place
d0
in Table 11. at a maximum voltage gradient of 30 kV/cm.
Vph 8. A 3 phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of
0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 2.2 1.2 cm radius conductors spaced 2 m at the corners of
Vd0
an equilateral triangle. Calculate the corona loss per
K 0.012 0.018 0.05 0.08 0.30 1.0 3.5 6.0 8.0
km of the line. The condition of the wire is smoothly
Table 11 K factor for Corona Power Loss
Examples: weathered and the weather is fair with temperature of
1. A 3 phase, 220 kV, 50 Hz transmission line consists of 20 ºC and barometric pressure of 72.2 cm of Hg.
1.5 cm radius conductor spaced 2 meters apart in Factors affecting Corona Loss
equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is 1. Effect of System Frequency – Corona loss varies
40º C and atmospheric pressure is 76 cm, calculate the directly as the system frequency.
corona loss per km of the line. Take 𝑚0 = 0.85. 2. Effect of System Voltage – The electric field in the
2. A 3 – phase 220 kV 50 Hz transmission line consists space around the conductors depends mainly in the
of 2 cm radius conductor spaced 2.5 m apart in potential difference between the conductors. Greater
equilateral triangular formation. If the temperature is the potential difference, greater the electric field and
20°C and atmospheric pressure 75 cm, m0 = 0.8, therefore, greater is the power loss due to corona. In
determine the corona loss per km of line. the region near the disruptive critical voltage, the rate
3. A certain 3 phase equilateral transmission line has a of increase in power loss with the increase in system
total corona loss of 53 kW at 106 kV and a loss of 98 voltage is small but when Vph is large as compared
kW at 110.9 kV. What is the disruptive critical voltage? with Vd0 corona loss increases at a very fast rate with
What is the corona loss at 113 kV? the increase in system voltage.
4. Determine (i) the critical disruptive voltage (ii) the 3. Effect of Conductivity of Air – The conductivity of air
visual critical voltage; and (iii) the corona loss under depends on the number of ions per unit volume of air,
foul weather conditions for 3 – phase line 160 km long, the size and charge per ion. Both factors vary with
conductor diameter 1.036 cm; 2.44 m delta spacing. altitude and atmospheric conditions. During rain and
Air temperature 26.6°C, corresponding to an thunderstorms, ion content increases and therefore,
approximate barometric pressure of 73.15 cm of atmosphere becomes more conducting. High
mercury, operating voltage 110 kV at 50 Hz, surface conductivity leads to greater corona loss.
irregularity factor 0.85. Assume a value of mv = 0.72. 4. Effect of Density of Air – Corona loss increases with
Disruptive voltage under foul weather = 0.8 x fair the decrease in the density of air. The corona loss of a
weather value. transmission line passing through a hilly area is higher
5. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 220 kV transmission line consists of than that of a similar line in planes due to reduced
conductors of 1.2 cm radius spaced 2 meters at the value of δ at high altitudes.
corners of an equilateral triangle. Calculate the corona 5. Effect of Conductor Radius – The electric field
power loss per km of the line at a temperature of 20 ⁰C intensity decreases with the increase in radius of
and barometric pressure of 72.2 cm. Take the surface conductor. Hence with conductors of large radius,
factors of the conductor as 0.96. electric field intensity decreases resulting in lower
corona power loss.

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6. Effect of Conductor Surface – The potential gradient (bigger cross arms and supports) may increase to a
at the surface of a stranded conductor is greater than considerable extent.
that for the equivalent solid conductor. So, breakdown
voltage is low and corona loss is more for stranded Voltage Limitations of Lines
conductors. The basis for the design of a transmission line is essentially
- Roughness of the surface of the conductor causes financial, the most economical line being the most
a field of distortion and gives rise to high potential acceptable. It is because power loss due to corona is of no
gradient causing higher corona loss. great importance. It is considered satisfactory to design a
7. Effect of Atmospheric Conditions – Corona loss, line for operation at a voltage just below the disruptive
particularly local corona discharges, increases in rain critical voltage for fair weather (taking δ = 1). It is
and bad atmospheric conditions, such as fog, sleet and economical to have a small corona loss in bad weather, for
snowstorms. The effect is more pronounced if the a fraction of the year (storms are experienced at intervals)
conductor is of larger diameter because on smaller rather than have large conductors and heavy supporting
diameter conductors, the radius of a rain drop may not structures to avoid corona entirely.
be very much smaller than the radius of the conductor Moreover, corona is considered beneficial because of its
itself. inherent advantages.
8. Effect of Load Current – The heating of the conductor TRANSMISSION LINE PARAMETERS (R, L, C)
due to flow of load current through it has an indirect Series Resistance – is the most important cause of power
reducing effect on the corona loss. Heating of loss in a transmission line.
conductor prevents deposition of dew or snow on the l
surface of the conductor and reduces corona loss. R= ρ
A
- During rains, the heating of conductors has no where R – Resistance of the line in Ω
effect on the corona loss but, after the rain it l – Length of the line in meter
accelerates the drying of the conductor surface. A – Cross – sectional area of conductor in m2
The time duration for which drops remain on the ρ – resistivity of conductor in Ω – m
surface is reduced and so the corona loss is Copper – 1.77x10-8 Ω–m @ 20⁰C or 10.66 Ω–cmil/ft
reduced. Aluminum – 2.38x10-8 Ω–m @ 20⁰C or 17Ω–cmil/ft
- For long transmission lines passing through routes 1. In a single phase 2 wire dc line, the total resistance is
of varying altitudes, the average value of corona equal to double the resistance of either conductor
loss is determined by determining the corona loss known as loop resistance.
per km at several points and then taking out an 2. In case of a 3 – phase transmission line, the resistance
average. per phase is the resistance of one conductor.
9. Bundling of Conductors – A bundled conductor Conversions
consists of two or more parallel sub – conductors at 1 inch = 1000 mils
π
spacing of several diameters. These group of 1 cmil = sq. mil
4
conductors form the phase conductors. Thus, the Quantity Symbol SI Units English
effective diameter of the bundled conductor is much Resistivity ρ Ω–m Ω – cmil/ft
larger than that of the equivalent single conductor. The Length l m ft
Cross Sectional A 𝑚2 Cmil
value of large diameter will reduce the corona loss. Area
Methods of Reducing Corona Effect Resistance Rdc Ω Ω
1. By increasing conductor size. By increasing Table 12 Comparisons of SI and English Units for Calculating Conductor
Resistance
conductor size, the voltage at which corona occurs is Skin Effect – the tendency of the alternating current to
raised and hence corona effects are considerably
concentrate near the surface of a
reduced. This is one of the reasons that ACSR
conductors which have a larger cross – sectional area conductor. The skin effect
is used in transmission lines. depends on the following factors:
2. By increasing conductor spacing. By increasing the 1. Nature of the material
spacing between conductors, the voltage at which 2. Diameter of the wire
corona occurs is raised and hence corona effects can 3. Frequency Figure 89 Skin Effect
be eliminated. However, spacing cannot be increased 4. Shape of the wire
too much otherwise the cost of supporting structure
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Note: Skin effect is negligible when the supply frequency is ∝0

∝t =
less than 50 Hz and the conductor diameter is less than 1 1 + t ∝0
cm. 1
The skin effect is much smaller with stranded conductors ∝0 =
T
than with solid conductors. It increases with the increase of ρ2 T + t 2
=
cross section, permeability and supply frequency. ρ1 T + t1
ρ2 = ρ1 (1 +∝1 (t 2 − t1 ))
where:
R2 – resistance at temperature 2
R1 – resistance at temperature 1
∝1 – temperature coefficient of resistance in temperature 1
in °C
∝𝑡 – Temperature coefficient of resistance in temperature
t in °C
∝0 – Temperature coefficient of resistance in 0°C
t2 – temperature 2 in °C
t1 – temperature 1 in °C
Figure 90 Stranded Conductor ρ2 – specific resistance at temperature 2
In practice, stranded conductors are invariably used for ρ2 – specific resistance at temperature 1
transmission and distribution lines and hollow conductors The increase in resistance due to Spiraling
for solid bus – bars. This is done to overcome the adverse For stranded conductors, alternate layers of strands are
effects of skin effect. spiraled in opposite directions to hold the strands together.
To get the number of strands, use the formula: The strands make 1% or 2% longer than the actual length.
number of strands = 3x 2 − 3x − 1 Thus, dc resistance will increase.
x = the number of layers including the single center strands. 1 % increase in resistance for 3 strands
Due to skin effect 2 % increase in resistance for concentrically stranded
R ac = kR dc conductors (4 or more).
where k =
1+√1+F2 Examples:
2 1. A copper conductor has its specific resistance of 1.6 x
F = 0.105d2f – for copper 10-6 Ω – cm at 0 ⁰C and a resistance temperature
F = 0.0063d2f – for aluminum coefficient of 1/254.4 per ⁰C at 20 ⁰C. Determine the
d = diameter in inches following:
f = frequency in cps or Hz a. The specific resistance @ 60 ⁰C
Material %conductivity Ω–m Ω– Temperature
x 10-8 cmil/ft Constant °C b. The temperature coefficient of resistance at 60 ⁰C
Copper 100 % 1.72 10.37 234.5 2. Table of electrical characteristics shows of all
Annealed Aluminum Merigold stranded conductor list a dc
Hard 97.3 % 1.77 10.66 241.5
Drawn resistance of 0.01558 Ω/1000 ft. at 20 ⁰C and ac
Aluminum 61 % 2.83 17.00 228.1 resistance of 0.0956 Ω/mile at 50 ⁰C. The conductor
Hard
Drawn
has 61 strands and its size is 1.113 x 106 cmil. Verify
Brass 20 – 27 % 6.4 – 38.51 480 the dc resistance and find the ratio of ac to dc
8.4 resistance. Let specific resistance be equal to 17 Ω –
Iron 17.2 % 10 60 180
Silver 18 % 1.59 9.6 243
cmil/ft.
Steel 2 – 14 % 12 – 72 – 180 – 980 3. An aluminum conductor is composed of 37 strands
88 530 each having a diameter of 0.312 cm and has a length
Table 13 % Conductivity, resistivity and temperature constants of conductor of 5.3 inches. Compute for the equivalent MCM cross
metals ρ @ 20°C
sectional area and for the dc resistance of this
The resistance is also dependent upon the temperature conductor.
R2 T + t2
= Proximity Effect
R1 T + t1 The inductance and, therefore, the current distribution in a
R 2 = R1 (1 +∝1 (t 2 − t1 )) conductor is also affected by the presence of other

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conductors in its vicinity. This effect is known as proximity Besides resistance, the transmission line has inductance as
effect. well as capacitance. The resistance, inductance and
Effects of Proximity Effect capacitance are termed as the “parameters” of the line and
Affects the current distribution and results in: are uniformly distributed along the entire length of the line.
1. an increase in the resistance of the conductor For single phase line the parameters are usually
2. decrease of self – reactance of the conductor represented on loop inductance basis and for 3 – phase line
The proximity effect is dependent on the following: on per conductor basis.
a. Conductor Size Flux Linkages of a Conductor
b. Frequency of the Supply A long straight cylindrical conductor carrying a current is
c. Resistivity of the material surrounded by a magnetic field. The magnetic lines of force
d. Relative Permeability of the material will exist inside the conductor as well as outside the
The phenomenon is more noticeable for large conductors, conductor. Both fluxes contribute to the inductance of the
high frequencies and closer proximity. The magnitude of conductor.
the effect, at normal supply frequencies, in the case of the Flux Linkages of a Conductor Due to Internal Flux.
wide spacing of conductors required for overhead Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor of radius r
transmission lines, is so small that it can be ignored. meters and carrying a current of I amperes, as shown in
However, the effect is noticeable in case of cables where Figure 91.
the spacing between the conductors is small.
In the case of stranded conductors, each wire traverses
alternately weaker and stronger portions of the magnetic
field caused by the external current carrying conductor.
Thus, the average value of the field along the path of any
wire remains the same, and if the currents in the conductor
follow the paths of the individual wires, the effect is
substantially eliminated.
Line Inductance
- is the property by which a circuit opposes changes in
the value of a varying current flowing through it.
- causes opposition only to varying currents.
- does not cause any opposition to steady or direct
Figure 91 Internal Flux of a Conductor
current.
In overhead lines, it may be assumed without appreciable
- In case of transmission and distribution lines, the
error that the current is uniformly distributed.
current flowing is varying or alternating current, the
The current inside of a line of force radius x,
effect of inductance, in addition to that of resistance, is
I Ix 2
therefore to be considered. Ix = 2 × πx = 2 2
- The opposition to the flow of varying current owing to πr r
inductance is viewed as a voltage drop. Field strength inside the conductor at a distance x from the
It is well known fact that a current carrying conductor is center,
surrounded by concentric circles of magnetic lines. In case Current Ix 2 1 Ix
Hx = = 2 × = AT/m
of AC system this field set up around the conductor is not 2π × distance r 2πx 2πr 2
constant but changing and links with the same conductor Flux density,
as well as with other conductors. Due to these flux linkages, Bx = μ0 μHx Wb⁄ 2 or T where μ0 = 4π × 10−7
m
the line possesses inductance, defined as the flux linkages and µ is the relative permeability of the medium and for non
per unit current. Thus, for determination of inductance of a – magnetic materials µ=1.
circuit, determination of flux linkages is essential. μ0 Ix Wb
Mathematically, inductance is defined as flux Bx = ⁄m2
2πr 2
linkages/ampere. Now the flux through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness
𝛙 dx and axial length one meter,
𝐋= μ0 x
𝐈 d∅ = Bx × I × dx = Idx webers
where: ψ – flux linkages in Wb – turns 2πr 2
I – current in amperes
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But this flux links with only the current lying within the circle d2
μ0 I μ0 d
x2 ψext = ∫ dx = I[ln x] 2
of radius x, with Ix or r2
I d1 2πx 2π d1
Linkages of the shell, d2
ψext = 2 × 10−7 I ln Wb − turns/m
μ0 x x2 d1
dψ = × dx × ×I Thus, inductance due to external flux,
2πr 2 r2
μ0 Ix3 μ0 μr d2 D
= dx weber − turns Lext = ln = 2 × 10−7 ln (H⁄m)
2πr 4 2π d1 r
Total flux linkages from center of the conductor and up to Inductance of a Single – Phase Two – Wire Line
the surface of the conductor, Consider a single – phase line consisting of two parallel
r
μ0 Ix3 conductors A and B of radii r1 and r2 spaced d meters apart
ψint = ∫ 4
dx Wb − turns/m (d being very large compared to r1 and r2). Conductors A
0 2πr
μ0 I and B carry the same current in magnitude but opposite in
ψint = Wb − turns/m directions, as one forms the return path for the other. The
8π
Thus, inductance due to internal flux, inductance of each conductor is due to internal flux linkages
μ0 μr μ × 10−7 Henry and external flux linkages and the following points are to be
Lint = = noted regarding external flux linkages:
8π 8 m
Flux Linkages of a Conductor Due to External Flux. 1. A line of flux produced due to current in conductor A at
Consider two points 1 and 2 distant d1 and d2 from the a distance equal to or greater than (d + r2) from the
center of the conductor. Since the flux paths are concentric center of conductor A links with a zero – net current, as
circles around the conductor, whole of the flux between the current flowing in the two conductors A and B are
points 1 and 2 lies within the concentric cylindrical surfaces equal in magnitude but opposite in directions.
passing through these points 1 and 2. 2. Flux linkages at a distance (d – r2) link with a current I
and those between (d – r2) and (d + r2) link with a
current varying from I to zero.
As a simplifying assumption, it can be assumed that all the
flux produced by current in conductor A links all the current
up to the center of conductor B and that the flux beyond the
center of the conductor B does not link any current.

Figure 92 External Flux of a Conductor

The field strength at any distance x from the center of the
conductor (x > r),
I
Hx = AT/m
2πx
Flux density,
μ0 Ix Wb Figure 93 Single Phase, Two Wire Conductor
Bx = μ0 Hx = ⁄m2 The above assumption simplifies the calculations and
2πr 2
So, the flux through a cylindrical shell of radial thickness dx results obtained are quite accurate specially when d is
and axial length one meter, much greater than r1 and r2, as is usually the case in
μ0 I overhead lines.
d∅ = webers per meter Based on the above assumption flux linkages of conductor
2πx
Now flux linkages per meter is equal to d∅ since flux A due to external flux can be determined by substituting d2
external to conductor links all the current in the conductor = d and d1 = r1. Thus, flux linkages of conductor A due to
once and only once external flux,
μ0 I d
dψ = dx Wb − turns per meter ψAext = 2 × 10−7 I ln Wb − turns/m
2πx r1
Total flux linkages between points 1 and 2 Flux linkages of conductor A due to internal flux,
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1 Theoretically, the flux due to a conductor extends from the
ψAint = I × 10−7 Wb − turns/m center of the conductor right up to infinity but let us assume
2
Total flux linkages of conductor A that the flux linkages extend up to a remote point P and the
ψA = ψAext + ψAint = (0.5 + 2 ln
d
) I × 10−7 Wb − turns/m respective distances are as marked in Figure 94.
r1 The current in each conductor sets up a certain flux due its
Total inductance of conductor A, own current. The sum of all these fluxes is the total flux of
d
LA = 2 × 10−7 (0.25 + 2 ln ) H/m the system and the total flux linkages of any one conductor
r1 is the sum of its linkages with all the individual fluxes set up
d H by the conductors of the system.
LA = 2 × 10−7 (ln 1 ) Now let us determine the flux linkages of conductor 1 due
− m
r1 𝑒 4 to current I1 carried by the conductor itself and flux linkages
If μr is not equal to 1 then, to conductor 1 due to currents carried by other conductors
μr D H
L = 1 × 10−7 ( + 2μr ln ) (2, 3, …, n)
2 r m The flux linkages of conductor 1 due to its own current I1
1
−
The product r1 𝑒 4 is known as Geometric Mean Radius (internal and external), up to point P
(GMR) of the conductor is equal to 0.7788 times the radius d1p
ψ1p1 = 2 × 10−7 I1 ln Wb − turns/m
of the conductor. Let it be represented by r’1 where r1 ′
𝑟1′ = 0.7788𝑟1 The flux linkages of conductor 1 due to current in conductor
d H 2
LA = 2 × 10−7 (ln )
r1 ′ m d2p
similarly, inductance of conductor B, ψ1p2 = 2 × 10−7 I2 ln Wb − turns/m
d12
d H
LB = 2 × 10−7 (ln ) Flux due to conductor 2 that lies between conductors 2 and
r2 ′ m 1 does not link conductor 1 and therefore the distances
Loop inductance of the line, involved are d2p and d12.
d d
L = LA + LB = 2 × 10−7 (ln + ln ) Thus, the expression for flux linkages of conductor 1 due to
r1 ′ r2 ′ currents in all conductors can be written as
If r1’ = r2’ = r’, the loop inductance of the line is given as ψ1p = 2 × 10−7 [I1 ln
d1p
+ I2 ln
d2p
+ I3 ln
d3p
+ ⋯ + In ln
dnp
] Wb − turns/m
d r1′ d12 d13 d1n
L = 4 × 10−7 (ln ) H/m To account for the total flux linkages to conductor 1, the
r′
The idea of replacing the original conductor of radii r by a point P must approach infinity and in this condition
fictitious conductor of radii r’ is quite attractive because d1p ≅ d2p ≅ d3p … dnp ≅ d
streamlined equations for inductance can be developed Then, lim (I1 + I2 + I3 + ⋯ + In ) ln d = 0
d→∞
without bogging down in accounting for the internal flux. This simplifies the equation thus, the equation for the flux
Flux Linkages of One Conductor in a Group of linkages to conductor 1 becomes
Conductors ψ1 = 2 × 10−7 [I1 ln
1
+ I2 ln
1
+ I3 ln
1
+ ⋯ + In ln
1
] Wb − turns/m
Consider a group of parallel conductors 1, 2, 3 … n carrying r1′ d12 d13 d1n

currents I1, I2, I3 … In respectively, as illustrated in Figure Inductance of Composite Conductor Lines – Self and
94. Let it be assumed that the sum of the currents in various Mutual GMDs
conductors is zero. Consider a single – phase line consisting of two parallel
conductors A and B, conductor A consisting of x and
conductor B of y strands, as illustrated in Figure 95.
Let the conductor A and B carry currents I and – I
respectively (since conductors of a 2 – wire line carry the
same current but in opposite directions).

Figure 94 Cross - Sectional View of Group of n Conductors and Distances of

Conductors from a Remote Point P Figure 95 Stranded and Parallel Conductors

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Assuming uniform current density in both the conductors neglected and the current may be assumed uniformly
the current carried by each strand of conductor A will be I/x distributed over cross – section of the wires.
while that carried by each strand of conductor B will be – 2. A single – phase line has two parallel conductors 2
I/y. meters apart. The diameter of each conductor is 1.2
The flux linkages of strand 1 in conductor A will be cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km of the line.
ψ1 = 2 × 10−7
I
x
1
[ln + ln
r1′
1
d12
+ ln
1
d13
+ ⋯ + ln
1
d1x
] 3. A single – phase line has two parallel conductors 1
I 1 1 1 1 meter apart. The radius of each conductor is 0.5 cm.
− 2 × 10−7 [ln + ln + ln + ⋯ + ln ] Wb
y r1′ d12 d13 d1y Calculate the loop inductance per km of the line.
− turns/m
4. A single – phase transmission line has two parallel
Inductance of strand 1 of conductor A
y conductors 3 m apart. The radius of each conductor
ψ1 −7 √d11 , d12 , d13 , … , d1n being 1 cm. Calculate the loop inductance per km
L1 = = 2 × 10 ln x H
I √r′, d12 , d13 , … , d1n length of the line if the material of the conductor is:
x a. Copper
/m b. Steel with relative permeability of 100.
Similarly, the expression for inductance of strand 2 can be 5. Find the loop inductance per km of a single – phase
written as overhead transmission line when conductors have
y
√d21 , d22 , d23 , … , d2n relative permeability of:
L2 = 2 × 10−7 ln x H/m
√r′, d22 , d23 , … , d2n a. 1
Thus, we see that the different strands of a conductor have b. 100
different inductances Each conductor has a diameter of 1 cm and they are
L1 + L2 + L3 + ⋯ Lx spaced 5 m apart.
Lave = 6. One circuit of a single – phase transmission line is
x
Therefore, inductance of conductor A, composed of three solid 0.25 cm radius wires. The
xy
√(d11 , d12 , d13 , … , d1y )(d21 , d22 , d23 , … , d2y ) … (dx1 , dx2 , dx3 , … , dxy ) return circuit is composed of two 0.5 cm radius wires.
LA = 2 × 10−7 ln
x2
Find the inductance of the complete line in H/m.
√(d11 , d12 , d13 , … , d1x )(d21 , d22 , d23 , … , d2y ) … (dx1 , dx2 , dx3 , … , dxx )
7. Two conductors of a single – phase line, each of 1 cm
In the above expression, the numerator of argument of ln is diameter, are arranged in a vertical plane with one
called the GMD (often called mutual GMD) between conductor mounted 1 m above the other. A second
conductors A and B and the denominator of argument ln is identical line is mounted at the same height as the first
called GMR (often called self GMD). GMD (Geometric and spaced horizontally 0.25 m apart from it. The two
Mean Distance) and GMR (Geometric Mean Radius) are upper and the two lower conductors are connected in
denoted by Dm and DS respectively. parallel. Determine the inductance per km of the
Dm H
LA = 2 × 10−7 (ln ) resulting double circuit line.
DsA m 8. A 20 – km single phase transmission line having 0.823
similarly, inductance of conductor B, cm diameter has two line conductors separated by 1.5
Dm H meter. The conductor has a resistance of 0.311 ohm
LB = 2 × 10−7 (ln )
DsB m per kilometer. Find the loop impedance of this line at
Loop inductance is 50 Hz.
L = LA + LB 9. Calculate the GMR of a 6/3 mm Al, 1/3 mm Steel ACSR
If conductors A and B are identical conductor.
DsA = DsB = Ds
Dm H
L = 4 × 10−7 (ln )
DsB m
Examples:
1. What is the inductance per loop meter of two parallel
conductors of a single – phase system if each has a
diameter of 1 cm and their axes are 5 cm apart when
conductors have a relative permeability of (a) unity and
(b) 100? The relative permeability of the surrounding
medium is unity in both cases. End effects may be Figure 96 Cross - Section of a 7 Strand Conductors

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10. In a single – phase line, conductors a and a′ in parallel Similarly,

form one circuit while conductors b and b′ in parallel 1 d2
form the return path. Calculate the total inductance of LB = 2 × 10−7 [ln + ln √d1 d2 + j√3 ln √ ] H/m
r′ d1
the line per km if current is equally shared by the two
parallel conductors. Conductor diameter in 2.0 cm. and
1 d3
LC = 2 × 10−7 [ln ′
+ ln √d2 d3 + j√3 ln √ ] H/m
r d2
Thus, we see that when the conductors of a 3 – phase
Figure 97 Single Phase Parallel Conductors transmission line are not equidistant from each other, the flux
Inductance of Three – Phase Overhead Lines linkages and inductances of various phases are different which
With Unsymmetrical Spacing. Consider a 3 – phase line causes unequal voltage drop in the three phases and transfer of
with conductors A, B and C; each of radius r meters. Let the power between phases due to mutual inductances even if the
current in the conductors are balanced.
spacing between them be d1, d2 and d3 and the current
The unbalancing effect because of irregular spacing of
flowing through them be IA, IB and IC respectively. conductors is avoided by transposition of conductors, as shown
in Figure 99. In practice, the conductors are so transposed that
each of the three possible arrangements of conductors exist one
– third of the total length of the line.

Figure 99 Transposition of a 3 - Phase Line

The effects of transposition are as follows:
a. Each conductor has the same average inductance,
Figure 98 3 - phase Transmission Line with Unsymmetrical Spacing which is given as
The flux linkages of conductor A due to its own current IA LA + LB + LC
and other conductors IB and IC L=
3
1 1 1 3
ψA = 2 × 10−7 [IA ln + IB ln + IC ln ] Wb − turns/m √d1 d2 d3
r′ d1 d3 L = 2 × 10−7 ln H/m
Similarly, r′
1 1 1 b. If conductors are equispaced (let the spacing be equal
ψB = 2 × 10−7 [IB ln + IA ln + IC ln ] Wb − turns/m
r ′ d1 d2 to d), the inductance of each conductor will be the
and same
1 1 1
ψC = 2 × 10−7 [IC ln + IA ln + IC ln ] Wb − turns/m 𝑑
r′ d3 d2 L = 2 × 10−7 ln H/m
If the system is balanced, r′
IA = IB = IC = I (say) in magnitude For stranded conductor r’ will be replaced by DS (self
Taking IA as a reference phasor, the currents are GMD)
represented, in symbolic form as c. When the conductors of three – phase transmission
IA = I; IB = I(−0.5 − j0.866) and IC = I(−0.5 + line are in the same plane, as shown in Figure 100.
j0.866)
Substituting these values of IB and IC in the expression for
ψA we get
1 d1
ψA = 2 × 10−7 I [ln + ln √d1 d3 + j√3 ln √ ] Wb − turns/m
r′ d3

and
1 d1
LA = 2 × 10−7 [ln + ln √d1 d3 + j√3 ln √ ] H/m
r′ d3
Figure 100

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In this position d1 = d2 = d and d3 = 2d Calculate inductance per km of each conductor when

Thus, conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter of
d 1 each line conductor is 2 cm.
LA = 2 × 10−7 [ln + ln 2 − j0.866 ln 2] H/m 6. The three conductors of 3 phase overhead line are
r′ 2
d arranged in a horizontal plane with a spacing of 4 m
LB = 2 × 10−7 ln ′ H/m
r between adjacent conductors. The diameter of each
−7
d 1 conductor is 2 cm. Determine the inductance per km
LC = 2 × 10 [ln ′ + ln 2 + j0.866 ln 2] H/m
r 2 per phase of the line if the lines are transposed.
d. When the conductors are at the corner of a right – 7. A three – phase transmission line has its conductors
angled triangle as shown in Figure 101. In this position arranged in a triangle so that two of the distances is 25
d1 = d2 and d3 = √2d ft. and the third distance is 42 ft. Determine the
inductance and the inductive reactance per phase per
mile. Assuming DS of conductors is 0.0284 ft.
8. Determine the inductance per km of a 3 – phase
transmission line using 20 mm diameter conductors
when conductors are at the corners of a triangle with
spacing of 4, 5 and 6 meters. Conductors are regularly
transposed.
9. Determine the inductance of a 3 – phase symmetrical
line whose conductors are placed at the corners of an
equilateral triangle of sides 1 meter. The diameter of
each conductor is 20 mm.
10. A three – phase overhead line is designed with an
Figure 101
equilateral spacing of 3.5 m with a conductor diameter
Thus, of 1.2 cm. If the line is constructed with horizontal
d 1
LA = 2 × 10−7 [ln + ln √2 − j0.866 ln √2] H/m spacing with suitably transposed conductors, find
r′ 2 spacing between adjacent conductors which would
d
LB = 2 × 10−7 ln ′ H/m give the same value of inductance as in the equilateral
r
d 1 arrangement.
LC = 2 × 10−7 [ln ′ + ln √2 + j0.866 ln √2] H/m 11. A three phase, 50 Hz, 30 km long line has four 4/0
r 2
Examples: wires (1.5 cm diameter) spaced horizontally 2 m apart
1. Find the inductance per km of a 3 – phase transmission in a plane. The wires are carrying currents Ia, Ib, Ic, and
line using 1.24 cm diameter conductors when these the fourth wire is neutral that carries zero current. The
are placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of phase currents are:
each side 2 m. Ia = −30 + j24 A
2. Find the inductance per km per phase of a 3 – phase Ib = −20 + j26 A
overhead transmission line using 2 cm diameter Ic = 50 − j50 A
conductor when these are placed at the corners of an The line is untransposed.
equilateral triangle of side 4 meters.
a. Find the flux linkages of the neutral wire.
3. The three conductors of a 3 – phase line are arranged
at the corners of a triangle of sides 2 m, 2.5 m and 4.5 b. Find the voltage induced in the neutral wire.
m. Calculate the inductance per km of the line when c. Find the voltage drop in each of the three – phase
the conductors are regularly transposed. The diameter wires.
of each conductor is 1.24 cm. Inductance of Three – Phase Lines with more than one
4. Calculate the inductance of each conductor in a 3 circuit
phase, 3 wire system when the conductors are It is usual practice to run 3 – phase transmission lines with
arranged in a horizontal plane with spacing such that more than one circuit in parallel on the same tower because
D31 = 4 m; D12 = D23 = 2m. The conductors are it gives greater reliability and a higher transmission
transposed and have a diameter of 2.5 cm. capacity. If such circuits are so widely separated that the
5. The three conductors of a 3 – phase line are arranged mutual inductance between them becomes negligible, the
at the corners of a triangle of sides 4, 5 and 6 meters.
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inductance of the equivalent single circuit would be half of Inductance of conductor A,

each of the individual circuits considered alone. But in √3d2
actual practice the separation is not very wide and the LA = 2 × 10−7 ln H/m
2dr ′
mutual inductance is not negligible. GMD method is used Similarly, inductance of remaining conductors can be
for determination of inductance per phase by considering worked out, which will be the same as LA. This is because
the various conductors connected in parallel as strands of the conductors of different phases are symmetrically
one composite conductor. placed.
It is desirable to have a Since conductors are electrically in parallel, inductance of
configuration that provides each phase
minimum inductance to have √3d2
maximum transmission L = 1 × 10−7 ln H/m
capacity. This is possible only 2dr ′
Inductance of 3 – Phase Double Circuit Line with
with low GMD and high GMR. Unsymmetrical Spacing but Transposed
Therefore, the practice is to Now consider a 3 – phase double circuit connected in
have the individual conductors parallel conductors A, B and C forming one circuit and A’,
of a phase widely separated to Figure 102 Arrangement of B’ and C’ forming the other one, as illustrated in Figure 102.
provide high GMR and the Conductors in a Double Circuit 3 Since the conductors are thoroughly transposed, the
– Phase Line
distance between the phases conductor situations in the transposition cycle would be, as
small to give low GMD. Thus, in the case of a double circuit illustrated in Figures 104(1), 104(2) and 104(3).
in vertical formation the arrangement of conductors would
be as illustrated in Figure 100.
Inductance of 3 – Phase Double Circuit Line with
Symmetrical Spacing
Consider a 3 – Phase Double Circuit connected in Parallel
– Conductors A, B, C forming one circuit and conductors A’,
B’, C’ forming the other one, as illustrated in Figure 103
(conductors symmetrically spaced).

Figure 104
Flux linkages with conductor A in position (1)
1 1 1 1
ψA1 = 2 × 10−7 [IA (ln + ln ) + IB (ln + ln )
r′ √4d12 + d22 d1 √d12 + d22
1 1
+ IC (ln + ln )]
Figure 103 3 – Phase Double Circuit 2d1 d2
Flux linkages of phase A conductors Similarly, flux linkages with conductor A in position (2) and
1 1 1 1 (3)
ψA = 2 × 10−7 [IA
(ln ′ + ln ) + IB (ln + ln )
r 2d d √3d 1 1 1 1
1 1 ψA2 = 2 × 10−7 [IA (ln + ln ) + IB (ln + ln )
+ IC (ln + ln )] r′ d2 d1 √d12 + d22
√3d d
1 1 1 1
−7
ψA = 2 × 10 [IA ln + (IB + IC ) ln ] + IC (ln + ln )]
2dr ′ d1 √d + d2
2
√3d2 1 2
1 1 −7
1 1 1 1
ψA = 2 × 10−7 [IA ln − IA ln ] ψA3 = 2 × 10 [IA (ln ′ + ln
r
) + IB (ln
2d
+ ln )
d
2dr ′ √3d2
2 2
√4d1 + d2 1 2

√3d2 1 1
ψA = 2 × 10−7 IA ln Wb − turns/m + IC (ln + ln )]
2dr ′ d1 √d12 + d22

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Average flux linkages with conductor A 4. Calculate the inductance per phase per meter for a
ψA =
ψA1 + ψA2 + ψA3 three phase double circuit line whose phase
1
3
1 conductors have a radius of 5.3 cm with the horizontal
−7
23 d1 (d21 + d22 )3 conductor arrangement as shown in Figure 108.
ψA = 2 × 10 IA ln 1 Wb − turns per meter
r′ (4d21 + d22 )3
and inductance
1 1 Figure 108
23 d1 (d21 + d22 )3 Bundled Conductors
LA = 2 × 10−7 ln H/m
1 The demand of electric power is increasing throughout the
r′ (4d21 + d22 )3 world and in many countries, it is doubling every five to eight
Inductance of each phase, years. The power stations are usually located far away from
1 1
1 1 d 2
1 d21 + d22 6 the load centers. Thus, transmission of large amounts of
−7
L = LA = 2 × 10 ln 2 ( ) ( 2
6 ) H/m power over long distances can be accomplished most
2 r 4d1 + d22
d21 +d22
economically only by using extra high voltages (or simply
If the distance d2 is too large as compared to d1, 4d21 +d22
EHV) is necessary. Voltages more than 230 kV fall in this
would tend to be unity and inductance per phase, category. An increase in transmission voltage results in
1 reduction of electrical losses, increase in transmission
−7
1 d1 2 efficiency, improvement of voltage regulation and reduction
L = 2 × 10 ln 26 ( ) H/m
r in conductor material requirement. At voltages above 300
Examples: kV, corona causes a significant power loss and interference
1. Figure 105 shows the with communication circuits, if round single conductor per
spacing of a double circuit 3 phase is used. Instead of going for a hollow conductor it is
phase overhead line. The preferable to use more than one conductor per phase which
phase sequence is ABC is called the bundling of conductors. Lines of 400 kV and
and the line is completely higher voltages invariably used bundled conductors.
transposed. The conductor A bundled conductor is a conductor made up of two or more
radius in 1.3 cm. Find the conductors, called the sub – conductors, per phase in close
Figure 105
inductance per phase per proximity compared with the spacing between phases. The
kilometer. basic difference between a composite conductor and a
2. Find the inductance per bundled conductor is that sub conductors of a bundled
phase per km of double conductor are separated to each other by a constant
circuit 3 phase line shown distance from 0.2 m to 0.6 m depending upon designed
in Figure 106. The voltage and surrounding conditions throughout the length
conductors are transposed of the line with the help of spacers whereas the wires of a
and are of radius 0.75 cm composite conductor touch each other. The bundled
each. The phase sequence conductors have filter material or air space inside so that
is ABC. Figure 106
the overall diameter is increased.
3. A three – phase double circuit line consists of 300,000 The use of bundled conductors per phase reduces the
cmil 26/6 ACSR Ostrich conductors arranged as voltage gradient near the line and thus, reduces the
shown in Figure 107. Find the 60 Hz inductive possibilities of the corona discharge.
reactance in ohm per mile per phase. Assume DS = Although bundled conductors are used on EHV
0.0229 ft. transmission lines primarily reduce corona loss and radio
interference, they have several other advantages over
single conductors such as:
1. Transmit power with reduced losses, thereby giving
increased transmission efficiency.
2. Have higher charging current which helps in improving
the power factor.
3. Since GMD or GMR is increased, the inductance per
phase is reduced.
Figure 107

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

4. Have comparatively lower surge impedance with a

corresponding increase in the maximum power
transfer capability as seen in Table 14.
Number of sub – conductors 1 2 4 8
Relative power transfer 1.0 1.3 1.6 1.7 Figure 112
Table 14 Relative Power Transfer VS Sub – Conductors 2. The bundled conductors of a line are arranged as
It is to be noted that there is a little to be gained by using shown. Each conductor has a radius r. Find the
more than four sub – conductors per phase, two or three expression of the mean geometric radius in terms of r.
sub – conductors per phase are sufficient for most of the
EHV lines.
For two strand bundle

Figure 113
3. A bundled and transposed 3 phase transmission line
Figure 109 2 Strand Bundle Conductor
has a conductor arrangement shown. The identical
DSB = √Ds × d
conductors have a radius of 0.74 cm. The spacing
Dm
L = 2 × 10−7 ln between phase conductors is 30 cm. Determine the
DsB
line reactance per phase per mile at 60 Hz.
For three strand bundle
4. Find the inductive reactance of a 3 – phase bundled
conductor line with 2 conductors per phase with
spacing of 40 cm. Phase to phase separation is 7 m in
horizontal configuration. All conductors are ACSR with
Figure 110 3 Strand Bundle Conductor
diameter of 3.5 cm. compare the above value with that
3 of an ‘equivalent’ single – conductor line.
DSB = √DS × d2
Dm 5. Determine the inductance per km per phase of a single
L = 2 × 10−7 ln B circuit 460 kV line using two bundle conductors per
Ds
For four strands phase as shown in Figure 113. The diameter of each
conductor is 5 cm.

Figure 111 4 Strand Bundle Conductor Figure 114

4
DSB = 1.09 √DS × d3 Shunt Capacitance of Transmission Lines
Dm As any two conductors of an overhead transmission line/s
L = 2 × 10−7 ln B
Ds separated by air, which acts as an insulator, therefore,
Examples: capacitance exists between any two overhead line
1. A single – phase transmission line uses bundled conductors. The capacitance between the conductors is
arrangement shown. Line A has its conductors situated defined as the charged per unit potential difference. The
at the corners of an equilateral triangle. All conductors capacitance is uniformly distributed along the whole length
are identical and each has a radius of 2 cm. Determine of the line and may be regarded as a uniform series
the following: capacitor connected between the conductors or a shunt
a. The inductance of each line and the total capacitance between any conductor and the earth. When
inductance in mH per km. an alternating voltage is impressed on a transmission line,
b. For operation of the line at a frequency of 60 Hz. the charge at any point increases and decreases with the
Determine the total line reactance in ohm/mile. increase and decrease of the instantaneous value of the

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

flow of voltage between the conductors at the point. Thus, q 1

VA = ln V
a charging current flow to the line even if it is open circuited. 2πε0 r
It affects the voltage drop along the line as well as the Potential Charge at a Conductor in a Group of Charged
efficiency and the power factor of the line. Conductors
Capacitance = Q/V Consider a group of long straight conductors A, B, C, D, E,
where Q – Charge in coulombs …, F having charges q1, q2, q3, q4, q5, …, qf coulombs per
V – Electric potential in volts meter length respectively (Figure 116).
C – Capacitance in Farad
If the capacitance of an overhead line is high, the line draws
more charging current, which compensates or cancels the
lagging component of load current. Hence, the resultant
current flowing in the line is reduced. The reduction in
resultant current flowing in the line results in:
1. reduction of line losses and so increase of
transmission efficiency
2. reduction in voltage drop or improvement of voltage
regulation
The other advantages of a transmission line having high
capacitance are increased load capacity and improved Figure 116
power factor. Potential at A due to its own charge, q1
V ∞
Charging Current: IC = = 2πfCV q1
XC =∫ ( ) dx/x (volts)
Electric Potential r 2πε0
The electric potential at a point due to a charge is the work Potential at A due to charge q2
∞
done in bringing a unit positive charge from infinity to that q2
=∫ ( ) dx/x (volts)
point. d1 2πε0
Potential Charge of a Single Conductor Potential at A due to charge q3
Consider a long straight cylindrical conductor A of radius r ∞
q3
meters and having a charge q coulombs per meter of its =∫ ( ) dx/x (volts)
d2 2πε0
length.
Potential at A due to charge qn
The electric field intensity at distance x from the center of ∞
qn
the conductor is given by the formula: =∫ ( ) dx/x (volts)
q dn−1 2πε0
E= V/m
2πε0 εr x Overall potential difference between conductor A and
ε0 = permittivity of free space (8.85 x 10-12) infinite neutral plane.
∞ ∞ ∞
q1 q2 q3
VAN = ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x
r 2πε0 d1 2πε0 d2 2πε0
∞
qn
+ ⋯+ ∫ ( ) dx/x
dn−1 2πε 0

Simplifying, assuming balanced load conditions,

q1 + q2 + q3 + ⋯ + qn = 0.
1 1 1 1
Figure 115 VAN = {q1 ln + q2 ln + ⋯ + qn ln }
2πε0 r d1 dn−1
Taking air as medium, εr = 1
q Capacitance of Single Phase Overhead Line
E= V/m Consider a single – phase overhead line with two parallel
2πε0 x
As x approaches infinity, the value of E approaches zero, conductors, each of radius r meters placed at a distance of
thus, the potential difference between conductor A and the d meters in air. It is assumed that the distance d between
neutral wire is: the conductors is large in comparison to the radii of the
q conductors. Therefore, the density of charge on either
∞( ) dx conductor will be practically unaffected by the charge on the
2πε0
VA = ∫ V conductor and will be uniform throughout the length. A
r x
uniformly distributed charge on a conductor acts as though
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

it is concentrated on the conductor axis. Therefore, for our Examples:

present analysis it is assumed that the charge +Q coulombs 1. A single – phase transmission line has two parallel
on conductor A and -Q coulombs on conductor B are conductors 3 m apart, the radius of each conductor
concentrated at the centers of the two conductors which are being 1 cm. Calculate the capacitance of the line per
separated from each other by d meters. km. Given that ε0 = 8.854 x 10-12 F/m.
2. A single – phase transmission line has two parallel
conductors 1.5 meters apart, the diameter of each
conductor being 0.5 cm. Calculate line to neutral
capacitance for a line 80 km long.
3. The length of transmission lines consisting of two
identical conductors with one cm radius is 50 miles. It
is desired that the capacitive reactance to be at least
Figure 117 10000 Ω. Determine the separation distance needed
Potential at conductor A and Neutral Plane, between the lines to achieve this result @ 60 Hz.
∞ ∞
Q −Q Capacitance of Three Phase Overhead Line
VAN = ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x
r 2πε0 d 2πε0 Unsymmetrically Spaced Line
Q d For an untransposed unsymmetrical 3 – phase line the
VAN = ln capacitances between conductor to neutral of the three
2πε0 r
Potential at conductor B and Neutral Plane, conductors are different. Supposes that the line is, as
∞
−Q ∞
Q shown in Figure 98, and that voltages VA, VB, VC are applied
VBN = ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x to the conductors with the result that the chargers per meter
2πε0 2πε0
r d length are q1, q2, q3 respectively.
−Q d
VBN = ln Potential at conductor A and Neutral Plane,
2πε0 r ∞
q1 ∞
q2
both potentials with respect to the same neutral plane. VAN = ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x
2πε0 d1 2πε0
Since unlike charges attract each other, thus the potential r
∞
difference between conductor is: q3
+∫ ( ) dx/x
VAB = VAN − VBN d3 2πε0
Q d 1 1 1 1
VAB = ln VAN = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ]
πε0 r 2πε0 r d1 d3
Capacitance between conductors (for 1 phase, 2 wire line) Similarly,
1 1 1 1
VBN = [q2 ln + q1 ln + q3 ln ]
2πε0 r d1 d2
and
1 1 1 1
VCN = [q3 ln + q1 ln + q2 ln ]
2πε0 r d3 d2
Figure 118
Since q3=-(q1+q2),
𝑄 𝜋𝜀0 𝑭 1 d3 d3
𝐶𝐴𝐵 = = ( ) VAN = [q1 ln + q2 ln ]
𝑉𝐴𝐵 𝑙𝑛 𝑑 𝒎 2πε0 r d1
d2
𝑟 Multiplying by ln d
Capacitance between conductor and neutral (for 1 phase, 1
1 d3 d2 d3 d2
3 wire line) VAN = [q1 ln ln + q2 ln ln ]
2πε0 r d1 d1 d1
and
1 d2 d2
VBN = [q1 ln + q2 ln ]
2πε0 d1 r
Figure 119 d3
CN = 2CAB Multiplying by ln d
1
2πε0 1 d2 d3 d2 d3
CN = CAN = CBN = (𝐅/𝐦) VBN = [q1 ln ln + q2 ln ln ]
d 2πε0 d1 d1 r d1
ln r

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
d
Simplifying VAN ln d2 − VBN ln d3
d Similar expression for CBN and CCN can be obtained.
1 1 Equilaterally Spaced Lines
d2 d For the equilateral spacing d1 = d2 =
VAN ln − VBN ln 3
r d1
q1 = d3 = d
d3 d2 d2 d3 2πε0
ln r ln r − ln ln CAN = F/m
d1 d1
d
Capacitance of conductor A to neutral, ln r
d V d Figure 121
ln 2 − BN ln 3
r VAN d1 Examples:
CAN = 2πε0 F/m
d d d d 1. A 200 km, 3 phase transmission line has its conductors
ln r3 ln r2 − ln 2 ln 3
d1 d1 placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle of 2.5 m
Similarly, capacitance of conductor B to neutral, side. The radius of each conductor is 1 cm. Calculate:
d V d
ln r3 − VCN ln 1 a. line to neutral capacitance of the line
d
CBN = 2πε0 BN 2
F/m b. charging current per phase
d1 d3 d3 d1 if the line is maintained at 66 kV, 50 Hz.
ln r ln r − ln ln
d2 d2
2. A 3 – phase overhead transmission line has its
and
conductors arranged at the corners of an equilateral
d V d
ln r1 − VAN ln 2 triangle of 2 m side. Calculate the capacitance of each
CN d3
CCN = 2πε0 F/m line conductor per km. Given that diameter of each
d2 d1 d1 d2
ln r ln r − ln ln conductor is 1.25 cm.
d3 d2
3. Calculate the capacitance of a 100 km long 3 phase,
Unsymmetrical Lime with Transposed Conductors
50 Hz overhead transmission line consisting of 3
If the charge per unit length is same in every part of the
conductors, each of diameter 2 cm and spaced 2.5 m
transposed cycle (Figure 120), average value of voltage of
at the corners of an equilateral triangle.
conductor A, will be
VAN1 + VAN2 + VAN3 4. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has
VAN = conductors placed in a horizontal plane 4 m apart.
3 Conductor diameter is 2 cm. If the line length is 100
km, calculate the charging current per phase assuming
complete transposition.
5. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 66 kV overhead line conductors are
placed in a horizontal plane as shown in Figure 122.
Figure 120
The conductor diameter is 1.25 cm. if the line length is
Voltage of conductor A in positions (1), (2) and (3) we have 100 km, calculate:
1 1 1 1 a. Capacitance per phase
VAN1 = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ] b. The charging current per phase, assuming
2πε0 r d3 d2
1 1 1 1 complete transposition of the line.
VAN2 = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ]
2πε0 r d1 d3
and
1 1 1 1 Figure 122
VAN3 = [q1 ln + q2 ln + q3 ln ] 6. The three conductors A, B and C of a 3 – phase line
2πε0 r d2 d1
So, average value of voltage of conductor A, are arranged in a horizontal plane with DAB = 2 m and
1 1 1 DBC = 2.5 m. Find line – to – neutral capacitance per
VAN = [q1 ln 3 + (q2 + q3 ) ln ] km if diameter of each conductor is 1.24 cm. The
6πε0 r d1 d2 d3
Simplifying, since q1+q2+q3 = 0 conductors are transposed at regular intervals.
3 7. The three conductors of a 3 – phase line are arranged
1 √d1 d2 d3
VAN = [q1 ln ] at the corners of a right angled isosceles triangle. If
2πε0 r each equal side of this triangle is 2 m, find line – to –
Capacitance of conductor A to neutral, neutral capacitance per km. Take the diameter of each
2πε0 conductor as 1.24 cm. The conductors are transposed
CAN = F/m
D
ln m at regular intervals.
r
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8. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, 132 kV overhead line has This is because the conductors of different phases are
conductors placed in a horizontal plane 4.56 m apart. symmetrical placed.
Conductor diameter is 22.4 mm. If the line length is 100 The capacitance per phase is
km, calculate the charging current per phase, 4πε0
C = 2CN = F/m
assuming complete transposition. √3d
9. Three conductors of a 3 – phase overhead line are ln 2r
arranged in a horizontal plane 6 m apart. The diameter Flat Vertically Spaced Line
of each conductor is 1.24 cm. Find the capacitance of Consider conductors arranged, as shown in Figure 104,
each conductor to neutral per 100 km of the line. corresponding to different position in the transposition
Capacitance of Double Circuit 3 – Phase Overhead Lines positions.
Normally used conductor configurations are of hexagonal Potential at conductor A with respect to ‘infinite’ neutral
spacing and flat vertical spacing. It has been found that plane
modified GMD method holds good for determination of
∞ ∞ ∞
q1 q2 q3
VAN1 = ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x
capacitance of transposed double circuit 3 – phase r 2πε0
∞
d1 2πε0 2d1 2πε0
∞
q1 q2
overhead lines with equilateral spacing and with flat vertical +∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x
√4d21 +d22 2πε0 √d21 +d22 2πε0
spacing. It is reasonable to assume that the modified GMD ∞
q3
method can be used for determination of capacitance of a +∫ (
2πε
) dx/x
0
line with any configuration intermediate between these two
d2
1 1 1 1
configurations. VAN1 = [q ln
2πε0 1 r√4d12 + d22
+ q 2 ln
d1 √d12 + d22
+ q 3 ln
2d1 d2
]

In the case of calculations of inductance, determination of Similarly,

self GMD (or GMR) of conductor is necessary because of 1 1 1 1
VAN2 = [q ln + q 2 ln + q 3 ln ]
internal flux linkages of the conductor. But in case of 2πε0 1 rd2 d1 √d12 + d22 d1 √d12 + d22
calculations of capacitance, since all charges reside on the VAN3 =
1
[q ln
1
+ q 2 ln ln
1
+ q 3 ln
1
]
surface, actual radius of the conductor is used. 2πε0 1 r√4d12 + d22 2d1 d2 d1 √d12 + d22
Symmetrically Spaced Line VAN1 + VAN2 + VAN3
VAN =
Consider a 3 – phase double circuit connected in parallel – 3
1 1
conductors A, B and C forming one circuit and conductors
q1 23 d1 d12 + d22 3
A’, B’ and C’ forming another circuit (conductors VAN = ln ( 2 ) V
symmetrically spaced). 2πε0 r 4d1 + d22
Let the charge over conductors A, B and C be q1, q2 and q3 Capacitance of conductor A,
coulombs per meter length and q1 + q2 + q3 =0. 2πε0
CAN = 1 F/m
Potential of conductor A with respect to neutral infinite 1
2 2
plane (Figure 103). 23 d d + d2 3
ln r 1 ( 12 )
∞
q1 ∞
q2 4d1 + d22
VAN = ∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x Similar expression for capacitance CBN and CCN can be
r 2πε0 d 2πε0
∞
q3 ∞
q1 obtained.
+∫ (
2πε
) dx/x + ∫ (
2πε
) dx/x Capacitance per phase will be double of CAN
√3d 0 2d 0
∞
q2 ∞
q3
4πε0
+∫ ( ) dx/x + ∫ ( ) dx/x CAN = 1 1 F/m
√3d 2πε0 d 2πε0 2
23 d d + d2 3 2
q1 √3d2 q1 √3d ln r 1 ( 12 )
4d1 + d22
VAN = ln = ln
2πε0 2dr 2πε0 2r Looking at the above expression the simplified form of the
The capacitance of conductor A to neutral, two cases is
2πε0 2πε
CAN = F/m CAN = D 0P F/m and C = 2CAN F/m
ln m
√3d r
ln 2r Examples:
Similar expressions for CBN and CCN can be obtained and 1. Six conductors of a double – circuit transmission line
we have are arranged in hexagonal formation. DAC’ = DCA’ = 7 m
2πε0 and DBB’ = 9 m. The diameter of each conductor is 2.5
CAN = CBN = CCN = CN = F/m
√3d cm. Find the capacitive reactance to neutral and the
ln 2r

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charging current per km per phase at 132 kV and 50 3. A 50 Hz, 3 – phase line (transposed) of an ACSR
Hz, if the line is regularly transposed. moose conductor (overall diameter = 31.8 mm) per
2. A 100 – km double circuit transmission line with 7 phase has flat horizontal spacing of 10 m between
strand copper conductors having 5 mm diameter, has adjacent conductors. Compare the inductive and
6 conductors arranged in vertical formation. The line is capacitive reactances in ohm per km per phase of this
transposed at regular intervals. Find the capacitance line with that of a line (transposed) using a three
per phase of the line. d1 = 8 m and d2 = 6 m. conductor ACSR hyn x conductors (each having
3. Find the capacitance per phase per km of a double overall diameter = 19.6 mm) having 10 m spacing
circuit 3 phase line shown in Figure 123. The measured from the center of the bundles. The bundle
conductors are transposed and are of radius 1 cm conductor in each phase are arranged in an equilateral
each. The phase sequence is ABC. triangle formation with spacing between the
conductors in the bundle as 40 cm.
Effect of Earth on Capacitance of Transmission Line
So far, in determination of capacitance of transmission
lines, the presence of earth was ignored. But it is not true;
the presence of earth affects the electric field of a line and
so the capacitance. The effect of earth on capacitance can
be modelled by method of images.
Figure 123
Capacitance of Bundled Conductor Line
Same principle as inductance of bundled conductor line
except that radius is use instead of GMR.
2πε0
CAN = F/m
D
ln Dm
S
where:
Dm = mutual GMD of the circuit
DS = self GMD of the circuit
For 2 bundle: D2 S = √rd
3
For 3 bundle: D3S = √rd2
4
For 4 bundle: D4 S = 1.09√rd3
Examples:
1. Find out the
capacitance per km
to neutral of the three
– phase line as
Figure 124 Figure 126 Electric Field of Two Long Parallel, Oppositely Charged Conductors
shown in Figure 124.
The electric field of too long, parallel conductors having
The lines are regularly transposed. The radius of each
charge +q and -q per unit is such that it has zero potential
conductor is r = 0.5 cm.
between the conductors, as shown in Figure 126. If a
2. Figure 125 shows a completely transposed 50 Hz, 250
conducting sheet of infinite dimensions is placed at the zero
km long three phase line has flat horizontal spacing
– potential plane, the electric field is not distributed. Further,
with 10 m between adjacent conductors. If the outside
if the conductor carrying charge – q is now removed, the
radius is 1.2 cm and the line voltage is 220 kV,
electric field above the conducting sheet stays intact, while
determine the charging current, per phase and total
that below it disappears. Using these well – known facts in
reactive power in MVAr supplied by the line capacitor.
reverse, the presence of ground below a charged conductor
can be replaced by a fictitious conductor having equal and
opposite charge and located far below the ground surface
as the overhead conductor above it – such fictitious
conductors is the mirror image of the overhead conductor.
Figure 125

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

This method of producing the same electric field as in the the height of the conductor from the ground, therefore,
presence of earth is called the method of images originally d2
suggested by Lord Kelvin. r√1 + 4h2 ≅ 𝑟 and for all practical purposes the effect of
Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Single – Phase earth on line capacitance can be neglected.
Transmission Line Effect of Earth on the Capacitance of Three – Phase
Considering the case of a single – phase overhead line, Transmission Line
assume conductors A’ and B’ as image conductors of Figure 128 shows the conductors of a 3 – phase line along
conductor A and B respectively, as shown in figure 127. Let with image conductors. The line is assumed to be
the height of conductors be h meters above the charge of transposed and in the first part of the transposition cycle
+q coulombs per meter length and -q coulombs per meter conductor A is in position 1, B is in position 2 and C is in
length on conductors A and B respectively. position 3. Let the charges on line conductors be qA, qB and
qC while those on image conductors be – qA, - qB and – qC
respectively as shown in the figure.

Figure 127 Single - Phase Transmission Line with Images

The equation for the voltage drop VAB as determined by two
charged conductors A and B, and their images A’ and B’
may be written as follows: Figure 128 Conductors of a 3 - Phase Line with Image Charges
1 d r √4h2 + d2 The equation for the three sections of transposition cycle
VAB = [qA ln + qB ln + q′A ln
2πε0 r d 2h can be written for the voltage drop VAB as determined by
2h three charged conductors and their images. With conductor
+ q′B ln ] in position 1, B in position 2 and C in position 3, we have
√4h2 + d2 1 𝑑12 ℎ12 𝑟 ℎ2
Since qA = q = qB’ and qB = - q = qA’, we have VAB =
2πε0
[qA (ln
𝑟
− ln
ℎ1
) + qB (ln
𝑑12
− ln
ℎ12
)
q 2hd 𝑑23 ℎ23
VAB = ln + qC (ln − ln )]
πε0 r√4h2 + d2 𝑑31 ℎ31
Capacitance between conductors A and B, Similarly, equations for VAB can be written for the second
πε0
CAB = and third sections of the transposition cycle. If the fairly
accurate assumption of constant charge per unit length of
d conductor throughout the transmission cycle is made, the
ln
√1 + d 2
2 average value of three sections of the cycle is given by
[r
4h ] 1 𝐷𝑚 ℎ12 ℎ23 ℎ31 3
1

The above expression for capacitance reveals that the VAB = [qA (ln − ln ( ) )
presence of earth modifies the radius of conductor r to 2πε0 𝑟 ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3
1
d2
r √1 + . The effect of earth on the capacitance of the 𝑟 ℎ1 ℎ2 ℎ3 3
4h2 + qB (ln − ln ( ) )]
𝐷𝑚 ℎ12 ℎ23 ℎ31
system is to increase it. However, normally the distance of
separation between the conductors is much smaller than where: Dm = 3√d12 d23 d31
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 66
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

The equation for the average value of the voltage VAC can supports twice over the total length of the line. In practice,
be determine din the same way. Using VAB + VAC = 3VAN the line conductors should be transposed that each of the
and qA + qB + qC = 0, the capacitance to neutral is three possible arrangements of conductors exist for one –
2πε0 third of the total length of line. This is illustrated in Figures
CAN = F/m
Dm 3 h h h31 120 and 129.
12 23
ln r − ln √
h1 h2 h3
The above expression for capacitance reveals that the
presence of earth increases the line capacitance by a small
amount. However, the effect is very – very small because
the height of the conductors is large as compared to the
distance between them.
Examples:
1. The conductors in a single – phase transmission line
are 6 m above ground. Each conductor has a diameter
of 1.5 cm and the two conductors are spaced 3 m
apart. Calculate the capacitance per km of the line (i)
excluding ground effect and (ii) including the ground
Figure 129 Transposition of Three Phase Lines
effect.
2. The conductors in a three – phase transmission line An unbalanced system, may be of conductors,
are 6 m above ground. Each conductor has a diameter symmetrically placed, and cannot be represented by three
of 1.5 cm and the two adjacent conductors are spaced simple inductances, without making transposition. The
3 m apart. Calculate the capacitance per km of the line effect of unbalanced currents is neutralized in case of
(i) excluding ground effect and (ii) including the ground conductors being transposed regularly at intervals.
effect. The transposition of conductors also reduces the
3. The conductors in a single phase 10 km transmission disturbances to the nearby communication circuits. In
line are 6m above the ground. Each conductor is of 1.5 composite line, the line carrying telephone line conductors
cm diameter and the conductors are spaced 3m apart. below the power line conductors, it is also necessary to
If the supply voltage is 33 kV. Determine the following: transpose the telephone line conductors to keep down the
a. The capacitance of the line including the effect of disturbances.
ground. Performance of Transmission Lines
b. The capacitance of the line neglecting the effect of The performance of power system under normal balanced
ground. steady – state conditions is of primary importance in power
c. The charging current between conductors. system engineering. The transmission line is the main
Transposition of 3 – Phase Lines energy corridor in a power system. The performance of
The inductance and capacitance of each phase will be power system depends mainly on the performance of
different in case of conductors of three – phase line being transmission lines in the system. The important
spaced irregularly. The apparent resistance of the considerations in the operation of the transmission lines are
conductors is also affected because transfer of power voltage drop and power losses occurring in the line and the
between the phases, which occur due to mutual efficiency of transmission. The performance of transmission
inductance. Thus, all the three line constants are affected line is governed by its four parameters – series resistance
by irregular spacing of the conductors in a 3 – phase line. R and inductance L, shunt capacitance C and conductance
Also, due to unsymmetrical spacing, the magnetic field G (see Figure 130). The resistance R is due to the fact
external to the conductors is not zero, thereby causing every conductor offers opposition to the flow of current. The
induced voltages in adjacent electrical circuits, particularly inductance L is because the current carrying conductor is
the telephone lines that may cause disturbances in the surrounded by magnetic lines of force. The capacitance of
telephone lines. the line is because the conductor carrying current forms a
The unbalancing effect because of irregular spacing of line capacitor with earth which is always at lower potential than
conductors can be avoided by transposition of line the conductor and the air between them forms a dielectric
conductors. Transposition of line conductors means medium. The shunt conductance is mainly due to flow of
changing the position of the three phases on the line leakage currents over the surface of the insulators
especially during bad weather.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

three – phase and that all the power factors are phase
power factors. Figure 131 shows the diagram of a three –
phase transmission line system.
Classification of Transmission Line
Short Transmission Lines
- the distance covers up to 50 miles (80 km) or less.
Figure 130 Transmission Line Representation - the line voltage is comparatively low (VL = 20 kV)
The effect of resistance is to cause a voltage drop and - due to smaller length and lower voltage, the
power loss in the line. The effect of line inductance is to capacitance effects are small and hence can be
cause voltage drop in quadrature with the current flowing in neglected. Therefore, resistance and inductance of the
the conductor. The effect of line capacitance is to produce line is considered in the performance of short
a current; called the charging current, which is in transmission line.
quadrature with the voltage. This component of the current - the effect of generators and transformers can be
has its maximum value at the sending end of the line and considered by adding their impedances to the
decreases continuously as the receiving end of the line is impedance of the line.
approached at which its value is zero. The shunt Medium Transmission Lines
conductance is in parallel with the system. Generally, the - if the length of the line was increased, the capacitance
leakage currents are small and shunt conductance G is gradually increases and thus it is given importance.
ignored in calculations. - the distance covers up to 81 – 240 km or 150 miles
It is noteworthy that both the reactive drop and charging - the voltage is above 20 kV and up to 100 kV, thus the
current of the line are proportional to the supply frequency effects of capacitance is not neglected.
and thus have a far greater influence on the performance - composed of series impedance and shunt
of the 50 Hz line than on a 25 Hz line. Also, that with capacitance.
overhead lines reactance effects are relatively more - capacitance is gradually distributed over the entire
important owing to wide spacing of conductors which must length of the line but can be assumed to be
be employed, whilst in the case of transmission by concentrated at one or more points.
underground cable reactance effects are small and the Long Transmission Lines
capacitance effect predominates. - these lines cover up to 240 km and live voltage above
100 kV
- long lines composed of resistance, series inductance,
shunt conductance and shunt capacitance.
It is important to know that the exact solution of any
transmission line must be since the parameters or
constants of any line are not lumped but are distributed
uniformly throughout the length of the line. However, results
obtained by assuming the constants are lumped for short
and medium transmission lines are reasonably accurate.
Regulation and Efficiency of a Transmission Line
By performance of a transmission line it is meant the
determination of regulation and efficiency of the line.
Figure 131 Representation of Transmission Line Voltage Regulation
Since we are considering a balanced three phase system. - the difference in voltage at the receiving end of a
A three – phase transmission line carrying an equal load on transmission line between conditions of no load and full
each phase can, therefore be represented by its single – load.
phase equivalent in which inductance is computed for one - when load is supplied, there is a voltage drop in the line
phase of a balanced three – phase line and capacitance is due to resistance and inductance of the line and,
computed from line to neutral. While working with a three – therefore, receiving end voltage is usually less than
phase transmission line carrying an equal load on each sending end voltage.
phase, it is usual to assume that all the given voltage is line VS -VR VSN -VRN
– to – line values, that all the currents are line currents, that %VR= ×100%= ×100%
VR VRN
all volt – amperes, power and reactive volt – amperes are
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 68
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

- the lower the voltage regulation, better it is because pfR = cos ∅R = cos [∅VRN -∅IR ]
low voltage regulation means little variation in receiving Voltage/Current Vector Diagram
– end voltage due to variation in load current. At lagging power factor, pfS < pfR
- knowledge of voltage regulation helps in maintain the
voltage at the load terminals within prescribed limits by
employing suitable voltage control equipment.
Efficiency of Transmission
- the ratio of the receiving end power to the sending end
power of a transmission line.
- when the load is supplied, there are line losses due to
ohmic resistance of line conductors and power
delivered at the load end of a transmission line is less
than the power supplied at the sending end. Figure 133 Lagging Power Factor Vector Diagram
receiving end power ∅S =∅R +α
ηTL = ×100%
sending end power In polar form,
Short Transmission Line Analysis VSN ∠∝=VRN ∠0+(IR ∠-∅R )ZL
In a short transmission line, the shunt conductance and At leading power factor, pfS > pfR
shunt capacitance are neglected and so only the series
resistance and inductive reactance are to be considered.
The equivalent circuit of a short transmission line is shown
in Figure 132.
Using per phase analysis

Figure 14 Leading Power Factor Vector Diagram

∅R =∅S +α
In polar form,
VSN ∠∝=VRN ∠0+(IR ∠∅R )ZL
where VSN = sending end to neutral voltage
VRN = receiving end to neutral voltage
VS = sending end line to line voltage
VR = receiving end line to line voltage
Figure 132 Per Phase Circuit of Short Transmission Lines
∅S = pf angle at the sending end
Voltage and Current Equations ∅R = pf angle at the receiving end
By KVL, IS = sending end current
IR = receiving end current
VSN =VRN +IS ZL |VS |=√3|VSN |
ZL = series impedance of the line
where IS =IR =IL
Examples:
Receiving End Power
1. A single – phase line has an impedance of 5∠ 60° and
PR =√3VR IR pfR =3VRN IR pfR supplies a load of 120 A, 3,300 V at 0.8 p.f. lagging.
Sending End Power Calculate the sending end voltage and draw a vector
PS =√3VS IS pfS =3VSN IS pfS diagram.
PS =PR +PLOSS 2. A single – phase overhead transmission line delivers
Line Loss 1100 KW at 33 KV and 0.8 pf lagging. The total
PLOSS =3IS2 RL (3 phase) resistance and inductive reactance of the line are 10 Ω
and 15 Ω respectively. Determine:
PLOSS =IS2 RL (1 phase)
a. The sending end voltage
Power Factor
b. The sending end pf
pfs = cos ∅S = cos [∅VSN -∅IS ]
c. Transmission efficiency
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3. An industrial load consisting of a group of induction load at a pf of 0.9. Find the active power and the
motors which aggregate 500 kW at 0.6 power factor reactive power at the receiving end.
lagging is supplied by a distribution feeder having an 11. A 3 phase, 50 Hz transmission line 10 km long delivers
equivalent impedance of 0.15 + j0.6 ohm. The voltage 2,500 kVA at 10 kV. The pf of the load is 0.8 lag. The
at the load end of the feeder is 2300 volts. resistance of each conductor is 0.3 Ω/km and the
a. Determine the load current. inductance 1.82 mH/km. Find:
b. Find the power, reactive power and volt – ampere a. The voltage and pf at the sending end
supplied to the sending end of the feeder. b. the efficiency of transmission
c. Find the voltage at the sending end of the feeder. c. the percentage regulation of the line
4. Calculate the % regulation of 6.6 kV single phase AC 12. An overhead 3 phase transmission line delivers 5000
transmission line delivering 40 amps current at 0.8 kW, 222 kV at 0.8 pf lagging. The resistance and
lagging power factor. The total resistance and reactance of each conductor is 4 Ω and 6 Ω
reactance of the line are 4.0 ohm and 5.0 ohm per respectively. Determine the following:
phase respectively. a. The sending end voltage
5. A balanced Y – connected load of (300 + j100) Ω is b. Percentage regulation
supplied by a three – phase line 40 km long with an c. Transmission efficiency
impedance of (0.6 + j0.7) Ω per km (line – to – neutral). 13. A 220 kV, 3 – phase transmission line is 40 km long.
Find the voltage at the receiving end when the voltage The resistance per phase is 1.5923 mH per km. The
at the sending end is 66 kV. What is the phase angle line is supplying a 3 – phase load of 381 MVA at 0.8 pf
between these voltages? Also, find the transmission
lagging. Find:
efficiency of the line.
6. A short three – phase transmission line of parameters a. The voltage and power factor at the sending end
R = 0.4 Ω and X = 0.4 Ω is delivering 2000 kVA to a of the line
load at a pf of 0.8 lagging at the receiving end of the b. The voltage regulation and efficiency of the line.
line. if the load voltage is 3000V, determine the voltage 14. A 3 – phase transmission line 50 km long consists of
regulation and efficiency of the line. three hard drawn copper conductors in a 1.2 m delta.
7. A 3 phase, 50 Hz, transmission line having resistance Load conditions at receiving end are: 10000 kVA at 0.8
of 5Ω per phase and inductance of 30 mH per phase pf lagging, 33000 volts, 50 Hz. Line is designed so that
supplies a load of 1000 kW at 0.8 lagging and 11 kV at transmission loss is approximately 10%. Find:
the receiving end. Find: a. Sending end voltage and power factor
a. sending end voltage and power factor b. Efficiency
b. transmission efficiency c. Regulation
c. regulation 15. A three – phase line has a resistance of 5.31 ohms and
8. A three – phase transmission line has a resistance of inductance of 0.0176 henry. Power is transmitted at 33
10 Ω per wire and reactance of 80 Ω per wire. The load kV, 50 Hz from one end and the load at the receiving
current is 90 A and the power factor of the load is 80% end is 3600 kW at 80 percent power factor. Find the
lagging. The sending end voltage of the line is 44 kV. line current, receiving end voltage, sending end power
Determine the following: factor and the efficiency of transmission.
a. What is the receiving end line voltage? 16. What load can be delivered by a three – phase
b. What is the power factor at the sending end? overhead line 5 km long with a pressure drop of 10%?
c. The voltage regulation of the line? Given that the station voltage is 11 kV, resistance per
9. A three – phase line has a resistance of 5.31Ω and km of each line 0.09 Ω, reactance per km 0.08 Ω and
inductance of 0.0176 H. Power is transmitted at 33 kV, the power factor of the load 0.8 lagging.
50 Hz from one end and the load at the receiving end 17. A short 3 phase transmission line with an impedance
is 3,600 kW at 0.8 pf lagging. Find the line current, of 6 + j8 Ω per wire has a sending end and receiving
receiving end voltage, sending end pf and efficiency of end voltage of 120 and 110 kV respectively. For a
transmission. receiving end load PR at 0.9 lagging pf. Find the
10. A short 3 phase line with an impedance of (6 + j8) Ω apparent, active and reactive powers.
per line has sending and receiving end line voltages of 18. A 33 kV, 3 phase generating station is to supply 10 MW
120 and 110 kV respectively for some receiving end load at 31 kV and 0.9 power factor lagging over a three
– phase transmission line 3 km long. For the efficiency
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 70
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

of the line to be 96%, what must be the resistance and negative, the receiving end voltage VR is more than the
reactance of the line? sending end voltage VS.
19. A 15 km long 3 – phase overhead line delivers 5 MW d. For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line
at 11 kV at 0.8 lagging pf. Line loss is 12% of power decreases with the decrease in pf for leading loads.
delivered. Line inductance is 1.1 mH per km per phase. Mixed Sending and Receiving End Conditions
Find sending – end voltage and voltage regulation. Sometimes the mixed conditions arise for example when
20. A 3 – phase line, 3 km long delivers 3000 kW at a the sending – end voltage and receiving – end power and
power factor of 0.8 lagging to a load. If the voltage at power factor are given and the sending – end power and
supply end is 11 kV, determine the voltage at the load power factor and the receiving end voltage are to be
end and the efficiency of transmission. The resistance determined. In such circumstances, the solution becomes
and reactance per km of each conductor are 0.4 Ω and more complicated. Such problems can be dealt with as
0.8 Ω respectively. follows:
21. What is the maximum length in km for a 1 phase We know that, Power delivered,
transmission line having copper conductors of 0.775 P=VR I cos ∅R watts
cm2 cross – section over which 200 kW at unity power Reactive volt – amperes delivered,
factor and at 3300 V can be delivered? The efficiency Q=VR I sin ∅R
of transmission is 90 percent. Take specific resistance Sending end voltage,
as 1.725 × 10–8 Ω – m.
22. Estimate the distance over which a load of 15,000 kW VS =√(VR cos ∅R +IR)2 +(VR sin ∅R +IX)2
at 0.85 pf can be delivered by a three – phase or
transmission line having conductors of steel – cored V2S =V2R +2VR I(R cos ∅R +X sin ∅R )+I2 (R2 +X2 )
aluminum each of resistance 0.905 Ω per kilometer. or
The voltage at the receiving end is to be 132 kV and VS =VR +IR cos ∅R +IXL cos ∅R
the loss in transmission is to be 7.5% of the load. Sending end power factor,
23. Estimate the distance over which a load of 15,000 kW VR cos ∅R +IR
at 0.85 power factor can be delivered by a three – cos ∅S =
phase transmission line having conductors of steel – VS
cored aluminum each of resistance 0.56 Ω per km. The Receiving end voltage,
2 2 2
potential drop at the receiving end is to be 132 kV and (R +X )P
V2S =V2R +2(PR+QX)+ 2
the loss in transmission is not to exceed 7.5% VR cos2 ∅R
Effect of Load Power Factor on Transmission or
Efficiency and Voltage Regulation of Line
The regulation and efficiency of a transmission line depend √A±√A2 -4B
to a considerable extent upon the power factor of the load. VR =
2
Lagging pf: (R2 +X2 )P2
IR cos ∅R +IXL sin ∅R where: A=V2S -2(PR+QX);B= cos2 ∅R
%VR= ×100%
VR Graphical Solution:
Leading pf: The value of receiving end voltage VR can also be
IR cos ∅R -IXL sin ∅R determined graphically.
%VR= ×100%
VR OA is drawn representing the voltage to neutral at sending
π
The following conclusions can be drawn from the above end of the line and AO’ is drawn making an angle 2 +ϕR -θ
expressions: X
a. When the load pf is lagging or unity or such leading with AO where θ= tan-1 R (see Figure 135).
that IR cos ∅R >IXL sin ∅R , then voltage regulation is BO’ is drawn perpendicular to OA and an arc of circle, OCA
positive, receiving end voltage VR will be less than the is drawn with O’ as center and O’A as radius.
sending end voltage VS. Now with B, midpoint OA, as center and BC as radius an
b. For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line arc cutting the arc OCA at C is drawn where
increases with the decrease in pf for lagging loads. V 2

c. When the load pf is leading to this extent BC=√ 4s -(PR+QX). Then OC represents the unknown
that IR cos ∅R <IXL sin ∅R , then voltage regulation is voltage at the receiving end, VR.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

V2 V2S Z2 V2R ZVS

Pmax = [-R±√R2 -R2 + 2 ] Pmax = 2 [ -R]
R VR Z VR
If the reactance of the line can be varied, Pmax will vary, and
dP
will have the maximum value when max =0.
dX
2 2 2
VR ZVS VR VS VR R V V V R
As Pmax = 2 [ V -R] = Z - 2 = R2 S 2 - 2R 2 the
Z R Z √R +X R +X
2
VR VS X 2VR RX
condition is 3 = 2 which yields X = 0 or
(R2 +X2 )2 (R2 +X2 )
1
2 2 2RVR
(R +X )2 = VS
. The value of Pmax is then
V2S
Pmax =
4R
Examples:
1. A load of 1,000 kW at 0.8 pf lagging is received at the
end of a three – phase line 10 km long. The resistance
Figure 135 and inductance of each conductor per km are 0.531 Ω
and 1.76 mH respectively. The voltage at the receiving
end is 11 kV at 50 Hz. Find the sending end voltage
Maximum Power with a Given Regulation and the power loss in the line. What would be the
The maximum power, that can be transmitted with a given reduction in the line loss if the pf of the load were
regulation, can be determined as follows: improved to unity?
V2S =V2R +2VR I(R cos ∅R +X sin ∅R )+I2 (R2 +X2 ) 2. 500 kW at 11kV are received from 3 – phase
2
P2 +Q transmission line each wire of which has a resistance
Substituting VR I cos ϕR =P, VR I sin ϕR =Q and I2 = 2 in
VR of 1.2 Ω and a reactance of 1 Ω. Calculate the supply
the above equation, we have pressure when the power factor of the load is:
(P2 +Q2 )(R2 +X2 ) a. Unity
-V2S +V2R +2PR+2QX+ =0
V2R b. 0.5 leading
For a given line, given values of R and X, and for given 3. The sending – end voltage of a 3 – phase overhead
receiving and sending end voltages, the above equation line with a resistance and reactance per phase of 5 Ω
gives relation between P and Q. Active power P delivered, and 20 Ω respectively is 46.85 kV while the receiving
varies with the variation in reactive power Q delivered, the – end voltage is 33 kV. Determine the power output at
above equation gives P as an implicit function of Q. For 0.8 pf (lag) and the sending – end power factor.
determining the condition for a maximum value of power P, 4. A three – phase short transmission line has resistance
let us differentiate the above equation with respect to Q and and reactance per phase of 15Ω and 20 Ω respectively.
dP 2Q(R2 +X2 ) -VR X
2 If the sending end voltage is 33 kV and the regulation
put =0. So, 2X+ 2 =0 or Q= for maximum of the line is not to exceed 10%, find the maximum
dQ VR R +X2
2

value of P, the value of Q is a constant negative value. power in kW which can be transmitted over the line.
The maximum value of P is determined by substituting the Find also the kVAR supplied by the line when
value of Q in the Equation which then becomes delivering the maximum power.
2V2R X2 P2 (R2 +X2 ) V4R X2 (R2 +X2 ) 5. A 3 phase, 50 Hz generating station supplies a load of
-V2S +V2R +2PR- + + × =0 9,900 kW at 0.866 pf lag through a short overhead
R2 +X2 V2R (R2 +X2 )
2
V2R transmission line. Determine the sending end voltage
2 2
2VR X2 P2 Z2 VR X2 if the receiving end voltage is 66 kV and the efficiency
or -V2S +V2R +2PR- + + =0
Z2 2
VR Z2 of transmission. The resistance per km is 4Ω and
2
P2 Z2 VR R2 inductance 40 mH. What is the maximum power in kVA
or 2 +2PR+ -V2S =0
VR Z2 that can be transmitted through the line if both the
so, we find sending and receiving end voltages are kept at 66 kV
and resistance of the line is negligible?
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

6. What is the maximum power that can be transmitted low), while the nominal – π method under compensates.
over a 3 – phase short line having per phase Because of the approximations involved in T and π –
impedance of (0.3 + j0.4) Ω if the receiving end voltage methods, they are often referred to as nominal – T and
is 6351 volts per phase and voltage regulation not to nominal – π methods.
exceed 5%. Also, calculate the receiving end power End Condenser Method (1∅ and 3∅)
factor and total line loss when supplying maximum In this method, the capacitance of the line is lumped or
power. concentrated at the receiving or load end as seen in Figure
7. A three – phase short transmission line of resistance 8 136. This method of localizing the line capacitance at the
Ω and reactance 11 Ω per phase is supplied with a load end over estimates the effect of the capacitance.
voltage of 11 kV. At the end of the line is a balanced Using per phase analysis
load of P kW per phase at a pf of 0.8 leading. For what
value of P is the voltage regulation of the line zero?
Medium Transmission Line Analysis
For transmission lines of length up to 80 km and
transmitting power at relatively low voltage; (voltage below
20 kV), the capacitance is too small that its effects can be
neglected. However, the effects of shunt capacitance
become more and more pronounced with the increase in
length and operating voltage of the line. Since medium
transmission lines have sufficient length exceeding 80 km
and usually operate at voltages exceeding 20 kV, the
capacitive current is appreciable and, therefore, line
capacitance is to be considered. The capacitive current is Figure 136 Equivalent Circuit for End Condenser Method
always flowing in the line while the supply end switches are Voltage and Current Equations
closed even though the receiving end of the line may be By KVL,
open circuited. The magnitude of capacitive current flowing VSN =IS (R+jXL )+VCN
at any point along the line is that required to charge the VRN =VCN
section of the line between the given point and the receiving By KCL,
end, hence it has a maximum value at the sending end and IR =IC +IS
diminishes at a practically uniform rate down to zero at the IC =VCN (jβ)
receiving end. let:
In general, the capacitance of the line is uniformly IR = load current per phase
distributed over its entire length. However, to make the R = resistance per phase
calculations simple, the capacitance of the system is XL = inductive reactance per phase
assumed to be divided up, and ‘lumped’ in the form of C = capacitance per phase
capacitors shunted across the line at one or more points – cos ∅𝑅 = receiving pf (lagging)
the more points the closer the approximation. VSN = sending end voltage per phase
The most common methods of representation, called the β = susceptance per phase
localized capacitance methods are: End Condenser, Limitations:
Nominal – T (Middle Condenser Method) and Nominal – π a. There is a considerable error (about 10%) in
method (Split Condenser Method). calculations because the distributed capacitance has
The above methods of solution of transmission lines are been assumed to be lumped or concentrated.
only of academic interest as far as long lines are concerned b. This method over estimates the effects of capacitance.
because these involve considerable error owing to the Voltage/Current Vector Diagram
actual distributed capacitance having been assumed - capacitive current always leads VR by 90⁰
lumped. However, for lines up to 200 km at 50 Hz, the error - XL leads I by 90⁰
involved using these methods will be of the order of 10 % - R is always in phase with the line current
for sending – end voltage calculations which is an Let VRN as reference:
acceptable approximation. It is interesting to note that the
end condenser method and nominal – T method over
compensates (giving sending – end voltages which are too
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By KVL,
R+jXL
VSN =IS ( ) +VCN
2
R+jXL
VCN =IR ( ) +VRN
2
By KCL,
IS =IC +IR
let:
IR = load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase
cos ∅𝑅 = receiving pf (lagging)
Figure 137 Vector Diagram for End Condenser Method VSN = sending end voltage per phase
∅S =θ1 +α β = susceptance per phase
here: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VRN = VRN + j0 VCN = voltage across capacitor C to neutral
Load current: Voltage/Current Vector Diagram
⃗⃗IR =IR (cos ∅R -j sin ∅R )=IR ∠-θR Let VRN as reference:
Capacitive current:
⃗⃗IC =jV
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
RN ωC=jVRN 2πfC=jβVRN
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sending end current:
I⃗⃗S =I⃗⃗R +I⃗⃗C
Voltage drop/phase:
I⃗⃗S ⃗⃗⃗
ZL =I⃗⃗S (R+jXL )
Sending end voltage/phase:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VSN =V ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
RN +IS ZL
Figure 139 Vector Diagram for Nominal T Method
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VCN =VRN ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∅S = θ2 + α
Note: If single phase, you can take ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
here: VRN = VRN + j0
⃗⃗⃗⃗
VS =V ⃗⃗⃗⃗R +I⃗⃗S ⃗⃗⃗
ZL Load current:
Nominal T – Method/Middle Condenser Method (3∅) ⃗⃗⃗
IR = IR (cos ∅R − j sin ∅R ) = IR ∠ − θR
Voltage across C:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Z
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VCN = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ VRN + ⃗⃗⃗ IR ( )
2
R jX L
VCN = VRN + IR (cos ∅R − j sin ∅R ) ( + )
2 2
Capacitive current:
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
IC = jV ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
CN ωC = jVCN 2πfC = jβVCN
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Sending end current:
I⃗⃗⃗S = ⃗⃗⃗IR + ⃗⃗⃗ IC
Figure 138 Equivalent Circuit for Nominal – T Method Sending end voltage/phase:
In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Z
concentrated to the middle point of the line and half the line ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
SN = VCN + IS ( )
2
resistance and reactance is lump on its either side as Nominal Pi – Method/Split Condenser Method (3∅)
shown in Figure 138. In this method, the capacitance of each conductor (line to
neutral) is divided into halves as seen in Figure 140. One
half is being lumped at the sending end and the other half
Using per phase analysis: at the receiving end. It is seen that the capacitance at the
Voltage and Current Equations
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

sending end has no effect in the line drop. However, the ⃗⃗⃗
IR = IR (cos ∅R − j sin ∅R ) = IR ∠ − θR
charging current must be added to line current to obtain the Charging current at load end:
total sending end current. C C
Using per phase analysis ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
IC2 = jV⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
RN ω ( ) = jVRN πf ( )
2 2
Line current:
I⃗⃗⃗L = ⃗⃗⃗
IR + ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
IC2
Sending end voltage/phase:
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
SN = VCN + IL ZL
Examples:
1. A single – phase medium transmission line, 80 km long
has the following constants:
Resistance/km = 0.3125 Ω
Reactance/km = 1.0 Ω
Susceptance/km = 17.5 x 10-6 S
Figure 140 Equivalent Circuit for Split Condenser Method Receiving end line voltage = 66 kV
Voltage and Current Equations If the total capacitance of the line is localized at the
By KVL receiving end alone, determine:
VCN1 = IL (R + jX L ) + VCN2 a. The sending end current
VCN1 = VSN VCN2 = VRN b. The sending end voltage
By KCL c. The sending end power factor
IS = IL + IC1 IL = IC2 + IR d. Voltage regulation
jβ jβ e. Line losses
IC1 = VCN1 ( 2 ) IC2 = VCN2 ( 2 )
f. Transmission efficiency
let: 2. A single – phase medium transmission line, 100 km
IR = load current per phase long has the following constants:
R = resistance per phase Resistance/km = 0.25 Ω
XL = inductive reactance per phase Reactance/km = 0.8 Ω
C = capacitance per phase Susceptance/km = 14 x 10-6 S
cos ∅𝑅 = receiving pf (lagging) Receiving end line voltage = 66 kV
VSN = sending end voltage per phase If the total capacitance of the line is localized at the
β = susceptance per phase receiving end alone. The line is delivering 15000 kW at
Voltage/Current Vector Diagram 0.8 pf lagging. Determine:
Let VRN as reference: a. The sending end current
b. The sending end voltage
c. Voltage regulation
d. Supply pf
3. A (medium) single phase transmission line 50 km long
has the following constants:
Resistance/km = 0.5 Ω
Reactance/km = 1.6 Ω
Susceptance/km = 28 × 10−6 S
Receiving end line voltage = 66 kV
If total capacitance of the line is located at receiving
end alone, determine the sending end voltage, the
sending end current and regulation. The line is
delivering 15000 kW at 0.8 pf lagging.
Figure 141 Vector Diagram for Nominal Pi Method 4. A 3 – phase, 50 Hz, 150 km line has a resistance,
∅S = θ1 + α inductive reactance and capacitive shunt admittance of
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
here: VRN = VRN + j0 0.1 Ω, 0.5 Ω and 3 x 10-6 per km per phase. If the line
Load current: delivers 50 MW at 110 kV and 0.8 pf lagging, determine

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

the sending end voltage and current. Assume a 12. A 3 phase, 50 Hz transmission line, 100 km long
nominal π circuit for the line. delivers 20 MW at 0.9 pf lagging and at 110 kV. The
5. A 3 – phase transmission line, 100 km long has resistance and reactance of the line per phase per km
following constants: are 0.2 Ω and 0.4 Ω respectively while the capacitive
Resistance per km per phase = 0.28 Ω admittance is 2.5 × 10−6 S per km. Calculate (a) the
Inductive reactance per km per phase = 0.63 Ω voltage and current at the sending end and (b) the
Susceptance per km per phase = 4 × 10−6 Siemens efficiency of transmission. Use the nominal T –
If the load at the receiving end is 75 MVA at 0.8 pf method.
lagging with 132 kV between lines calculate sending 13. A 3 – phase transmission line has the following
end voltage, current and pf. Use nominal π method. constants (line – to – neutral); R = 10 Ω; inductive
6. A 100 km long, three phase, 50 Hz transmission line reactance = 20 Ω, capacitive reactance = 2.5 kΩ. Using
has: the nominal T – method, calculate the voltage, line
Resistance/phase/km = 0.1 Ω current and power factor at sending – end and the
Reactance/phase/km = 0.5 Ω efficiency of transmission when the transmission line
Susceptance/phase/km = 10 × 10−6 Siemens supplies a balanced load of 10 MW at 66 kV and power
If the line supplies a load of 20 MW at 0.9 pf lagging at factor 0.8 lagging.
66 kV at the receiving end, calculate by nominal π 14. A 3 phase, 50 Hz overhead transmission line, 100 km
method, the regulation and efficiency of the line. long has the following constants:
Neglect leakage. Resistance/km = 0.1 Ω
7. A 50 Hz, 3 phase line 100 km long delivers a load of Reactance/km = 0.2 Ω
40,000 kVA at 110 kV and a lagging power factor of Susceptance/km = 0.04 x 10-4
0.7. The line constants (line – to – neutral) are: Determine the following:
resistance 11 Ω; inductive reactance 38 Ω; a. The sending end current
susceptance 3 × 10−4 S (half at each end), leakage b. Sending end voltage
negligible. Find the sending end voltage, current, c. Sending end pf
power factor and power input. d. Transmission efficiency
8. A 50 Hz, 3 phase transmission line has the following When supplying a balanced load of 10000 kW at 66
constants (line – to – neutral): Resistance 11 Ω, kV, 0.8 pf lagging. Use nominal T approximation.
reactance 38 Ω; susceptance 3 × 10−4 S, leakage 15. Calculate the sending – end voltage, efficiency and
negligible. The capacitance can be assumed located regulation of a three – phase, 50 Hz, 100 km long
half at each end of the line. Calculate the sending – transmission line, supplying a load of 20 MW at 0.8
end voltage, the line current and the efficiency of power factor lag, at 66 kV. The resistance per phase is
transmission when the load at the end of the line is 10 Ω; the inductance per phase is 111.7 mH; and the
40,000 kVA at 110 kV power factor 0.7 lagging. capacitance per phase is 0.9954 μF. Use Nominal – T
9. A single – phase transmission line delivers 1 MVA at a Method.
power factor of 0.71 lagging, 22 kV, 50 Hz. The loop 16. A three – phase 50 Hz transmission line has
resistance is 15 Ω, the loop inductance 0.2 H and the resistance, inductance and capacitance per phase of
capacitance 0.5 μF. Using Nominal – π Method, find 10 Ω, 0.1 H and 0.9 μF and delivers a load of 35 MW
the sending – end voltage, current and power factor. at 132 kV and 0.8 pf lag. Determine the efficiency and
10. A 50 Hz, 3 – phase transmission line is 200 km long. It regulation of the line using nominal – T method.
has a total series impedance of 35+j140 Ω and shunt 17. A 3 phase, 50 Hz overhead transmission line 100 km
admittance of j930×10-6 S. It delivers 40 MW power at long with 132 kV between lines at the receiving end
220 kV with 0.9 pf (lagging). Find the magnitude of the has the following constants:
sending – end voltage. Consider nominal – π model of Resistance/km/phase = 0.15 Ω
the line. Inductance/km/phase = 1.20 mH
11. Using Nominal – π Method, find the sending – end Capacitance/km/phase = 0.01 mF
voltage and voltage regulation of 250 km, 3 – phase, Determine, using an approximate method of allowing
50 Hz transmission line delivering 25 MVA at 0.8 power for capacitance, the voltage, current and pf at the
factor lagging to a balanced load at 132 kV. The line sending end when the load at the receiving end is 72
has a series impedance of 27.5 + j97.4 Ω and shunt MW at 0.8 pf lagging.
admittance 7.38 × 10-4 mho. Neglect leakage.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 76
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

18. A single – phase transmission line delivers 1 MVA at a replaced by the circuit of Figure 142 (b) where these
power factor of 0.71 lagging, 22 kV, 50 Hz. The loop distributed parameters have been lumped. As shown in the
resistance is 15 Ω, the loop inductance 0.2 H and the phasor diagram in Figure 143. The charging current IC leads
capacitance 0.5 μF. Find a) the voltage b) the current VR by 90⁰. Taking receiving – end phase voltage as
c) the power factor at the sending end. Using Nominal reference phasor, we have
– π method. d) If the sending – end voltage be VR = VR (1 + j0) represented by phasor OA
maintained unaltered, to what value will the receiving – Charging current,
end voltage rise on no load? IC = jωCVR represented by phasor OD.
19. A three phase, 20 km line delivers a load of 10 MW @ Voltage at sending end,
11 kV. The power factor at the receiving end is 0.707 VS = VR + resistive drop in line + reactive drop in line
lagging. The line has a resistance of 0.02 Ω per km and VS = VR + IC R(represented by phasor AB)
an inductive reactance of 0.07 Ω per km per phase. + jIC X (represented by phasor BC)
Calculate the efficiency of the line. If the receiving end VS = VR + IC (R + jX) = VR + jωCVR (R + jωL) or
power factor is raised to 0.9 lagging by using a static VS = VR − ω2 CLVR + jωCRVR represented by phasor OC.
capacitor. What is the new efficiency? The overhead transmission lines having long length to bring the
20. A 20 km 3 – phase transmission line delivers at the effect into prominence usually have a large reactance compared
farthest end a 5000 – kVA load at 33 kV and 0.8 pf with resistance, and by taking advantage of this fact a simple
lagging and at the midpoint, a 10000 – kVA load at approximate formula for determining the magnitude of the effect
0.7071 pf lagging. Neglecting the changes in line can be derived.
power factor and using approximate formula, find the Neglecting resistive drop ICR, we get
Rise in voltage = OA − OC
voltage at the midpoint and at the sending end and the
= Inductive drop in line (Figure 143)
total current. The resistance and reactance per phase
If C0 and L0 are the capacitance and inductance of the
per km are 0.6 Ω and 1.5 Ω respectively.
transmission line per km, length and l is the length of line in
Ferranti Effect 1
In a medium or long transmission line when open – circuited km, the capacitive reactance, X C = .
ω/C0
or lightly loaded the receiving – end voltage is found more As the capacitance of the line is uniformly distributed over
than the sending – end voltage. This phenomenon of rise in the entire length of the line, therefore, the average current
voltage at the receiving end of the open – circuited or lightly flowing through the line
loaded line is called the Ferranti effect owing to its first 1 VR 1
being observed on the Deptford mains laid down by S.Z. de IC = = V C ωl
2 XC 2 R 0
Ferranti in 1890. This effect is due to voltage drop across The reactance of the transmission line,
the line inductance, due to charging current, being in phase X = ωL0 l
with the applied voltage at the sending end of the line. This 1 1
Rise in voltage = IC X = VR C0 ωl × ωL0 l = ω2 l1 VR C0 L0
both capacitance and inductance are necessary to cause 2 2
1
this phenomenon. The capacitance, and therefore, The quantity is constant for all overhead lines and is
√L0 C0
charging current is negligible in short lines but significant in
equal to the velocity of propagation of electromagnetic
medium and long transmission lines. On a 300 – km line
waves. It is nearly equal to the speed of light, 3 ×
operating on 50 Hz supply, the receiving end voltage on
open circuit is usually found to be roughly 5% higher than 105 km/s. So
1 1
the sending – end voltage. Rise in voltage at the receiving end = ω2 l2 VR ×
2 (3 × 105 )2
A long or medium transmission line has a considerable ω2 l2 VR × 10−10
capacitance and so draws a leading charging current from =
18
V
the sending end even when the line is unloaded. It is seen that the excess of voltage at the receiving end of
an open – circuited line is proportional to the square of the
length of the line. It
is found that quite a
small load
eliminates this
Figure 142 Distributed Parameters of Transmission Lines effect, and where
Figure 142 (a) shows the distributed parameters of such a there are transformers in the circuit at the receiving end, the
line. It may be Figure 143 Phasor Diagram with Ferranti Effect magnetizing currents act in such a way.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 77
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

For long high voltage and extra high voltage lines shunt IC2 2 x3 2
IC2
reactors are provided to absorb part of charging current or [l + x + − lx ] =
I3 3 3
shunt capacitive VA, of the line on no load and light load, to IC
prevent over voltages on the line. I=
Charging Current and Line Loss of an Unloaded √3
If R is the resistance of the line per phase, then total power
Transmission Line
loss in the line is
In transmission line operation, the voltage at the receiving
end is usually maintained constant irrespective of the 2
IC 2
3I R = 3 ( ) R
magnitude of the load of the system. The charging current √3
of an open – circuited line is the amount of current flowing Effect of Capacitance on Performance of Loaded Line
into the line at the sending end with normal voltage and no On inductive load, as usual in practice, the effect of
load at the receiving end. The calculation of charging capacitance is to reduce voltage drop along the line and to
current becomes much simplified if it is assumed that reduce the copper losses of the line. The magnitude of this
voltage throughout the length of the line is same, there is effect depends on the phase angle at the receiving end.
no voltage drop in the line. In any line, the current flowing through it can be split up into
Assuming voltage equality along the line, the actual value two components, the load current and the charging current.
of charging current will fall uniformly from its maximum The effect of load current with lagging or unity power factor
value at the sending end to zero at the receiving end. is to make the receiving end voltage lower than sending end
voltage whereas the charging current tends to raise the
receiving end voltage. Thus, the voltage drop along the line
is diminished.
In case of short transmission lines the regulation and
voltage drop are numerically equal. But in medium and long
transmission lines, where capacitance effects must be
considered, the regulation is greater than voltage drop by
the rise in voltage due to Ferranti effect.
The presence of capacitance also influences the power
losses of the system by an amount depending on the
relative values of the charging current and quadrature
component of the load current. The charging current tends
to neutralize the quadrature component (lagging) of the
load current, consequently the line current is reduced and,
therefore, line losses are reduced. It can be easily seen that
reduction in line current and line losses takes place so long
as the receiving – end charging current is less than twice
the quadrature component of the load current.
At unity power factor of the load there will be no quadrature
component of the load current and so the effect of charging
current in line supplying a non – inductive load is always to
increase the line losses. With small highly inductive load,
Figure 145 Distribution of Capacitance in a Long Transmission Line the charging current may exceed twice the quadrature
Figure 145 shows the distribution of capacitance in a long component of load current and give increased line losses.
transmission line of length l. As seen, charging current IC Examples:
has maximum value at the sending end and linearly falls to 1. A 50 Hz, 3 – phase, 100 km long line delivers a load of
zero at the receiving end. Accordingly, value of charging 40 MVA at 110 kV and 0.7 pf lag. The line constants
current at distance x from the sending end is proportionally (line to neutral) are: resistance of 11 ohms, inductive
equal to IC (l − x)/l. The RMS value I of this current is given reactance of 38 ohms and susceptance of 3 × 10−4
by Siemens. Find sending end voltage, current, power
1 1 IC2 (l − x)2 IC2 1 2 factor and efficiency of power transmission. If the
I2 = ∫ dx = ∫ (l + x 2 − 2lx)dx
l 0 l2 I3 0 sending end voltage is held constant and load is

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

removed, calculate the receiving end voltage and 0.8. The current in one of the cables is 70 A and it
current. delivers 600 kW. Calculate its reactance and
2. Determine the percentage rise in voltage at the resistance, given that the other cable has reactance of
receiving end of a transmission line of length 200 km 2.6 Ω and a resistance of 2 Ω.
operating at 50 Hz. GENERALIZED CONSTANTS OF A TRANSMISSION
Load Division between Parallel Lines LINE (ABCD PARAMETERS)
It is common practice to work two or more cables or In any four – terminal
overhead lines in parallel when continuity of supply is network, the input
essential. In the case of a fault developing in one line of voltage and the input
cable, the other lines or cables carry the total load till the current can be
fault is rectified. expressed in terms Figure 146 Two Port Network
Let us take the case of two lines in parallel and having of output voltage and output current. Incidentally, a
impedances of Z1 and Z2. Their combined impedance is transmission line is a 4 – terminal network, two input
Z1 Z2 terminals where power enters the network and two output
Z=
Z1 + Z2 terminals where power leaves the network. Therefore, the
If I is the current delivered to both lines, then total drop input voltage (VS) and input current (IS) of a three – phase
Z1 Z2 transmission line can be expressed as:
IZ = I ⃗⃗⃗⃗S = ⃗AV ⃗⃗⃗⃗R + ⃗B⃗⃗⃗
Z1 + Z2 V IR → 1
If I1 and I2 are the respective currents flowing in the two I⃗⃗⃗S = C ⃗V⃗⃗⃗⃗R + D ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
IR → 2
lines, then where:
IZ2 IZ1 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VS = sending end voltage per phase
I1 = I2 =
Z1 + Z2 Z1 + Z2 I⃗⃗⃗S = sending end current per phase
It may be noted that in the case of two impedances in ⃗⃗⃗⃗R = receiving end voltage per phase
V
parallel, it is convenient to take voltage vector as the
⃗⃗⃗
IR = receiving end current per phase
reference vector.
Examples: The A ⃗,B⃗,C ⃗ and D ⃗ (generally complex numbers) are the
1. Two overhead lines are connected in parallel to supply constant known as generalized circuit constants of the
a load of 10 MW at 0.8 pf (lagging) and 30 kV. The transmission line. The values of these constants depend
resistance and reactance of one line (A) are 5.5 Ω and upon the method adopted for solving the performance of a
13.5 Ω, respectively; those of the other line (B) are 6 transmission line.
Ω and 11 Ω respectively. Calculate (a) the kVA The following points are kept in mind:
supplied by each line (b) the power supplied by each 1. The constants ⃗A, ⃗B, ⃗C and ⃗D are generally complex
line. numbers.
2. A total load of 12,000 kW at a power factor of 0.8 2. The constants A ⃗ and D ⃗ are dimensionless, where as
lagging is transmitted to a substation by two overhead ⃗ and C
B ⃗ are in Ω and ℧ respectively.
three – phase lines connected in parallel. One line has 3. For a given transmission line:
a conductor resistance of 2 Ω per conductor and ⃗ =D ⃗
A
reactance (line to neutral) of 1.5 Ω, the corresponding
values for the other line being 1.5 and 1.2 Ω 4. For a given transmission line:
respectively. Calculate the power transmitted by each ⃗A⃗D − ⃗B⃗C = 1
overhead line. Short Transmission Line (Simple Series Impedance
3. The 3 – phase output from a hydro – electric station is Method)
transmitted to a distributing center by two overhead In short transmission lines, the effect of the line capacitance
lines connected in parallel but following different is neglected. Therefore, the line is considered to have
routes. Find how a total load of 5,000 kW at a pf of 0.8 series impedance.
lagging would divide between the two routes if the Here, I⃗⃗⃗S = ⃗⃗⃗ IR
respective line resistances are 1.5 and 1.0 Ω and their ⃗⃗⃗⃗
VS = V ⃗⃗⃗⃗R + ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗
IR Z
reactances at 25 Hz are 1.25 and 1.2 Ω. Comparing the 2 equations we have:
4. Two 3 phase cables connected in parallel supply a ⃗ =1
A ⃗ =Z
B ⃗ ⃗ =0
C ⃗ =1
D
6,600 V, 1,000 kW load at a lagging power factor of ⃗
Incidentally, A = D ⃗

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Also, A⃗D ⃗ −B ⃗C ⃗ =1=1×1−Z ⃗ ×0=1 Two Networks in Tandem

Medium Transmission Lines Two networks are said to be connected in tandem when the
End Condenser Method output of one network is connected to the input of the other
In this method, the capacitance of the line is assumed to be network, as illustrated in Figure 147. Let the two networks
lumped at the load end. This method overestimates the having constants A1, B1, C1, D1 and A2, B2, C2, D2 be
effect of capacitance. connected in series
Recall Analytical Solutions,
I⃗⃗⃗S = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VRN ⃗Y + ⃗⃗⃗ IR
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V SN = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V RN (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
Z ⃗
L ) + IR ZL
Y ⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
here,
⃗A = 1 + ⃗Y⃗⃗⃗⃗ ZL ⃗B = ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ZL ⃗C = ⃗Y ⃗D = 1
⃗D ⃗ −B⃗C ⃗ = 1 = (1 + Y ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Figure 146 Two Networks in Tandem
Incidentally, A ZL ) × 1 − Y ZL =
For network I,
1
VS = A1 V ′ + B1 I ′
Nominal T – Method
IS = C1 V ′ + D1 I′
In this method, the whole line to neutral capacitance is
For network II,
assumed to be concentrated at the middle point of the line
V ′ = A2 VR + B2 IR
and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped in
I ′ = C2 VR + D2 IR
either side.
Combining the two networks, we have
Recall Analytical Solutions,
VS = A1 (A2 VR + B2 IR ) + B1 (C2 VR + D2 IR )
⃗Y
I⃗⃗⃗S = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VRN Y ⃗ + ⃗⃗⃗ IR (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ZL ) = (A1 A2 + B1 C2 )VR + (A1 B2 + B1 D2 )IR
2 and IS = C1 (A2 VR + B2 IR ) + D1 (C2 VR + D2 IR )
⃗Y ⃗Y (C1 A2 + D1 C2 )VR + (C1 B2 + D1 D2 )IR
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
SN = VRN (1 + ZL ) + IR ZL (1 + ZL )
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗ Therefore, for the two networks in tandem, the generalized
2 4
here, constants of the equivalent network are
Y Y
A = A1 A2 + B1 C2
⃗ =D
A ⃗ = 1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 2 B ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 4) C⃗ =Y
⃗ B = A1 B2 + B1 D2
2 C = A2 C1 + C2 D1
Y
⃗D
Incidentally,A⃗ −B⃗ = (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
⃗C ZL 2) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL (1 + D = B2 C1 + D1 D2
Y 2 2 2 2 Two Networks in Parallel
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 4) Y⃗ = 1 + ZL Y + ZLY − ZL Y − ZLY Let the two networks be connected in parallel, as illustrated
4 4
=1 in Figure 147, and the currents at the sending end and
Nominal ‘pi’ Method receiving end be IS1 and IR1 for network I and IS2 and IR2 for
In this method, the line to neutral capacitance is divided into network II
halves, one half being concentrated at the load end and the
other half at the sending end.
Recall Analytical Solutions,
⃗Y ⃗Y
I⃗⃗⃗S = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
VRN Y ⃗ (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL ) + ⃗⃗⃗ IR (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗ZL )
4 2
⃗Y
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
V ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
SN = VRN (1 + ZL ) + IR ZL
⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗
2
here,
Y Y
⃗ =D
A ⃗ = 1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 2 B ⃗ = ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL C ⃗ =Y
⃗ (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 4)
Figure 147 Two Networks in Parallel
Y
2 Here IS = IS1 + IS2
Incidentally, ⃗D
A⃗ −B⃗
⃗C = (1 + ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 2) − ⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL (1 + IR = IR1 + IR2
Y 2 2 2 2 For network I, VS = A1 VR + B1 IR1
⃗⃗⃗⃗
ZL 4) Y⃗ = 1 + ZL Y + ZLY − ZL Y − ZLY
4 4 and IS1 = C1 VR + D1 IR1
=1 For network II, VS = A2 VR + B2 IR12
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

and IS2 = C2 VR + D2 IR2 find the receiving end power factor and the current.
Comparing the two networks, we have With the sending end voltage maintained at 110 kV, if
A1 VR + B1 IR1 = A2 VR + B2 IR12 the load is suddenly thrown off, find the corresponding
or (A1 − A2 )VR = B2 IR2 − B1 IR1 receiving end voltage.
or (A1 − A2 )VR = B2 (IR − IR1 ) − B1 IR1 4. Find the following for a single – circuit transmission line
B I −(A1 −A2 )VR
or IR1 = 2 R B +B delivering a load of 50 MVA at 110 kV and pf 0.8
1 2 lagging:
Substituting the value of IR1, we have a. Sending end voltage
B1 b. Sending end current
VS = A1 VR + [B I − (A1 − A2 )VR ]
B1 + B2 2 R c. Sending end power
B1 (A1 − A2 ) B1 B2 d. Efficiency of transmission
VS = [A1 − ] VR + I
B1 + B2 B1 + B2 R Given A = D = 0.98 ∠3º, B = 110 ∠75º ohm, C = 0.0005
A1 B2 + B1 A2 B1 B2 ∠80º ohm
VS = VR + I 5. A 3 – phase, 50 Hz, 300 km long transmission line has
B1 + B2 B1 + B2 R
Substituting the values of IS1 and IS2, we have the following parameters: R = 0.15 Ω/km; X = 0.5
IS = C1 VR + D1 IR1 + C2 VR + D2 IR2 Ω/km; Y = 3 𝜇℧/km.
IS = (C1 + C2 )VR + D1 IR1 + D2 (IR − IR1 ) If the line is represented by nominal – π, determine
IS = (C1 + C2 )VR + (D1 − D2 )IR1 + D2 IR a. The ABCD constants of the line
Substituting the value of IR1, we have b. The power at unity power factor that can be
B2 IR − (A1 − A2 )VR received if the voltage at each end is maintained
IS = (C1 + C2 )VR + (D1 − D2 ) + D2 IR at 220 kV
B1 + B2
(A1 − A2 )(D1 − D2 ) B1 D2 + D1 B2 c. The sending – end voltage required if a load of 200
IS = [C1 + C2 − ] VR + IR
B1 + B2 B1 + B2 MW at 0.85 lagging power factor is to be delivered
Therefore, for the two networks connected in parallel, the with the receiving – end voltage remaining at 220
generalised constants of the equivalent network are kV.
A1 B2 + A2 B1 6. A balanced 3 phase load of 30 MW is supplied at 132
A= kV, 50 Hz, and 0.85 pf lagging by means of a
B1 + B2
B1 B2 transmission line. The series impedance of a single
B= conductor is (20+j52) Ω and the total phase – neutral
B1 + B2
(A1 − A2 )(D1 − D2 ) admittance is 315 x 10-6. Using nominal T – method,
C = C1 + C2 − determine:
B1 + B2
B1 D2 + D1 B2 a. The A, B, C and D constants of the line
D= b. Sending end voltage
B1 + B2 c. Regulation of the line
Examples: 7. A 150 km, 3 phase, 110 kV, 50 Hz transmission line
1. Find the A, B, C, D parameters of a 3 – phase, 80 km transmits a load of 40,000 kW at 0.8 pf lag at receiving
50 Hz transmission line with series impedance of 0.15 end.
+ j0.78 ohm/km and a shunt capacitance of j5 μ Resistance/km/phase = 0.15 Ω
mho/km. Reactance/km/phase = 0.6 Ω
2. The A, B, C, D constants of a three – phase Susceptance/km/phase = 10−5 S
transmission line are A = D = 0.936 + j0.016, B = 33.5 a. Determine the A, B, C and D constants of the line
+ j138 Ω and C = (- 0.9280 + j901.223) μ mho. The b. Find regulation of the line.
load at the receiving end is 40 MW at 200 kV with pf of 8. A 132 kV, 50 Hz, 3 phase transmission line delivers a
0.86 lagging. Find the magnitude of the sending – end load of 50 MW at 0.8 pf lagging at receiving bend. The
voltage, current, power and voltage regulation. generalized constants of the transmission line are A =
Assume that the magnitude of the sending – end D = 0.95 ∠1.4º; B = 96 ∠ 7.8º; C = 0.0015 ∠90º. Find
voltage remains constant. the regulation of the line and the charging current. Use
3. The generalized A and B constants of a transmission nominal T – method.
line are 0.96 ∠1º and 120 ∠80º respectively. If the line 9. Two 3 – phase transmission lines having the
to line voltages at the sending and receiving ends are generalized constants:
both 110 kV and the phase angle between them is 30º,

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

A1 = D1 = 0.98∠2°; B1 = 28∠60° Ω; C1 = conductance (G) takes into account the energy losses
0.0002∠90° occurring through leakage over the insulators, or due
A2 = D2 = 0.95∠3°; B2 = 40∠85° Ω; C2 = to corona effect between conductors.
0.0004∠90° Thus, shunt admittance, Y = √G 2 + B 2
They are connected in series and delivers a load d. The leakage current through the shunt admittance is
current of 200 A at 0.95 pf (lagging) at 110 kV. maximum at the sending end of the transmission line
Determine the sending – end voltage and sending – and decreases continuously as we move towards the
end current. receiving end of the line and becomes zero at the
10. Two identical three – phase transmission lines are receiving end.
connected in parallel to supply a load of 100 MW at 132 The performance of long transmission lines can be solved
kV and 0.8 pf lagging at the receiving – end. The ABCD using rigorous method and classical method.
constants of each transmission lines are as follows: Rigorous Method
A = D = 0.98∠1°; B = 100∠75° Ω/phase; C = The impedances and shunt admittances of the line is
0.0005∠90° siemens/phase uniformly distributed.
Analysis of Long Transmission Line
It is well known that the line constants (resistance,
inductance, capacitance and conductance) of a
transmission line are uniformly distributed over the entire
length of the line. For short and medium line, it has been
assumed that the line has lumped constants and the line
calculations made with such assumptions gave results with
reasonable accuracy. If such an assumption of lumped line
constants is applied to long transmission lines (lines having
length more than 200 km), serious errors are introduced in
the line performance calculations. Therefore, the
performance calculations of long transmission lines are Figure 149 Exact Equivalent Circuit of Transmission Line
made with line constants uniformly distributed over the Consider an infinitely small length dx of the line at a
entire length of the line so that the results with fair degree distance x from the receiving end.
of accuracy are obtained. Rigorous mathematical treatment Let r = Resistance per unit length of line
is required for the solution of such transmission lines. The x = Reactance per unit length of line
equivalent circuit of a 3 – phase long transmission line is b = Susceptance per unit length of line
represented by Figure 148. g = Conductance per unit length of line
The whole line is divided into n – sections, each section z = √r 2 + x 2 , impedance per unit length of line
1
having line constants nth of those for the whole line. y = √g 2 + b 2, admittance per unit length of line
V = voltage per phase at the end of element towards
receiving end
V+dV = voltage at the end of element towards sending
end
VR = Voltage per phase at receiving end
Figure 148 Equivalent Circuit of Three Phase Long Transmission Line VS = Voltage per phase at sending end
The following points are needed to be considered: IR = Current per phase at receiving end
a. The line constants (resistance, inductive reactance, IS = Current per phase at sending end
capacitive susceptance and conductance) are I+dI = current element entering the element dx
uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line I = current leaving element dx
as is the case. Now the series impedance of element dx of the line is zdx
b. The resistance (R) and inductive reactance (X) are the The shunt admittance of element dx of the line is ydx
series elements. Obviously, the rise in voltage over the element length in the
c. The capacitive susceptance (B) and leakage direction of increasing x
conductance (G) are shunt elements. dV = Izdx, voltage drop in element dx
The leakage susceptance is because the capacitance dV
or dx = zI
exists between line and neutral. The leakage
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Similarly, the difference of current entering the element and The sending end voltage, VS and sending end current, IS
that of leaving the element. can be obtained by substituting x = l, thus
dI = Vydx, the current drawn by this element VS = VR cosh Υl + IR ZC sinh Υl
dI
or dx = Vy and
VR
Differentiating with respect to x, we get IS = IR cosh Υl + ( ) sinh Υl
d2 V dI ZC
2
= z = zVy Now Υl = √yzl = √yl × zl = √YZ
dx dx
The solution of above differential equation is where Z is the total impedance of the line and Y is the total
V = A1 e√yzx + A2 e−√yzx admittance of the line.
where A1 and A2 are unknown constants. Differetiating with The expressions for sending – end voltage and sending –
respect to x, we get end currents are
dV VS = VR cosh √YZ + IR ZC sinh √YZ
= √yz {A1 e√yzx − A2 e−√yzx } and
dx
Thus, VR
IS = IR cosh √YZ + ( ) sinh √YZ
1 dV 1 ZC
I= = √yz {A1 e√yzx − A2 e−√yzx } Comparing above equations with the general voltage and
z dx z
y current equations of the line, we have
I = √ {A1 e√yzx − A2 e−√yzx } A = D = cosh √YZ
z
The expressions for V and I in the form of unknown B = ZC sinh √YZ
constants A1 and A2 can be determined by applying 1
receiving – end conditions as x = 0, V = VR and I = IR C = sinh √YZ
ZC
VR = A1 + A2 The relation AD – BC = 1 holds for
and 𝐴𝐷 − 𝐵𝐶 = cosh2 √YZ − sinh2 √YZ = 1
y The two equations can be written in matrix form as
IR = √ {A1 − A2 }
z cosh Υl ZC sinh Υl
z VS V
For a transmission line√y is a constant, called the [ ] = [ sinh Υl ] [ R]
IS cosh Υl IR
ZC
characteristic constant, ZC and √yz is another constant Thus, sending – end values can be obtained if VR, IR and
called the propagation constant, Υ, both complex line parameters are known.
quantities. In case VS, IS are known, VR and IR can be easily found by
1 1 z 1 inverting the matrix
A1 = VR + √ IR = [VR + IR ZC ] cosh Υl −ZC sinh Υl
2 2 y 2 V V
[ R ] = [− sinh Υl ] [ S]
1 1 z 1 IR cosh Υl IS
and A2 = VR − √ IR = [VR − IR ZC ] ZC
2 2 y 2
Evaluation of Constants ABCD
Thus the expressions for V and I become ABCD constants can be evaluated by three methods:
1 1 1. Convergent Series (Complex Angle) Method
V = [VR + IR ZC ]e√yzx + [VR − IR ZC ]e−√yzx
2 2 In this method, the hyperbolic sine and cosine are
and expressed in terms of their power series. The
1 1 1 expansions are
I = { [VR + IR ZC ]e√yzx − [VR − IR ZC ]e−√yzx }
ZC 2 2 x2 x4 x6
1 VR 1 VR
or I = 2 [( Z + IR )] e − 2 [( Z − IR )] e−Υx
Υx cosh x = 1 + + + + ⋯
C C
2! 4! 6!
𝑥3 𝑥5 𝑥7
Simplifying and rearranging the two equations we get: and sinh 𝑥 = 𝑥 + + + + ⋯
3! 5! 7!
V = VR cosh Υx + IR ZC sinh Υx It is never worthwhile going beyond the seventh power.
and We then get
VR
I = IR cosh Υx + ( ) sinh Υx A = D = cosh √YZ
ZC YZ Y 2 Z2 Y 3 Z3
=1+ + + +⋯
2 24 720
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

B = ZC sinh √YZ a “travelling wave” or “line surge” which causes high rate of
YZ Y 2 Z2 Y 3 Z3 change voltage.
= ZC √YZ {1 + + + + ⋯} Surge impedance
6 120 5040
R + jωL
Z YZ Y 2 Z2 Y 3 Z3 ZC = √(ZL /Y) = √
= √ × √YZ {1 + + + +⋯} G + jωC
Y 6 120 5040
Characteristic impedance (ZC) has also been defined in the
YZ Y 2 Z2 Y 3 Z3
= Z {1 + + + + ⋯} same way. Characteristic impedance is a more correct
6 120 5040 nomenclature. Surge impedance is the characteristic
1 impedance of a loss – free line.
C = sinh √YZ
ZC For heavy copper conductor and well insulated line the
resistance (R) and leakage conductance (G) can be taken
Y YZ Y 2 Z2 Y 3 Z3 as zero and therefore,
= √ × √YZ {1 + + + +⋯}
Z 6 120 5040 ZC(lossless) = √(L/C) which is a pure resistance. Its
YZ Y 2 Z2 Y 3 Z3 values vary between 400 Ω and 600 Ω in case of overhead
= Y [1 + + + +⋯]
6 120 5040 transmission lines and between 40 Ω and 60 Ω in case of
2. Convergent Series (Real Angle) Method. In this underground cables.
method, the hyperbolic sines and cosines are The surge impedance can also be evaluated by measuring
expanded by the trigonometrical formula given, and the line impedance at the sending end when
tables of the trigonometric functions and hyperbolic a. the line at the receiving end is open circuited
functions of real numbers are used. Thus, we express b. the line at the receiving end is short circuited
√YZ in the form When the line is open circuited (IR) is zero so, the sending
– end voltage (VS) and sending – end current (IS) are given
√YZ = α + jβ where α and β are real
as:
where:
VS = AVR and IS = CVR
α = attenuation constant in neper per unit length
VS AVR A
β = phase shift constant in radian per unit length ZOC = = =
Note: β must be in degrees, thus it must be multiplied IS CVR C
by 180/π Similarly, when the line is short circuited at the receiving
end, the receiving – end voltage (VR) reduces to zero and
Then cosh √YZ = cosh(α + jβ)
the sending – end voltage (VS) and the sending – end
cosh √YZ = cosh(α) cos(β) + j sinh(α) sin(β) current (IS) are given as:
and sinh √YZ = sinh(α + jβ) VS = BIR and IS = DIR
sinh √YZ = sinh(α) cos(β) + jcosh (α) sin(β) VS BIR B
3. By Use of Hyperbolic Charts. Woodruff has prepared a ZSC = = =
IS DIR D
convenient set of charts for evaluating the hyperbolic Thus,
functions of complex variables, usually required in A B A B B
transmission line calculations. But such charts are ZOC ZSC = × = × =
C D C A C
usually not available. Since D = A for transmission line
In general, method 1 is less laborious to use than method Z Y
2; moreover, the tables of the sinh and cosh of complex Substituting B = √Y sinh √ZY and C = √Z sinh √YZ,
numbers are not easy to use, and are not given for small we have
differences.
Z
Transmission Line Surges B √Y sinh √ZY Z
In transmission lines, the effect of lightning discharge i.e. ZOC ZSC = = = = ZC2
C Y Y
external cause or similar internal cause such as switching √ sinh √YZ
surges, insulation breakdown, arcing ground and Z
resonance when impressed suddenly on a part of ZC = √ZOC ZSC
transmission line, a quantity of electrical energy which Surge Impedance Loading (S.I.L)
moves along the line at approximately the speed of light as This is defined as the load (of unity power factor) that can
be delivered by the line of negligible resistance.

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Examples:
VL 1. A three – phase, 50 Hz, 1000 km long transmission line
S. I. L. = √3VL IL = √3VL
has the following line constants per phase per km
√ L
[√3 (C)] uniformly distributed:
V2 R = 0.22 Ω, X = 0.45 Ω, G = 4×10-9 S and B = 2.53×10-6 S
thus, S. I. L. = Z L Determine the auxiliary constants by using:
C
The above expression gives a limit of the maximum power a. Convergent series of complex angles
that can be delivered by a line and is useful in the design of b. Convergent series of real angles
transmission lines. This can be used for the comparison of 2. A three – phase transmission line 300 km long has the
loads that can be carried on the transmission lines at following constants:
different voltages. Resistance/phase/km = 0.16 Ω
The power transmitted through a long transmission line can Reactance/phase/km = 0.25 Ω
be increased either by increasing the value of receiving end Shunt admittance/phase/km = 1.5 x 10-6
line voltage or by reducing surge impedance. The line is delivering a load of 20 MW at 0.8 pf lagging
Nowadays, the trend is of employing higher and higher and the receiving end is kept constant @ 110 kV.
voltages for transmission, therefore, this is the most Calculate the following parameters using rigorous
commonly adopted method for increasing the power limit of method.
heavily loaded long transmission lines. But there is a limit a. Sending end voltage
beyond which it is neither economical nor practicable to b. Send end line current
increase the value of receiving – end line voltage. c. Power factor at the sending end
Since the spacing between the conductors, which depends d. Velocity of propagation
upon the line voltage employed, cannot be reduced much, e. SIL
so the value of surge impedance (ZC) cannot be varied as 3. A three – phase transmission line 200 km long has the
such. However, some artificial means, such as series following constants:
capacitors or shunt capacitors, can be used to reduce the Resistance/phase/km = 0.16 Ω
value of surge impedance (ZC). Reactance/phase/km = 0.25 Ω
For a loss – free transmission line surge impedance, ZC = Shunt admittance/phase/km = 1.5 × 10–6 S
√(L/C) and propagation constant, Υ = jω√LC = jβ, Calculate by rigorous method the sending end voltage
where β is the phase shift, which determines the torque and current when the line is delivering a load of 20 MW
angle δ between VS and VR and hence the system stability. at 0.8 pf lagging. The receiving end voltage is kept
By use of series capacitors surge impedance (ZC) and the constant at 110 kV.
4. A three – phase overhead transmission line has a total
phase shift (β) get reduced due to decrease of line
series impedance per phase of 200∠80º ohms and a
inductance (L). This also improves the system stability limit.
But it causes difficulties under short – circuit conditions of total shunt admittance of 0.0013∠90º Siemen per
the system as no satisfactory protection of capacitors has phase. The line delivers a load of 80 MW at 0.8 pf
yet been devised. These capacitors are also helpful in lagging and 220 kV between the lines. Determine the
reducing line drops and voltage variations. sending end line voltage and current by rigorous
By use of shunt capacitors though the surge impedance method.
(ZC) is reduced but the phase shift β is increased due to 5. A three – phase transmission line, 160 km long, has
the following constants:
increase in the value of C. Hence, stability conditions
Resistance/phase/km = 0.2 Ω
become worse specially when synchronous machines are
used as loads. So this method is not used in case of long Reactance/phase/km = 0.3127 Ω
transmission lines specially where stability limits are Shunt admittance/phase/km = 1.875 × 10−6 S
present. Determine the sending end voltage and current by
Wavelength rigorous method when the line is delivering a load of
25 MVA at 0.8 pf lagging. The receiving end voltage is
λ = 2π/β km, mi
kept constant at 110 kV.
Velocity of Propagation
Transmission Line with Series Impedance at the
v = λf km/s, mi/hr
Receiving End
where:
Line auxiliary constants, as determined before, are
f – frequency in Hz or cps
changed due to insertion of series impedance at the
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receiving end of a transmission line. Normally an V’S is the phase voltage at the starting end of transmission
impedance is supposed to consist of resistance and line.
inductance and the current flowing through it is the same as then VS′ = AVR + BIR
the receiving end current, IR. The circuit is shown in Figure and IS = CVR + DIR
150. also VS = VS′ + IS Zse
Substituting the values of V’S and IS, we have
Vs = AVR + BIR + (CVR + DIR )Zse
Vs = (A + CZse )VR + (B + DZse )IR
Comparing with the general voltage and current
expressions, we have
A0 = A + CZse and B0 = B + DZse
C0 = C and D0 = D = A
Transmission Line with Series Impedance at Both Ends
In this case, there are two series impedances, one at the
Figure 150 Transmission Line with Series Impedance at the Receiving End receiving end and the other at the sending end, as shown
Let the auxiliary constants of the transmission line be A, B, in Figure 152.
C and D and Zse by the value of series impedance of the
line at the receiving – end. If VR is the phase voltage at the
load end and IR is the load current, then the phase voltage
at the end of transmission line will be
VR′ = VR + IR Zse
and VS = AVR′ + BIR = A(VR + IR Zse ) + BIR
Figure 152 Transmission Line with Series Impedance at Both Ends
VS = AVR + (AZse + B)IR Now we have
′
and IS = CVR + DIR VR′ = VR + IR ZseR
Substituting the value of V’R, we have and VS = AVR′ + BIR = AVR + (AZseR + B)IR
IS = C(VR + IR Zse ) + DIR IS = CVR′ + DIR = CVR + (CZseR + D)IR
IS = CVR + (CZse + D)IR and VS = VS′ + IS ZseS = AVR + (B + AZseR )IR +
Comparing with the general voltage and current expression (CVR + (CZseR + D)IR )ZseS
of transmission line, we have VS = (A + CZseS )VR + (B + AZseR + (D + CZseR )ZseS )IR
A0 = A; B0 = AZse + B; C0 = C and D0 = CZse + D Comparing with the general voltage and current expression
Transmission Line with Series Impedance at the of transmission line, we have
Sending End A0 = A + CZseS
Figure 151 represents a transmission line with a series B0 = B + AZseR + (D + CZseR )ZseS
impedance Zse at the sending end. In this case the current B0 = B + AZseR + (A + CZseR )ZseS
passing through the series impedance Zse is the same as B0 = B + A(ZseR + ZseS ) + CZseR ZseS
the sending end current IS. C0 = C
D0 = D + CZseR
Transmission Line with Transformers at Both Ends
The transmission line may have a step – up transformer at
the sending end and step – down transformer at the
receiving end. The transformer has series impedance ZT
and shunt admittance YT. The shunt admittance of
transformer is usually so high that in most of the cases it
may be taken as infinite without much loss of accuracy in
Figure 151 Transmission Line with Series Impedance at the Sending End
If A, B, C and D are the auxiliary constants of the which case transformers are just equivalent to series
transmission line. VS and VR are the phase voltages at the impedances and the equivalent circuit is as shown in Figure
load and supply end respectively. IR is the load current and 152.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

IS = [C[1 + YTR ZTR + ZTS YTS + ZTS YTR YTS ] + BYTR YTS
+ A(YTR + YTS + YTR ZTR YTS
+ YTR YTS ZTS )]VR
+ [A(1 + YTS ZTR + ZTS YTS ) + BYTS
+ CZTR (1 + ZTS YTS )]IR
Figure 153 Transmission Line with Transformers at Both Ends Comparing with the general voltage and current expression
In case the shunt admittance of transformers are to be of transmission line, we have
considered, the equivalent circuit will be as shown in Figure A0 = A(1 + YTR ZTR + YTR ZTS ) + BYTR
153. + CZTS (1 + YTR ZTR )
In this case the sending – end voltage and current for the B0 = A(ZTR + ZTS ) + B + CZTS ZTR
transmission line are V’S and I’S respectively. C0 = A(YTR + YTS + YTR YTS ZTR + YTR YTS ZTS )
Also, the receiving – end voltage and current for the + BYTR YTS + C(1 + YTR ZTR
transmission line are V’R and I’R respectively. + ZTS YTS + ZTR ZTS YTR YTS )
ITS and ITR are the magnetizing currents taken by the D0 = A(1 + YTS ZTR + ZTS YTS ) + BYTS + CZTR (1
transformers at the sending end and receiving end of the + ZTS YTS )
transmission line respectively. For identical transformers impedances ZTR and ZTS will be
Now applying the transmission line treatment to the line, we equal and shunt admittance YTR and YTS will be equal.
have VS′ = AVR′ + BIR′ A0 = A(1 + 2YT ZT ) + BYT + CZT (1 + YT ZT )
and ITR = YTR VR B0 = A(2ZT ) + B + CZT2
IR′ = IR + ITR = IR + YTR VR
C0 = 2AYT (1 + YT ZT ) + BYT2 + C(1 + YT ZT )2
therefore, VR = VR + IR′ ZTR = VR + (IR + ITR )ZTR
′
D0 = A(1 + 2YT ZT ) + BYT + CZT (1 + ZT YT ) = A0
VR′ = VR + (IR + YTR VR )ZTR
Equivalent T – Network of a Long Transmission Lines
Substituting the value of V’R, we get The equivalent T – network of a long transmission line is
VS′ = A(VR + (IR + YTR VR )ZTR ) + B(IR + YTR VR ) determined to represent the line accurately by assuming
Considering the sending – end current for the line suitable values of lumped constants.
IS′ = CVR′ + DIR′ = C(VR + (IR + YTR VR )ZTR ) The sending voltage and current are given as
+ D(IR + YTR VR ) 1 1
also, VS = VS′ + IS′ ZTS = A(VR + (IR + IS = IR + (VR + IR Z) Y = YVR + (1 + YZ) IR
2 2
YTR VR )ZTR ) + B(IR + YTR VR ) + CZTS (VR + (IR + 1 1 1
and VS = VR + 2 IR Z + 2 IS Z = (1 + 2 YZ) VR +
YTR VR )ZTR ) + DZTS (IR + YTR VR )
1
VS = [A(1 + YTR ZTR + ZTS YTR ) + BYTR (Z + 4 YZ2 ) IR
+ CZTS (1 + YTR ZTR )]VR Comparing this with the general expressions for voltage
+ [AZTR + B + CZTS ZTR + AZTS ]IR and current of the transmission line, we have
′
and IS = IS + ITS = C(VR + (IR + YTR VR )ZTR ) + 1
D(IR + YTR VR ) + YTS VS A = D = 1 + YZ
2
IS = C[VR + (IR + YTR VR )ZTR ] + A(IR + YTR VR ) 1 2
B = Z + YZ
+ [[A(1 + YTR ZTR + YTS ZTS ) + BYTR 4
C=Y
+ CZTS (1 + YTR ZTR ))VR
Equivalent π – Network of a Long Transmission Lines
+ [AZTR + B + CZTS ZTR Sometimes the equivalent π – network of along
+ AZTS ]IR ] YTS transmission line is required to be determined to represent
IS = [C + CYTR ZTR + AYTR + AYTS + AYTR ZTR YTS the line accurately by assuming suitable values of lumped
+ AYTR ZTS YTS + BYTR YTS + CZTS YTS constants.
+ CZTS YTR YTS ]VR The sending end voltage and current are given as
+ IR [CZTR + A + AZTR YTS + BYTS 1
VS = VR + IZ = VR + (IR + YVR ) Z
+ CZTS ZTR YTS + AZTS YTS ] 2
1
= (1 + YZ) VR + ZIR
2

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 87

 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
1 1 1
And IS = IR + YVR + YVS = (Y + Y 2 Z) VR + 6. A long transmission line has the following auxiliary
1
2 2 4 constants:
(1 + 2 YZ) IR A = D = 0.945∠1.02°; B = 82.3∠73.03° Ω
Comparing this with the general expressions for voltage C = 0.001376∠90.4° S
and current of the transmission line, we have Determine:
1 a. Equivalent T – Network
A = D = 1 + YZ b. Equivalent π – Network
2
B=Z Constant Voltage Transmission
1 For constant voltage transmission, specially designed
C = Y + Y2Z synchronous motors, called the synchronous phase
4
Examples: modifiers, are installed at the receiving end, which maintain
1. A three – phase load of 2,000 kVA, 0.8 pf is supplied the voltage drop along the line constant. With the change in
at 6.6 kV, 50 Hz by means of a 33 – kV transmission load, power factor of the system is changed by the
line 20 km long and a 5:1 transformer. The resistance synchronous motors and thus voltage drop along the line
per km of each conductor is 0.4 Ω and reactance 0.5Ω. remains constant. The merits and demerits of the system
The resistance and reactance of the transformer are given below:
primary are 7.5 Ω and 13.2 Ω, while the resistance of Merits:
the secondary is 0.35 Ω and reactance 0.65 Ω. Find A. Possibility of carrying increased power for a given
the voltage necessary at the sending end of conductor size in case of long distance heavy power
transformission line when 6.6 kV is maintained at the transmission.
load end and find the sending end power factor. B. Improvement of power factor at times of moderate and
Determine also the efficiency of transmission. heavy loads.
2. A 300 km, 132 kV 3 – phase overhead line has a total C. Possibility of better protection for the line due to
series impedance of 52 + j200 Ω/phase and a total possible use of higher terminal reactances.
shunt admittance of j1.5 x 10-3 siemens/phase to D. Availability of steady voltage at all loads at the line
neutral. The line is supplying 40 MVA at 0.8 pf lagging terminals.
at 132 kV. Find the sending – end voltage, current, E. Improvement in system stability due to inertia effect of
power factor and power using nominal pi and t circuit. synchronous phase modifier and reduction in effect of
3. A 220 kV, 50 Hz, 3 – phase transmission line is sudden changes in load.
connected to station bus – bar at the sending end Demerits:
through a 10 MVA; 11/220 kV transformer having A. Increase of short – circuit current of the system and,
impedance of (1+j8) %. The auxiliary constants of the therefore, increase in circuit breaker ratings.
transmission line are: A = D = 0.9∠0.6°; B = B. Increased risk of interruption of supply due to falling of
153.2∠84.6° Ω and C = 0.0012∠90° S. synchronous motors, called the synchronous phase
Determine the A0, B0, C0 and D0 constants of the modifiers, out of synchronism.
equivalent circuit of the line and the transformer C. Lower reserve of the line in case of line trouble.
connected at the supply end. Synchronous Phase Modifiers or Compensators
4. A long transmission line has the following auxiliary It is well known that a synchronous motor can be made to
constants:A = D = 0.98∠2° and B = 28∠69° Ω take either a lagging or leading current from the line by
Two similar transformers, each of impedance altering its excitation. Idle –
12∠80°Ω are interposed at the two ends of the above running synchronous motors
transmission line. Determine the A0, B0, C0 and D0 to were first employed in
represent the line with transformers. connection with power plants to
5. A long transmission line has the following auxiliary correct for low power factor of
constants: the load, and thus reduce the
A = D = 0.92∠53° and B = 65.3∠81° Ω current and power losses in the
Two similar transformers, each of series impedance feeders and generators. The Figure 154 Synchronous Phase
100∠70°Ω and admittance 0.0002∠ − 75° 𝑆 are synchronous machines used for Modifiers or Compensators
connected at the two ends of the above transmission power factor improvement are usually referred to as
line. Determine the A0, B0, C0 and D0 constants of the ‘synchronous condensers’ as they are always required to
combination. take leading current.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 88
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

However, an idle – running synchronous motor can be used VS2 = A2 VR2 + B 2 IR2 + 2ABVR IR [cos(𝛼 − 𝛽) cos ϕR
for voltage regulating purposes by connecting it in parallel − sin(𝛼 − 𝛽) sin ϕR ]
with the load at the receiving end of the line, as shown in Substituting VR IR cos ϕR = PR and VR IR sin ϕR = Q R
Figure 154. Since the machines used for voltage regulation in above equation, we have
are required to run part of the time with leading current and VS2 = A2 VR2 + B 2 IR2 + 2ABPR cos(α − β)
part of the time with lagging current depending upon the − 2ABQ R sin(α − β)
load conditions, therefore, it is more appropriate to refer to
Also IR = Ip – jIq
these machines as ‘synchronous phase modifiers’. They
or IR2 = Ip2 + Iq2
are usually salient pole design with 6 or 8 poles with ratings P Q
up to 60 MVA, 11 kV and connected to high – voltage and Ip = VR and Iq = VR
R R
system through transformers. So,
Synchronous phase modifiers differ from the ordinary PR2 Q2R
synchronous motors in as much as they are built for the VS2 = A2 VR2 + B 2 ( + ) + 2ABPR cos(α − β)
VR2 VR2
highest economical speeds, and provided with smaller
− 2ABQ R sin(α − β)
shafts and bearings and special attention is paid for this
Sending – end voltage can be determined from the above
purpose are designed to give their full – load output at
expression if A, B, α, β, VR and PR and QR are given, as in
leading power factor and can carry about 50% of their rated normal case.
capacity at lagging power factor. Machines can, however,
be designed to operate at full rating on both leading and
lagging power factors but they are larger in size, have poor
efficiency and are more expensive than standard machines.
A transmission line needs lagging VARS (reactive volt –
amperes) at the receiving end during peak load conditions
to avoid excessive voltage drop and these lagging VARs
are supplied by the synchronous phase modifier when it is
overexcited as it absorbs leading VARs when overexcited.
During off – peak hours the transmission line need leading
VARs at the receiving end to prevent any voltage rise.
These leading VARs are supplied by the synchronous
phase modifer when it is underexcited as it absorbs lagging
VARs when underexcited. Thus, synchronous phase
modifier or compensator is a very flexible source of supply
of reactive VARs (leading or lagging as per need) and is
well suited for voltage regulation (or compensation).
Determination of Synchronous Phase Modifier Capacity
The generalized equation for a transmission line is given as
VS = AVR + BIR
where VS and VR are sending – end and receiving – end
voltages, IR is the receiving end current and A and B are
generalized constants.
Taking receiving – end phase voltage VR as reference
phasor, (Figure 155) the above equation may be rewritten
as
VS ∠δ = AVR (α) + BIR (β − ϕR )
= AVR cos α + jAVR sin α Figure 155 Phasor Diagram for Synchronous Phase Modifier

+ BIR cos(β − ϕR ) + jBIR sin(β − ϕR ) But if VS , VR are fixed and A, B, α, β, PR and QR (load) are
given and the capacity of the phase modifier is to be
VS2 = A2 VR2 + B 2 IR2
+ 2ABVR IR cos α cos(β − ϕR )
determined, the required quantity is QR. In this case QR is
+ 2ABVR IR sin α sin(β − ϕR )
the net reactive power at the receiving end and not the
VS2 = A2 VR2 + B 2 IR2 + 2ABVR IR cos(α − β + ϕR ) reactive power for the load as in the first type of problem as
mentioned above. So, if the net reactive power required to
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 89
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

maintain certain voltages at the two ends is known, the 1

capacity of the phase modifier can be determined. = v, the velocity of light = 3 × 108 m/s
√LC
Tuned Power Lines It is too long a distance of transmission from the point of
The behavior of a transmission line is described by: view of cost and efficiency. For a given line (length of line
VS = VR cosh √YZ + IR ZC sinh √YZ and frequency being fixed), the line may be tuned by
V
and IS = IR cosh √YZ + ZR sinh √YZ increasing L or C, by adding series inductances or shunt
C capacitances at intervals along line length, as illustrated in
For an overhead line shunt conductance G is always Figure 156 (a) and 156 (b). This method is impractical and
negligible and it is sufficiently accurate to neglect line uneconomical for power transmission and is used in
resistance R as well. So, with this approximation telephony where higher frequencies are employed.
Y = jωCl and Z = jωLl
where L and C are the inductance and capacitance per unit
length and l the length. Thus,
Z jωCl L
√ =√ =√
Y jωLl C
and √YZ = √jωCl × jωLl = jωl√LC
So the characteristic equations become
VS = VR cosh(jωl√LC) + IR ZC sinh(jωl√LC)
1
and IS = IR cosh(jωl√LC) + VR × sinh(jωl√LC)
ZC
or
VS = VR cos(ωl√LC) + jIR ZC sin(ωl√LC)
1
and IS = IR cos(ωl√LC) + jVR × Z sin(ωl√LC)
C Figure 156 Tuning of Transmission Lines
If there is no load, the receiving – end current IR is zero. The Another method of tuning power lines, which is being
charging current becomes presently experimented with, is shown in Figure 157. The
j capacitors in series with the line neutralize the voltage drop
IS = VR sin(ωl√LC)
ZC due to the line inductance, and the inductors across the line
while VS = VR cos(ωl√LC) neutralize the charging current due to line capacitance. This
Thus, sending – end voltage VS and sending – end current method is known as the method of tuning using
IS are in quadrature. If the relation compensating sections.
ωl√LC = nπ where n = 1, 2, 3, …
is satisfied, there is no charging current on zero load. If the
expression ωl√LC = π, the cos(ωl√LC) = −1 and
then for load conditions, the equation become
VS = −VR and IS = −IR
and if ωl√LC = 2π, the cos(ωl√LC) = 1 and the
equation become
VS = VR and IS = IR
In both the cases the receiving – end voltage and current
Figure 157 Tuning of Power Transmission Lines by Compensating Sections
are numerically equal to the sending – end values, so that
there is no voltage drop on load. Such a line is called a The values of L’ and C’ may be found with fair accuracy by
tuned line. replacing the line by its nominal – π equivalent.
For 50 Hz, the length of line for tuning is The two capacitances C’ are equivalent to a single
nπ n capacitance ½ C’ which will neutralize the inductance L of
l= = 1
2πf√LC 2 × 50√LC the line impedance Z if ω2 L (2 C ′ ) = 1. The inductance
n
= × veclocity of light L’ will neutralize the charging current provided
100 1
ω2 L′ (2 C) = 1. The exact values required in long lines,

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

can be obtained from the π – equivalent diagram. Thus, ½ So, conjugate of IR , IRC =
VS
∠β − δ
A
− B VR ∠β − α
C’ must neutralize Z, which is given as B
Substituting the value of IRC from the above equation we
L L
Z = (√ ) sinh(jωl√LC) = j (√ ) sin(ωl√LC) so, have SR = PR + jQ R =
VS VR
∠β −
A
δ − B VR2 ∠β − α
C C
B
1 2
that jwC′ + Z = 0 giving C ′ = Separating real and reactive components we have
L
ω√ sin ω√LC
C Receiving end true power,
Similarly, L’ must neutralize, Y/2 giving VS VR A
1 PR = cos β − δ − VR2 cos β − α
L′ = B B
1 Regulation of the Line
ω√C/L tan (2 ω√LC)
- is defined as the change in voltage at the receiving end
Power Flow through Transmission Line when full – load is thrown off.
So far, we have presented the performance equations of a
Now, ⃗⃗⃗𝑉𝑆 = ⃗𝑨⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅 + ⃗𝑩 ⃗ ⃗⃗⃗
𝐼𝑅
transmission line in the form of voltage and current
relationships between sending – and receiving – ends. But At no load, 𝐼⃗⃗⃗𝑅 = 0
the loads are usually expressed in terms of real, active or Therefore, ⃗⃗⃗ 𝑉𝑆 = ⃗𝑨⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑅
true power (watts/kW/MW) and reactive power ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑆
(Vector)
𝑅0 =
(vars/kVAR/MVAR), so it will be convenient to deal with 𝐴
𝑉
transmission line performance equations in the form of 𝑉𝑅0 = 𝐴𝑆 (Magnitude)
sending – and receiving – end complex power and Examples:
voltages. 1. A 33 kV single circuit, 3 – phase transmission line has
Line diagram of a 3 – phase transmission line is shown in the ABCD parameters 𝐴 = 𝐷 = 1∠0°, 𝐵 =
Figure 158. The transmission line may be supplied power 11.18∠63.43° Ω. The line is to deliver 7.5 MVA at
from a generating station, grid switching station or grid 0.85 pf lagging at the load end. The receiving end
supply point. The ends of a transmission line are voltage is 32 kV (line to line). How much active and
designated as buses. The concept of a bus in a one – line reactive power is to be dispatched from the sending –
diagram is essentially the same as that of a node in a circuit end?
diagram. 2. A typical line has the following parameters: 𝐴 = 𝐷 =
0.96∠1° and 𝐵 = 100∠80° Ω
a. If the line supplies a load of 30 MW at 0.8 pf lag,
110 kV, find the sending – end voltage and hence
the regulation of the line.
b. For a load of 50 MW at 0.8 pf lag, 110 kV, find the
Figure 158 A Two - Bus Power System reactive power supplied by the line and by
Let the receiving – end voltage be VR ∠0° (taking VR as synchronous capacitors if the sending – end
reference phasor) and the sending – end voltage VS ∠δ voltage is 120 kV. Also determine the power factor
where δ is the phase angle between sending and receiving of the line at the receiving end.
c. Find the maximum power that can be transmitted
end voltages. Let the generalized line constants be if the sending and receiving end voltages are as in
expressed as A = A∠ ∝; B = B∠β; D = D∠∆. The (a).
complex power at the receiving – end is given by the d. Find the power and pf of the load if the voltages at
expression the two ends are 110 kV and having phase
SR = PR + jQ R = VR IRC ∗ difference of 20°.
where IRC is the conjugate of receiving – end current IR. 3. A 100 km, 50 Hz, 3 – phase line with R = 0.03 Ω, X =
0.10 Ω and C = 0.01 μF per km of line length has a
Receiving – end current can, however, be expressed in
load of 2 MW at 0.8 power factor lag at the receiving
terms of receiving and sending end voltages end. The receiving end is maintained at 11 kV by
VS − AVR VS ∠δ − A∠ ∝ VR ∠0° connecting at receiving end a bank of static capacitors
IR = =
B B∠β rated at 1 MVAR at 11 kV. Calculate using nominal π
VS A method, the voltage and current at the sending end of
= ∠δ − β − VR ∠β − α the line.
B B
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 91
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

4. A 200 km, 3 – phase, 50 Hz transmission line has the Low Voltage Power and Control Cables
following data: Low voltage power and control cables pertain to electrical
𝐴 = 𝐷 = 0.938∠1.2°, 𝐵 = 131.2∠72.3° cables that typically have a voltage grade of 0.6/1 kV or
ohms/phase; 𝐶 = 0.001∠90° siemens/phase. The below.
sending – end voltage is 230 kV. Determine:
a. The receiving end voltage when the load is
disconnected
b. The line charging current
c. The maximum power that can be transmitted at a
receiving end voltage of 220 kV and the
corresponding load reactive power required at the
receiving end. An important item that is under the
Underground Cables grouping known as 'Low Voltage
Essentially consists of one or more conductors covered Cables’ is Type FAS (Fire Alarm &
with suitable insulation and surrounded by a protective Signal Cable). This 300 volt cable is
cover. specifically designed for the
Advantages: interconnection of security system
1. Less liable damage through storms or lightning elements, including fire protection
2. Low maintenance cost signaling devices such as smoke and
3. Less chance of faults fire detectors, fire alarms, and two –
4. Smaller voltage drop way emergency communications
5. Better ground appearance systems.
Requirements: Fire alarm installations in non – combustible buildings
1. The conductor used in cable should be tinned stranded require mechanical protection, consisting of interlock
copper or aluminum of high conductivity. armor, metallic conduit, non – metallic conduit embedded
2. The size of conductor should be such that the cable in concrete or installed underground. Armored FAS Cable
carries the desired load current without overheating provided with an interlocking aluminum armor, may be
and causes voltage w/in permissible units. expected to have an appreciable cost advantage,
3. The cable must be provided w/suitable mechanical compared with cables installed in rigid conduit.
protection so that it may withstand the rough use of Other common cables are LVT (Low Voltage
laying it. Thermoplastic) and ELC (Extra Low Voltage Control),
4. The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in which are frequently used in residential installations for
order to give high degree of safety and reliability at the such items as door bells and thermostats.
voltage for which it is designed. Low Voltage Instrumentation Cables
5. The materials used in the manufacture of cables Low voltage instrumentation cables pertain to cables for
should be such as there is complete chemical and use in instrument applications and typically have a voltage
physical stability throughout. grade of 450/750 V or below.
Different Types of Cables Instrumentation Cables rated at 300 volts have copper
1. Low voltage power and control cables – pertain to conductors 0.33 mm2 (#22 AWG) to 2.08 mm2 (#14 AWG),
electrical cables that typically have a voltage grade of while those rated at 600 volts have 0.82 mm2 (#18 AWG) to
0.6/1 kV or below. 5.26 mm2 (#10 AWG), and
2. Low voltage instrumentation cables – pertain to unarmored and armored types
cables for use in instrument applications and typically are available. The cables may be
have a voltage grade of 450/750 V or below. an assembly of single
3. Medium / High voltage cables – pertain to cables conductors, pairs, triads or
used for electric power transmission at medium and quads. The conductors are
high voltage (usually from 1 to 33 kV are medium stranded seven – wire tinned or
voltage cables and those over 50 kV are high voltage bare copper. The insulation is
cables). usually a PVC compound chosen
dependent on the environment
for which it is intended. Insulated

Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 92

 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

conductors are paired with staggered lays to prevent rigid specification and quality control procedures. It will
electromagnetic coupling and crosstalk. When individual provide maximum performance with minimum
shielding is specified, each pair is aluminum/polyester maintenance. There are seven types different by
shielded with drain wire to eliminate electrostatic construction for medium voltage copper power cables in the
interference. 1 kV to 46 kV range. Most are available in single- and multi-
Armored cables have an interlocked aluminum or core configurations. There are ranges of sizes and design
galvanized steel armor. The armoring is applied over an variations for each type.
inner PVC jacket, followed by a PVC outer jacket. The MV cable types are:
Armored cables are suitable for installation on cable trays 1. Teck Cables
in dry, damp and wet locations, or direct earth burial. 2. Shielded Cables
Unarmored Instrumentation Cables are intended for 3. Concentric Neutral Cables
installation in raceways/conduit (except cable trays) in dry, 4. Paper – Insulated Lead – Covered Cables
damp or wet locations, or direct earth buried. Unarmored 5. Submarine Cables
Cable with Type TC (Tray Cable) designation may be 6. Mining Cables
installed in cable trays. 7. Aluminum – Sheathed Cables
Thermocouple Extension Cables In the cable descriptions a number of insulation and sheath
Thermocouple Extension Cables have a 300 volt rating, (jacket) materials have been abbreviated as follows:
and are of similar a. Cross – Linked Polyethylene – XLPE
construction to b. Ethylene – Propylene Rubber – EPR
Instrumentation c. Polyvinyl Chloride – PVC
Cables, but the d. Polyethylene – PE
metals/alloys used e. Tree – Retardant Cross-Linked Polyethylene – TR –
for the conductors XLPE.
are different. Teck Cables
Thermocouples Teck Cables were originally
measure developed for use in mines, but they
temperature using are now widely used in primary and
the electric current created when heat is applied to two secondary industries, chemical plants,
dissimilar metals/alloys. The cable assembles may consist refineries and general factory
of as many as 50 pairs, depending on the number of environments. They are also used in
locations being temperature monitored. multi – storey and commercial
Medium / High Voltage Power Cables buildings. They are flexible, resistant
Medium or High Voltage power cables have voltage grade to mechanical abuse, corrosion
greater than 1 kV. Medium voltage usually goes up to 46 resistant, compact and reliable. A
kV and High voltage is considering all voltage levels above modified Teck Cable construction may
46 kV. be used for vertical installations, such
Medium Voltage distribution systems begin at substations as in mine shafts and multi – storey
and supply electricity to a wide buildings, where the armor is locked-in-place to prevent
spectrum of power consumers. When slippage of the inner core. There are many different
selecting a cable, the basic aim is to combinations of conductor size, voltage rating, armor type
safely provide adequate electrical and so forth, available in Teck Cables to meet the
power, with continuous, trouble-free requirements of particular installations. Annealed, bare,
operation, in a copper is used for the conductor (s), and they are usually
system that is able compact stranded to reduce diameter. In multi-conductor
to withstand cables, the insulated conductors are cabled together,
unexpected including the bare copper bonding (grounding) conductor.
demands and overload conditions. Each In shielded multi-conductor cables, the bonding (grounding)
installation has requirements that must conductor is positioned to contact the copper shields. A
be considered. There are distinct benefits PVC outer jacket which may be color – coded depending
from specifying a copper – conductor on the rating of the cable is applied.
cable that has been manufactured under
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 93
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Shielded Cables However, for medium – voltage installations, a Solid

Shielded Power Cable may be single – or three – Dielectric Cable can easily fulfil the electrical demands of
conductor. The basic construction the system. A submarine Solid Dielectric Cable is shown in
begins with a conductor of annealed, the illustration. Its construction begins with a compact
bare, solid or concentric-stranded stranded, annealed, bare copper conductor, followed by a
copper, which may be compact or semi – conducting conductor shield. A copper tape shield is
compressed. This is followed by a helically applied, followed by a
semi – conducting conductor shield, lead – alloy sheath. Due to the
insulation, and then a semi – severe environmental demands
conducting insulation shield. Metallic placed on submarine cables, a
shielding follows, which is usually lead – alloy sheath is often
either gapped or lapped copper tape. specified because of its
Other types of metallic shielding are available, including compressibility, flexibility and
concentric wires and longitudinally corrugated copper tape. resistance to moisture and
The outer jacket is either PVC or PE. corrosion. The sheath is usually
Concentric Neutral Cables covered by several outer layers,
These power cables may be used in dry or wet locations, comprising a PE or PVC jacket
for a wide variety of types of installations, and may be single and metal wire armoring.
– or three – conductor. The two standard constructions are Mining Cables
Unjacketed and Jacketed, the latter being most frequently A number of different types of cables
used. The conductor is typically annealed, bare, stranded are used in mines. There are fixed
copper, but tin-coated wire and solid conductors are also mining cables and portable mining
available. The concentric neutral conductor, from which the cables, the latter being described
cable derives its name, is bare or tin-coated copper wire, here. The key requirements of
applied helically over the insulation shield. These wires act portable cables are flexibility, and
as the metallic component of the shield and the neutral, at resistance to mechanical abrasion
the same time. and damage. Due to the additional
Paper – Insulated Lead – Covered Cables (PILC) demands put on portable mining
PILC cables are used in power distribution and industrial cables used for reeling and
applications, and they may be installed exposed, in dereeling applications, special design may be required.
underground ducts or directly buried. Their design begins There are many types of portable mining cables. They are
with annealed, bare copper conductor(s) which may be available in ratings up to 25 kV, and may have as many as
round, concentric, compressed or compact stranded, five conductors. An example of SHD – GC Cable is shown
compact sector, and in larger sizes … Type M segmental in the illustration. It has three insulated, shielded
stranded. An example of compact sector conductors is conductors, two bare ground wires, a ground check wire,
shown in the illustration. The insulated cable core is and an overall jacket. The conductors for this cable are
impregnated with a medium viscosity polybutene – based annealed, bare or tinned copper wires. The braided shield
compound. The combination of the excellent electrical and may be tin – coated wires, or a tin – coated copper
mechanical characteristics of the liquid and the paper has wire/textile composite. The grounding conductor(s)
resulted in a reliable and economic insulation, which now annealed, bare or tinned, stranded copper wires, and the
claims a history of almost 100 years. It is little wonder why ground check conductor is annealed, bare, stranded copper
so many utilities and power-consuming industries, still wires with EPR insulation and nylon braid, elastomeric
continue to specify PILC. To prevent the ingress of jacket holds the conductor assembly firmly in place, to
moisture, a seamless lead-alloy sheath is applied. The minimize snaking and cork – screwing during reeling and
outer jacket may be PVC or PE, and if required by the dereeling.
application, armor is available. Aluminum – Sheathed Cables
Submarine Cables These power cables are used for exposed and concealed
For submarine installations, usually Self – Contained Liquid wiring, in wet and dry locations, and where exposed to the
– Filled Cables (SCLF), or Solid Dielectric Cables are weather. They may be installed in ventilated, unventilated
selected, depending on voltage and power load. SCLF and ladder – type cable – troughs, and ventilated flexible
Cables are capable of handling very high voltages. cableways. Aluminum – Sheathed Power Cables may be
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

single-, two-, three- or four higher than with some other types of insulating materials
conductor, the conductor(s) being without damage to the insulating quality of the material.
annealed, bare, compressed round Plastic insulation is normally used for low or medium range
stranded copper. The insulated core voltage.
is enclosed in a liquid- and vapor – The designators used with thermoplastics are much like
tight solid corrugated aluminum those used with rubber insulators. The following letters are
sheath, covered by a PVC jacket. used when dealing with NEC type designators for
Construction of Cables thermoplastics:
1. Cores or conductors – a cable T – Thermoplastic
may have one or more than one H – Heat – resistant
core (conductor) depending W – Moisture – resistant
upon the type of service which it A – Asbestos
is intended. Usually stranded copper (Cu) or aluminium N – Outer nylon jacket
(Al). Copper is denser and heavier, but more M – Oil – resistant
conductive than aluminium. Electrically equivalent Paper has little insulation value alone. However, when
aluminium conductors have a cross –sectional area impregnated with a high grade of mineral oil, it serves as a
approximately 1.6 times larger than copper, but are satisfactory insulation for extremely high – voltage cables.
half the weight (which may save on material cost). The oil has a high dielectric strength, and tends to prevent
Annealing – is the process of gradually heating and cooling breakdown of the paper insulation. The paper must be
the conductor material to make it more malleable and less thoroughly saturated with the oil. The thin paper tape is
brittle. wrapped in many layers around the conductors, and then
Coating – surface coating (e.g. tin, nickel, silver, lead alloy) soaked with oil.
of copper conductors is common to prevent the insulation Enamel: the wire used on the coils of meters, relays, small
from attacking or adhering to the copper conductor and transformers, motor windings, and so forth, is called
prevents deterioration of copper at high temperatures. Tin magnet wire. This wire is insulated with an enamel coating.
coatings were used in the past to protect against corrosion The enamel is a synthetic compound of cellulose acetate
from rubber insulation, which contained traces of the sulfur (wood pulp and magnesium). In the manufacturing process,
used in the vulcanizing process. the bare wire is passed through a solution of hot enamel
2. Conductor Screen – a semi – conducting tape to and then cooled. This process is repeated until the wire
maintain a uniform electric field and minimize acquires from 6 to 10 coatings. Thickness for thickness,
electrostatic stresses (for MV/HV power cables). enamel has higher dielectric strength than rubber. It is not
3. Insulation – each core or conductor is provided with a practical for large wires because of the expense and
suitable thickness of insulation, the thickness of layer because the insulation is readily fractured when large wires
depending upon the voltage to be withstood by the are bent.
cable. The commonly used materials for insulation are Mineral – Insulated (MI) cable was developed to meet the
impregnated paper, varnished combine or rubber needs of a non – combustible, high heat – resistant, and
material compound. Commonly thermoplastic (e.g. water – resistant cable. MI cable has from one to seven
PVC) or thermosetting (e.g. EPR, XLPE) type electrical conductors. These conductors are insulated in a
materials. Mineral insulation is sometimes used, but highly compressed mineral, normally magnesium oxide,
the constructions of MI cables are entirely different to and sealed in a liquid tight, gastight metallic tube, normally
normal plastic / rubber insulated cables. Typically a made of seamless copper.
thermosetting (e.g. EPR, XLPE) or paper/lead Silk and Cotton: in certain types of circuits (for example,
insulation for cables under 22kV. Paper – based communications circuits), a large number of conductors are
insulation in combination with oil or gas – filled cables needed, perhaps as many as several hundred. Because the
are generally used for higher voltages. insulation in this type of cable is not subjected to high
Plastics are one of the more commonly used types of voltage, the use of thin layers of silk and cotton is
insulating materials for electrical conductors. It has good satisfactory.
insulating, flexibility, and moisture resistant qualities. Silk and cotton insulation keeps the size of the cable small
Although there are many types of plastic insulating enough to be handled easily. The silk and cotton threads
materials, thermoplastic is one of the most common. With are wrapped around the individual conductors in reverse
the use of thermoplastic, the conductor temperature can be
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

directions. The covering is then impregnated with a special normally color coded to differentiate between LV, HV
wax compound. and instrumentation cables. Manufacturer’s markings
4. Insulation Screen – a semi – conducting material that and length markings are also printed on the outer
has a similar function as the conductor screen (i.e. sheath.
control of the electric field for MV/HV power cables). 14. Termite Protection – for underground cables, a nylon
5. Metallic sheath – in order to protect the cable from jacket can be applied for termite protection, although
moisture, gasses or other damaging liquids (acids and sometimes a phosphor bronze tape is used.
alkalies) in the soil and atmosphere, a metallic sheath 15. Conductor Protection (Appendix) - wires and cables
of aluminum is provided over the insulation. are generally subject to abuse. The type and amount
6. Filler – the interstices of the insulated conductor of abuse depends on how and where they are installed
bundle is sometimes filled, usually with a soft polymer and the manner in which they are used. Cables buried
material. directly in the ground must resist moisture, chemical
7. Bedding – over the metallic sheath applied a layer of action, and abrasion. Wires installed in buildings must
bedding which consists of fibrous material like jute of be protected against mechanical injury and
hessian type. The purpose of bedding is to protect the overloading. Wires strung on cross arms on poles must
metallic sheath against corrosion and from mechanical be kept far enough apart so that the wires do not touch.
injury due to armoring. Snow, ice, and strong winds make it necessary to use
8. Individual Screen (Instrument Cables) – an conductors having high tensile strength and substantial
individual screen is occasionally applied over each frame structures. Generally, except for overhead
insulated conductor bundle for shielding against noise transmission lines, wires or cables are protected by
/ radiation and interference from other conductor some form of covering. The covering may be some
bundles. Screens are usually a metallic (copper, type of insulator like rubber or plastic. Over this,
aluminum) or semi – metallic (PETP/Al) tape or braid. additional layers of fibrous braid or tape may be used
Typically used in instrument cables, but not in power and then covered with a finish or saturated with a
cables. protective coating. If the wire or cable is installed where
9. Drain Wire (Instrument Cables) – each screen has it is likely to receive rough treatment, a metallic coat
an associated drain wire, which assists in the should be added. The materials used to make up the
termination of the screen. Typically used in instrument conductor protection for a wire or cables are grouped
cables, but not in power cables. into one of two categories: non – metallic or metallic.
10. Overall Screen (Instrument Cables) – an overall Non – Metallic
screen is applied over all the insulated conductor The category of non – metallic protective coverings is
bundles for shielding against noise / radiation, divided into three areas. These areas are:
interference from other cables and surge / lightning 1. according to the material used as the covering
protection. Screens are usually a metallic (copper, 2. according to the saturant in which the covering was
aluminum) or semi-metallic (PETP/Al) tape or braid. impregnated
Typically used in instrument cables, but not in power 3. according to the external finish on the wire or cable
cables. These three areas reflect three different methods of
11. Armoring – over the bedding, armoring is provided protecting the wire or cable. These methods allow some
which consists of one or two layers of galvanized steel wire or cable to be classified under more than one category.
wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable Most of the time, however, the wire or cable will be
from mechanical injury while laying it and during the classified based upon the material used as the covering
course of handling. regardless of whether or not a saturant or finish is applied.
12. Serving – in order to protect armoring from Many types of non – metallic materials are used to protect
atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous material (like wires and cables.
jute) similar to bedding is provided over, the armoring. Fibrous Braid – is used extensively as a protective
This is known as serving. covering for cables. This braid is woven over the insulation
13. Outer Sheath – applied over the armor for overall to form a continuous covering without joints. The braid is
mechanical, weather, chemical and electrical generally saturated with asphalt, paint, or varnish to give
protection. Typically a thermoplastic (e.g. PVC) or added protection against moisture, flame, weathering, oil,
thermosetting (e.g. CSP) compound, and often the or acid. Additionally, the outside braid is often given a finish
same material as the bedding. Outer sheath is of stearin pitch and mica flakes, paint, wax, lacquer, or
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varnish depending on the environment where the cable is corrosion. For this reason, a second lead sheath is applied
to be used. over the tape.
Woven Covers – commonly called loom, are used when Metallic Armor
exceptional abrasion-resistant qualities are required. These Metallic armor provides a tough protective covering for
covers are composed of thick, heavy, long-fibered cotton wires and cables. The type, thickness, and kind of metal
yarns woven around the cable in a circular loom, much like used to make the armor depend on three factors:
that used on a fire hose. They are not braids, although braid 1. the use of the conductors
covering are also woven; they are designated differently. 2. the environment where the conductors are to be used
Rubber and Synthetic Coverings – are not standardized. 3. the amount of rough treatment that is expected
Different manufactures have their own special compounds Wire – braid armor
designated by individual trade names. These compounds Wire – braid armor, also known as basket – weave armor,
are different from the rubber compounds used to insulate is used when light and flexible protection is needed. Wire
cable. These compounds have been perfected not for braid is constructed much like fibrous braid. The metal is
insulation qualities but for resistance to abrasion, moisture, woven directly over the cable as the outer covering. The
oil, gasoline, acids, earth solutions, and alkalies. None of metal used in this braid is galvanized steel, bronze, copper,
these coverings will provide protection against all types of or aluminum. Wire – braid armor is mainly for shipboard
exposure. Each covering has its own particular limitations use.
and qualifications. Steel tape
Jute and Asphalt Coverings – are commonly used as a A second type of metallic armor is steel tape. Steel tape
cushion between cable insulation and metallic armor. covering is wrapped around the cable and then covered
Frequently, they are also used as a corrosive – resistant with a serving of jute. There are two types of steel tape
covering over a lead sheath or metallic armor. Jute and armor. The first is called interlocking armor. Interlocking
asphalt coverings consist of asphalt-impregnated jute yarn armor is applied by wrapping the tape around the cable so
heli – wrapped around the cable or of alternate layers of that each turn is overlapped by the next and is locked in
asphalt – impregnated jute yarn. These coverings serve as place. The second type is flat – band armor. Flat – band
a weatherproofing. armor consists of two layers of steel tape. The first layer is
Unspun Felted Cotton – is commonly used only in special wrapped around the cable but is not overlapped. The
classes of service. It is made as a solid felted covering for second layer is then wrapped around the cable covering the
a cable. area that was not covered by the first layer.
Metallic Wire armor
Metallic protection is of two types: sheath or armor. As with Wire armor is a layer of wound metal wire wrapped around
all wires and cables, the type of protection needed will the cable. Wire amour is usually made of galvanized steel
depend on the environment where the wire or cable will be and can be used over a lead sheath (see view C of the
used. figure above). It can be used with the sheath as a buried
Metallic Sheath – cables or wires that are continually cable where moisture is a concern, or without the sheath
subjected to water must be protected by a watertight cover. when used in buildings.
This watertight cover is either a continuous metal jacket or Coaxial cable
a rubber sheath molded around the cable. Coaxial cable is defined
Lead – sheathed cable is one of three types currently as two concentric wires,
being used: alloy lead, pure lead, and reinforced lead. An cylindrical in shape,
alloy-lead sheath is much like a pure lead sheath but is separated by a dielectric
manufactured with 2-percent tin. This alloy is more resistant of some type. One wire
to gouging and abrasion during and after installation. is the center conductor
Reinforced lead sheath is used mainly for oil-filled cables and the other is the
where high internal pressures can be expected. Reinforced outer conductor. These conductors are covered by a
lead sheath consists of a double lead sheath. A thin tape of protective jacket. The protective jacket is then covered by
hard-drawn copper, bronze, or other elastic metal outer protective armor. Coaxial cables are used as
(preferably nonmagnetic) is wrapped around the inner transmission lines and are constructed to provide protection
sheath. This tape gives considerable additional strength against outside signal interference.
and elasticity to the sheath but must be protected from

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Insulating Materials for Cables low capacitance, high dielectric strength and high insulation
The satisfactory operation of a cable depends upon the resistance. The only disadvantage is that paper is
characteristics of insulation used. Therefore, the proper hygroscopic and even if it is impregnated with suitable
choice of insulating material for cables is of considerable compound, it absorbs moisture and thus lowers the
importance. In general, the insulating materials used in insulation resistance of the cable. For this reason, paper
cables should have the following properties: insulated cables are always provided with some protective
a. High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current. covering and are never left unsealed. If it is required to be
b. High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown left unused on the site during laying, its ends are
of the cable. temporarily covered with wax or tar. Since the paper
c. High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical insulated cables have the tendency to absorb moisture,
handling of cables. they are used where the cable route has a few joints. For
d. Non – hygroscopic i.e., it should not absorb moisture instance, they can be profitably used for distribution at low
from air or soil. The moisture tends to decrease the voltages in congested areas where the joints are generally
insulation resistance and hastens the breakdown of the provided only at the terminal apparatus. However, for
cable. In case the insulating material is hygroscopic, it smaller installations, where the lengths are small and joints
must be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead are required at a number of places, VIR cables will be
sheath. cheaper and durable than paper insulated cables.
e. Non – Inflammable. Varnished cambric. It is a cotton cloth impregnated and
f. Low cost so as to make the underground system a coated with varnish. This type of insulation is also known as
viable proposition. empire tape. The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in
g. Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical the form of a tape and its surfaces are coated with
action. petroleum jelly compound to allow for the sliding of one turn
Rubber. Rubber may be obtained from milky sap of tropical over another as the cable is bent. As the varnished cambric
trees or it may be produced from oil products. It has relative is hygroscopic, therefore, such cables are always provided
permittivity varying between 2 and 3, dielectric strength is with metallic sheath. Its dielectric strength is about 4 kV/mm
about 30 kV/mm and resistivity of insulation is 1017 Ω – cm. and permittivity is 2.5 to 3.8.
Although pure rubber has reasonably high insulating Polyvinyl chloride (PVC). This insulating material is a
properties, it suffers from some major drawbacks, readily synthetic compound. It is obtained from the polymerization
absorbs moisture, maximum safe temperature is low (about of acetylene and is in the form of white powder. For
38ºC), soft and liable to damage due to rough handling and obtaining this material as a cable insulation, it is
ages when exposed to light. Therefore, pure rubber cannot compounded with certain materials known as plasticizers
be used as an insulating material. which are liquids with high boiling point. The plasticizer
Vulcanized India rubber (V.I.R.). It is prepared by mixing forms a gel and renders the material plastic over the desired
pure rubber with mineral matter such as zine oxide, red lead range of temperature.
etc., and 3 to 5% of Sulphur. The compound so formed is Polyvinyl chloride has high insulation resistance, good
rolled into thin sheets and cut into strips. The rubber dielectric strength and mechanical toughness over a wide
compound is then applied to the conductor and is heated to range of temperatures. It is inert to oxygen and almost inert
a temperature of about 150ºC. The whole process is called to many alkalies and acids. Therefore, this type of insulation
vulcanization and the product obtained is known as is preferred over VIR in extreme environmental conditions
vulcanized India rubber. Vulcanized India rubber has such as in cement factory or chemical factory. As the
greater mechanical strength, durability and wear resistant mechanical properties (i.e., elasticity etc.) of PVC are not
property than pure rubber. Its main drawback is that as good as those of rubber, therefore, PVC insulated cables
Sulphur reacts very quickly with copper and for this reason, are generally used for low and medium domestic lights and
cables using VIR insulation have tinned copper conductor. power installations.
The VIR insulation is generally used for low and moderate Classifications of Underground Cable
voltage cables. 1. type of insulating material used in their manufacture
Impregnated paper. It consists of chemically pulped paper 2. the voltage for which they are manufactured
made from wood chippings and impregnated with some a. Low tension (LT) cables — up to 1000 V
compound such as paraffinic or naphthenic material. This b. High tension (HT) cables — up to 11,000 V
type of insulation has almost superseded the rubber c. Super tension (ST) cables — from 22 kV to 33 kV
insulation. It is because it has the advantages of low cost,
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d. Extra high tension (EHT) cables — from 33 kV to insulation on each core is covered with a metallic
66 kV screen which usually consists of a perforated
e. Extra super voltage cables — beyond 132 kV aluminum foil. The cores are laid in such a way
Cables for three phase service that metallic screens make contact with one
1. Belted cables. These cables are used for voltages up another. An
to 11kV but in additional
extraordinary cases, conducting belt
their use may be (copper woven
extended up to fabric tape) is
22kV. The Figure wrapped round
shows the the three cores. The cable has no insulating belt
constructional but lead sheath, bedding, armoring and serving
details of a 3 core follow as usual. It is easy to see that each core
belted cable. The cores are insulated from each other screen is in electrical contact with the conducting
by layers of impregnated paper. Another layer of belt and the lead sheath. As all the four screens (3
impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is wound core screens and one conducting belt) and the
round the grouped insulated cores. The gap between lead sheath are at earth potential, therefore, the
the insulated cores is filled with fibrous insulating electrical stresses are purely radial and
material (jute etc.) so as to give circular cross-section consequently dielectric losses are reduced.
to the cable. The cores are generally stranded and may Two principal advantages are claimed for H – type
be of noncircular shape to make better use of available cables. Firstly, the perforations in the metallic
space. The belt is covered with lead sheath to protect screens assist in the complete impregnation of the
the cable against ingress of moisture and mechanical cable with the compound and thus the possibility
injury. The lead sheath is covered with one or more of air pockets or voids (vacuous spaces) in the
layers of armoring with an outer serving (not shown in dielectric is eliminated. The voids if present tend
the figure). to reduce the breakdown strength of the cable and
The belted type construction is suitable only for low may cause considerable damage to the paper
and medium voltages as the electrostatic stresses insulation. Secondly, the metallic screens
developed in the cables for these voltages are more or increase the heat dissipating power of the cable.
less radial i.e., across the insulation. However, for high b. SL type cables. The Figure shows the
voltages (beyond 22 kV), the tangential stresses also constructional details of a
become important. These stresses act along the layers 3 core SL (separate lead)
of paper insulation. As the insulation resistance of type cable. It is basically
paper is quite small along the layers, therefore, H – type cable but the
tangential stresses set up leakage current along the screen round each core
layers of paper insulation. The leakage current causes insulation is covered by its
local heating, resulting in the risk of breakdown of own lead sheath. There is no overall lead sheath
insulation at any moment. In order to overcome this but only armoring and serving are provided. The
difficulty, screened cables are used where leakage SL type cables have two main advantages over H
currents are conducted to earth through metallic – type cables. Firstly, the separate sheaths
screens. minimize the possibility of core – to – core
2. Screened cables. These cables are meant for use up breakdown. Secondly, bending of cables becomes
to 33 kV, but in particular cases their use may be easy due to the elimination of overall lead sheath.
extended to operating voltages up to 66 kV. Two However, the disadvantage is that the three lead
principal types of screened cables are H – type cables sheaths of SL cable are much thinner than the
and S.L. type cables. single sheath of H – cable and, therefore, call for
a. H – type cables. This type of cable was first greater care in manufacture.
designed by H. Hochstadter and hence the name. Limitations of solid type cables
The figure shows the constructional details of a All the cables of above construction are referred to as
typical 3 core, H – type cable. Each core is solid type cables because solid insulation is used and
insulated by layers of impregnated paper. The no gas or oil circulates in the cable sheath. The voltage
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limit for solid type cables is 66 kV due to the following conductor channel, single core sheath channel
reasons: and three core filler space channels.
a. As a solid cable carries the load, its conductor The figure shows
temperature increases and the cable compound the constructional
(i.e., insulating compound over paper) expands. details of a single
This action stretches the lead sheath which may core conductor
be damaged. channel, oil filled
b. When the load on the cable decreases, the cable. The oil
conductor cools and a partial vacuum is formed channel is formed
within the cable sheath. If the pinholes are present at the center by stranding the conductor wire
in the lead sheath, moist air may be drawn into the around a hollow cylindrical steel spiral tape. The
cable. The moisture reduces the dielectric oil under pressure is supplied to the channel by
strength of insulation and may eventually cause means of external reservoir. As the channel is
the breakdown of the cable. made of spiral steel tape, it allows the oil to
c. In practice, voids are always present in the percolate between copper strands to the wrapped
insulation of a cable. Modern techniques of insulation. The oil pressure compresses the layers
manufacturing have resulted in void free cables. of paper insulation and prevents the possibility of
However, under operating conditions, the voids void formation. The system is so designed that
are formed as a result of the differential expansion when the oil gets expanded due to increase in
and contraction of the sheath and impregnated cable temperature, the extra oil collects in the
compound. The breakdown strength of voids is reservoir. However, when the cable temperature
considerably less than that of the insulation. If the falls during light load conditions, the oil from the
void is small enough, the electrostatic stress reservoir flows to the channel. The disadvantage
across it may cause its breakdown. The voids of this type of cable is that the channel is at the
nearest to the conductor are the first to break middle of the cable and is at full voltage with
down, the chemical and thermal effects of respect to earth, so that a very complicated
ionization causing permanent damage to the system of joints is necessary.
paper insulation.
3. Pressure cables. For voltages beyond 66 kV, solid
type cables are unreliable because there is a danger
of breakdown of insulation due to the presence of
voids. When the operating voltages are greater than 66
kV, pressure cables are used. In such cables, voids are
eliminated by increasing the pressure of compound The figure shows the constructional details of a
and for this reason they are called pressure cables. single core sheath channel oil – filled cable. In this
Two types of pressure cables, oil – filled cables and type of cable, the conductor is solid similar to that
gas pressure cables are commonly used. of solid cable and is paper insulated. However, oil
a. Oil – filled cables. In such types of cables, ducts are provided in the metallic sheath as
channels or ducts are provided in the cable for oil shown. In the 3 – core oil - filler cable shown, the
circulation. The oil under pressure (it is the same oil ducts are located in the filler spaces. These
oil used for impregnation) is kept constantly channels are composed of perforated metal –
supplied to the channel by means of external ribbon tubing and are at earth potential.
reservoirs placed at suitable distances (say 500 The oil – filled cables have three principal
m) along the route of the cable. Oil under pressure advantages. Firstly, formation of voids and
compresses the layers of paper insulation and is ionization are avoided. Secondly, allowable
forced into any voids that may have formed temperature range and dielectric strength are
between the layers. Due to the elimination of increased. Thirdly, if there is leakage, the defect in
voids, oil – filled cables can be used for higher the lead sheath is at once indicated and the
voltages, the range being from 66 kV upto 230 kV. possibility of earth faults is decreased. However,
Oil – filled cables are of three types, single core their major disadvantages are the high initial cost
and complicated system of laying.

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b. Gas pressure cables. The voltage required to set from decay. After the cable has been laid in the trench,
up ionization inside a void increases as the it is covered with another layer of sand of about 10 cm
pressure is increased. Therefore, if ordinary cable thickness.
is subjected to a sufficiently high pressure, the The trench is then covered with bricks and other
ionization can be altogether eliminated. At the materials in order to protect the cable from mechanical
same time, the increased pressure produces injury. When more than one cable is to be laid in the
radial compression which tends to close any same trench, a horizontal or vertical inter axial spacing
voids. This is the underlying principle of gas of at least 30 cm is provided in order to reduce the
pressure cables. effect of mutual heating and also to ensure that a fault
The figure shows the section of external pressure occurring on one cable does not damage the adjacent
cable designed by Hochstadter, Vogal and cable. Cables to be laid in this way must have serving
Bowden. The construction of the cable is similar to of bituminized paper and hessian tape so as to provide
that of an ordinary solid protection against corrosion and electrolysis.
type except that it is of Advantages
triangular shape and 1. It is a simple and less costly method.
thickness of lead sheath 2. It gives the best conditions for dissipating the heat
is 75% that of solid cable. generated in the cables.
The triangular section 3. It is a clean and safe method as the cable is
reduces the weight and invisible and free from external disturbances.
gives low thermal resistance but the main reason Disadvantages
for triangular shape is that the lead sheath acts as 1. The extension of load is possible only by a
a pressure membrane. The sheath is protected by completely new excavation which may cost as
a thin metal tape. The cable is laid in a gas – tight much as the original work.
steel pipe. The pipe is filled with dry nitrogen gas 2. The alterations in the cable network cannot be
at 12 to 15 atmospheres. The gas pressure made easily.
produces radial compression and closes the voids 3. The maintenance cost is very high.
that may have formed between the layers of paper 4. Localization of fault is difficult.
insulation. Such cables can carry more load 5. It cannot be used in congested areas where
current and operate at higher voltages than a excavation is expensive and inconvenient.
normal cable. Moreover, maintenance cost is This method of laying cables is used in open areas
small and the nitrogen gas helps in quenching any where excavation can be done conveniently and at low
flame. However, it has the disadvantage that the cost.
overall cost is very high. 2. Draw – in system. In this method, conduit or duct of
Laying of Underground Cables glazed stone or
The reliability of underground cable network depends to a cast iron or
considerable extent upon the proper laying and attachment concrete are laid
of fittings i.e., cable end boxes, joints, branch connectors in the ground with
etc. There are three main methods of laying underground manholes at
cables, direct laying, draw – in system and the solid system. suitable positions
1. Direct laying. This method of laying underground along the cable
cables is simple and route. The cables
cheap and is much are then pulled into position from manholes. The figure
favoured in modern shows section through four – way underground duct
practice. In this method, a line. Three of the ducts carry transmission cables and
trench of about 1.5 the fourth duct carries relay protection connection, pilot
metres deep and 45 cm wires. Care must be taken that where the duct line
wide is dug. The trench is changes direction; depths, dips and offsets be made
covered with a layer of with a very long radius or it will be difficult to pull a large
fine sand (of about 10 cm thickness) and the cable is cable between the manholes. The distance between
laid over this sand bed. The sand prevents the entry of the manholes should not be too long so as to simplify
moisture from the ground and thus protects the cable the pulling in of the cables. The cables to be laid in this
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

way need not be armored but must be provided with r2 = conductor outer radius
serving of hessian and jute in order to protect them r = annular ring
when being pulled into the ducts. dr = radial thickness
Advantages l = length of cable
1. Repairs, alterations or additions to the cable ρ = resistivity of material
network can be made without opening the ground. Consider a very small layer of insulation of thickness dx at
2. As the cables are not armored, therefore, joints radius r. The length through which leakage current tends to
become simpler and maintenance cost is reduced flow is dr and the cross sectional area to this flow is 2πrl.
considerably. Insulation resistance is considered to be:
3. There are very less chances of fault occurrence 𝑑𝑅 = 𝜌𝑑𝑟/2𝜋𝑟𝑙
due to strong mechanical protection provided by Insulation resistance of whole cable:
the system. 𝑟2
𝜌𝑑𝑟
Disadvantages 𝑅=∫
𝑟1 2𝜋𝑟𝑙
1. The initial cost is very high. 𝜌 𝑟2 𝑑𝑟
2. The current carrying capacity of the cables is 𝑅= ∫
reduced due to the close grouping of cables and 2𝜋𝑙 𝑟1 𝑟
unfavorable conditions for dissipation of heat. 𝜌 𝑟2
𝑅= ln
This method of cable laying is suitable for congested 2𝜋𝑙 𝑟1
areas where excavation is expensive and Capacitance of Single Core Cable
2𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟
inconvenient, for once the conduits have been laid, 𝐶= F/m
repairs or alterations can be made without opening the 𝐷
ln ( )
ground. This method is generally used for short length 𝑑
where 𝜀0 = permittivity of air = 8.85 × 10−12 F/m
cable routes such as in workshops, road crossings
𝜀𝑟 = relative permittivity of insulation
where frequent digging is costlier or impossible.
3. Solid system. In this method of laying, the cable is laid D = inner sheath diameter
d = conductor diameter
in open pipes or troughs dug out in earth along the
Dielectric Stress in a Single Core Cable
cable route. The troughing is of cast iron, stoneware,
Under operating conditions, the insulation of a cable is
asphalt or treated wood. After the cable is laid in
subjected to electrostatic forces. This is known as dielectric
position, the troughing is filled with a bituminous or
stress. The dielectric stress at any point in a cable is in fact
asphaltic compound and covered over. Cables laid in
this manner are usually plain lead covered because the potential gradient (or electric intensity) at that point.
troughing affords good mechanical protection. Consider a single core cable with core diameter d and
Disadvantages internal sheath diameter D. The electric intensity at a point
1. It is more expensive than direct laid system. x meters from the center of the cable is
𝑄
2. It requires skilled labor and favorable weather 𝐸𝑥 = volts/m
conditions. 2𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑥
3. Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current By definition, electric intensity is equal to potential gradient.
carrying capacity of the cable is reduced. Therefore, potential gradient g at a point x meters from the
In view of these disadvantages, this method of laying center of cable is
underground cables is rarely used nowadays. 𝑔 = 𝐸𝑥
Insulation Resistance of a Single Core Cable Potential difference V between conductor and sheath is
The cable conductor is provided with a 𝑄 𝐷
𝑉= log 𝑒 volts
suitable thickness of insulating material in 2𝜋𝜀0 𝜀𝑟 𝑑
order to prevent leakage current. The path Which gives
for leakage current is radial through the 𝑉
𝑔= volts/m
insulation. The opposition offered by 𝑥 log 𝑒
𝐷
insulation to leakage current is known as 𝑑
insulation resistance of the cable. Thus, for good operation, Potential gradient will be maximum when x is minimum,
the insulation resistance must be very high. when x = d/2 or at the surface of the conductor. On the other
Consider: hand, potential gradient will be minimum at x = D/2 or at
r1 = conductor inner radius sheath surface.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
2𝑉 Capacitance Grading
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = volts/m
𝐷 The process of achieving uniformity in the dielectric stress
𝑑 log 𝑒
𝑑 by using layers of different dielectrics is known as
2𝑉 capacitance grading.
𝑔𝑚𝑖𝑛 = volts/m
𝐷 There are three dielectrics of outer diameter d1, d2 and D
𝐷 log 𝑒
𝑑 and of relative permittivity ε1, ε2 and ε3 respectively. If the
It is clear that dielectric stress is maximum at the conductor permittivities are such that ε1 > ε2 > ε3 and the three
surface and its value goes on decreasing as we move away dielectrics are worked at the same maximum stress, then,
from the conductor. It may be noted that maximum stress is 1 1 1
an important consideration in the design of a cable. For = =
𝜀1 𝑑 𝜀2 𝑑1 𝜀3 𝑑3
instance, if a cable is to be operated at such a voltage that
Potential difference across the inner layer is
maximum stress is 5 kV/mm, then the insulation used must
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑1
have a dielectric strength of at least 5 kV/mm, otherwise 𝑉1 = 𝑑 log 𝑒
breakdown of the cable will become inevitable. 2 𝑑
Similarly, potential across second layer (V2) and third layer
Most Economical Conductor Size
(V3) is given by:
The most economical conductor size will be when the 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑑2
maximum gradient has the least value which is: 𝑉2 = 𝑑1 log 𝑒
𝐷 2 𝑑1
𝑑= 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
2.718 𝑉3 = 𝑑2 log 𝑒
2𝑉 2 𝑑2
𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 = volts/m Total potential between core and
𝑑
For low and medium voltage cables, the value of conductor earthed sheath is
diameter arrived at by this method is often too small from 𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3
the point of view of current density. Therefore, the If the cable had homogeneous
conductor diameter of such cables is determined from the dielectric, then, for the same values
consideration of safe current density. For high voltage of d, D and gmax, the permissible
cables, designs based on this theory give a very high value potential difference between core
of d, much too large from the point of view of current and earthed sheath would have been
carrying capacity and it is, therefore, advantageous to 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝐷
𝑉′ = 𝑑 log 𝑒
increase the conductor diameter to this value. There are 2 2
three ways of doing this without using excessive copper: Obviously, V > V′, for given
a. Using aluminum instead of copper because for the dimensions of the cable, a graded
same current, diameter of aluminum will be more than cable can be worked at a greater potential than non –
that of copper. graded cable. Alternatively, for the same safe potential, the
b. Using copper wires stranded round a central core of size of graded cable will be less than that of non – graded
hemp. cable. The following points may be noted:
c. Using a central lead tube instead of hemp. 1. As the permissible values of gmax are peak values,
The process of achieving uniform electrostatic stress in the therefore, all the voltages in above expressions should
dielectric of cables is known as grading of cables. be taken as peak values and not the rms values.
The unequal stress distribution in a cable is undesirable for 2. If the maximum stress in the three dielectrics is not the
two reasons. Firstly, insulation of greater thickness is same, then,
required which increases the cable size. Secondly, it may 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥1 𝑑1 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥2 𝑑2
𝑉= 𝑑 log 𝑒 + 𝑑1 log 𝑒
lead to the breakdown of insulation. In order to overcome 2 𝑑 2 𝑑1
above disadvantages, it is necessary to have a uniform 𝑔𝑚𝑎𝑥3 𝐷
+ 𝑑2 log 𝑒
stress distribution in cables. This can be achieved by 2 𝑑2
distributing the stress in such a way that its value is The principal disadvantage of this method is that there are
increased in the outer layers of dielectric. This is known as a few high grade dielectrics of reasonable cost whose
grading of cables. The following are the two main methods permittivities vary over the required range.
of grading of cables:
a. Capacitance grading
b. Intersheath grading

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Intersheath Grading
In this method of cable grading, a homogeneous dielectric
is used, but it is divided into various
layers by placing metallic intersheaths
between the core and lead sheath.
The intersheaths are held at suitable Based from figure
potentials which are in between the a. Electrostatic fields are set – up within the conductor
core potential and earth potential. because there is a potential difference.
This arrangement improves voltage b. Electrostatic fields give rise to Ce and Cc.
distribution in the dielectric of the c. Cc are connected in delta while in Ce is connected Y.
cable and consequently more uniform Capacitance to neutral of 3 phase cables
potential gradient is obtained. 𝐶𝑛 = 3𝐶𝑐 + 𝐶𝑒
Consider a cable of core diameter d and outer lead sheath where CC = core capacitance
of diameter D. Suppose that two intersheaths of diameters Ce = capacitance to earth
d1 and d2 are inserted into the homogeneous dielectric and Measurements of Ce and CS
maintained at some fixed potentials. Let V1, V2 and V3 1. First Measurement – the 3 cores are bunched
respectively be the voltage between core and intersheath together (common) and the capacitance is measured
1, between intersheath 1 and 2 and between intersheath 2 between bunched cones and the sheathed.
and outer lead sheath. As there is a definite potential 𝐶1 = 3𝐶𝑒
difference between the inner and outer layers of each 2. Second Measurement – two cores are bunched with
intersheath, therefore, each sheath can be treated like a the sheath and capacitance is measured between
homogeneous single core cable. Maximum stress between them and the third core.
core and intersheath 1 is 𝐶2 = 2𝐶𝐶 + 𝐶𝑒
V V V 3. Third Measurement (directly solving Cn) – the
g1max = d 1 d1 g2max = d1 2 d2 g3max = d2 3 D
2
loge
d 2
loge
d1 2
loge
d2 capacitance is measured between two cores with the
Since the dielectric is homogeneous, the maximum stress 3rd core free and connected to the sheath.
in each layer is the same 1
𝐶3 = (𝐶𝑒 + 3𝐶𝐶 )
𝑔1𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔2𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝑔3𝑚𝑎𝑥 2
As the cable behaves like three capacitors in series, 1
𝐶3 = 𝐶𝑛
therefore, all the potentials are in phase, Voltage between 2
conductor and earthed lead sheath is Charging current
𝑉 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉2 + 𝑉3 𝐼𝐶 = 2𝜋𝑓𝑉𝑛 (𝐶𝑒 + 3𝐶𝐶 )
Intersheath grading has three principal disadvantages. Current – Carrying Capacity of Underground Cables
Firstly, there are complications in fixing the sheath The safe current – carrying capacity of an underground
potentials. Secondly, the intersheaths are likely to be cable is determined by the maximum permissible
damaged during transportation and installation which might temperature rise. The cause of temperature rise is the
result in local concentrations of potential gradient. Thirdly, losses that occur in a cable which appear as heat. These
there are considerable losses in the intersheaths due to losses are:
charging currents. For these reasons, intersheath grading a. Copper losses in the conductors
is rarely used. b. Hysteresis losses in the dielectric
Capacitance of 3 – Core Cables c. Eddy current losses in the sheath
The capacitance of a cable system is much more important The safe working conductor temperature is 65 ºC for
than of overhead line because in cables: armored cables and 50 ºC for lead – sheathed cables laid
1. Conductors are nearer to each other in ducts. The maximum steady temperature conditions
2. They are separated by a dielectric permittivity much prevail when the heat generated in the cable is equal to the
greater than air. heat dissipated. The heat dissipation of the conductor
losses is by conduction through the insulation to the sheath
from which the total losses (including dielectric and sheath
losses) may be conducted to the earth. Therefore, in order
to find permissible current loading, the thermal resistivities

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

of the insulation, the protective covering and the soil must cm and sheath diameter is 5 cm, calculate the
be known. resistivity of the dielectric in the cable.
Thermal Resistance 6. Determine the insulation resistance of a single core
The thermal resistance between two points in a medium cable of length 3 km and having conductor radius 12.5
(e.g. insulation) is equal to temperature difference between mm, insulation thickness 10 mm and specific
these points divided by the heat flowing between them in a resistance of insulation of 5×1012 Ω – m.
unit time 7. A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1 cm
𝑡 (Temperature rise) and internal sheath diameter of 1.8 cm. if the
Thermal Resistance, 𝑆 = impregnated paper of relative permittivity 4 is used as
𝑃 (Power dissipated)
𝑙 the insulation; calculate the capacitance for 1 km
𝑆=𝑘 length of the cable.
𝐴
Thermal ohm×m2 8. A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1 cm
where: 𝑘 =
𝑚 and internal sheath diameter of 1.8 cm. If the
l = length impregnated paper of relative permittivity 3 is used as
a = cross – sectional area insulation, calculate the capacitance for 1 km length of
For single core cable: the cable.
𝑘 𝑟1 9. Calculate the capacitance and charging current of a
𝑆= log 𝑒
2𝜋 𝑟 single core cable used on a 3 phase, 66 kV system.
Permissible Current Loading The cable is 1 km long having a core diameter of 10
𝑡 cm and an impregnated paper insulation of thickness 7
𝐼=√ cm. The relative permittivity of the insulation may be
𝑛𝑅𝑆
taken as 4 and the supply at 50 Hz.
where: I = permissible current per conductor 10. Calculate the capacitance and charging current of a
n = number of conductors single core cable used on 3 phase, 66 kV system. The
R = electrical resistance per meter length of the conductor cable is 1 km long having a core diameter of 15 cm and
at the working temperature impregnated paper insulation of thickness 22.5 cm.
S = total thermal resistance (i.e. sum of thermal resistances The relative permittivity of the insulation may be taken
of dielectric and soil) per meter length as 3.5 and supply at 50 Hz.
t = temperature difference (rise) between the conductor and 11. An 11 kV, 50 Hz, single phase cable 2.5 km long, has
the soil a diameter of 20 mm and internal sheath radius of 15
Examples: mm. If the dielectric has a relative permittivity of 2.4,
1. A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 1 cm determine:
and insulation thickness of 0.4 cm. if the specific a. capacitance
resistance of insulation is 5 x 1014 Ω – cm. Calculate b. charging current
the insulation resistance for a 2 km length of the cable. c. total charging kVAR.
2. The insulation resistance of a single core cable is 495 12. A concentric cable has a conductor diameter of 1 cm
MΩ per km. If the core diameter is 2.5 cm and and an insulation thickness of 1.5 cm. Find the
resistivity of insulation is 4.5×1014 Ω – cm, find the maximum field strength when the cable is subjected to
insulation thickness. a test pressure of 33 kV.
3. A single core cable 5 km long has an insulation 13. A 33 kV single core cable has a conductor diameter of
resistance of 0.4 MΩ. The core diameter is 20 mm and 1 cm and a sheath of inside diameter 4 cm. Find the
the diameter of the cable over the insulation is 50 mm. maximum and minimum stress in the insulation.
Calculate the resistivity of the insulating material. 14. The maximum and minimum stresses in the dielectric
4. A single core cable has a conductor diameter of 2.5 cm of a single core cable are 40 kV/cm (RMS) and 10
and insulation thickness of 1.2 cm. If the specific kV/cm (RMS.) respectively. If the conductor diameter
resistance of insulation is 4.5×1014 Ω – cm, calculate is 2 cm, find:
the insulation resistance per kilometer length of the a. thickness of insulation
cable. b. operating voltage
5. A single core cable 3 km long has an insulation 15. A single core cable for use on 11 kV, 50 Hz system has
resistance of 1820 MΩ. If the conductor diameter is 1.5 conductor area of 0.645 cm2 and internal diameter of

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

sheath is 2.18 cm. The permittivity of the dielectric 24. A single core cable of conductor diameter 2 cm and
used in the cable is 3.5. Find: lead sheath of diameter 5.3 cm is to be used on a 66
a. the maximum electrostatic stress in the cable kV, 3 phase system. Two intersheaths of diameter 3.1
b. minimum electrostatic stress in the cable cm and 4.2 cm are introduced between the core and
c. capacitance of the cable per km length lead sheath. If the maximum stress in the layers is the
d. charging current same, find the voltages on the intersheaths.
16. Find the most economical value of diameter of a single 25. A single core 66 kV cable working on 3 phase system
core cable to be used on 50 kV, single phase system. has a conductor diameter of 2 cm and a sheath of
The maximum permissible stress in the dielectric is not inside diameter 5.3 cm. If two intersheaths are
to exceed 40 kV/cm. introduced in such a way that the stress varies
17. Find the most economical size of a single core cable between the same maximum and minimum in the three
working on a 132 kV, 3 phase system, if a dielectric layers, find:
stress of 60 kV/cm can be allowed. a. positions of intersheaths
18. Find the economic size of a single core cable working b. voltage on the intersheaths
on 220 kV, 3 phase system. The maximum permissible c. maximum and minimum stress
stress in the dielectric is not to exceed 250 kV/cm. 26. A single core 66 kV cable has a conductor diameter of
19. A single core lead sheathed cable is graded by using 2 cm and a sheath of inside diameter 5.3 cm. The cable
three dielectrics of relative permittivity 5, 4 and 3 has an inner layer of 1 cm thick of rubber of dielectric
respectively. The conductor diameter is 2 cm and constant 4.5 and the rest impregnated paper of
overall diameter is 8 cm. If the three dielectrics are dielectric constant 3.6. Find the maximum stress in the
worked at the same maximum stress of 40 kV/cm, find rubber and in the paper.
the safe working voltage of the cable. What will be the 27. A single core cable working on 66 kV on 3 phase
value of safe working voltage for an ungraded cable, system has a conductor diameter of 2 cm and a sheath
assuming the same conductor and overall diameter of inside diameter 5.3 cm. If two intersheaths are used,
and the maximum dielectric stress? find the best positions, maximum stress and the
20. A single core lead – covered cable is to be designed voltage on the intersheaths.
for 66 kV to earth. Its conductor radius is 1.0 cm and 28. A 33 kV, 50 Hz, 3 phase underground cable, 4 km long
its three insulating materials A, B, C have permittivities uses three single core cables. Each of the conductor
of 5.4 and 3 respectively with corresponding maximum has a diameter of 2.5 cm and the radial thickness of
safe working stress of 38 kV per cm (rms value), 26 kV insulation is 0.5 cm. Determine:
per cm and 20 kV per cm respectively. Find the a. capacitance of the cable/phase
minimum diameter of the lead sheath. b. charging current/phase
21. A single core lead sheathed cable has a conductor c. total charging kVAR
diameter of 3 cm; the diameter of the cable being 9 cm. The relative permittivity of insulation is 3.
The cable is graded by using two dielectrics of relative 29. The capacitance/km of a 3 phase belted cable is 0.3
permittivity 5 and 4 respectively with corresponding μF between 2 cores with the 3rd core connected to the
safe working stresses of 30 kV/cm and 20 kV/cm. lead sheath. Calculate the charging current taken 5 km
Calculate the radial thickness of each insulation and of this cable when connected to a 3 phase, 50 hz, 11
the safe working voltage of the cable. kV line.
22. The inner conductor of a concentric cable has a 30. The capacitances of a 3 phase belted cable are 12.6
diameter of 3 cm with insulation of diameter 8.5 cm. μF between the three cores bunched together and the
The cable is insulated with two materials having lead sheath and 7.4 μF between one core and the other
relative permittivities of 5 and 3 with corresponding two connected to sheath. Find the charging current
safe working stresses of 38 kV/cm and 26 kV/cm. drawn by the cable when connected to 66 kV, 50 Hz
Calculate the radial thickness of insulating layers and supply.
the safe working voltage of the cable. 31. The capacitance per kilometer of a 3 phase belted
23. A 66 kV single core lead sheathed cable is graded by cable is 0.18 μF between two cores with the third core
using two dielectrics of relative permittivity 5 and 3 connected to sheath. Calculate the kVA taken by 20
respectively; thickness of each being 1 cm. The core km long cable when connected to 3 phase, 50 Hz, 3300
diameter is 2 cm. Determine the maximum stress in the V supply.
two dielectrics.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

32. The capacitance between two conductors connected sheath losses, estimate the maximum permissible
together and the third is grounded conductor metal current loading if the temperature difference between
sheath cable is 0.8 μF. Determine the capacitance to the conductor and the ground surface is not to exceed
neutral if the capacitance between the first conductor 55 ºC. The electrical resistance of the cable is 110 μΩ
and the other two conductors connected together and per meter length.
grounded is 0.5 μF. Distribution Systems
33. The capacitances per kilometer of a 3 phase cable are It connects all individual loads to the transmission line
0.63 μF between the three cores bunched and the through substation, which perform voltage transformations
sheath and 0.37 μF between one core and the other and switching functions. In general, the distribution system
two connected to sheath. Calculate the charging is the electrical system between the substation fed by the
current taken by eight kilometers of this cable when transmission system and the consumer’s meters. It
connected to a 3 phase, 50 Hz, 6,600 V supply. generally consists of feeders, distributors and the service
34. A 3 core, 3 phase belted cable tested for capacitance mains. The voltages for primary distribution are 3.3, 6.6 or
between a pair of cores on single phase with the third 11 kV. The usable voltage for secondary distribution is
core earthed, gave a capacitance of 0.4 mF per km. 400/230 V.
Calculate the charging current for 1.5 km length of this Functions of a Substation
cable when connected to 22 kV, 3 phase, 50 Hz supply. 1. Convert AC to DC
35. A 3 core, 3 phase metal – sheathed cable has 2. Transform power from one circuit to another
capacitance of 1 μF between shorted conductors and 3. Switching
sheath and capacitance between two conductors 4. Interconnect power plants or systems
shorted with the sheath and the third conductor 0.6 μF. 5. Regulate the voltage
Find the capacitance: Requirements of Good Distribution Systems
a. between any two conductors 1. The voltage at the customer premises must be
b. between any two shorted conductors maintained ± 5% of the declared voltage. The actual
c. the third conductor value depending on the type of load.
36. The capacitances of a 3 core belted type cable are 2. The loss of power in the system itself should be a
measured as detailed below: percentage (about 10%) of the power delivered.
a. Between three cores bunched together and 3. The distribution system is to be made as economical
sheath is 8 μF as possible.
b. Between a conductor and the other two connected 4. The maximum current (50%), passing through the
to the sheath together is 6 μF conductor should be limited to such value so as not to
Calculate the capacitance per phase. overheat the conductor or injure its insulation.
37. A 3 core, 3 phase belted cable tested for capacitance 5. The permissible resistance of the whole system shall
between a pair of cores on single phase, with the third be very high to avoid any leakage and probable danger
core earthed, gave a capacitance of 0.4 μF per km. to human life.
Calculate the charging current for 15 km length of this There shall be no power failure, even it exists, and it should
cable when connected to 22 kV, 3 phase, 50 Hz supply. be minimum as possible
38. Show diagrammatically the distribution of electrostatic Secondary Distribution
capacitance in a 3 core, 3 phase lead – sheathed consists of:
cable. The capacitance of such a cable measured 1. Feeders (secondary
between any two of the conductors, the sheathing distribution feeders)
being earthed, is 0.3 μF per km. Find the equivalent 2. Distributors (distribution
star – connected capacitance and the kVA required to transformer)
keep 10 km of the cable charged when connected to 3. Service main (main supply)
20,000 V, 50 Hz bus bars. A feeder is a conductor which connects the substation (or
39. A single core cable is laid in the ground, the core localized generating station) to the area where power is to
diameter being 30 mm and the dielectric thickness 40 be distributed. Generally, no tappings are taken from the
mm. The thermal resistivity of the dielectric is 5 thermal feeder so that current in it remains the same throughout.
ohm - meters and the thermal resistance between the The main consideration in the design of a feeder is the
sheath and the ground surface is 0.45 thermal ohm per current carrying capacity.
meter length of the cable. Neglecting dielectric and
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 107
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

A distributor is a conductor from which tappings are taken 2. Primary Distribution Feeder – a one to five kilometer
for supply to the consumers. The current through a line in rural areas and 10 to 12 km long in urban areas.
distributor is not constant because tappings are taken at 3. Distribution Transformer – 3 to 500 KVA transformer
various places along its length. While designing a which steps down the voltage at utilization voltage.
distributor, voltage drop along its length is the main These are located at convenient places in the area in
consideration since the statutory limit of voltage variations which power is to be supplied such as pole mounted
is ± 5% of rated value at the consumers’ terminals. transformers located on the road side.
Service mains is generally a small cable which connects
the distributor to the consumers’ terminals.
Classifications of Distribution System
A distribution system may be classified according to:
1. Nature of current
a. DC distribution system
b. AC distribution system
2. Type of construction
a. overhead system
b. underground system
3. Scheme of connection
a. radial system
b. ring main system
c. interconnected system
AC Distribution System 4. Secondary Distribution Feeder – a line carrying at
Nowadays electrical energy is generated, transmitted and utilization voltage and delivers energy at customer’s
distributed in the form of alternating current. One important premises through a service wire called service drop.
reason for the widespread use of alternating current in DC Distribution System
preference to direct current is the fact that alternating It is a common knowledge that electric power is almost
voltage can be conveniently changed in magnitude by exclusively generated, transmitted and distributed as AC
means of a transformer. Transformer has made it possible However, for certain applications, DC supply is absolutely
to transmit AC power at high voltage and utilize it at a safe necessary. For instance, DC supply is required for the
potential. High transmission and distribution voltages have operation of variable speed machinery (DC motors), for
greatly reduced the current in the conductors and the electrochemical work and for congested areas where
resulting line losses. storage battery reserves are necessary. For this purpose,
There is no definite line between transmission and AC power is converted into DC power at the substation by
distribution according to voltage or bulk capacity. However, using converting machinery, mercury arc rectifiers, rotary
in general, the AC distribution system is the electrical converters and motor – generator sets. The DC supply from
system between the stepdown substation fed by the the substation may be obtained in the form of:
transmission system and the consumers’ meters. The AC 1. 2 – Wire DC
Distribution System has the following parts: system. As
1. Distribution Substation – it steps down the voltage to the name
primary distribution. implies, this
system of
distribution
consists of two wires. One is the outgoing or positive
wire and the other is the return or negative wire. The
loads such as lamps, motors etc. are connected in
parallel between the two wires. This system is never
used for transmission purposes due to low efficiency
but may be employed for distribution of DC power.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

2. 3 – Wire DC system. It consists of two outers and a c. Balancer Set. The 3 – Wire System can be obtained
middle or neutral wire which is earthed at the from 2 – Wire DC System by the use of balancer set as
substation. The shown. G is the
voltage between main 2 – Wire DC
the outers is twice Generator and
the voltage supplies power to
between outer and the whole system.
neutral wire. The The balancer set
principal advantage of this system is that it makes consists of two
available two voltages at the consumer terminals, V identical DC shunt
between any outer and the neutral and 2V between the machines A and B coupled mechanically with their
outers. Loads requiring high voltage (e.g., motors) are armatures and field windings joined in series across
connected across the outers, whereas lamps and the outers. The junction of their armatures is earthed
heating circuits requiring less voltage are connected and neutral wire is taken out from here. The balancer
between either outer and the neutral. set has the additional advantage that it maintains the
Methods of obtaining 3 – Wire DC System potential difference on two sides of neutral equal to
There are several methods of obtaining 3 – Wire DC each other.
System. However, the most important ones are: Overhead versus Underground System
a. Two Generator The distribution system can be overhead or underground.
Method. In this Overhead lines are generally mounted on wooden,
method, two shunt concrete or steel poles which are arranged to carry
wound DC distribution transformers in addition to the conductors. The
Generators G1 and underground system uses conduits, cables and manholes
G2 are connected in under the surface of streets and sidewalks. The choice
series and the between overhead and underground system depends upon
neutral is obtained a number of widely differing factors. Therefore, it is
from the common desirable to make a comparison between the two.
point between generators. Each generator supplies the 1. Public safety. The underground system is safer than
load on its own side. Thus generator G1 supplies a load overhead system because all distribution wiring is
current of I1, whereas generator G2 supplies a load placed underground and there are little chances of any
current of I2. The difference of load currents on the two hazard.
sides, known as out of balance current (I1 − I2) flows 2. Initial cost. The underground system is more
through the neutral wire. The principal disadvantage of expensive due to the high cost of trenching, conduits,
this method is that two separate generators are cables, manholes and other special equipment. The
required. initial cost of an underground system may be five to ten
b. 3 – Wire DC Generator. The two generator method is times than that of an overhead system.
costly on account of the 3. Flexibility. The overhead system is much more
necessity of two generators. For flexible than the underground system. In the latter
this reason, 3 – Wire DC case, manholes, duct lines etc., are permanently
Generator was developed. It placed once installed and the load expansion can only
consists of a standard 2 – wire be met by laying new lines. However, on an overhead
machine with one or two coils of system, poles, wires, transformers etc., can be easily
high reactance and low shifted to meet the changes in load conditions.
resistance, connected 4. Faults. The chances of faults in underground system
permanently to diametrically are very rare as the cables are laid underground and
opposite points of the armature winding. The neutral are generally provided with better insulation.
wire is obtained from the common point. 5. Appearance. The general appearance of an
underground system is better as all the distribution
lines are invisible. This factor is exerting considerable
public pressure on electric supply companies to switch
over to underground system.
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 109
 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

6. Fault location and repairs. In general, there are little

chances of faults in an underground system. However,
if a fault does occur, it is difficult to locate and repair on
this system. On an overhead system, the conductors
are visible and easily accessible so that fault locations
and repairs can be easily made.
7. Current carrying capacity and voltage drop. An
overhead distribution conductor has a considerably
In this system, separate feeders radiate from a single
higher current carrying capacity than an underground
substation and feed the distributors at one end only.
cable conductor of the same material and cross –
Figure (i) shows a single line diagram of a radial
section. On the other hand, underground cable
system for DC Distribution where a feeder OC supplies
conductor has much lower inductive reactance than
a distributor AB at point A. The distributor is fed at one
that of an overhead conductor because of closer
end on, point A is this case. Figure (ii) shows a single
spacing of conductors.
line diagram of radial system for AC Distribution. The
8. Useful life. The useful life of underground system is
radial system is employed only when power is
much longer than that of an overhead system. An
generated at low voltage and the substation is located
overhead system may have a useful life of 25 years,
at the center of the load.
whereas an underground system may have a useful
This is the simplest distribution circuit and has the
life of more than 50 years.
lowest initial cost. However, it suffers from the following
9. Maintenance cost. The maintenance cost of
drawbacks:
underground system is very low as compared with that
1. The end of the distributor nearest to the feeding
of overhead system because of less chances of faults
point will be heavily loaded.
and service interruptions from wind, ice, and lightning
2. The consumers are dependent on a single feeder
as well as from traffic hazards.
and single distributor. Therefore, any fault on the
10. Interference with communication circuits. An
feeder or distributor cuts off supply to the
overhead system causes electromagnetic interference
consumers who are on the side of the fault away
with the telephone lines. The power line currents are
from the substation.
superimposed on speech currents, resulting in the
3. The consumers at the distant end of the distributor
potential of the communication channel being raised to
would be subjected to serious voltage fluctuations
an undesirable level. However, there is no such
when the load on the distributor changes.
interference with the underground system.
Due to these limitations, this system is used for short
It is clear from the above comparison that each system has
distances only.
its own advantages and disadvantages. However,
b. Ring Main System
comparative economics (annual cost of operation) is the
In this system, the primaries of distribution
most powerful factor influencing the choice between
transformers form a loop. The loop circuit starts from
underground and overhead system. The greater capital
the substation bus bars, makes a loop through the area
cost of underground system prohibits its use for distribution.
to be served, and returns to the substation. The figure
But sometimes non – economic factors (general
shows the single line diagram of ring main system for
appearance, public safety etc.) exert considerable influence
AC distribution where substation supplies to the closed
on choosing underground system. In general, overhead
feeder LMNOPQRS. The distributors are tapped from
system is adopted for distribution and the use of
different points M, O and Q of the feeder through
underground system is made only where overhead
distribution transformers. The ring main system has the
construction is impracticable or prohibited by local laws.
following advantages:
Connection Schemes of Distribution System
1. There are less voltage fluctuations at consumer’s
All distribution of electrical energy is done by constant
terminals.
voltage system. In practice, the following distribution
2. The system is very reliable as each distributor is
circuits are generally used:
fed via two feeders. In the event of fault on any
a. Radial System
section of the feeder, the continuity of supply is
maintained. For example, suppose that fault
occurs at any point F of section SLM of the feeder.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Then section SLM of the feeder can be isolated for burning out of motors. High voltage causes lamps to
repairs and at the same time continuity of supply burn out permanently and may cause failure of other
is maintained to all the consumers via the feeder appliances. Therefore, a good distribution system
SRQPONM. should ensure that the voltage variations at
consumer’s terminals are within permissible limits.
b. Availability of power on demand. Power must be
available to the consumers in any amount that they
may require from time to time. For example, motors
may be started or shut down, lights may be turned on
or off, without advance warning to the electric supply
company. As electrical energy cannot be stored,
therefore, the distribution system must be capable of
supplying load demands of the consumers. This
necessitates that operating staff must continuously
study load patterns to predict in advance those major
c. Interconnected System. When the feeder ring is load changes that follow the known schedules.
energized by two or more than two generating stations c. Reliability. Modern industry is almost dependent on
or substations, it is called interconnected system. The electric power for its operation. Homes and office
figure shows the single line diagram of interconnected buildings are lighted, heated, cooled and ventilated by
system where the closed feeder ring ABCD is supplied electric power. This calls for reliable service.
by two substations S1 and S2 at points D and C Unfortunately, electric power, like everything else that
respectively. Distributors are connected to points O, P, is man – made, can never be absolutely reliable.
Q and R of the feeder ring through distribution However, the reliability can be improved to a
transformers. The interconnected system has the considerable extent by:
following advantages: 1. interconnected system
1. It increases the service reliability. 2. reliable automatic control system
2. Any area fed from one generating station during 3. providing additional reserve facilities
peak load hours can be fed from the other Voltage Drop and Transmission Efficiency of DC System
generating station. This reduces reserve power For a given feeder, the efficiency of transmission is given
capacity and increases efficiency of the system. as:
power delivered by the line
𝜂= × 100
power received by the line
For the voltage drop it is given as:
𝑉𝑑𝑟𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼𝑅𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑𝑒𝑟 = 𝑉𝑆 − 𝑉𝑅 here VS = voltage at the
sending end
VR = voltage at the receiving end
I = current across the feeder
It is seen that for a given drop, transmission efficiency can
be considerably increased by increasing the voltage at the
Requirements of a Distribution System transmitting end.
A considerable amount of effort is necessary to maintain an The calculation of drop in a feeder is easy because of the
electric power supply within the requirements of various fact that current is constant throughout its length. But it is
types of consumers. Some of the requirements of a good not so in the case of distributors which are tapped off at
distribution system are proper voltage, availability of power various places along their entire lengths. Hence, their
on demand and reliability. different sections carry different currents over different
a. Proper voltage. One important requirement of a lengths. For calculating the total voltage drop along the
distribution system is that voltage variations at entire length of a distributor, following information is
consumer’s terminals should be as low as possible. necessary:
The changes in voltage are generally caused due to c. Value of current tapped at each load
the variation of load on the system. Low voltage point.
causes loss of revenue, inefficient lighting and possible
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

d. The resistance of each section of the In general, the drop at any intermediate point is equal to the
distributor between tapped points. sum of moments of various tapped currents up to that point
Methods of Feeding a Distributor plus the moment of all the load currents beyond that point
1. feeding at one end assumed to be acting at that point.
2. feeding at both ends with equal voltages Uniformly Loaded Distributor
3. feeding at both ends with unequal voltages The figure shows one conductor AB of a distributor fed at
4. feeding at some intermediate point one end A and uniformly loaded with i amperes per unit
The nature of loading of Distributors length. Any convenient unit of length may be chosen i.e. a
1. concentrated loading meter or 10 meters but at every such unit length, the load
2. uniform loading tapped is the same. Hence, let
3. combination i = current tapped off per unit length
DC Distributor Fed at One End l = total length of the distributor
The figure shows r = resistance per unit length of the distributor
one conductor AB Now, let us find the voltage drop at a point C which is at a
of a distributor with distance of x units from feeding end A. The current at point
concentrated C is (𝑖𝑙 − 𝑖𝑥) = 𝑖(𝑙 − 𝑥)
loads and fed at
one end.
Let i1, i2, i3 etc. be
the currents tapped off at points C, D, E and F and I1, I2, I3 Consider a small section of length dx near point C. Its
etc. the currents in the various sections of the distributor. resistance is (𝑟𝑑𝑥). Hence, drop over length dx is
Let r1, r2, r3 etc. be the ohmic resistances of these various 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑖(𝑙 − 𝑥)(𝑟𝑑𝑥) = (𝑖𝑙𝑟 − 𝑖𝑟𝑥)𝑑𝑥
sections and R1, R2, R3 etc. the total resistance from the The total drop up to point x is given by integrating the above
feeding end A to the successive tapping points. quantity between proper limits.
𝑣 𝑥
Then, total drop in the distributor is
∫ 𝑑𝑥 = ∫ (𝑖𝑙𝑥 − 𝑖𝑟𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
= 𝑟1 𝐼1 + 𝑟2 𝐼2 + 𝑟3 𝐼3 + 𝑟4 𝐼4 0 0
Now, 𝐼1 = 𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 1 𝑥2
𝐼2 = 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 𝑣 = 𝑖𝑙𝑟𝑥 − 𝑖𝑟𝑥 2 = 𝑖𝑟 (𝑙𝑥 − )
2 2
𝐼3 = 𝑖3 + 𝑖4
The drop at point B can be obtained by putting x = l in the
𝐼4 = 𝑖4
above expression.
= 𝑟1 (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 ) + 𝑟2 (𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 )
𝑙2 𝑖𝑟𝑙 2
+ 𝑟3 (𝑖3 + 𝑖4 ) + 𝑟4 (𝑖4 ) drop at point B = 𝑖𝑟 (𝑙 2 − ) =
= 𝑖1 𝑅1 + 𝑖2 𝑅2 + 𝑖3 𝑅3 + 𝑖4 𝑅4 2 2
= 𝐬𝐮𝐦 𝐨𝐟 𝐭𝐡𝐞 𝐦𝐨𝐦𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐬 𝐨𝐟 𝐞𝐚𝐜𝐡 𝐥𝐨𝐚𝐝 𝐜𝐮𝐫𝐫𝐞𝐧𝐭 (𝑖 × 𝑙)(𝑟 × 𝑙) 1 1
= = 𝐼𝑅 = 𝐼 × 𝑅
𝐚𝐛𝐨𝐮𝐭 𝐟𝐞𝐞𝐝𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐩𝐨𝐢𝐧𝐭 𝐀 2 2 2
1. Hence, the drop at the far end of a distributor fed at one where 𝑖 × 𝑙 = 𝐼 – total current entering at point A
end is given by the sum of the moments of various 𝑟 × 𝑙 = 𝑅 – the total resistance of distributor AB
tapped currents about the feeding point 𝑣 = ∑ 𝑖𝑅. 1
Total drop in the distributor AB = 𝐼𝑅
2. It follows from this that the total voltage drop is the 2
same as that produced by a single load equal to the 1. It follows that in a uniformly loaded distributor, total
sum of the various concentrated loads, acting at the drop is equal to that produced by the whole of the load
center of gravity of the load system. assumed concentrated at the middle point.
3. Let us find the drop at any intermediate point like E. 2. Suppose that such a distributor is fed at both ends A
The value of this drop is and B with equal voltages. In that case, the point of
= 𝑟1 𝐼1 + 𝑟2 𝐼2 + 𝑟3 𝐼3 + 𝑟3 𝐼4 minimum potential is obviously the middle point. We
= 𝑟1 (𝑖1 + 𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 ) + 𝑟2 (𝑖2 + 𝑖3 + 𝑖4 ) can thus imagine as if the distributor were cut into two
+ 𝑟3 (𝑖3 + 𝑖4 ) + 𝑟3 (𝑖4 ) at the middle point, giving us two uniformly – loaded
= 𝑖1 𝑅1 + 𝑖2 𝑅2 + 𝑖3 𝑅3 + 𝑖4 (𝑅3 + 𝑟3 ) distributors each fed at one end with equal voltages.
= (sum of moments up to E) The resistance of each is R/2 and total current fed into
each distributor is I/2. Hence, drop at the middle point
+ (moment of load beyond E assumed acting on E)
is

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design
1 𝐼 𝑅 1 6. A 2 wire DC distributor AB is 300 meters long. It is fed
= × ( ) × ( ) = 𝐼𝑅 at point A. The various loads and their positions are
2 2 2 8
It is ¼ of that of a distributor fed at one end only. given below:
The equation of drop at point C distant x units from feeding At point Distance from Concentrated
1
point A = 𝑖𝑟𝑙𝑥 − 2 𝑖𝑟𝑥 2 shows that the diagram of drop of A in meters Load in A
C 40 30
a uniformly – loaded distributor fed at one end is a parabola.
D 100 40
Concentrated and Uniform Loading with Distributor
E 150 100
Fed at One End
F 250 50
Such cases are solved in two stages. First, the drop at any
If the maximum permissible voltage drop is not to
point due to concentrated loading is found. To this add the
exceed 10 V, find the cross – sectional area of the
voltage drop due to uniform loading as calculated from the
relation. distributor. Take 𝜌 = 1.78 × 10−8 𝛺 − 𝑚
𝑥2 7. A 2 wire DC distributor F1F2 1000 meters long is loaded
𝑖𝑟 (𝑙𝑥 − ) as:
2 Distance
Examples: from F1
100 250 500 600 700 800 850 920
in
1. What should be the minimum cross – sectional area of meters
each conductor in a two core cable 100 m long to limit Load in
20 80 50 70 40 30 10 15
amperes
the total voltage drop to 4% of the declared voltage of
250V when the conductors carry 60A? The resistivity The feeding points F1 and F2 are maintained at the
of the conductor is 2.845 μΩ – cm. same potential. Find which point will have the minimum
2. A 2 wire DC distributor, 500 m long is fed at one of its potential and what will be the drop at this point? Take
ends. The cross – sectional area of each conductor is the cross – section of the conductors as 0.35 cm2 and
3.4 cm2 and the resistivity of copper is 1.7 μΩ – cm. specific resistance of copper as 1.764 × 10−6 Ω – cm.
The distributor supplies 200 A at a distance of 300m 8. Two tram cars (A & B) 2 km and 6 km away from a
from the feeding point and 100 A at the terminus. substation return 40 A and 20 A respectively to the
Calculate the voltage at the feeding end if the voltage rails. The substation voltage is 600 V DC. The
at the terminus is to be 230 V. resistance of trolley wire is 0.25 Ω/km and that of track
3. A 2 wire DC distributor cable AB is 2 km long and is 0.03 Ω/km. Calculate the voltage across each tram
supplies loads of 100A, 150A, 200A and 50A situated car.
500 m, 1000 m, 1600 m and 2000 m from the feeding 9. The load distribution on a two wire DC distributor is
point A. Each conductor has a resistance of 0.01 Ω per shown. The cross – sectional area of each conductor
1000 m. Calculate the potential drop at each load point is 0.27 cm2. The end A is supplied at 250 V. Resistivity
if a potential drop of 300 V is maintained at point A. of the wire is ρ = 1.78 μΩ – cm. Calculate:
4. A 2 wire DC distributor AB 500 meters long is fed from a. the current in each section of the conductor
point A and is loaded as under: b. the two core resistance of each section
Distance from A in meters 100 300 400 500 c. the voltage at each tapping point
Load in amperes 20 40 40 50
If the specific resistance of copper is 1.7×10−8 Ω – m,
what must be the cross – section of each wire in order
that the voltage drop in the distributor shall not exceed
10 volts? 10. A 2 wire distributor 500 meters long is fed at P at 250V
5. A 2 wire DC distributor is 250 m long. It is to be loaded and loads of 40A, 20A, 60A, 30A are tapped off from
as shown at 50 m intervals. If the maximum voltage points A, B, C and D which are at distances of 100
drop is not to exceed 10 V and the resistivity of core meters, 150 meters, 300 meters and 400 meters from
material is 0.7×2.54μΩ – cm, determine the maximum P respectively. The distributor is also uniformly loaded
cross – sectional area of each conductor. at the rate of 0.1 A/m. If the resistance of the distributor
per meter (go and return) is 0.0005 Ω, calculate the
voltage at
a. point Q
b. point B

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11. A 2 wire DC distributor 200 meters long is uniformly In (a) is shown a distributor fed at two points F1 and F2 with
loaded with 2 A/meter. Resistance of single wire is 0.3 equal voltages. The potential of the conductor will gradually
Ω/km. If the distributor is fed at one end, calculate: fall from F1
a. the voltage drop up to a distance of 150 m from onwards, reach a
the feeding point minimum value at
b. the maximum voltage drop one of the tapping,
12. A uniform 2 wire DC distributor 500 meters long is say, A and then
loaded with 0.4 ampere/meter and is fed at one end. If rise again as the
the maximum permissible voltage drop is not to exceed other feeding point
10 V, find the cross – sectional area of the distributor F2 is approached.
conductor. Take ρ = 1.7×10−6 Ω – cm. All the currents
13. A 250 m, 2 wire DC distributor fed from one end is tapped off between
loaded uniformly at the rate of 1.6 A/meter. The points F1 and A will be supplied from F1 while those tapped
resistance of each conductor is 0.0002 Ω per meter. off between F2 and A will be supplied from F2. The current
Find the voltage necessary at feed point to maintain tapped at point A itself will, in general, be partly supplied by
250 V: F1 and partly by F2. Let the values of these currents be x
a. at the far end and y respectively. If the distributor were actually cut off into
b. at the midpoint of the distributor two at A — the point of minimum voltage, with x amperes
14. Calculate the voltage at a distance of 200m of a 300m tapped off from the left and y amperes tapped off from the
long distributor uniformly loaded at the rate of 0.75 A right, then potential distribution would remain unchanged,
per meter. The distributor is fed at one end at 250 V. showing that we can regard the distributor as consisting of
The resistance of the distributor (go and return) per two separate distributors each fed from one end only, as
meter is 0.00018 Ω. Also find the power loss in the shown in (b). The drop can be calculated by locating point
distributor. A and then values of x and y can be calculated.
15. A 2 wire DC distributor 500 m long is loaded uniformly This can be done with the help of the following pair of
at the rate of 0.4A/m. If the voltage drop in the equations:
distributor is not to exceed 5V, calculate the area of x + y = i4 and drop from F1 to A1 = drop from F2 to A2
cross – section of each conductor required when the The following are its advantages:
distributor is fed at one end. Take resistivity of a. If a fault occurs on any feeding point of the distributor,
conductor material as 1.7×10−8 Ω – m. the continuity of supply is maintained from the other
16. A uniformly distributed load on a distributor of length feeding point.
500 m is rated at 1 A per meter length. The distributor b. In case of fault on any section of the distributor, the
is fed from one end at 220V. Determine the voltage continuity of supply is maintained from the other
drop at a distance of 400 m from the feeding point. feeding point.
Assume a loop resistance of 2×10−5 Ω per meter. c. The area of cross – section required for a doubly fed
17. A 250 m, 2 wire DC distributor fed from one end is distributor is much less than that of a single fed
loaded uniformly at the rate of 0.8 A per meter. The distributor.
resistance of each conductor is 0.0002 Ω per meter. Distributor Fed at Both Ends with Unequal Voltages
Find the necessary voltage at the feeding point to This case can be dealt with either by taking moments (in
maintain 250 V at the far end of the distributor. amp – m) about the two ends and then making a guess
Distributor Fed at Both Ends with Equal Voltages about the point of minimum potential or by assuming a
It should be noted that in such cases: current x fed at one end and then finding the actual current
a. the maximum voltage drop must always occur at one distribution.
of the load points Uniform Loading with Distributor Fed at Both Ends
b. if both feeding ends are at the same potential, then the Consider a distributor PQ of length l units of length, having
voltage drop between each end and this point must be resistance per unit length of r ohms and with loading per
the same, which in other words, means that the sum of unit length of i amperes. Let the difference in potentials of
the moments about ends must be equal. the two feeding points be ν volts with Q at the lower
potential. The procedure for finding the point of minimum
potential is as follows:

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

Let us assume that point of minimum potential M is situated a. the point along the track where minimum potential
at a distance of x units from P. Then drop from P to M is occurs
𝑖𝑟𝑥 2 b. the current supplied by the two substations when
= volts the train is at the point of minimum potential
2
Since the distance of M from Q is (l − x), the drop from Q to 6. A 200 m long distributor is fed from both ends A and B
M is at the same voltage of 250 V. The concentrated loads
𝑖𝑟(𝑙 − 𝑥)2 of 50, 40, 30 and 25 A are coming on the distributor at
volts distances of 50, 75, 100 and 150 m respectively from
2
Since potential of P is greater than that of Q by ν volts, end A. Determine the minimum potential and locate its
𝑖𝑟𝑥 2 𝑖𝑟(𝑙 − 𝑥)2 𝑙 𝑣 position. Also, determine the current in each section of
= + 𝑣 or 𝑥 = + the distributor. It is given that the resistance of the
2 2 2 𝑖𝑟𝑙
Examples: distributor is 0.08 Ω per 100 meters for go and return.
1. A uniform 2 wire DC distributor 200 meters long is 7. The resistance of a cable is 0.1 Ω per 1000 meter for
loaded with 2 amperes/meter. Resistance of single both conductors. It is loaded as shown. Find the
wire is 0.3 ohm/kilometer. Calculate the maximum current supplied at A and at B. If both the ends are
voltage drop if the distributor is fed with equal voltages: supplied at 200 V.
a. from one end
b. from both ends
2. A 2 wire DC street mains AB, 600 m long is fed from
both ends at 220 V. Loads of 20 A, 40 A, 50 A and 30
A are tapped at distances of 100m, 250m, 400m and
500 m from the end A respectively. If the area of cross 8. The resistance of two conductors of a 2 conductor
– section of distributor conductor is 1cm2, find the distributor shown is 0.1 Ω per 1000 m for both
minimum consumer voltage. Take ρ = 1.7×10−6 Ω cm. conductors. Find:
3. A 2 wire DC distributor AB is fed from both ends. At a. the current supplied at A
feeding point A, the voltage is maintained as at 230 V b. the current supplied at B
and at B 235 V. The total length of the distributor is 200 c. the current in each section
meters and loads are tapped off as under: d. the voltages at C, D and E.
25 A at 50 meters from A Both A and B are maintained at 200 V.
50 A at 75 meters from A
30 A at 100 meters from A
40 A at 150 meters from A
The resistance per kilometer of one conductor is 0.3 Ω.
Calculate: 9. A two conductor main AB, 500 m in length is fed from
a. currents in various sections of the distributor both ends at 250 volts. Loads of 50 A, 60 A, 40 A and
b. minimum voltage and the point at which it occurs 30 A are tapped at distance of 100 m, 250 m, 350 m
4. A two wire DC distributor AB, 600 meters long is loaded and 400 m from end A respectively. If the cross –
as under: section of conductor be 1 cm2 and specific resistance
Distance from A (meters) 150 300 350 450 of the material of the conductor is 1.7μΩ – cm,
Loads in Amperes 100 200 250 300 determine the minimum consumer voltage.
The feeding point A is maintained at 440 V and that of 10. Each conductor of a 2 core distributor, 500 meters long
B at 430 V. If each conductor has a resistance of 0.01 has a cross – sectional area of 2 cm2. The feeding point
Ω per 100 meters, calculate: A is supplied at 255 V and the feeding point B at 250 V
a. the currents supplied from A to B and load currents of 120 A and 160 A are taken at
b. the power dissipated in the distributor points C and D which are 150 meters and 350 meters
5. An electric train runs between two substations 6 km respectively from the feeding point A. Calculate the
apart maintained at voltages 600 V and 590 V voltage at each load. Specific resistance of copper is
respectively and draws a constant current of 300 A 1.7 × 10−6 Ω – cm.
while in motion. The track resistance of go and return 11. A distributor AB is fed from both ends. At feeding point
path is 0.04 Ω/km. Calculate: A, the voltage is maintained at 236 V and at B at 237

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

V. The total length of the distributor is 200 meters and 16. It is proposed to lay out a DC distribution system
loads are tapped off as under: comprising three sections – the first section consists of
a. 20 A at 50 meters from A a cable from the sub – station to a point distant 800
b. 40 A at 75 meters from A meters from which two cables are taken, one 350
c. 25 A at 100 meters from A meters long supplying a load of 22 kW and the other
d. 30 A at 150 meters from A 1.5 kilometer long and supplying a load of 44 kW.
The resistance per kilometer of one conductor is 0.4Ω. Calculate the cross – sectional area of each cable so
Calculate the currents in the various sections of the that the total weight of copper required shall be
distributor, the minimum voltage and the point at which minimum if the maximum drop of voltage along the
it occurs. cable is not to exceed 5% of the normal voltage of 440
12. A DC distributor AB is fed at both ends. At feeding point V at the consumer’s premises. Take specific resistance
A, the voltage is maintained at 235 V and at B at 236 of copper at working temperature equal to 2 μΩ – cm.
V. The total length of the distributor is 200 meters and 17. A pair of distributing mains of uniform cross – section
loads are tapped off as under: 1,000 meters in length having a resistance of 0.15 Ω
a. 20 A at 50 m from A each, are loaded with currents of 50, 100, 57.5, 10 and
b. 40 A at 75 m from A 75 A at distances measured from one end where the
c. 25 A at 100 m from A voltage between mains is 211.6, of 100, 300, 540, 740
d. 30 A at 150 m from A and 850 meters respectively. If the voltage of the other
The resistance per kilometer of one conductor is 0.4 Ω. end is maintained at 210, calculate the total current
Calculate the minimum voltage and the point at which entering the system at each end of the mains and the
it occurs. position of the point of minimum potential.
13. A distributor cable AB is fed at its ends A and B. Loads 18. A two wire DC distributor cable 1000 meters long is
of 12, 24, 72 and 48 A are taken from the cable at loaded with 0.5 A/meter. Resistance of each conductor
points C, D, E and F. The resistances of sections AC, is 0.05 Ω/km. Calculate the maximum voltage drop if
CD, DE, EF and FB of the cable are 8, 6, 4, 10 and 5 the distributor is fed from both ends with equal voltages
milliohm respectively (for the go and return conductors of 220 V. What is the minimum voltage and where it
together). The potential drop at point A is 240 V, the occurs?
potential drop at the load F is also to be 240 V. 19. A 2 wire DC distributor AB 500 meters long is fed from
Calculate the voltage at the feeding point B, the current both ends and is loaded uniformly at the rate of 1.0
supplied by each feeder and the potential drops at the A/meter. At feeding point A, the voltage is maintained
loads C,D and E. at 255 V and at B at 250 V. If the resistance of each
14. A two – wire, DC distributor PQ, 800 meter long is conductor is 0.1 Ω per kilometer, determine:
loaded as under: a. the minimum voltage and the point where it occurs
Distance from P b. the currents supplied from feeding points A and B
100 250 500 600 700
(meters) 20. An 800 meters 2 wire DC distributor AB fed from both
Loads in amperes 20 80 50 70 40 ends is uniformly loaded at the rate of 1.25 A/meter
The feeding point at P is maintained at 248 V and that run. Calculate the voltage at the feeding points A and
at Q at 245 V. The total resistance of the distributor B if the minimum potential of 220 V occurs at point C
(lead and return) is 0.1 Ω. Find: at a distance of 450 meters from the end A. Resistance
a. the current supplied at P and Q of each conductor is 0.05 Ω/km.
b. the power dissipated in the distributor 21. A section of a 2 wire distributor network is 1,200 meters
15. A 2 wire DC distributor AB is fed at both ends at the long and carries a uniformly distributed load of 0.5
same voltage of 230 V. The length of the distributor is A/meter. The section is supplied at each end by a
500 meters and the loads are tapped off from the end feeder from a distribution center at which the voltage is
A as shown below: maintained constant. One feeder is 900 and the other
Load (A) 100 60 40 100 600 meters long and each has a cross – sectional area
Distance (m) 50 150 250 400 50% greater than that of the distributor. Find the
If the maximum voltage drop of 5.5 V is to be allowed, current in each feeder cable and the distance from one
find the cross – sectional area of each conductor and end of the distributor at which potential drop is a
point of minimum potential. Specific resistance of minimum.
conductor material may be taken as 1.73×10−8 Ω – m.
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

22. A 2 core distribution cable AB, 400 meter long,

supplies a uniformly distributed lighting load of 1 A/m.
There are concentrated loads of 120, 72, 48 and 120
A at 40, 120, 200 and 320 meters respectively from end
A. This cable has a resistance of 0.15 Ω per 1,000 m
run. Calculate the voltage and the position of the
lowest run lamp when the cable is fed at 250 Volts: 28. A 2 wire DC distributor AB is 300 meters long. The end
a. from both ends A and B A is fed at 205 V and end B at 200 V. The distributor is
b. from end A only uniformly loaded at 0·15 A/meter length and has
23. A 2 wire DC distributor AB, 900 meters long is fed at A concentrated loads of 50 A, 60 A and 40 A at points
at 400 V and loads of 50 A, 100 A and 150 A are tapped distant 75, 175, 225 m respectively from the end A. The
off from C, D and E which are at a distance of 200 m, resistance of each conductor is 0·15 Ω per kilometer.
500 m and 800 m from point A respectively. The Calculate:
distributor is also loaded uniformly at the rate of 0.5 a. the point of minimum potential
A/m. If the resistance of distributor per meter (go and b. currents fed at ends A and B
return) is 0.0001 Ω, calculate voltage: 29. A 2 wire direct current distributor PQ is 500 meters
a. at point B long. It is supplied by three feeders entering at P, Q
b. at point D and R where R is midway between P and Q. The
24. A two wire DC distributor AB, 1000 meters long, is resistance of the distributor, go and return, is 0.05 Ω
supplied from both ends, 240 V at A and 242 V at B. per 100 meters. The distributor is loaded as follows:
There is a concentrated load of 200 A at a distance of Point A B
400 meter from A and a uniformly distributed load of Distance from P (meters) 100 350
1.0 A/m between the mid – point and end B. Determine: Load (ampere) 30 40
a. the currents fed at A and B In addition, a distributed load of 0.5 A/meter exists from
b. the point of minimum potential and voltage at this P to Q. Calculate:
point a. the current supplied by each feeder if P and R are
Take cable resistance as 0.005 Ω per 100 meter each maintained at 220 V while Q is at 215 V
core. b. the voltage at a point between P and Q and 50
25. A DC two – wire distributor AB is 450 m long and is fed meters from P
at both ends at 250 volts. It is loaded as follows: 20A 30. A DC 2 wire distributor AB is 450 m long and is fed at
at 60 m from A, 40A at 100m from A and a uniform both ends at 250 V. The distributor is loaded as shown.
loading of 1.5 A/m from 200 to 450 m from A. The The resistance of each conductor is 0.05 Ω per km.
resistance of each conductor is 0.05 Ω/km. Find the Find the point of minimum potential and its potential.
point of minimum potential and its potential.
26. The two conductors of a DC distributor cable 1000 m
long have a total resistance of 0.1 Ω. The ends A and
B are fed at 240 V. The cable is uniformly loaded at 0.5
A per meter length and has concentrated loads of 120 31. A 2 wire DC distributor AB, 300 m long, is fed at both
A, 60 A, 100 A and 40 A at points distant 200, 400, 700 ends A and B. The distributor supplies a uniformly
and 900 m respectively from the end A. Calculate: distributed load of 0.25 A per m together with
a. the point of minimum potential on the distributor concentrated loads of 40 A at C and 60 A at D, AC and
b. the value of minimum potential BD being 120 m each. A and B are maintained at 300
c. currents fed at the ends A and B V, the loop resistance of the distributor is 0.1 ohm/100
27. A DC 2 wire distributor AB is 500 m long and is fed at m. Determine the current fed at A and B and the
both ends at 240 V. The distributor is loaded. The potential of points C and D.
resistance of the distributor (go and return) is 0.001Ω Ring Distributor
per meter. Calculate: A ring distributor is a distributor which is arranged to form a
a. the point of minimum voltage closed circuit, and which is fed at one or more than one
b. the value of this voltage points. For calculating voltage distribution, it can be looked
upon as consisting of a series of open distributors fed at

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both ends. By using a ring distributor fed properly, great 5. A 400 – meter ring
economy in copper can be affected. distributor has loads as
If the ring distributor is fed at one point then, for the shown where distances
purposes of calculation, it is equivalent to a straight are in meters. The
distributor fed at both ends with equal voltages. resistance of each
Ring Main Distributor with Interconnector conductor is 0.2 Ω per
Sometimes a ring distributor must serve a large area. In 1,000 meters and the
such a case, voltage drops in the various sections of the loads tapped off at
distributor may become excessive. To reduce voltage drops points B, C and D are as
in various sections, distant points of the distributor are shown. If the distributor is fed at A, find voltages at B,
joined through a conductor called interconnector. C and D.
Examples: 6. A 2 – core ring feeder cable ABCDEA is connected to
1. A 2 wire DC ring distributor is 300 m long and is fed at a sub – station at A and supplies feeding points to a
240 V at point A. At point B, 150 m from A, a load of distribution network at B, C, D and E. The points C and
120 A is taken and at C, 100 m in the opposite E are connected by an inter-connecter CFE and a load
direction, a load of 80 A is taken. If the resistance per is taken at F. The total resistance in ohms of both
100 m of single conductor is 0.03 Ω, find: conductors in the several sections is AB = 0.05; BC =
a. current in each section of distributor 0.4; CD = 0.03; DE = 0.04; EA = 0.05; CF = 0.02; FE =
b. voltage at points B and C 0.1. The currents taken at the load points are B = 12 A;
2. In a direct current ring main, a voltage of 400 V is C = 15 A; D = 12 A; E = 15 A and F = 10 A. Calculate
maintained at A. At B, 500 meters away from A, a load the current in each section of the cable and the
of 150 A is taken and at C, 300 meters from B, a load potential drop at each load point, if the potential drop
of 200 A is taken. The distance between A and C is 700 at A is maintained constant at 250 V.
meters. The resistance of each conductor of the mains 7. A 300 m ring distributor has loads as shown where
is 0.03 Ω per 1,000 meters. Find the voltage at B and distances are in meters.
C and also find the current in the section BC. The resistance of each
3. A 2 wire DC distributor ABCDEA in the form of a ring conductor is 0.2 Ω per 1000
main is fed at point A at 220 V and is loaded as under: meters and the loads are
10 A at B, 20 A at C, 30 A at D, 10 A at E tapped off at points B, C
The resistances of various sections (go and return) and D as shown. If the
are: AB = 0.1 Ω; BC = 0.05 Ω; CD = 0.01 Ω; DE = 0.025 distributor is fed at A at 240
Ω and EA = 0.075 Ω. Determine: V, find voltages at B, C and
a. the point of minimum potential D.
b. current in each section of distributor 8. A DC 2 wire ring main
4. A DC ring main ABCDE is fed at point A from a 220 V ABCDEA is fed from 230 V
supply and the resistances (including both lead and supply as shown. The
return) of the various sections are as follows (in ohms): resistance of each section
AB = 0.1; BC = 0.05; CD = 0.01; DE = 0.025 and EA = (go and return) AB, BC, CD,
0.075. The main supplies loads of 10 A at B; 20 A at C; DE and EA is 0.1 Ω. The
30 A at D and 10 A at E. Find the magnitude and loads are tapped off as
direction of the current flowing in each section and the shown. Find the voltage at
voltage at each load point. each load point.
If the points C and E are further linked together by a 9. A distributor cable in the form of a ring main ABCDEA,
conductor of 0.05 Ω resistance and the output currents supplies loads of 20, 60, 30, and 40 A taken at the
from the mains remain unchanged, find the new points B, C, D and E respectively, the feeding point
distribution of the current and voltage in the network. being at A. The resistances of the sections are AB =
0.1 Ω, BC = 0.15 Ω, CD = 0.1 Ω, DE = 0.05 Ω and EA
= 0.1 Ω. The points E and C are connected by a cable
having a resistance of 0.3 Ω. Calculate the current in
each section of the network.

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10. Four power loads B, C, D and E are connected in this

order to a 2 – core distributor cable, arranged as a ring
main, and take currents of 20, 30, 25 and 30 A
respectively. The ring is supplied from a substation at
the point A between B and E. An interconnector cable
joins the points C and E and from a point F on this inter
– connector cable a current of 20 A is taken. The total
resistance of the cable between the load points is:
AB = 0.04 Ω; BC = 0.03 Ω; CD = 0.02 Ω; DE = 0.03 Ω; Examples:
EA = 0.04 Ω; CF = 0.02 Ω and EF = 0.01 Ω. 1. A load supplied on 3 wire DC System takes a current
Calculate the current in each section of the ring and the of 50 A on the positive side and 40 A on the negative
interconnector. side. The resistance of each outer wire is 0.1 Ω and the
11. A DC ring main ABCDA is fed from point A from a 250 cross – section of middle wire is ½ of that of outer. If
V supply and the resistances (including both lead and the system is supplied at 500/250 V, find the voltage at
return) of various sections are as follows: AB = 0.2 Ω; the load end between each outer and middle wire.
BC = 0.018 Ω; CD = 0.025 Ω and DA = 0·02 Ω. The 2. A 3 wire DC distribution system supplies a load of 5 Ω
main supplies loads of 150 A at B; 300 A at C and 250 resistance across the positive outer and neutral and a
A at D. Determine the voltage at each load point. If the load of 6 Ω resistance across negative outer and
points A and C are linked through an interconnector of neutral at the far end of the distributor. The resistance
resistance 0.02 Ω, determine the new voltage at each of each conductor is 0.1 Ω. If the voltage between any
load point. outer and neutral at the load end is to be kept at 240
12. The Figure shows a ring V, find the feeding end voltages.
distributor with 3. In a 3 – wire distribution system, the supply voltage is
interconnector BD. The 250 V on each side. The load on one side is a 3 ohm
supply is given at point resistance and on the other, a 4 ohm resistance. The
A. The resistances of go resistance of each of the 3 conductors is 0.05 Ω. Find
and return conductors the load voltages.
of various sections are 4. A 3 – wire DC distributor PQ, 250 meters long, is
indicated in the figure. supplied at end P at 500/250 V and is loaded as:
Calculate: Positive side: 20 A 150 meters from P; 30 A 250 meters
a. current in the interconnector from P
b. voltage drop in the interconnector Negative side: 24 A 100 meters from P; 36 A 220
13. In the DC Network shown, A is the feeding point and is meters from P
maintained at 250 V. The resistances of the various The resistance of each outer wire is 0.02 Ω per 100
branches (go and return) are indicated in the figure. meters and the cross – section of the middle wire is
Determine the current in each branch. one – half that of the outer. Find the voltage across
each load point.
5. A 3 wire 500/250 V DC system has a load of 35 kW
between the positive lead and the middle wire and a
load of 20 kW between the negative lead and the
middle wire. If there is a break in the middle wire,
calculate the voltage between the outers and the
middle wire.
6. A 3 – wire system supplies three loads (a) 10 (b) 20
Current Loading and Load – point Voltages in a 3 – wire and (c) 30 amperes situated at distances of 100, 150
System and 300 meters respectively from the supply point on
Basic Circuit Analysis would be use. Knowing the values of the positive side of the neutral wire. Connected
currents in the various conductors, voltage drops can be between negative and neutral wires are two loads (d)
calculated provided resistances are known. After that, 30 A and (e) 20A, situated 120 and 200 meters
voltages at different load points can be calculated. respectively from the supply point. Give a diagram

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showing the values and directions of the currents in Assume that the load resistances and the feeding end
various parts of the neutral wire. If the resistance of the voltages remain the same.
outers is 0.05 Ω per 1000 meters and that of the neutral 11. A load supplied by a 3 wire DC distribution system
0.1 Ω per 1000 meters, calculate the potential takes a current of 600 A on the positive side and 480
difference at the load points (b) and (e); the pressure A on the negative side. The resistance of the outer
at the supply point being 100 V between outers and conductor is 0.015 Ω and that of the middle wire is 0.03
neutral. Ω. Determine the voltage at the load end between each
7. A 3 wire DC distributor 400 meters long is fed at both outer and middle wire. Supply voltage is 500/250 V.
ends at 235 volts between each outer and neutral. Two 12. A 3 wire DC distributor, 250 m long, is supplied at end
loads P and Q are connected between the positive and P at 500/250 V and is loaded as under:
neutral and two loads R and S are connected between Positive side: 20 A, 150 m from P; 30 A, 250 m from P
the negative outer and the neutral. The loads and their Negative side: 24 A, 100 m from P; 36 A, 220 m from
distances from one end (X) of the distributor are as P
follows: Load P, 50 A, 100 meters from X; Load Q, 70 The resistance of each outer wire is 0.02 Ω per 100 m
A, 300 meters from X; Load R, 60 A, 150 meters from and the cross – section of the middle wire is one half
X; Load S, 60 A,350 meters from X. Determine the that of the outer. Find the voltage across each load
potential drop at each load point and the current at point.
each feeding point. The resistance of each outer is 13. The 3 wire DC system supplies a load of 4 Ω resistance
0.25 Ω per 1000 meters and that of the neutral is 0.5 Ω across the positive wire and the neutral and a load of 6
per 1000 meters. Ω resistance across negative outer and the neutral at
8. A 3 wire, 500/250 V distributor is loaded as shown. The the far end of the distributor. The resistance of each
resistance of each section is given in ohm. Find the conductor is 0.15 Ω and voltage across each outer and
voltage across each load point. neutral is 240 V at the load end. Calculate the feeding
end voltage.
Balancers
In order to maintain potential drops on the two sides of
neutral equal to each other, a balancer set is used. The
most common form of balancer consists of two identical
shunt wound machines which are not only coupled
mechanically but have their armatures and field circuits
joined in series across the outers. The neutral is connected
9. A 3 wire DC distributor AE 600 m long is supplied at to the junction of the armatures as shown.
end A at 500/250 V and is loaded as under: When the system is unloaded or when the loads on the two
Positive side: 60A, 200 m from A; 40 A, 360 m from A sides are balanced, then
Negative side: 20A, 100 m from B; 60A, 260 m from B 1. both machines run as unloaded motors and
and 15A, 600 m from B 2. since their speeds and field currents are equal, their
The resistance of each outer is 0.02 Ω per 100 meters back emfs are the same
and the cross – section of the neutral wire is the same When the two sides are unbalanced i.e. when the load
as that of the outer. Find the voltage across each load supplied by positive
point. outer is different from
10. The 3 wire DC system supplies a load of 4 Ω resistance that supplied by
across positive wire and the neutral wire and a load of negative outer, then
6 Ω resistance across negative outer and the neutral at out – of – balance
the far end of the distributor. The resistance of each current (I1 − I2) flows
conductor is 0.15 Ω and voltage across each outer and through the mid –
neutral is 240 V at the load end. Determine the load wire to the balancers
current and load voltages when there is a break in the: where it divides into
a. neutral wire two halves each
b. positive outer equal to (I1 − I2)/2 as
c. negative outer shown.

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If I1 is greater than I2, then positive side is more heavily particular, the change in the direction of the current through
loaded (than negative side) hence the potential drop on this mid – wire should be noted.
side tends to fall below the emf of the balancer on this side Examples:
so that B1 runs as a generator. However, the potential drop 1. A DC 3 wire system with 500 V between the outers
on the lightly – loaded side rises above the emf of the supplies 1500 kW on the positive outer and 2000 kW
balancers on that side, hence B2 runs as a motor. In this on the negative outer. If the losses in the machines are
way, energy is transferred through balancers from the negligible, calculate:
lightly – loaded side to the heavily loaded side. In the figure a. current in the neutral wire
above, machine B2 is running as a motor and driving b. total current supplied by main generator
machine B1 as a generator. c. current in each balancer armature
Let Ra = armature resistance of each machine 2. A DC 3 wire system with 500 V between outers has
Vg = terminal potential drop of machine running as a lighting loads of 150 kW on the positive side and 100
generator i.e. B1 kW on the negative side. The loss in each balancer
Eg = induced emf of B1 machine is 3 kW. Calculate:
Vm = terminal potential drop of motoring machine i.e. B2 a. total load on the main generator
Em = induced emf of B2 b. kW loading of each balancer machine
I -I I -I 3. A DC 3 – wire system with 500 V between outers has
then Vg =Eg - 1 2 Ra and Vm =Em + 1 2 Ra
2 2 lighting load of 100 kW on the positive and 50 kW on
Vm -Vg =(Em -Eg )+(I1 -I2 )Ra the negative side. If, at this loading, the balancer
Since the speed and excitation of the two machines are machines have each a loss of 2.5 kW, calculate the kW
equal, loading of each balancer machine and the total load on
Eg =Em Vm -Vg =(I1 -I2 )Ra the system.
Hence, the difference of voltages between the two sides of 4. In a 500/250 V DC 3 wire system, there is a current of
the system is proportional to: 1200 A on the positive side and 1000 A on the negative
a. out of balance current (I1 – I2) side and a motor load of 200 kW across the outers. The
b. armature resistance of the balancer loss in each balancer machine is 5 kW. Calculate:
For this reason, Ra is kept very small and effort is made to a. current of the main generator
arrange the loads on the two sides such that out – of – b. load on each balancer machine
balance current is as small as possible. 5. In a 500/250 V DC 3 – wire system, there is a current
The value (Vm − Vg) can be still further reduced i.e. the of 2000 A on the positive side, 1600 A on the negative
voltages on the two sides can be more closely balanced by side and a load of 300 kW across the outers. The loss
cross – connecting the balancer fields as shown below. In in each balancer set is 8 kW. Calculate the current in
this way, generator draws its excitation from the lightly – each armature of the balancer set and total load on the
loaded side which is at a higher voltage, hence Eg is main generator.
increased. The motoring machine draws its excitation from 6. A 125/250 V, 3 – wire distributor has an out – of –
the heavily loaded side which is at a little lower voltage, balance current of 50 A and larger load of 500 A. The
hence Em is decreased. In this way, the difference (Em − Eg) balancer set has a loss of 375 W in each machine.
is decreased and so is (Vm − Vg). Further, regulation of the Calculate the current in each of the balancer machines
voltage can be accomplished by connecting an adjustable and output of main generator.
regulator in series with the two balancer fields as shown. 7. The load on a DC 3 wire system with 500 V between
outers consists of lighting current of 1500 A on the
positive side and 1300 A on the negative side while
motors connected across the outers absorb 500 kW.
Assuming that at this loading, the balancer machines
have each a loss of 5 kW, calculate the load on the
It should be noted that since machine B1 is running as a main generator and on each of the balancer machines.
generator and B2 as a motor, the directions of currents in 8. A load on 3 wire DC system with 500 V between the
B1, B2 and the neutral are as shown. If, however, B2 runs as outers consists of 1500 A on the positive side and
a generator and B1 as a motor i.e. if negative side is more 1300A on the negative side while motors connected
heavily loaded than the positive side, then directions of across outers absorb 500 kW. Assuming each
currents through B1, B2 and the neutral are as shown. In balancer machine has a loss of 3·75 kW, calculate the
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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

load on the main generator and each balancer Boosters

machine. A booster is a generator whose function is to add to or inject
9. A DC 3 – wire system with 480 V across outers into a circuit, a certain voltage that is sufficient to
supplies 1200 A on the positive and 1000 A on the compensate for the IR drop in the feeders etc.
negative side. The balancer machines have each an In a DC system, it may sometimes happen that a certain
armature resistance of 0.1 Ω and take 10 A on no – feeder is much longer as compared to others and the power
load. Find: supplied by it is also larger. In that case, the voltage drop in
a. the voltage across each balancer this feeder will exceed the allowable drop of 6% from the
b. the total load on the main generator and the declared voltage. This can be remedied in two ways:
current loading of each balancer machine 1. by increasing the cross – section of the feeder, so that
The balancer field windings are in series across the its resistance and hence IR drop is decreased
outers. 2. by increasing the voltage of the station bus bars
10. A DC 3 wire system with 500 volts across outers The second method is not practicable because it will disturb
supplies 800 A on the positive side and 550 A on the the voltage of other feeders, whereas the first method will
negative side and 1500 A across the outers. The rotary involve a large initial investment towards the cost of
balancer has each an armature resistance of 0.2 Ω and increased conductor material.
takes 5 A on no load. Find: To avoid all these difficulties, the usual practice is to install
a. current loading of each balancer machine a booster in series with
b. the voltage across each balancer machine this longer feeder as
c. total load on the main generator shown. Since it is used
11. A DC 3 – wire system with 460 V between outers for compensating drop
supplies 250 kW on the positive and 400 kW on the in a feeder, it is known
negative side, the voltages being balanced. Calculate as feeder booster. It is a
the voltage on the positive and negative sides (series) generator
respectively, if the neutral wire becomes disconnected connected in series
from the balancer set. with the feeder and
12. In a 500/250 V DC 3 wire system there is an out – of – driven at a constant
balance load of 125 kW on the positive side. The loss speed by a shunt – motor working from the bus bars. The
in each balancer machine is 7.5 kW and the current in drop in a feeder is proportional to the load current, hence
the negative main is 1500 A. Calculate the total load the voltage injected into the feeder by the booster must also
on the generator and the current in each armature of be proportional to the load current, if exact compensation is
the balancer set. required. In other words, the booster must work on the
13. A 460 V DC 2 wire supply is converted into 3 wire straight or linear portion of its voltage characteristic.
supply with the help of rotary balancer set, each Example:
machine having a no load loss of 2.3 kW. If the load on A 2 – wire system has the voltage at the supply end
the positive side of 69 kW and on the negative side maintained at 500. The line is 3 km long. If the full – load
57.5 kW, calculate the currents flowing in each of the current is 120 A, what must be the booster voltage and
balancer machines. output in order that the far end voltage may also be 500 V?
14. In a 500/250 volt 3 wire DC system there is an out – of Take the resistance of the cable at the working temperature
– balance load of 200 kW on the positive side. The loss as 0.5 Ω/km.
in each balancer is 10 kW and the current in the Ground Detectors
negative main is 2800 A. Calculate the current in each Ground detectors are the devices that are used to
armature of the balancer set and the total load on the detect/indicate the ground fault for ungrounded DC
generators.
systems. When a ground fault
15. In a 500/250 V DC 3 wire system, there is a current of
2000 A on the positive side, 1600A on the negative occurs on such a system,
side and a load of 300 kW across the outers. The loss immediate steps should be
in each balancer set is 8 kW. Calculate the current in taken to clear it. If this is not
each armature of the balancer set and total load on the done and a second ground fault happens, a short circuit
main generator. occurs. Lamps are generally used for the detection of

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ground faults. They are connected for ungrounded 2 – Wire reactance per km (lead and return) are 0.06 ohm and
system as shown. Each lamp should have a voltage rating 0.08 ohm respectively. Calculate the voltage drop
equal to the line voltage. The two lamps in series, being along the distributor from sending end to mid – point
subjected to half their rated voltage, will glow dimly. If a and from mid – point to far end.
ground fault occurs on either wires, the lamp connected to 2. A single phase AC distributor 500 m long has a total
the grounded wire will not glow while the other lamp will impedance of 0.02 + j0.04 Ω and is fed from one end
glow brightly. at 250V. It is loaded as under: (a) 50 A at unity power
AC Distributor Calculations factor 200 m from feeding point. (b) 100 A at 0.8 p.f.
These calculations are similar to those for dc distributor but lagging 300 m from feeding point. (c) 50 A at 0.6 p.f.
with the following differences: lagging at the far end. Calculate the total voltage drop
1. The loads tapped off will be at different power factors. and voltage at the far end.
Each power factor is taken with respect to the voltage 3. A single phase AC distributor AB 300 meters long is
at the feeding point which is regarded as a reference fed from end A and is loaded as under:
vector. a. 100 A at 0.707 pf lagging 200 m from point A
2. The currents in the sections of the distributor will be b. 200 A at 0.8 pf lagging 300 m from point A
given by the vector sum of load currents and not by The load resistance and reactance of the distributor is
their arithmetic sum as in a dc distributor. Currents can 0.2 Ω and 0.1 Ω per kilometer. Calculate the total
be added algebraically only when they are expressed voltage drop in the distributor. The load power factors
in the complex notation. refer to the voltage at the far end.
3. The voltage drop, in the case of AC circuits, is not only 4. A single phase distributor, one km long has resistance
due to ohmic resistance but due to inductive reactance and reactance per conductor of 0.2 Ω and 0.3 Ω
as well (neglecting capacitive reactance if any). It has respectively. At the far end, the voltage VB = 240 V and
already been shown that voltage drop in an inductive the current is 100 A at a power factor of 0.8 lag. At the
circuit is given by mid – point A of the distributor current of 100 A is
I(R cos ∅ +X sin ∅) tapped at a power factor of 0.6 lag with reference to the
The total drop will be given by voltage VA at the mid – point. Calculate the supply
∑ I(R cos ∅ +X sin ∅). voltage VS for the distributor and the phase angle
AC distributors may be solved in the following three ways: between VS and VB.
1. Express voltages, currents and impedances in 5. A single phase distributor AB has a total impedance of
complex notation and then proceed exactly as in DC (0.1+j0.2) ohm. At the far end B, a current of 80 A at
distributors. 0.8 pf lagging and at mid – point C a current of 100 A
2. Split the various currents into their active and reactive at 0.6 pf lagging are tapped. If the voltage of the far
components. Now, the drop in the case of active end is maintained at 200 V, determine:
components will be due to resistance only and in the a. Supply end voltage VA
case of reactive components due to reactance only. b. Phase angle between VA and VB
Find out these two drops and then add the two to find The load power factors are with respect to the voltage
the total drop. at the far end.
3. In cases where approximate solutions are sufficient, 6. A single phase AC distributor AB is fed from end A and
quick results can be obtained by finding the has a total impedance of (0.2+j0.3) ohm. At the far end,
“distribution center” or center of gravity of the load. the voltage VB = 240 V and the current is 100 A at a pf
Examples: of 0.8 lagging. At the mid – point M, a current of 100 A
1. A 2 wire AC feeder 1 km long supplies a load of 100 A is tapped at a pf of 0.6 lagging with reference to the
at 0.8 pf lag 200 volts at its far end and a load of 60 A voltage VM at the mid – point. Calculate the supply
at 0.9 pf lag at its mid – point. The resistance and voltage VA and phase angle between VA and VB.

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

7. A single phase distributor 2 kilometers long supplies a shown. The 3 phase load at point C takes 5 A per
load of 120 A at 0.8 pf lagging at its far end and a load phase at a pf of 0.8 lagging. At point B, a 3 phase, 400
of 80 A at 0.9 pf lagging at its mid – point. Both power V induction motor is connected which has an output of
factors are referred to the voltage at the far end. The 10 HP with an efficiency of 90% and pf 0.85 lagging. If
resistance and reactance per km (go and return) are voltage at point B is to be maintained at 400 V, what
0.05 Ω and 0.1 Ω respectively. If the voltage at the far should be the voltage at point A? The resistance and
end is maintained at 230 V, calculate: reactance of the line are 1Ω and 0.5Ω per phase per
a. voltage at the sending end kilometer respectively.
b. phase angle between voltages at the two ends 13. A 3 phase ring main ABCD fed at A at 11 kV supplies
8. A single phase ring distributor ABC is fed at A. The balanced loads of 50 A at 0.8 pf lagging at B, 120 A at
loads at B and C are 40 A at 0.8 pf lagging and 60 A at unity pf at C and 70 A at 0.866 lagging at D, the load
0.6 pf lagging respectively. Both power factors currents being referred to the supply voltage at A. The
expressed are referred to the voltage at point A. The impedances of the various sections are:
total impedance of sections AB, BC and CA are 2 + j1, section AB = (1 + j0.6) Ω
2 + j3 and 1 + j2 ohms respectively. Determine the section BC = (1.2 + j0.9) Ω
current in each section. section CD = (0.8 + j0.5) Ω
9. A 1 phase ring distributor ABC is fed at A. The loads at section DA = (3 + j2) Ω
B and C are 20 A at 0.8 pf lagging and 15 A at 0.6 pf Determine the currents in the various sections.
lagging respectively, both expressed with reference to 14. A 3 phase ring distributor ABCD fed at A at 11 kV
voltage at A. The total impedances of the sections AB, supplies balanced loads of 40 A at 0.8 pf lagging at B,
BC and CA are (1 + j1), (1 + j2) and (1 + j3) ohm 50 A at 0.707 pf lagging at C and 30 A at 0.8 pf lagging
respectively. Find the total current fed at A and the at D, the load currents being referred to the supply
current in each section. voltage at A. The impedances per phase of the various
10. A single phase ring distributor XYZ is fed at X. The sections are:
loads at Y and Z are 20 A at 0.8 pf lagging and 15 A at Section AB = (1+j2) Ω
0.6 pf lagging respectively, both expressed with Section BC = (2+j3) Ω
reference to voltage at X. The total impedances of the Section CD = (1+j1) Ω
three sections X Y, YZ and ZX are (1 + j1), (1 + j2) and Section DA = (3+j4) Ω
(1 + j3) ohms respectively. Find the total current fed at Calculate the currents in various sections and station
X and the current in each section with respect to suply bus bar voltages at B, C and D.
voltage at X. Interconnectors
11. A 2 wire ring distributor ABC is supplied at A at 400 V. It is a tie line which enables two generating stations to
Point loads of 20 A at a pf of 0.8 lagging and 30 A at a operate in parallel. It facilitates the flow of electric power in
pf 0.6 lagging are tapped off at B and C respectively. either direction between the two stations.
Both the power factors refer to the voltage at A. The Voltage Drop over the Interconnector
respective go – and – return impedances of sections
AB, BC and CA are (1 + j2) ohm, (2 + j3) ohm and (1 +
j3) ohm. Calculate the current flowing through each
section and the potentials at B and C. Use
Superposition theorem. Let station 1 supply a current of 1 to station 2 along an
12. A 3 phase, interconnector having a resistance of R Ω and reactance of
400V XΩ per phase as shown (a). If the receiving end pf is cos ∅
distributor AB lagging, then the vector diagram will be as shown in (b).
is loaded as Voltage drop over the interconnector

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 Electrical Transmission and Distribution System and Design

I(cos ∅ -j sin ∅)(R+jX) [6] Theraja, B.L. and Theraja, A.K. (2003). A Textbook of
=I(R cos ∅ +X sin ∅)+jI(X cos ∅ -R sin ∅ ) Electrical Technology. S. Chand & Company LTD.
I(R cos ∅ +X sin ∅)+jI(X cos ∅ -R sin ∅)
%voltage drop= { } x100
E2
Let I cos ∅ =Id and I sin ∅ =Iq where Id and Iq are the in
phase and quadrature components.
voltage drop=(Id R+Iq X)+j(Id X-Iq R)
in phase voltage drop=Id R+Iq X
quadrature voltage drop=Id2 X-Iq R
Example:
The bus bar voltages of two stations A and B are 33 kV and
are in phase. If station A sends 8.5 MW power at unity pf to
station B through an interconnector having an impedance
of (3 + j4)Ω, determine the bus bar voltage of station A and
the phase angle shift between the bus bar voltages.
Three Phase Unbalanced Loads
The 3 phase loads that have the same impedance and
power factor in each phase are called balanced loads. The
problems on balanced loads can be solved by considering
one phase only; the conditions in the other two phases
being similar. However, we may come across a situation
when loads are unbalanced, each load phase has different
impedance and/or power factor. In that case, current and
power in each phase will be different. In practice, we may
come across the following unbalanced loads:
a. Four Wire Star – Connected Unbalanced load
b. Unbalanced Δ – Connected Load
c. Unbalanced Three Wire, Y – Connected Load
The Three phase, Four Wire System is widely used for
distribution of electric power in commercial and industrial
buildings. The Single – Phase Load is connected between
any line and neutral wire while a Three Phase Load is
connected across the three lines.

REFERENCES:
[1] Das, Debapriya (2006). Electrical Power System. New
Age International Publishers
[2] Glover, J. Duncan, Sarma, Mulukutla S. and Overbye,
Thomas (2012). Power System: Analysis & Design.
CENGAGE Learning.
[3] Gupta, J.B. (2012). Transmission and Distribution of
Electrical Power. S.K. Kataria & Sons
[4] Mehta, V.K. and Mehta, R. (2005). Principles of Power
System. S.CHAND Publishing
[4] Ramar, S. and Kuruseelan, S. (2013). Power System
Analysis. PHI Learning Private Limited
[5] Stevenson, William D. Jr. (1982). Elements of Power
System Analysis. McGraw – Hill Book Company
Electrical Engineering Department | Engr. Gerard Francesco DG. Apolinario 125