Water Quality

Monitoring
System Design

Carter Borden
Centered Consulting International, LLC

Dimple Roy
International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)
Water Quality Monitoring System Design

© 2015 International Institute for Sustainable Development

Published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development

INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

September 2015

Written by Carter Borden and Dimple Roy

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1.0 INTRODUCTION.............................................................................................................................................................................1
2.0 HYDROLOGIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (HIS) OVERVIEW....................................................................................3
2.1 Hydrology and the Water Cycle...................................................................................................................................3
2.2 HIS Definition......................................................................................................................................................................... 4
2.3 HIS Role in Water Management................................................................................................................................... 4
2.4 Developing a Monitoring Network.............................................................................................................................. 5
2.5 Integration of Monitoring Networks......................................................................................................................... 6
3.0 HIS DESIGN GUIDELINES........................................................................................................................................................ 9
3.1 Elements of HIS Development...................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Assessing the User Needs................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.2 Establishment/Review of Observational Networks.............................................................................. 9
3.1.3 Implementation of a Data Management System.................................................................................. 9
3.1.4 Data Collection......................................................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.5 Data Processing and Storage .......................................................................................................................... 9
3.1.6 Data Dissemination, Analysis and Reporting........................................................................................10
3.1.7 Institutional and Human Resources Support.........................................................................................10
3.2 Site and Instrumentation Selection Criteria...................................................................................................... 11
3.3 Telemerty................................................................................................................................................................................ 12
4.0 SURFACE WATER MONITORING SYSTEM..................................................................................................................14
4.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................................................................14
4.2 Network Design..................................................................................................................................................................14
4.2.1 WMO Recommendations.................................................................................................................................. 15
4.2.2 Use Of Existing Networks................................................................................................................................. 15
4.3 Monitoring Stations.........................................................................................................................................................16
4.3.1 Site Surveys..............................................................................................................................................................17
4.4 Monitoring Duration ........................................................................................................................................................17
4.5 Measurement Frequency................................................................................................................................................17
4.5.1 Stage Measurement Frequency.....................................................................................................................17
4.5.2 Current Meter Measurement Frequency..................................................................................................18
4.6 Instrumentation.................................................................................................................................................................18
4.6.1 Water Level Monitoring InstrumenTS.........................................................................................................18
4.6.2 Instrument Selection.......................................................................................................................................... 19
4.6.3 Discharge Measurement Instrumentation............................................................................................. 20
4.6.4 Discharge Measurement .................................................................................................................................. 21
4.7 Recommended Resources.............................................................................................................................................22

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5.0 GROUNDWATER MONITORING SYSTEM.....................................................................................................................23

5.1 Overview.................................................................................................................................................................................23
5.2 General Design Considerations.................................................................................................................................23
5.3 Network Design..................................................................................................................................................................23
5.4 Monitoring Stations.........................................................................................................................................................24
5.5 Monitoring Duration.........................................................................................................................................................24
5.6 Measurement Frequency...............................................................................................................................................25
5.7 Instrumentation..................................................................................................................................................................26
5.8 Recommended Resources............................................................................................................................................26
6.0 WATER QUALITY HIS................................................................................................................................................................27
6.1 Overview..................................................................................................................................................................................27
6.2 General Considerations..................................................................................................................................................28
6.3 Network Design................................................................................................................................................................. 30
6.4 Monitoring Duration.........................................................................................................................................................32
6.5 Measuring Frequency......................................................................................................................................................32
6.6 Grab Versus Integrated Samples.............................................................................................................................33
6.7 Measuring Instruments...................................................................................................................................................34
6.7.1 Chemistry...................................................................................................................................................................34
6.7.2 Sediment.....................................................................................................................................................................36
7.0 HIS FOR MONITORING METAL MINING ACTIVITIES..............................................................................................39
7.1 Overview..................................................................................................................................................................................39
7.2 Water Use and Pollution of Mining Activities.....................................................................................................39
7.3 HIS Developments.............................................................................................................................................................40
7.3.1 Network Considerations....................................................................................................................................40
7.3.2 Sampling CoCs .......................................................................................................................................................41
7.3.3 Supporting Infrastructure.................................................................................................................................41
7.4 Maripaston Case Study..................................................................................................................................................42
7.4.1 Proposed His Network..........................................................................................................................................42
7.4.2 Constituents Of Concern..................................................................................................................................43
7.4.3 Instrumentation......................................................................................................................................................43
7.4.4 Frequency.................................................................................................................................................................. 44
7.4.5 Data Management ...............................................................................................................................................45
7.5 Conclusions...........................................................................................................................................................................45
REFERENCES....................................................................................................................................................................................... 46

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1.0 INTRODUCTION
Water influences natural systems and human In examining WEF security, IISD believes that it is
activities in the context of a river basin. In turn, important to understand: i) the availability of WEF
natural water systems are shaped by their physical sources, (ii) access to WEF sources, (iii) supporting
basins, human use, environmental changes and infrastructure and (iv) supporting institutions and
climate systems. As the Earth’s population and policies that influence these systems. Details of
the resulting anthropogenic footprint and impact these components of WEF are provided in IISD's
on climate increase, the need to maintain and Water-Energy-Food Resource Book for Mining.
protect freshwater resources gains importance for
sustainable development, balancing social needs The Role of Monitoring Systems
with economic development and environmental
A key component of managing WEF security
stewardship. In 2011, the World Economic Forum
is understanding the component systems, how
(WEF) identified the interconnected resource
they are functioning and how they respond to
issues of water, energy and food as a serious global
development, climate and other pressures. To
risk and indicated that managing one aspect of
effectively manage WEF security for a community
this interrelated system without considering links
or region, one needs to monitor and understand
to the others increases the global risk of serious
each of the three systems. Understanding each
unintended consequences. Indeed, not managing
system accurately in turn relies on monitoring and
water and natural resources properly has led to the
reporting of system parameters. To provide guidance
decline or collapse of civilizations.
on effective and high-quality monitoring, this
report focuses on the details of water monitoring,
The International Institute for Sustainable
including issues such as monitoring system design,
Development (IISD) has been highlighting the need
site selection, monitoring frequency, reporting, etc.
to address water-energy-food (WEF) challenges
to enhance its ability to inform water and watershed
in the contexts of communities and watersheds
management.
to ensure that ecosystems comprising land and
water systems are managed for their full range
This report begins with a broad explanation of the
of benefits, ensuring these critical components
water cycle (Section 2.1), indicating briefly how
of human security. For example, fresh water,
parameters of the water system affect interlinked
agricultural productivity, habitat, natural resources,
food and energy systems. The report then provides
hydroelectricity, etc. are all benefits that must be
detailed guidance on water monitoring as a means
considered and managed carefully to ensure human
of measuring and managing the benefits that
and related ecosystem security now and into the
contribute to regional security. Characterization
future. Mining is a particular form of development
of water systems requires monitoring of the flow,
that has a unique set of impacts and implications
storage and use of water, and comprehensive
for water quantity and quality. For example,
watershed monitoring inevitably incorporates
pollution associated with mining can affect both
socioeconomic parameters along with the more
the long-term viability of the mine and the water
typical biophysical ones.
and food sources of local communities. With an
increased demand for minerals, metals and other There is a fair amount of literature on methods, and
mined products, understanding these impacts best management practices exist for establishing
and managing them to the best possible extent is water-monitoring systems. These systems, known as
important to maintaining sustainability in mining Hydrologic Information Systems (HISs), are a crucial
systems. element in the wise management of water resources.

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Helpful resources on the topic are: Beyond measuring water quantity and quality
conditions, HISs are concerned with the processing,
• A Primer on Hydrologic Measurement Systems: storage, analysis, reporting and dissemination
Data Acquisition and Real-Time Telemetry of hydrologic data. Developing an HIS involves
(Haeggli, 2009), a report for the World Bank careful consideration of the purpose; network
Support for Real-Time Hydrologic Systems for design; data collection, quality checking and
HP-II storage; and dissemination to end users.
• Standards for the Analysis and Processing of Extensive documentation has been developed
Surface-Water Data and Information Using on the designing, sampling methodology and
Electronic Methods: U.S. Geological Survey, procedures, as well as institutions of HIS and
Water-Resources Investigations Report 01– instrumentation. Though available, the information
4044 (Sauer, 2002) is disseminated among a large number of
• Water Quality Monitoring: A Practical Guide to manuals and presentations, making it difficult to
the Design and Implementation of Freshwater readily take in. This document consolidates the
Quality Studies and Monitoring Programmes information into a single overview that users can
(United Nations Environment Programme reference when designing an HIS network. It also
[UNEP] & World Health Organization [WHO], provides recommendations to more comprehensive
1996b) references in instances where users need more
detailed information.
• Water Measurement Manual (3rd edition).
U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of
Reclamation, A Water Resources Technical
Publication (United States Bureau of
Reclamation, 2001)
• Guide to Hydrological Practices: Data
Acquisition and Processing, Analysis,
Forecasting and other Applications (5th ed.)
(World Meteorological Organization [WMO],
1994)
• National Hydrology Project, Hydrologic
Information Systems (World Bank, 2015)

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2.0 HYDROLOGIC INFORMATION SYSTEM (HIS) OVERVIEW

2.1 Hydrology and the Water Cycle exchanging water in the process. In addition,
people influence the water flow toward the oceans
The water cycle, or hydrologic cycle, is the
through diverting, damming, pumping, channelizing
circulation of water through the atmosphere, land,
and consuming to support human needs such
ground, riverine network and oceans (Figure 1).
as irrigation, domestic, commercial, municipal,
Moisture in the atmosphere condenses, falling
industrial, energy production and navigation uses.
to the Earth’s surface as rain, snow and sleet or
Unconsumed and post-consumed water by humans
condensing from fog drip and dew. Precipitation
re-enters the groundwater and surface water
hitting the surface of condensation ponds runs off
systems in its travels. Water that has neither been
over land or infiltrates into the ground. Portions
lost to evapotranspiration, nor stored in reservoirs,
of the ponded water and runoff evaporate and
glaciers or aquifers, nor consumed by people enters
infiltrated water evaporates or is transpired by
the ocean where it again is evaporated to supply
plants back into the atmosphere (the process is
the atmospheric moisture that will ultimately
collectively referred to as evapotranspiration).
precipitate or condense. Throughout the process,
Excess water enters the riverine systems of streams,
water quantity and chemistry are changing.
lakes and rivers (surface water system), or infiltrates
The science of understanding the occurrence,
through the unsaturated groundwater zone into the
distribution, movement and properties of water
saturated groundwater zone (groundwater systems).
and its relationship with the environment is called
In both systems, water travels “downstream”
hydrology.
towards the oceans with the two systems

Figure 1. Graphical depiction of the water cycle. Source: U. S. Geological Survey

Source: U. S. Geological Survey (2015)

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Human well-being relies on water and the and disseminate the data. Failure to address either
ecosystems that it supports. The delivery, timing, element in developing a monitoring system will limit
storage and quality of water in a watershed the success of implementing an HIS. This report
influence the social, economic and ecological focuses on surface water, groundwater and water-
systems that influence people's lives. Water quality monitoring in distinct sections.
managers are concerned with the quantity and
quality of water as it moves through the cycle and
how policies, projects and infrastructure operations
2.3 HIS Role in Water Management
can be operated to improve human well-being. A Watershed management involves managing the
key component of managing water is characterizing land, water systems and freshwater ecosystems
the flow, storage and quality of the water within the to protect and improve water quality and quantity
basin. Better understanding of a basin’s hydrologic for supporting the ecological, social and economic
cycle, as well as human and ecosystem use of water, systems within a watershed. Water-related
greatly improves planning efforts; reduces risk and decision-makers are concerned with ensuring
cost in the design and operation of infrastructure that these benefits are maintained and optimized
(e.g., reservoirs); decreases damages associated against other uses and over time. A critical need
with flooding and drought; and improves policies for good watershed management is comprehensive
for managing the water resources in a basin. data, characterizing the hydrologic system and
The fundamental method for understanding the its main components and links. An HIS is a critical
hydrologic cycle in a basin is monitoring water component of watershed management and
quantity and the quality of its movement in the decision-making, as it compiles and provides
groundwater and surface water systems. Thus, an the data and information necessary for informed
effective monitoring system is key to better water decision-making, monitors the impacts of programs
management in a basin. and other actions, and helps us understand trends
and in watershed and component systems.

2.2 HIS Definition A robust HIS network provides information to give

A Hydrologic Information System (HIS) is a water managers and interested stakeholders a
system for measuring, processing, storing and means of monitoring, evaluating and analyzing the
disseminating interlinked aspects of watershed hydrologic system upon which ecological, social and
data including the quantity and quality of economic systems rely. HIS data support a wide
climate (hydro-meteorological, e.g., precipitation, gamut of water projects, from long-term planning
evapotranspiration), surface water (hydrological) to infrastructure design to real-time operations
and groundwater (hydrogeological). Elements of an to research (Table 1). Incorporating spatial and
HIS include the physical infrastructure and human temporal data into water projects increases the
resources (United Nations environment Programme predictive accuracy, lowers the risk, provides greater
[UNEP] & World Health Organization [WHO], 1996). economic benefit (i.e., more efficient designs,
The physical infrastructure includes observation operations and water use), reduces potential for
networks; laboratories; data communication conflict and provides the foundation for better
systems and data storage; and processing centres decisions (World Bank, 2015). Continuous collected
equipped with databases and tools for data entry, field measurements are evaluated either as is
validation, analysis, retrieval and dissemination or statistically converted (e.g., maximum values,
(UNEP & WHO, 1996). Human resources are well- minimum, frequency of occurrence, trends,
trained, dedicated staff supporting the HIS with a seasonality), depending on the question being
variety of skills to observe, validate, process, analyze addressed and the analysis being performed.

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Table 1. Priority of hydrologic and water quality monitoring data in water projects.

Source: WMO (2008)

2.4 Developing a Monitoring Network over time, ascertain the impacts of climate change
on human development, monitor the impact
A key component of an HIS is the monitoring
of a certain project on the water system or a
network, which involves collection of field
combination of all the purposes. Based on the
measurements. The fundamental factors
specific objectives and timescale, what is to be
influencing the design of a monitoring network
sampled, where, how often and how accurate the
is the monitoring objectives (present and future),
sample collection can be determined. Choosing
physical characteristics of the systems and
the appropriate scale and scope depends on the
resources available (human and monetary) (UNEP
monitoring objectives and budgetary/resource
& WHO, 1996). The first step in developing an HIS
constraints. Costs associated with establishing
is to determine the purpose of the monitoring. For
and operating a monitoring network include land
example, is the monitoring network supposed to
acquisition, station construction, equipment
characterize baseline conditions in a watershed
procurement and installation, station operation,

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maintenance, data processing and storage, and hydro-meteorological, surface water, groundwater
staffing of field stations and data centres. Once and water quality conditions. The baseline hydro-
the relationship between the chosen effectiveness meteorological monitoring network should
measure and costs has been established, the support the surface water and groundwater
optimal network can be found. monitoring networks in determining rainfall-runoff
computations and groundwater recharge areas,
Monitoring objectives influence the density of respectively. For baseline surface water monitoring
monitoring stations and the duration of operations. networks, spatial coverage of water level and
Monitoring network types can be classified as discharge stations should have sufficient spatial
baseline, management and project. coverage for the computation of catchment water
• Baseline: A low network density of monitoring budgets. Similar water balance and resource
stations and a long period of operations assessment considerations also apply to the
characterize baseline networks in order to groundwater and water quality monitoring networks.
provide a synoptic data set. Organizational integration of the networks implies
• Management: Management networks address that the networks are complementary and that
water resource issues by supplementing the a regular exchange of field data occurs between
baseline network with increased monitoring agencies to produce authenticated, high-quality
stations that are subject to alteration (station data.
locations and variables) to address changing
A typical example is the hypothetical one depicted
conditions in management of resources.
in Figure 1, where water managers in the basin
• Project: Project networks are supplemental to are facing a number of watershed management
baseline and management networks and are challenges that involve groundwater and surface
installed to assist in planning, operating and water quantity and quality issues (World Bank,
monitoring conditions in and around a project 2015). These issues include flooding near the
or study. The latter would be appropriate city; water allocation between the municipalities,
for developing, operating and assessing the irrigation, industry and ecological sectors;
changes associated with a mine. groundwater sustainability for industrial expansion
in the proximity of the city; and optimization of
Monitoring networks are not static and thus need
reservoir operations to prevent flooding and satisfy
to be evaluated and altered periodically (World
downstream water demand requirements during
Meteorological Organization [WMO], 1994).
periods of low rainfall. The type of monitoring
Objectives need to be re-evaluated and data need
equipment presented in the example is explained in
to be reviewed to determine if they are adequately
subsequent chapters.
capturing the spatio-temporal variability for
managing resources. That said, the long-term In order to make water allocation decisions, a
baseline network should be maintained with minimal series of hydro-meteorological, surface water and
change or disruption in order to provide a long-term groundwater networks have been developed to
record of hydro-meteorological conditions. understand these issues in space and over time.
In this example, various departments within the
2.5 Integration of Monitoring Networks central government have established baseline
monitoring networks for the entire country with a
As most organizations monitor only a limited range limited number of monitoring stations located in
of the hydrologic cycle, a monitoring network this basin. With regards to hydro-meteorological
to support water resource management should monitoring, the state meteorological department
have a coordinated approach in measuring the

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(SMD) has augmented the central meteorological the region, including snow pillows to capture and
department’s (CMD) automatic rain gauges (ARGs) characterize the snowpack conditions. Automatic
with 10 additional ARGs to provide a more detailed weather stations (AWSs) have been installed by
understanding of the distribution of precipitation the SMD and CMD at the reservoir and in irrigated
for planning, as well as to increase alerting power areas to compute evapotranspiration for seasonal
for flood warning systems. As a greater quantity planning of the reservoir and irrigation demands.
of and more spatially varied precipitation falls in Given the uniformity of evapotranspiration across
the mountainous headwaters, a greater density the basin, only two AWSs are required to address
of precipitation gauges have been located in the water management issues.

Figure 2. Example basin with climate, surface water and groundwater monitoring networks by multiple agencies. ARG is an automatic rain gauge, AWS
is an automatic weather station and DWLR is a digital water level recorder. Stations A-D are referenced in the text.
Source: modified from World Bank (2015)

The surface water monitoring networks in the basin the state SWD has augmented the river gauges
have been established to quantify water distribution to support the management of flooding and
in the river system as well as the anthropogenic water allocation. Gauge-discharge stations have
(human-influenced) withdrawal, consumption and been located at significant junctures along the
return flow of water (Figure 1). The central surface mainstem as well as significant tributaries to aid
water department (SWD) operates a gauge on in assessing flows for both real-time and planning
the main river midway along the basin as part of management. All surface water monitoring stations
a country-level baseline monitoring system, thus employ water level recorders with site-specific

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discharge measurements to develop a stage- Water quality is often monitored at stations

discharge rating curve. Where bridges are located, where water quantity is also measured, in order
radar sensors have been used, shaft encoders have to calculate the total load of constituents of
been used with stilling wells, and bubblers have concern (CoC). In this basin, the state water
been used where no structures exist. As flooding is quality department monitors water quality in the
of concern in river reaches near the city, the water rivers and groundwater. Water quality is measured
level recorders have been placed in the surrounding upstream and downstream of irrigation, industrial
reach to warn of impending floodwaters (sites A and and municipal activities (Sites A, B, C, E). The state
B). Aside from the central SWD gauge, the gauges public health department monitors drinking water
have telemetric capabilities as part of the flood sources from surface diversion and groundwater
warning system. wells.

For reservoir planning and operation, the reservoir In the basin, all central, state and municipal
and associated canal system supporting the monitoring networks assist water managers in
irrigated areas have been further instrumented real-time operations and longer-term planning.
with telemetry (Site C). The river upstream of the Individually, the knowledge of water movement
reservoir has been gauged using a bubbler to predict from only one network would not provide a
inflow from the major tributary (Site D). A stilling comprehensive characterization of water flow,
well with a shaft encoder is used to determine the storage and use in the basin. It is by combining
water levels. Near the stilling well is the AWS to resources that more informed decisions can be
predict rainfall and evapotranspiration that is used determined, providing the foundation for better
in reservoir management and long-term planning. water management.
Gate sensors, used to measure discharge as a
function of gate openings, have been installed
on the reservoir’s radial gates to aid in operation.
Canals leading to the command area are equipped
with an ultrasonic water level recorder to determine
the flow being released for irrigation. The canals
into and out of the irrigation command areas are
monitored for both water quality and quantity to
evaluate irrigation practices.

Digital water lever recorders (DWLR) monitored

by the central groundwater department (GWD)
are distributed to regionally characterize the
groundwater conditions. Given the irrigation use and
industrial expansion concerns with groundwater,
the state GWD has increased the density in and
around irrigation fields, around towns and cities
using groundwater as a drinking source, and in the
vicinity of potential industrial development (Sites
E). As there are little groundwater resources in the
mountains, no DWLRs have been placed there.

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3.0 HIS DESIGN GUIDELINES

3.1 Elements of HIS Development constrain the number of locations, the objectives
should be prioritized before network design in
HIS development requires the assessment of the
order to ensure that monitoring network addresses
user needs; establishment/review of observational
the top issues. Often, collaboration of monitoring
networks; implementation of a data management
between multiple agencies can yield a more robust
system; data collection; data processing and
monitoring network. The process should be repeated
storage; data dissemination, analysis and reporting;
after periodic reviews of requirements.
and institutional and human resource development
(Figure 2) (WMO, 1994; UNEP & WHO, 1996;
3.1.3 Implementation of a Data Management
World Bank, 2015). To build successful monitoring
System
networks, all aspects of HIS development need to be
developed. The following text outlines the primary Equally important to the data collection is
steps toward HIS development and implementation. the storage and management of data in a
data management system (DMS). A DMS is
3.1.1 Assessing the User Needs a computerized database that allows for the
storage, management, quality assurance and
The first step in HIS development is assessing
dissemination of the data. The types of data stored
how the data will be used and who will use it. As
in the database include: geographical and space-
seen in Table 1, there is great value in developing a
oriented data (e.g., GIS information and location of
baseline HIS network; however, additional targeted
observation stations), time-oriented data (e.g., time
monitoring may be needed to address specific
series of meteorological, climatic, water quantity,
management needs. Therefore, the potential
water quality and sediment data) and relation-
data users should be consulted at the onset of
oriented data (e.g., processed data and analysis).
HIS development to ascertain their needs. From
Historic data should be added to the database
these needs, priorities can be identified and the
and the database should include a link to mapping
HIS network created to support the objectives of
functionality as well. Establishment of a DMS is
multiple stakeholders. This step is very important
essential for the long-term sustainability of the
for the relevance and longevity of the monitoring
data sets in proper form and their dissemination to
network as well as illuminating potential
the end users. Commercial and open-source DMSs
collaborations in collecting water quantity and
are available to support this requirement.
quality data.

3.1.4 Data Collection

3.1.2 Establishment/Review of Observational
Networks Following the monitoring network installation and
DMS construction, data collection ensues. Data are
Following a user needs assessment, the
collected and supplied to the DMS electronically
observational network has to be accordingly
or measured and entered by trained staff. Timely
planned, designed and established/upgraded/
submittal of the data is important to detect
adjusted. Objectives and data collection from the
malfunctioning equipment and address water-
multiple stakeholders should be considered to
related issues.
avoid duplication of monitoring when identifying
monitoring site locations and selecting monitoring
3.1.5 Data Processing and Storage
equipment. Location, types, measurement frequency
and period of record of historical data collection Data processing involves receiving records of
should also be considered in the monitoring network observed field data, performing validation checks,
design. As budgetary and resource limitations may infilling missing values in a data series, compiling

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data in different forms and analyzing the data 3.1.7 Institutional and Human Resources
to support decision-making (Terakawa, 2003). Support
In the process, the data must be validated for
Institutional, human and budgetary supports are a
quality and reliability, as errors can occur in the
prerequisite for smooth operation and maintenance
monitoring sensor, data recorder, interruptions
of the observation stations and the associated
in transmission and human entry. Field data, as
collection of data (World Bank, 2015). The
observed and recorded, may contain many gaps
institutions supporting the HIS must be developed
and inconsistencies that must be identified, flagged
in such a manner that the system is sustainable
and, if possible, corrected so that users understand
in the long run. The staff carrying out different
the quality of the data. Data processing activities
activities under HIS are to be made available and
are typically carried out at more than one level
must have the essential training to carry out the
within an implementing agency, making it essential
desired tasks.
to have adequate data transport/communication
links between them. Functionality in many DMSs
supports the processing. Protocols must be
established for the long-term use and archiving of
the observed and processed data.

3.1.6 Data Dissemination, Analysis and

Reporting
Processed data can be presented directly to the
user or given in the form of analysis or reports.
Analysis and reports require customization to
ensure the reported information is relevant to user
needs. The use of intranet and Internet systems
facilitates the data dissemination and exchange.
For example, a web portal allows anyone to identify
and download the large amounts of monitoring data
collected by the USGS as well as the reports they
generate. Figure 3. Flow chart of establishing and operating a monitoring network.
Network formulation leads to ongoing monitoring activities.
Note: Periodically the network formulation is redone to ensure the
monitoring effort is relevant to addressing the water resource issues.

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Box 1. Steps in monitoring network design

There are many steps in developing the full HIS. The sequence of steps for developing a monitoring network, a subset of the full
HIS development, include:

1. Institutional review: Review of mandates, roles and aims of the agencies involved in the implementing the HIS and those
using the data to support decision making.
2. Data need identification: Collection of data should be done with the intention to address a water resource issue and to be
used by water managers and interested stakeholders.
3. Objectives of the network: Prepare a set of objectives in terms of required network output based on the outcome need
assessment from multiple parties.
4. Prioritization: A priority ranking among the set of objectives.
5. Network density: Based on the objectives, the required network density is determined, taking in view the spatial (and
temporal) correlation structure of the variable(s).
6. Review of existing network: Reviewed are the existing network density versus the required one as worked out in the
previous step; the spreading of the stations in conjunction with the hydro-meteorological, surface water and groundwater
networks; the available equipment and its adequacy for collecting the required information; and the adequacy of
operational procedures and possible improvements.
7. Site and equipment selection: If the existing network is inadequate to meet the information demands, additional sites as
well as the appropriate equipment have to be selected.
8. DMS selection: Select the DMS to support the HIS network.
9. Cost estimation: Costs involved in developing, operating and maintaining the existing and new sites as well as the data
centres must be estimated.
10. Cost-effectiveness analysis: Cost and effectiveness are to be compared. The last five steps have to be repeated in full or
in part if the budget is insufficient to cover the anticipated costs.
11. Implementation: Once the network design is approved, the network is to be implemented in a planned manner, where
execution of civil works, equipment procurement, and installation and staff recruitment and training are properly tuned to
each other.

The monitoring network has to be reviewed after three years or at a shorter interval if new objectives need to be addressed. If
revision is found necessary, the procedure should be re-executed.

Source: UNEP & WHO (1996)

3.2 Site and Instrumentation Selection In addition to the site selection, instrument
Criteria selection is required for each site. Common
components for a recording gauge include the
Based on identified objectives and needs, a general
sensor, data logger, power source, cabling (between
location is determined for a monitoring station.
sensor and data logger) and infrastructure for
Following this, the actual sites for placement of
mounting the system (World Bank, 2015). For
the instrumentation must be selected. Baseline
telemetered systems, additional equipment at a
criteria to evaluate the sensor locations include
site will include an antenna and a remote terminal
physical consideration (exposure, aspect, slope,
unit (RTU). Though each type of equipment will have
elevation, river morphology), site footprint, existing
properties to consider when selecting instruments,
infrastructure/monitoring stations, vegetation,
common criteria for selecting instrumentation
physical access, telemetry window (for telemetry
include:
systems), power source, security and land ownership.
GIS information (e.g., aerial photographs, land-use • Sensor accuracy over the measurement range
maps, road maps) can be used to evaluate potential
• Construction of equipment (parts well made,
locations, followed by a field visit to confirm the
waterproof)
location.

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

• Reliability decision, rapidly, efficiently and consistently. Real-

• Ease of installation and use time modernized data also eliminate human error
and build trust among stakeholders, which aids in
• Cost including warrantees and maintenance
transparency in decision making. Thus, data may
agreements
be used for resource management, engineering
• Energy consumption design, project operation or scientific investigations
• Compatibility among components without the need for extensive checking, editing and
• Maintenance correction.

• Familiarity (using like technology as much as Telemetric systems operate by sensors measuring
possible) parameters, a data logger storing readings and
• Product support (training, technical inquiries, the RTU transmitting a data package containing
repairs) the readings through an antenna (Figure 4) (Sauer,
2002). The data package is picked up by a receiver
3.3 Telemerty and passed on to a receiving station (a.k.a., hub
station, monitoring centre), which decodes the
Real-time hydrologic monitoring systems are
transmitted data package and sends it to the data
increasingly used in the decision-making process
management system on a server where it can be
to provide up-to-date information for flood
processed, stored, analyzed and disseminated.
forecasting, water supply management, irrigation
Should the data not be received, systems with two-
and hydro generation (Haeggli, 2009). Hydrometric
way communication can be programmed to prompt
observations coupled with real-time telemetry
the field site to resend the data package. Receiver
provide the basis for an objective analysis of
networks include land-, radio- and satellite-based
water resources, allowing operators to consider
networks.
numerous operating criteria and the impact of any

Figure 4. Schematic of a telemetered hydromet network.

Source: Hydrology Project (n.d.)

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

Table 2. Attributes of GSM/GPRS and VSAT telemetry systems. Types of telemetry systems include terrestrial-
TYPE OF based (GSM/GPRS) and satellite-based systems
GSM/GPRS VSAT
COMMUNICATION
(VSAT) (Table 2). In general, VSATs are used for
Covered Network
Range
Area
No Limit networks required to be online during extreme
Power Quite Low High
events and thus are the preferred systems in flood
warning systems. With the increased reliability
Speed Medium Very High
comes increased cost in equipment, maintenance
Data Security Low High
and provider service. GSM/GPRS relies on mobile
Reliability Low High
phone networks, thus it is less expensive to equip
Maintenance Moderate Unpredictable
and maintain, and easier to install. The limitation
Sabotage
Quite Low High with GSM/GPRS is that its range is within the
Malpractices
Price Low Very High mobile network coverage and the reliability of
Running Cost Low High the mobile network, which has a higher likelihood
Clearances from
of failing during extreme meteorological events
Not Required Not Required
WPC (Haeggli, 2009).
Error Detection Good Good
Need for ERS No Optional
Full-Duplex Capacity Full Duplex Full Duplex

Source: Haeggli (2009)

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4.0 SURFACE WATER MONITORING SYSTEM

4.1 Overview These factors, along with the availability of
financing, manpower and other resources, dictate
Surface water monitoring networks consist of a
the network design. It is recommended that, with
system of gauging stations that measure water
limited resources, it is better to ensure fewer
levels and discharge rates. The network provides
monitoring stations of higher quality as opposed
hydrologic data needed for the planning, design
to more low-quality monitoring stations (Haeggli,
and management of conservation and utilization of
2009).
the waters and other natural resources of the river
system. Typical applications for a surface water
4.2 Network Design
monitoring network include water budgets, water
allocation planning, climate variability (flooding, Surface water monitoring system design follows the
drought), infrastructure design, real-time warning overall design logic of overall HIS design and much
systems, operations, reservoir management, begins with an understanding of the objectives.
resource management, risk analysis, policy design Depending on the objectives and setting, several
and evaluation, and scientific research. Surface types of monitoring networks can be considered
water monitoring networks are also part of an based on the geographic size; geomorphology;
integrated HIS including hydro-meteorological, geo- and socioeconomic, ecologic and regulatory
hydrological and water quality monitoring networks. requirements within the area of interest. Baseline
networks have at least one baseline station in each
Through assessing data user needs, the climatological and physiographic area. Station
identification of the monitoring objectives is the locations along main rivers should represent the
first consideration in the design of the surface majority of the discharge and locations with
water monitoring network. The second consideration significant changes in the volume of discharge.
in the design of the surface water monitoring Changes in volume include upstream of diversions
network is the time and space of flow and the or bifurcation and downstream of the confluence
water level throughout the river/lake system. The with tributaries. If a suitable location is not available
monitored data should enable accurate estimation below a confluence, the sites can be located above
of the relevant characteristics of the hydrological the confluence, preferably on the tributary. While
regime of the river basin. Thus, the network establishing sites downstream of a confluence,
requirement is greatly influenced by: care should be taken to ensure that no other small
stream joins the main river. The drainage areas
• Monitoring objectives, determined by the data computed from origin up to consecutive monitoring
needs of the hydrological data users stations on a large river should preferably differ
• Temporal and spatial variability of the river by more than 10 per cent so that the difference in
flow, determined by: quantities of flow is significant (WMO, 1994). For
o Climatic features like precipitation pattern reservoirs and lakes, water levels should be recorded
in the catchment as well as the outflow to rivers and canals.

o Evapotranspiration Important in characterizing the surface water

o Physiographic features of the river basin, system is the discharge in tributary streams and
like size, slope, shape, soils, land use and rivers. While it is not financially feasible or practical
drainage characteristics with the available resources to monitor all the
tributaries, a subset of “representative” streams and
rivers have to be selected to estimate discharge in

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

similar ungauged smaller water bodies. These data 4.2.2 Use Of Existing Networks
allow users to estimate flows in non-monitored
Leveraging existing surface-water networks can
tributaries of similar physiographic, vegetative and
provide a historical understanding of the timing and
land-use character. If choosing between similar
magnitude of discharge as well as identify gaps
basins to place a monitoring station, the one with
in the current network. Existing gauges should be
less human impact (more natural) should be chosen.
considered in the new monitoring network; however,
Thus, great care is to be exercised in designing the
the location needs to be reevaluated given the
network to ensure that all distinct hydrologic areas
updated objectives and cumulative knowledge
are adequately covered.
of the hydrologic system. Each station must be
reviewed to determine if it supplies necessary data
Coastal rivers need special consideration when
for effective water management. There is reluctance
developing the network due to backwater effects
for hydrologists and water resource planners to
associated with tides and bifurcation of channels
discontinue gauging stations, even though they
in deltas. In these regions, traditional stage-
might have fulfilled their intended objectives. In the
discharge relationships have limited application.
design and evaluation of networks, it is essential
Stage readings should be recorded with frequent
that stations that no longer provide a significant
discharge readings. For smaller rivers, use of an
benefit are shifted or discontinued. As monitoring
ADCP to continuously read discharge should be
network design is a dynamic process, networks have
considered.
to be continually reviewed and updated so that they
react to new priorities, changes in policies and fiscal
4.2.1 WMO Recommendations
changes.
The WMO provides a recommended minimum
density of river network stations for flat,
mountainous and arid regions (Table 3). As these Box 2. Prioritizing System
recommendations are generalized, the final network Following development of the “ideal” monitoring network,
density must ultimately be based on the network stations need to be prioritized by their objectives as well as
financial and resource constraints. In prioritizing stations,
objectives, the temporal and spatial variability of the following questions should be asked (World Bank, 2015):
river stages and flow, and the availability of finance, • What are the socioeconomic consequences of not
manpower and other resources. collecting discharge/water level data at the site?
• What are the alternatives to establishing a discharge/
Table 3. Minimum density of a hydrological network according to WMO water level gauging station at the site under
(area in km2 for one station). These should be considered rough guidelines. consideration?
RANGE OF
RANGE OF NORMS Given these questions, a prioritization system is developed
TYPE OF PROVISIONAL NORMS
FOR MINIMUM to determine stations to be culled from the “ideal”
REGION TOLERATED IN1
NETWORK monitoring network. For example, stations might be
DIFFICULT CONDITIONS
prioritized as high, medium and low (World Bank, 2015). A
Flat regions 1,000 - 2,000 3,000 - 10,000 station is considered “high priority” if it is a multi-purpose
Mountainous water resources development site, political boundary,
300 - 1,0002 1,000 - 5,000 upstream or downstream of major diversion(s), major
regions
ungauged basin and heavily polluted major water supply
Arid zones3 5,0002 - 20,000 ------------------ source. Characteristics of the “medium-priority” stations
are medium-scale water resource development project
Source: WMO (1994). sites, secondary basins and industrial development areas.
Thus, “low-priority” stations would collect data on small
NOTES: projects or smaller tributaries that are not representative
1. Last figure in the range should be tolerated only for exceptionally
of surrounding basins or can be represented by another
difficult conditions.
2. Under very difficult conditions this may be extended up to 10,000 km2.
gauge. The appropriate prioritization criteria will need
to be developed by the organizations implementing the
3. Great deserts are not included. monitoring network.

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

4.3 Monitoring Stations break in channel slope occurs resulting from a rock
outcrop or a local constriction in width caused by
The key components of characterizing the surface
the construction of a bridge, friction by a channel
water system are measuring water levels and flows.
bed or flow over a waterfall. To develop the stage-
Water level (stage) is measured directly as the
discharge relationship, multiple concurrent stage
water surface height above a datum (thalweg) or
and discharge measurements are required over a
elevation. Water level can be measured using a staff
range of discharges. If the riverbed is changing,
gauge or continuously monitored using water level
the stage-discharge relationship will need to be
recorders to create a time series of the water level
periodically shifted to account for the new channel
at the site.
conditions.
For measuring water flows (discharge), the primary
Artificial controls have been designed to directly
measurement is the stage. At most sampling
read the discharge from water level, thus eliminating
sites, to compute discharge from stage, a series
the need for a large number of current meter
of concurrent stage and current meter readings
readings. Reservoir spillways and control weirs
(discharge measurements) are used to create a
frequently come into the “artificial” category.
stage-discharge rating curve (Figure 5) (Rantz, 1982;
Periodic current meter readings over a range
United States Bureau of Reclamation, 2001). The
of discharges are still necessary to confirm the
curve is applied to the stage time series to compute
validity of the stage-discharge relationship. A
a discharge time series. The shape, reliability and
good reference for developing and maintaining a
stability of the stage-discharge relationship are
stage-discharge rating curve is Standards for the
controlled by a section or reach of channel at,
Analysis and Processing of Surface-Water Data
or downstream of, the gauging station. These
and Information Using Electronic Methods: U.S.
“controls” can be natural or artificial (manmade
Geological Survey Water-Resources Investigations
for flow measurement purposes). Natural controls
Report 01–4044 (Sauer, 2002).
occur where a natural constriction or a downward

Figure 5. An example stage-discharge rating curve developed from concurrent stage

and discharge measurements at a site collected throughout the year.

Note: characterizing the storage and flow of water (water quantity) is the foundation for understanding many aspects
of water quality, as they determine the concentration, fate and transport of chemicals in water bodies.

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4.3.1 Site Surveys 4.4 Monitoring Duration

Following identification of the type and general The frequency of hydrological measurements
location for a station, based on natural and artificial depends upon the monitoring objectives, desired
controls, the site selection process begins. Site accuracy, variability of data (hourly, daily, weekly,
selection usually involves a preliminary investigation monthly, seasonally) and marginal cost-benefit of
in the office (review of maps, survey logs, historical improved accuracy (WMO, 1994). In general, systems
records) followed by site visits to locations deemed with high variability in the system will need short
most promising in the preliminary investigation. sampling frequencies. The variability can change
The final choice of site depends on the type and during the year to reflect the changes in seasonality.
quality of the data required, the proposed sensor Dry, warm seasons may be characterized by stable,
and accompanying equipment to be deployed, and low discharge conditions, while rainy seasons
logistics and budgetary constraints. The primary may be characterized by peak flow events, and
aspects that have to be considered include (WMO, thus the sampling frequency needs to reflect this
1994): variability. With increased sampling frequency
• Technical aspects: the hydraulic suitability of comes increased cost in data storage equipment,
the site processing and human resources. Therefore, costs
will increase proportionally, and decisions have to
• Logistical aspects: site accessibility,
be made regarding the benefits of the increased
communication and staffing
accuracy. That said, with the decrease in computer
• Security aspects: security of instruments, storage costs and adoption of real-time monitoring
away from residential areas and playgrounds systems, the cost of increased monitoring has been
• Legal aspects: land acquisition and rite of greatly reduced. In addition, sampling frequency
passage may change with changing monitoring objectives
• Financial aspects: including costs of land and increased knowledge of the hydrologic system.
acquisition, civil works, equipment, data
processing, and staffing and training 4.5 Measurement Frequency

Water level sites should avoid high-turbulence 4.5.1 Stage Measurement Frequency
zones and be in close proximity to stable and steep For stations with digital water level recorders,
stream banks for installation of the instrument. The the standard frequency should be a maximum
downstream control should be stable and sensitive of an hourly rate. For flashy systems in response
to establish a stable stage-discharge relation, to precipitation events, particularly those in
where significant changes in the discharge create mountainous or in high-intensity rainfall areas,
significant changes in stage. For non-coastal a frequency of 15 minutes may be required. In
stations, the site shall be outside the backwater addition, where a river is heavily managed, levels
influence of tidal zones, confluences and structures may change comparatively quickly as a result of
(e.g., reservoirs/lakes). The stage and current meter river regulation and abstraction that may occur a
reading need not be at the exact location, but close short distance upstream.
enough so that no change in discharge is deemed
to have taken place. Nearby benchmarks should be For manned stations with staff gauges only, hourly
available or be established to allow regular survey of readings throughout a full day will apply during the
the gauge location. rain seasons. During the dry season, two or three
readings per day will be sufficient; with the provision
that, in the event of unseasonal rainfall and river
rise, the observations are intensified and extended

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over the full 24 hours. In some circumstances, one affected by backwater or hysteresis resulting
reading a day might suffice. from unsteady flow will require more persistent
and frequent measurement than stable controls.
4.5.2 Current Meter Measurement Frequency Recommended frequencies are proposed and
summarized in Table 5.
The required frequency of current meter
measurement at a stage-discharge site depends If more than one condition exists at a station, then
primarily on the stability of the control section, as the condition requiring the most frequent gauging
this will define how frequently gauge readings are should be applied. For example, if a change in the
required to achieve a given level of accuracy. The control is detected at any station, or if current
minimum number of gauge readings required to meter gauging suggests that the rating has shifted,
establish a good stage-discharge relationship for then gauging should be intensified until the new
a stable, sensitive control is of the order of 10–12 rating is defined throughout the range. At sites with
over the full flow range. A precise interval between very unstable controls, it might be necessary to
gauging readings cannot be specified, as the need derive a new stage-discharge relationship for each
to gauge may depend on the occurrence of flow season.
in a particular range. Unstable channels and those

Table 5. Recommended observation frequency for current meter gauging

Station control Frequency Remarks

All stations (excluding structures) – Frequent gauging to capture data for as wide 10–12 should be considered the minimum
initial calibration a range of events as possible. over the low, medium and high flow ranges.
Monthly plus at least one high flow event a The monthly gauging can coincide routine
Stable natural channel
year DWLR downloading.
If an additional set of gauge posts are
Daily if backwater source not known
installed or an additional AWLR/DWLR,
Backwater affected
the changes in surface water slope can be
Otherwise weekly
estimated.
Unstable channels with silt, sand or During lower flow periods, daily or more
gravel frequent to obtain data for high events
Assumes that rate of change from stage
Unsteady flow with looped rating Weekly records of stage can be well enough
defined.
6 gauge readings over full modular
measurement range to confirm calibration Including 2 low flows. The modular limit
Structures – initially
(performance) of structure, approx. 6 readings should be defined.
in the non-modular range.
1–2 gauge readings per year within modular
Structures - after initial calibration
range, 3–4 gauge readings a year in non-
(performance) check
modular range
Source: Hydrology Project (n.d.)

4.6 Instrumentation • Staff gauges – Manually read water level

gauges, most commonly a vertical staff
4.6.1 Water Level Monitoring InstrumenTS gauge. These are inexpensive, simple to install,
There are several common methods to measure intuitive and easy to understand. They do not
water level (stage), each with advantages and provide a means of continuously recording
disadvantages of measurement, cost, operation water levels.
and maintenance (Table 6). Water level monitoring • Shaft encoder – Involves a float connected
instruments include: with a recorder that tracks changes in water

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

levels. The instrument is usually a float in a reading and atmospheric pressure is the depth
stilling well. Shaft encoders are best used of water. Water levels are recorded on a data
on stable riverbeds where the channel does logger. Gas bubblers are best used on open
not change and there is little sedimentation. channels and reservoirs with stable riverbeds
Instrumentation is inexpensive and never where the channel does not change, there is
needs to be shipped to the manufacturer for little sedimentation and there are no bridges
calibration. However, initial shaft encoders or platforms nearby to install a radar system.
require installation of a stilling well and An advantage is that the installation is
maintenance through periodic flushing of the relatively inexpensive. Disadvantages are the
system. expense: the desiccant needs to be replaced
• Gas bubbler – A tube is submerged and a periodically and they are not suitable for
gas is forced through at a known pressure. shifting channels with debris.
The pressure difference between the tube

Table 6. Generalized attributes of water level recording instruments

DESCRIPTION SHAFT ENCODER BUBBLER PRESSURE TRANSDUCER ULTRASONIC RADAR

Range Large Small Medium Medium Large
Accuracy Good Good Good Good Good
Tampering/Sabotage High High Medium Medium Medium
Stilling Well Essential N/A N/A Preferable Not essential
Installation Simple Difficult Simple Simple Simple
Maintenance High High None None None
Sediment effect Medium Very High N/A N/A N/A
Cost Medium Large Low Medium High
Source: Hydrology Project (n.d.)

• Submersible pressure transducer – Similar to colour of the target. Ultrasonic sensors are
the gas bubbler, this measures the hydrostatic less expensive and cover ranges of >10 m
pressure underwater. The difference (sensor to water level). Radar sensors are
between the pressure transducer reading more expensive, but cover a range of up to 30
and atmospheric pressure is the depth of m (sensor to water level) and can penetrate
water. Submersible pressure transducers are temperature and vapour layers that may
relatively easy to install and low cost. The cause problems.
disadvantage of pressure transducers is their
vulnerability to debris, high water flows and 4.6.2 Instrument Selection
water pollution, as well as the need for periodic
Selection of the appropriate instrument will depend
factory calibration.
on the station purpose, presence of existing
• Ultrasonic/radar – These sensors measure infrastructure (e.g., stilling well, bridge), distance
the water level by sending pulsed ultrasound to the water, desired accuracy, sedimentation rate,
or radar waves to the water surface and then access and cost. Figure 6 presents the general
measuring the time for the sound echo to logic for the preliminary selection of water level
return. Knowing the speed of sound, the sensor instrumentation based on setting (e.g., river,
can determine the distance to the water reservoir or canal), existing infrastructure and height
surface. These sensors do not make contact above water. Generally, if a stilling well is present
with the water and thus are unaffected by or to be constructed, a shaft encoder or ultrasonic
the transparency, reflectivity, opacity or level sensor are the options considered. For sites

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

without a stilling well, but with an overhanging no pre-existing structures exist, then a bubbler or
structure such as a dam or bridge, a downward- pressure transducer is considered.
looking ultrasonic/radar is the primary option. If

Figure 6. Logic for selecting water level measuring instrumentation for a station
Source: Hydrology Project (n.d.)

4.6.3 Discharge Measurement Instrumentation as mobile and fixed units and are available
to cover a variety of river sizes, including
Radar, acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCP)
wadable (handheld AD velocimeter), medium
and control structures are used for continuously
rivers (pontoon [Figure 7A]) and larger river
measuring discharge in channels. Below is a brief
systems (attached to a boat). Mobile units are
description on each.
effective for gathering point measurements of
• Radar – Radar units are available that collect discharge, which are necessary for developing
the surface velocity in addition to water level. the stage-discharge relationships. Fixed
Based on these measurements and the cross- ADCPs that continuously monitor discharge
sectional area, discharge can be calculated. are optimally suited for canals, estuaries,
This method works optimally in well-defined river deltas and river reaches that experience
symmetric channels, such as canals, creeks backwater to measure current, where currents
and smaller rivers, where the radar velocity change even though the water level stays the
measurement represents the flow in the same. An increasing number of ADCPs are
channel. For wide channels, more than one being installed in open channels to measure
instrument along the cross section may be the discharge directly, thus removing the
required. The advantages and disadvantages effort associated with obtaining the stage-
are the same, with radar applied for measuring discharge points. The primary disadvantage
surface water levels. to ADCPs is that the units are expensive. As
• ADCP – ADCPs use sonar to measure the the units are in contact with the water, ADCPs
current velocity by measuring the backscatter are not a suitable solution for streams where
of sound waves off particles in the water debris such as logs and moving rocks can
column. The result is a velocity profile across a dislodge and possibly damage this expensive
cross section that can be summed to compute sensor.
discharge (Figure 7B). ADCPs are available

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

A B

Figure 7. ADCP measuring discharge (A) (Photo courtesy of USGS) and an example of results (B) Typical ADCP
output showing water depth and flow velocity profile for a river cross-section (Levesque & Oberg, 2012)

• Control structures – Control structures, such 4.6.4 Discharge Measurement

as calibrated weirs and flumes, have fixed
In addition to the water stage measurement
cross sections where the stage-discharge
described above, selection of the monitoring
relationship is known and constant. Coupling
location is also important for obtaining a reliable
the control structure with a water level
discharge measurement. The type of instrument
recorder provides a means of continuous
chosen for rivers, canals and reservoir gates is
recording discharge. The advantage is that
provided in Figure 8. For a stage-discharge station,
periodic stage-discharge measurements
both a stage measurement device and a current
are not required to build the relationship.
meter-gauging site are required in the same locality.
The disadvantage is that the installation
However, it might not always be appropriate to
of the structures needs construction and
locate the current meter-gauging site immediately
maintenance.
adjacent to the stage measurement device, since
some of their site selection criteria are different.
Care should be taken to ensure that no inflow or
outflow to the river or channel exists between the
stage and discharge reading locations.

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Box 3. Guidelines for selecting a discharge measurement

• The general course of the stream is straight for about 100 metres upstream and downstream from the gauge site.
• The total flow is confined to one channel at all stages and no flow bypasses the site as sub-surface flow.
• The stream bed is not subject to scour and fill and is free of aquatic growth.
• Banks are permanent, high enough to contain floods and free from brush.
• Unchanging natural controls are present in the form of a bedrock outcrop or other stable riffle during low flow.
• A channel constriction is present for high flow, or a fall or cascade that is unsubmerged at all stages to provide a stable
relationship between stage and discharge. If no satisfactory natural low-water control exists, then installation of an artificial
control should be considered.
• A site is available, just upstream of the control, for housing the data acquisition system where the potential for damage by
water-borne debris is minimal during flood stages. The elevation of the data acquisition system should be above any flood
likely to occur during the life of the station.
• The gauge site is far enough upstream from confluence with another stream from tidal effect to avoid any variable
influences, which the other stream or the tide may have on the stage at the gauge site.
• A satisfactory reach for measuring discharge at all stages is available within reasonable proximity of the gauge site. It is not
necessary that low and high flows be measured at the same stream cross section.
• The site is readily accessible for ease in the installation and operation of the gauging station. Facilities for telemetry or
satellite relay can be made available, if required.
• If ice conditions might occur, it will still be possible to record stage and measure discharge.

Source: WMO (1994)

Figure 8. Logic for site selection of discharge measuring methods

Source: Hydrologic Project (n.d.)

4.7 Recommended Resources http://water.usgs.gov/hif/

http://pubs.usgs.gov/fs/2007/3099/ http://water.usgs.gov/hif/programs/instrumenteval/
HIFEvaluationGuidance.pdf
http://pubs.usgs.gov/wsp/wsp2175/
http://www.indiawrm.org/HIS.aspx
https://hydroacoustics.usgs.gov/

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

5.0 GROUNDWATER MONITORING SYSTEM

5.1 Overview aquifer systems are vertically stratified and thus
monitoring networks must observe water levels
In addition to surface water systems, groundwater
in shallow aquifers as well as deeper, multi-layer
systems need to monitored and understood to
aquifers. In order to characterize the water budget
know the full extent of available water resources
for the aquifer, a minimum network should include
for a region. A groundwater monitoring network is a
a number of groundwater monitoring stations in the
system of dedicated groundwater monitoring wells
recharge area, runoff and discharge area for each
in a geo-hydrological unit at which groundwater
of the aquifer systems. In addition to establishing
levels and water quality are measured (World Bank,
a baseline monitoring system, the groundwater
2015). Monitoring groundwater is performed to
monitoring network must address the objectives
characterize groundwater quantity and quality in
identified by the user, which may add or transfer
order to address issues regarding proper assessment
stations from previous monitoring locations.
and protection of groundwater resources. Types
Ultimately, the groundwater network should
of water resource issues that groundwater data
support the management of supply for drinking
are used for include aquifer characterization
water, irrigation, industrial/commercial, health and
(quality and quantity), water budgets, conjunctive
freshwater ecosystems.
management, safe yield of groundwater abstraction,
salinity intrusions, water logging, water quality The underlying lithology should be addressed
contamination characterization, aquifer recharge when determining the depth of monitoring wells
zone delineation, aquifer-recovery-storage (ARS) and density of stations. Aquifers comprised of
projects, policy design and evaluation, and research clastic materials (e.g., sand or gravels) will have
and studies. a different density than underlying geology
comprised of fractured hard rock or limestone.
The types of information collected in groundwater
The presence of major fault sections that can
monitoring networks include the spatial and
provide conduits for water movement also need
temporal distribution of water levels, water balance
to be considered. In general, the evaluation of the
of an aquifer (recharge and abstraction) and
results is more difficult in hard rock formations
hydraulic properties of the aquifer. Of particular
as the underlying fractures, joints and faults that
interest is the long-term change of the groundwater
influence groundwater movement require additional
levels and the seasonal periodicity. Given the water
information.
level record, hydrographs can be produced to
indicate groundwater level as a response to changes
5.3 Network Design
in climate or management. Typical statistics include
the magnitude of change, time lag to change, rate The density of monitoring sites and instruments,
of change and duration of change. Thus, long-term observation wells and piezometers chosen for
groundwater monitoring is important in developing an observation well network will provide data
comprehensive and effective management plans. representative of various topographic, geologic,
climatic and land-use environments. Decisions
5.2 General Design Considerations about the areal distribution and depth of
completion of piezometers should also include
Groundwater monitoring networks should reflect
considerations about the physical boundaries and
the hydrogeological system of the area under
geologic complexity of aquifers under study. Water
investigation as well as provide long-term records
level monitoring programs for complex, multilayer
on the different aquifers being monitored. Many
aquifer systems may require measurements in

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

nested piezometers (water level measuring devices) monitoring wells, knowledge of the geology across
completed at multiple depths in different geologic the screening interval (the depth range of the
units. If one of the purposes of a network is to well casing permits water to enter the well) as
monitor ambient ground-water conditions or the well as proximity to abstracting wells needsto be
effects of natural, climate-induced hydrologic considered.
stresses, the observation network will require
dedicated piezometers that are unaffected by Springs represent a location where the groundwater
pumping, irrigation and land uses that affect table (water level) intersects the ground surface.
groundwater recharge. Care must be taken to determine if the spring is
connected to a perched (shallow) or deeper aquifer
As per earlier discussion, spatial density of system. Finally, when determining the abstraction
groundwater monitoring networks can be classified rate from wells, it is rarely possible to monitor all
into baseline, management and project types. pumping wells, so monitoring larger abstraction
Baseline networks extend over the entire major wells and representative wells is a solution. Wells are
hydrogeological and groundwater development monitored either through a gauge attached to the
units under consideration, with observation sites pipes or through energy-use records in combination
representing typical hydrogeological characteristics with pump capacity to estimate abstraction. In
in order to estimate the groundwater resource addition to the aforementioned considerations,
availability. The monitoring well of this network network design and site selection criteria follow the
should remain monitored for a long period of time. same as those outlined in Section 3.
Management networks supplement the baseline
networks for estimating groundwater resources Monitoring duration and frequency are key
at a watershed scale and aquifer management. considerations discussed in the following
In management networks, the monitoring well’s sections. Although often influenced by economic
density is greater with distribution, to represent considerations, the monitoring duration and
diverse hydrogeological units. The monitoring in measurement frequency should be determined
this network should be continued for long periods by the variability of water level fluctuations to
with high frequency of monitoring. Project networks fully characterize the hydrologic behaviour of the
are for studying localized issues. The monitoring aquifer. Thus, the monitoring duration and frequency
stations need to be operated for a limited period need to be able to pick up the periodic cycles (e.g.,
of time, ideally occurring before, during and after annual, seasonal, tidal cycles) from impacts due
the project or study. Typical problem areas that a to other pressures (e.g., groundwater abstraction,
local network may have are for mining activities, recharge from land-use changes) and other long-
industrial/commercial contamination, monitoring term hydrologic changes (e.g., climate change). The
freshwater/salt water interface in coastal areas and monitoring objectives, financial and human resource
evaluation of proposed abstraction schemes. constraints, and variability of hydrogeological
conditions influence this monitoring duration and
5.4 Monitoring Stations measurement frequency.

Groundwater characterization is observed as

5.5 Monitoring Duration
water level in wells, discharge from springs
and abstraction/recharge from pumping wells. Monitoring duration is a function of the monitoring
Monitoring wells can be shallow wells, abandoned objectives (Table 7). Short-term water level data
deeper tube wells and observation wells with is collected over periods of days, weeks or months
single or nested piezometers (for characterizing during many types of groundwater investigations.
multiple aquifer layers at a single location). For Water level measurements needed to map the

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

piezometric surface (a.k.a., water table) are generally Schalk 2011). Multiple years to decades are required
collected within the shortest possible period of to develop groundwater-level hydrographs needed
time (days or weeks) so that water levels represent to assess the effects of climate variability and of
a static hydrologic condition. Long-term data regional aquifer development or to obtain data
are fundamental to the resolution of many of the sufficient for the development and use of analytical
most complex problems dealing with groundwater and numerical (computer) groundwater models.
availability and sustainability (Cunningham &

Table 7. Monitoring duration as a function of the intended monitoring objectives.

TYPICAL LENGTH OF DATA-COLLECTION EFFORT

INTENDED USE OF WATER LEVEL DATA OR HYDROLOGIC RECORD REQUIRED
DAYS/WEEKS MONTHS YEARS DECADES
To determine the hydraulic properties of aquifers (aquifer tests) X
Mapping the water table or potentiometric surface X
Monitoring short-term changes in groundwater recharge and storage X X X
Monitoring long-term changes in groundwater recharge and storage X X
Monitoring the effects of climatic variability X X
Monitoring regional effects of groundwater development X X
Statistical analysis of water level trends X X
Monitoring changes in groundwater flow directions X X X X
Monitoring groundwater and surface water interaction X X X X
Groundwater resource assessment X X
Numerical (computer) modelling of groundwater flow or contaminant
X X X X
transport
Source: Cunningham & Schalk (2011)

5.6 Measurement Frequency Synoptic water level measurements provide

a “snapshot” of heads in an aquifer. Synoptic
Groundwater measurements are collected both
measurements should be taken when data is
through periodic monitoring and continuous
needed for mapping the altitude of the water table
monitoring. Periodic monitoring involves taking
or potentiometric surface, determining hydraulic
groundwater level measurements at weekly,
gradients, or defining the physical boundaries of
fortnight, monthly or seasonal intervals. Periodic
an aquifer. Regional synoptic measurements made
water level measurements are usually carried out
on an annual or multi-year basis should be used
through manual measurement techniques, such
as part of long-term monitoring, to complement
as chalked metal tapes or electronic water level
more frequent measurements made from a smaller
indicators. Depending on the frequency and the
number of wells.
hydrogeological conditions, periodic monitoring (e.g.,
quarterly, monthly) misses the hydraulic responses Continuous monitoring uses digital water level
of aquifers to short-term stresses that occur recorders to measure water levels at a regular
between measurements. frequency. The continuous monitoring frequency
(typically hourly, 6-hourly, daily) is set to capture
Synoptic water level measurements are water levels
water level fluctuations while efficiently collecting
in all the monitoring wells within a homogenous
data. Hydrographs constructed from such
hydrogeological/drainage unit and are measured
measurements should be useful to accurately
within a relatively short period (World Bank, 2015).

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

identify the effects of various stresses on the

aquifer system and to provide the most accurate
estimates of maximum and minimum water level
fluctuations in aquifers. Continuous monitoring is
used to characterize fluctuations in groundwater
levels for groundwater resource assessment, as
well as identify recharge zones and drought-prone
areas, coastal zones, areas influenced by surface
water sources (e.g., rivers, canals, irrigation) and
waterlogged areas.

5.7 Instrumentation
Water level tapes – Electronic water level indicators
and chalked steel tapes are manual devices used for
measuring water level (Cunningham & Schalk, 2011).
They are intuitive to use and inexpensive, but require
manual operation and thus are only acceptable
for periodic monitoring. Confirmation of water Figure 9. DWLR being deployed. Photo courtesy of Global Water.
level using water level tapes should be performed
during the pressure transducer installation to insure 5.8 Recommended Resources
the instrument is correctly monitoring water level
elevations. Hudak P.F. & Loaiciga, H.A. (1993). An optimization
method for monitoring network design in
Pressure transducers – Similar to the digital multilayered groundwater flow systems. Water
pressure transducers used for assessing surface Resources Research, 29 (8), 2835–2845.
water levels, submersible pressure transducers are
used to record water levels in observation wells. Prinos, S.T., Lietz, A.C. & Irvin, R.B. (2002). Design of
Submergible pressure transducers measure the a real-time ground-water level monitoring network
surface and submerged water pressures at the and portrayal of hydrologic data in Southern Florida.
transducer sensors to compute the hydrostatic United States Geological Survey, Water-Resources
pressure. A transducer within the vicinity of the Investigations Report 01-4275.
wellhead measures surface atmospheric pressure.
Zhou Y. (1996). Sampling frequency for monitoring
Submersible pressure transducers are easy to install
the actual state of groundwater systems. Journal of
(just need to be lowered down the pipe) and are
Hydrology, 180(1–4), 301–318.
inexpensive. Many submersible pressure transducers
come equipped with data loggers and can be easily Web
connected to a telemetry system to relay data in
real time. Given that real-time observations are not http://water.usgs.gov/ogw/networks.html
required for groundwater management, GSM/GPRS http://www.indiawrm.org/HIS.aspx
telemetry systems are adequate and thus many
DWLRs on the market today have this functionality.

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 Water Quality Monitoring System Design

6.0 WATER QUALITY HIS

6.1 Overview Environmental Protection Agency and the World
Health Organization. 1
Along with surface water and groundwater quantity,
monitoring water quality informs a comprehensive Fluvial sediment is defined as fragmental materials
understanding of watershed systems and water generally derived from weathered rocks that are
resources for a region. A water quality monitoring transported in, suspended by or deposited from water.
network is a series of stations used to monitor the Fragments range in size from fine-grained colloidal
concentrations of chemicals (nutrients, trace metals, silts to sands, gravels, cobbles and large boulders.
pesticides/herbicides, industrial organic micro- These fragments are transported in suspension
pollutants, oil and greases [UNEP & WHO, 1996]), (suspended sediment) or by rolling, salting and sliding
bacteria, water temperature and the sediment load along the streambed (bedload sediment) (Figure 10).
(mass of fragments). Assessing the water quality The total sediment load is the sum of suspended and
of groundwater and surface water helps water bedload sediment loads. For monitoring sediment, the
managers determine if water is acceptable for suspended load and bedload sediment are measured
drinking, sanitation, health, commercial and industrial separately, then dried, sieved and weighed at a lab
use, and agriculture and irrigation. It also supports to get the total sediment load. If taken concurrently
the freshwater ecosystems upon which humans with a discharge measurement, the results from both
derive benefit. Typical water resource applications can be combined to develop a sediment rating curve.
that use water quality data include water quality
assessments; watershed management; drinking Sediment monitoring quantifies the suspended load
water and domestic, commercial, municipal and and bedload sediment concentration in surface water
industrial (DCMI) use/effluent monitoring; nutrient systems. Quantifying sediment load helps water
runoff monitoring; ecological assessments; salinity managers develop policies, design infrastructure and
intrusions mapping; infrastructure design; policy manage projects. Examples of monitoring sediment
design and evaluation; and science and research. to address water resources issues include:
• Assessing water quality for human and ecological
Determining water quality requires the measurement
use
and analysis of specific characteristics, including
temperature, dissolved chemicals and bacteria. Water • Quantifying treatment cost for drinking and
quality parameters that are typically determined DCMI uses
through field-based monitoring include temperature, • Determining reservoir siltation rates
pH, dissolved oxygen, conductivity and turbidity. For • Designing infrastructure (e.g., bridge pier erosion
other parameters, samples must be collected, then and water intake siltation)
transported and analyzed in a laboratory, taking from
• Maintaining navigational channels
days to weeks depending on the transport travel
time and analytical methods. Monitoring values • Assessing channel stability and designing
are compared with standards set by regulatory channel restoration efforts
agencies to determine if the water is suitable for a • Developing land-use policies and best
particular use. Different activities require different management practices
levels of water quality (e.g., water quality for drinking • Predicting and preventing mobilization of
and irrigation have different standards). Countries pollutants associated with sediment
that do not have regulatory water quality standards
1
See the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency standards here: http://water.epa.
often adopt standards developed by the U.S. gov/scitech/swguidance/standards/wqsregs.cfm; and the World Health Organization
guidelines here: http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/guidelines/en/.

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

Figure 10. Schematic of the suspended and bedload transport methods is fluvial settings.
Source StudyBlue (2015)

Strategies for monitoring sediment will depend 1996), both of which must be considered when
on factors such as general hydrology, land use, establishing and interpreting data from a water
climate, vegetation, basin geology and type of water quality monitoring network. Natural factors include
resource issue being addressed. the geological, topographical, meteorological,
hydrological and biological systems active in the
The UNEP & WHO (1996) Water Quality Monitoring: drainage basin. Water quality conditions can vary
A Practical Guide to the Design and Implementation from diurnally to seasonally to annually due to
of Freshwater Quality Studies and Monitoring differences in runoff volumes, weather conditions
Programmes is a comprehensive guide to developing and water levels. Anthropogenic polluting activities
water quality monitoring networks. Furthermore, the include discharges of domestic, industrial, urban
companion reference, Water Quality Assessments. and other wastewaters into the watercourse
A Guide to the Use of Biota, Sediments and (point source), and the spreading of chemicals on
Water in Environmental Monitoring, 2nd edition agricultural land (diffuse) in the drainage basin
(United Nations Educational, Science and Cultural (Table 8). Point source can be monitored at discrete
Organization [UNESCO], WHO & UNEP, 1996), locations (e.g., outfalls to major rivers) to determine
further specifies how water quality monitoring can the loading from the source. Typical sources include
be used in the water quality assessment process. sewage treatment, industrial waste effluent, solid
Much of the information for this chapter is gleaned waste disposal, animal feedlots and mine-adit
from these documents. Though an effective runoff, and processing plant effluent. Diffuse
means of assessing water quality impacts on (a.k.a., non-point) sources arise from many small
ecosystems, this chapter does not discuss sampling inputs over a wide area and are difficult to monitor.
aquatic species for estimating pollution in natural Examples include unsewered fecal pollution and
waterways. agricultural land runoff. Runoff from waste piles and
tailing ponds can also be diffuse in its delivery to
6.2 General Considerations local water bodies.
Water quality is influenced by natural factors and
anthropogenic (human) influences (UNEP & WHO,

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

Table 8. Sources and significance of pollutants resulting from human activities (UNEP & WHO, 1996). Note: “x” denotes low local significance, “xx” denotes
moderate or regional significance, “xxx” denotes high local or regional significance and “G” denotes global significance.

TRACE PESTICIDES AND INDUSTRIAL ORGANIC OILS AND

SOURCES BACTERIA NUTRIENTS
METALS HERBICIDES MICRO- POLLUTANTS GREASES
Point Sources
Urban sewage xxx xxx xxx x xxx
Industrial effluent x xxxG x xxxG xx

Diffuse Source
Agriculture xx xxx x xxxG
Urban waste and runoff xx xx xxx xx xx x
Industrial waste disposal x xxx x xxx x
Dredging x xxx x xxx x
Navigation/harbours x x xx x xxx

Internal Recycling xxx xx x x

Developing a water quality and sediment and metals (e.g., copper, iron, mercury). Following
monitoring network follows the same procedures the CoC selection, consideration must be taken
as groundwater and surface water sampling into account for the natural system (climate,
(Section 3). As with groundwater and surface water physiographic conditions, geology, freshwater
monitoring networks, the first step is identifying the ecosystems) as well as the point and diffuse
purpose of the monitoring, as this will determine the sources of pollution. Station locations should be
constituents of concern (CoCs) to be monitored. considered where surface and ground monitoring
Table 9 provides a list of the typical CoCs monitored occurs, as well as near structures such as bridges
in a baseline network. Other constituents that where sampling occurs during a variety of flow
are typically collected in water quality sampling conditions.
include biological oxygen demand (BOD), pesticides,

Table 9. Variables used in the GEMS/WATER program for basic monitoring (UNEP & WHO, 1996)

STREAMS: BASELINE HEADWATER LAKES:

MEASURED VARIABLES GROUNDWATER: TREND ONLY
AND TREND BASELINE AND TREND
Water discharge/level x x x
Total suspended solids x x
Transparency x
Temperature x x x
pH x x x
Electrical conductivity x x x
Dissolved oxygen (DO) x x x
Calcium x x x
Magnesium x x x
Sodium x x x
Potassium x x x
Chloride x x x
Sulfate x x x

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

STREAMS: BASELINE HEADWATER LAKES:

MEASURED VARIABLES GROUNDWATER: TREND ONLY
AND TREND BASELINE AND TREND
Alkalinity x x x
Nitrate x x x
Nitrite x x x
Ammonia x x x
Total phosphorus (unfiltered) x x
Phosphorus, dissolved x x
Silica, reactive x x
Chlorophyll a x x
Fluoride x
Fecal coliforms (trend stations only) x x x

Sediment sampling must consider the primary with baseline, management and project networks
source of transport (suspended load, bedload described in Section 2. For example, to monitor the
or total load) that needs to be characterized for impacts associated with agriculture in a watershed,
the issue being addressed. For example, stability a groundwater and surface water monitoring
for bridge piers may be primarily concerned with network was established in the catchment in Figure
bedload transport, whereas intake for a water 9. Water quality samples are collected upstream,
treatment plant may be primarily concerned within and downstream of the fields. Upstream is
with the suspended sediment load. In addition to considered both the irrigation surface supplied to
the issues being addressed, factors to consider the fields as well as the upgradient groundwater. For
are climate, hydrologic system, geology, river two of irrigated areas, small communities located
morphology, riverbed particle size distribution, upgradient are a potential source of groundwater
upstream land use, and downstream ecological and pollution entering the fields, and thus monitoring
anthropogenic uses. A good reference for sampling wells are placed upstream of the irrigated areas
procedures is Field Methods for Measurement of to characterize the subsurface inflow. Within and
Fluvial Sediment (Edwards & Glysson, 1979). downgradient of the fields, the groundwater is
sampled to determine the impact of irrigation
6.3 Network Design on groundwater. Effluent running in agricultural
drains from the fields is monitored for surface
For general characterization and monitoring of
water monitoring and to prove compliance with
water quality conditions, the network should
governmental regulations. Finally, water quality is
include baseline stations, stations downstream/
monitored in a series of locations along the major
downgradient of major potential pollution and
river to characterize water quality degradation that
stations upstream/upgradient of major uses
may occur with diffuse pollution sources.
of water. Given the monitoring objectives, the
density will follow the general rules associated

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

Figure 11. Example basin with a water quality HIS Networks to characterize the water quality impacts of agricultural. ARG
is an automatic rain gauge; AWS is an automatic weather station; and DWLR is a digital water level recorder.

For project-level monitoring, the network has to In regards to sediment monitoring, the need for
include upstream (upgradient for groundwater), sediment data is usually tied to specific site-related
on-site and downstream (downgradient for issues. Addressing these kinds of issues requires
groundwater) sampling locations. Upstream an understanding of the sediment transport
sampling locations are crucial for characterizing characteristics of the specific river reach in
groundwater and surface water entering the question. For this reason, network density is not an
baseline water quality condition that, when especially useful metric when it comes to sediment
compared with downstream sampling locations, monitoring; rather, each location where sediment
determine the project’s influence on water quality transport is of concern will require a site-specific
conditions. Upstream sampling can limit the monitoring strategy. For site selection, the following
risk of a project being attributed with degrading criteria should be observed (World Bank, 2015).
water quality conditions that are associated with
1. Stream gauge to provide water discharge
upstream pollution sources. Onsite sampling is
records
important to characterize the movement of a
chemical within the project site, to ensure the health 2. Single channel with minimal overbank
and safety of staff, and it can be used to identify
3. Significantly downstream to have mixing from
cost-saving measures. Downstream water quality
tributaries or point sources of sediment or
monitoring of effluent and drains is important
CoCs
in characterizing downstream pollution loading,
evaluating if water quality treatment facilities are 4. Accessible during all weather conditions
properly functioning, and to be in compliance with
regulatory requirements.

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5. Larger rivers, ideally a bridge from which for years or decades following cessation of the
to sample. Otherwise, the site needs to be activities.
boat-accessible over a wide range of flow
conditions. 6.5 Measuring Frequency
6. Power source, electrical line or solar Water quality sampling frequency depends upon
the objectives of the sampling program and the
7. Secure site to avoid vandalism or theft of
water body of interest (UNEP & WHO, 1996).
equipment
Aquifers respond slowly to water-quality inputs;
8. Installation approved by property owners therefore, collecting discrete samples on a monthly
or seasonal sampling frequency is adequate.
9. If real time is used, telemetric connection Rivers are subject to rapidly changing flows due
to rain or snowmelt, which in turn can have a
6.4 Monitoring Duration dramatic effect on water-quality parameters in a
Like water quantity, water-quality monitoring matter of days, hours or even minutes. Biological
can be baseline, management or project with and chemical parameters often exhibit diurnal
respect to monitoring duration. Baseline networks, responses related to sunlight, photosynthesis and
meant to capture water quality trend analysis respiration. To understand these processes, initial
over a large basin or aquifer, require a long-term detailed monitoring is required (UNEP & WHO, 1996).
monitoring program. Conversely, project networks Continuous monitoring is often an effective means
address site-specific issues, and thus are shorter of understanding the processes. Once the processes
in duration and are targeted in their collection are understood, the sampling frequency can be
effort. For the latter, ideally the monitoring occurs adjusted. An example of the frequency for streams,
before, during and after the project activities. If the lakes, rivers and groundwater water quality sampling
project has polluted the project area or surrounding is presented in Table 10.
environment, then monitoring may continue

Table 10. Recommended sampling frequency for GEMS/WATER stations.

Source: UNEP & WHO (1996)

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For sediment, the initial effort includes sampling the Table 11. Average downstream distance for full mixing from point source.

sediment discharge over a wide range of discharge AVERAGE MEAN DEPTH ESTIMATED DISTANCE FOR
WIDTH (M) (M) COMPLETE MIXING (KM)
conditions. Once adequate data has been obtained
1 0.08-0.7
to characterize sediment transport, a discharge-
5 2 0.05-0.3
sediment or turbidity-sediment rating curve is 3 0.03-0.2
computed. The rating curve is then applied to the
1 0.3-2.7
continuously monitored discharge or turbidity time 2 0.2-1.4
series record to estimate sediment load. Following 10 3 0.1-0.9
initial calibration, the site should periodically be 4 0.08-0.7
sampled to confirm the validity of the rating curve. 5 0.07-0.5
1 1.3-11.0

6.6 Grab Versus Integrated Samples 20

3 0.4-4.0
5 0.3-2.0
Ideally, the water quality sample collected at 7 0.2-1.5
a site will be representative of water quality at 1 8.0-70.0
that location. Therefore, care needs to taken in 3 3.0-20.0
determining if a single “grab” sample is sufficient, or 50 5 2.0-14.0
10 0.8-7.0
whether an integrated sample collection is required.
20 0.4-3.0
For a grab sample to be sufficient, vertical and
Source: UNEP & WHO (1996)
lateral mixing of the CoCs need to be complete
throughout the water body. In riverine conditions, Evaluating lakes can be more complex, as
the sampling location must be considered in relation multiple sources feeding the lake may be present.
to point sources of pollution. Pollution contribution Furthermore, thermal stratification, wind, salinity
into a river may require several kilometers for the levels and bathymetry (e.g., narrow bays) all
source water to be fully mixed across the river influence the mixing in the lake. Therefore,
channel (Table 11) (UNEP & WHO, 1996). To verify preliminary sampling to determine the proper
that a sampling site represents mixed conditions, sampling locations in the lake is required for
3–5 samples along a cross section taken at optimum monitoring of water quality. For example, a
multiple depths are collected and compared stream leading into a narrow bay may have limited
during the preliminary sampling for the site (UNEP mixing in the main body of the lake and thus would
& WHO, 1996). If the samples measure different need to be monitored separately. Lakes greater
concentrations of CoCs, then multiple samples or than 10 m in depth can develop a thermocline (>
an integrated sampler will need to be employed 3°C vertical difference in temperature), which may
when monitoring at the site. Evaluation should be cause different water quality conditions above and
conducted at multiple flow conditions to verify that below the change in temperature. In sampling a
the mixing conditions are consistent for various location with a thermocline, the minimum vertical
discharges. density of samples is 1 m under the surface, just
above and below the thermocline, and 1 m up from
the lakebed (UNEP & WHO, 1996).

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6.7 Measuring Instruments

6.7.1 Chemistry
Aside from the parameters measured at the
site (pH, temperature, conductivity and DO), the
sample container, preservatives and refrigeration
will depend on the CoC and laboratory method
used to evaluate the sample. Collection of the
sample can be either point measurements (grab
sample) or lateral and depth integrated sample.
For shallow water bodies, the sample should be
collected from approximately 20–30 cm below the
water surface with care not to minimize collecting
Figure 12. Deployment of the US DH-95 sampler.
floating material or bed material into the container.
Photo courtesy of USGS
If the water is less than 40 cm, the sample should
be collected at half of the actual water depth. For of metals should be acidified to below a pH of
deeper grab samples, instruments are available 2 with concentrated nitric acid and can be kept
that can be lowered to sample at a prescribed up to six months before being analyzed. Mercury
depth. Following sample collection, on-site field determinations should be carried out within five
parameters need to be measured and water weeks. Examples of sampling containers and pre-
samples packaged for transport to a laboratory. In treatment are presented in Table 12. For integrated
general, the samples should be kept close to 4°C, samples over the water column, a variety of
in the dark as much as possible and transferred to samplers are available, depending on the depth that
a laboratory as soon as possible. Samples can be is being sampled. These can be deployed by hand,
kept cold in insulated coolers containing either ice from a bridge or off a boat (Figure 12). The logic
or ice packs. If not possible for all samples, CoCs for selecting the depth integrated water quality
that can volatilize (e.g., BOD, coliforms, chlorophyll, samplers is presented in Figure 13.
pesticides and other organics) MUST be kept at 4°C
in the dark. Samples to be analyzed for the presence

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Table 12. Example of sampling containers and pre-treatment for water quality parameters.
PARAMETER GROUP PARAMETER SAMPLE CONTAINER SAMPLE PRE-TREATMENT
Temperature On-site analysis On-site analysis
Turbidity/suspended solids 1 On-site analysis/None
Conductivity On-site analysis On-site analysis
General
pH On-site analysis On-site analysis
Dissolved oxygen 2 7
Dissolved solids 1 None
Ammoniacal nitrogen 3 8
Nutrients Total oxidized nitrogen 3 8
Total phosphorus 4 None
Chemical oxygen demand 3 8
Organic matter
Biochemical oxygen demand 2 4°C, Dark
Sodium 3 None
Potassium 3 None
Calcium 3 None
Major ions Magnesium 3 None
Carbonates and bicarbonates 1 None
Chloride 1 None
Sulfate 1 None
Silica 1 None
Other inorganics Fluoride 1 None
Boron 1 None
Cadmium 3 9
Metals Mercury 4 9
Zinc 3 9
Pesticide (Indicator) 5 4°C, Dark
Synthetic detergents 1 None
Organics
Organic solvents 1 4°C, Dark
Phenols 5 8
Microbiological Total coliforms 6 4°C, Dark
Biological Chlorophyll ‘a’ 1 4°C, Dark

Source: UNEP & WHO (1996). Note: as the sampling containers and pre-treatment requirements pertain to the methods presented UNEP & WHO (1996)
report, it is recommended to confer with the laboratory on the analysis method requirements for the parameters in the users study.

NOTES:
Containers:
1. 1000 millilitre polyethylene bottle
2. Special BOD bottle (normally 300 millilitre)
3. 500 millilitre polyethylene bottle
4. 100 millilitre glass bottle
5. 1,000 millilitre glass (or Teflon) bottle with Teflon lined caps
6. Strong thick-walled, screw-capped glass bottle (300 millilitre capacity). Only good quality will maintain a good seal after multiple sterilizations in an
autoclave.
Preservation:
7. Samples for dissolved oxygen analysis are fixed by adding 1 ml of manganous sulfate solution, 1 ml of alkaline iodide-azide solution and 1 ml of
concentrated sulfuric acid to the sample and mixing. Care should be taken to ensure that no air is added to the sample during this process.
8. Samples should be acidified with 2 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid.
9. Samples should be acidified with 2 ml of concentrated nitric acid.

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Figure 13. Selection logic for determining depth integrated water quality sampling equipment.
Source: Davis (2005).

Figure 14. Multi-parameter water-quality sonde with temperature, DO, conductivity, pH and turbidity sensors.
Photo courtesy of Azo Materials.

Sensors exist that allow for the continuous 6.7.2 Sediment

monitoring of several common field parameters,
Sediment-measuring devices include suspended
including water temperature, conductivity, pH,
and bedload sediment samplers for point
dissolved oxygen and turbidity. These sensors are
measurements. For continuous monitoring of the
available individually or bundled together into
suspended sediment load, turbidity meters and
a multi-parameter sonde with several sensors
ADCPs are employed.
attached in a single unit (Figure 14). For installation,
structure is required that is available for mounting Suspended sediment samplers are lowered through
the instrument such that the sampling location is the water column to collect the suspended sediment
representative of the water quality at the site. One in a container. To achieve the full profile of the river,
disadvantage of these instruments is that they this is typically performed at 10 or more locations
are in contact with the water, thus are subject to across the river. Once completed, the sample is then
damage from debris or pollution. dried, sieved and weighed in a lab to determine the
suspended load. Suspended sediment samplers

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

Figure 15. DH-59 Depth-integrating suspended sediment sampler (left) and a BL-84 bedload sediment sampler (right)
Photos courtesy of USGS

are available in a variety of different models that in a lab to determine the bedload. Handheld and
must be matched to field conditions (depths and suspended versions of the sampler are available for
velocities) to achieve quality sediment data (Figure smaller and larger rivers, respectively. Helley-Smith
14). Davis (2005) outlines the selection criteria in a Bedload Samplers with 6 x 6 inch orifices are also
flow chart (Figure 15). available for rivers with coarse sediment. Bedload
samples are often sieved to determine the particle
Bedload sediment samplers: Bedload is measured size distribution of the bedload.
using a Helley-Smith Bedload Sampler, a device
placed on the riverbed with a 3 x 3 inch opening to Turbidity sensors measure water clarity by shining
collect material moving along the bottom (Figure a light into a small sample of water and measuring
15). The bedload sample is collected in a 0.25 mm the amount of light refracted off particles in the
mesh bag on the sampler, then dried and weighed water. Turbidity sensors can either be deployed as a

Figure 16. Selection logic for determining suspended-sediment sampling equipment in fluvial systems.
Source: Davis (2005).

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

single sensor or included as one of several sensors ADCPs have been used to monitor suspended
on a multi-parameter water-quality instrument. sediment concentration in rivers by correlating
One disadvantage of turbidity sensors is that they acoustic backscatter signal strength off particles
only measure turbidity at a single location, which with sediment concentration. The change in
may not be representative of the cross-sectional frequency of the return or “backscatter” signal is
average. To develop an accurate time series of the measured and used to determine the velocity of
suspended load, a rating curve should be developed the particle. From that, the velocity of the water is
by taking simultaneous suspended sediment inferred. The advantage to ADCPs is the partitioning
samples and turbidity sensor readings. The rating of the acoustic signal into multiple cells across the
curve is then applied to the continuous readings channel, thereby providing a representation of the
from the turbidity sensor to develop a time series of cross-sectional variation in sediment concentration.
the suspended sediment load. The disadvantages are the cost of the instrument
and that the sensor is in contact with the water and
susceptible to damage by debris or pollution.

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

7.0 HIS FOR MONITORING METAL MINING ACTIVITIES

7.1 Overview establishing monitoring water monitoring networks
with respect to gold mining. In addition, an example
Mining has the potential to affect the quantity and
water quality network has been developed, keeping
quality of surface water and groundwater resources.
in mind the context and processes of the Grassalco
Impacts on aquatic life can include increased
Mining Company (Grassalco) mine in the Maripaston
mortality, health or reproductive problems, and a
region in Suriname.
reduction in the number of species present (Fraser
Institute, 2012). Impacts on human health can
7.2 Water Use and Pollution of Mining
occur where the quality of water supplies used for
Activities
irrigation, drinking and/or industrial applications
are affected. These impacts to natural and Mines use water to extract minerals, process
anthropogenic uses of water can increase insecurity ore, control dust, store ore/waste and general
in water and related systems, such as food and operation. These uses, along with alterations to
energy systems, upon which local communities rely. the environment, have both positive and negative
Thus, monitoring water quantity and quality before, effects on the quantity and quality of water
during and after mining activities is crucial to systems in the watershed. During operations,
assessing and, if required, mitigating the negative the hydrologic system in the catchment where
effects of mining. a mine operates can be affected by lowering the
groundwater levels through dewatering open pits
The uses of an HIS to monitor and manage mining and underground workings; increasing water flow in
activities are numerous. HIS can be used for local tributaries through the discharge of pumped
developing environmental and water management water or processing effluent; dewatering streams by
plans; providing data for planning and designing diverting water for mineral extraction, processing
the mine and supporting infrastructure; identifying and operations; lowering groundwater by pumping
sources of mine-related pollution to initiate aquifers to support mineral extraction, processing
prevention and mitigation; complying with legal and operations; creating ponds through developing
requirements; supporting audits of the monitoring tailing impounds; changing river flows downstream
to comply with effectiveness standards (e.g., ISO of reservoirs developed for water supply; and
14001); providing data for analysis and/or numerical rerouting and obstructing streams and rivers.
modelling; limiting the risk for legal actions against
the mine; and assuring shareholders that the mine Associated with metal mines, water contaminated
is operating conscientiously with regard to human with high concentrations of metals, sulfide
safety and environmental concerns. Thus, proper minerals, low levels of pH (acid rock drainage
characterization of water quality and quantity is an [ARD]), processing chemicals, and suspended and
important element in managing the mine impacts dissolved solids can negatively affect groundwater
on the environment and local communities. and surface water quality in the catchment. Mining
exposes sulfide minerals to oxygen, breaking down
Sources of water quality pollution differ between the minerals potentially releasing aluminum, arsenic,
various ore deposit, mining and processing methods cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron, mercury, magnesium,
and conditions. The principles of network design are nickel, lead, selenium and zinc (Environment
similar, but the mining extraction, processing and Canada, 2001). In addition, oxidation of sulfides
waste storage/disposal differ between mine types produces sulfuric acid and, when drained, creates
affecting the hydrologic system and water quality ARD, which is low in pH and high in metals. For
conditions. This chapter describes the methods for separating gold in the processing step, mercury and

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

cyanide are commonly used. Finally, runoff water mining activities can influence flows and reservoirs
from the site can be laden with sediment affecting influence downstream flow regimes affecting
local waterways. freshwater ecosystems and the availability of water
for water supply and navigation.
During mining, sources of pollution include open
pits and underground works, waste rock dumps, 7.3 HIS Developments
processing plants, tailings dams, heap leach piles,
Factors to consider when developing the monitoring
ore stock piles, and infrastructure (haul roads,
network include the type of ore being extracted,
foundations, waste embankments). Effluent
method (open pit or underground workings), milling
discharge from mining, milling or processing is
and processing method, climate, mine stage, and
discharged into surface water as well as leachate
practices to limit use (recycling) and mitigate
water that has trickled through solid mine waste
impacts to the environment (Fraser Institute, 2012).
and tailings ponds and into the groundwater may
contain dissolved minerals, process chemicals,
and metals (Environment Canada, 2009). Surface 7.3.1 Network Considerations
runoff from the mine footprint (e.g., ore and waste The type of network established to evaluate the
piles, embankments, roads) and effluent discharge impacts of mining is a project. There are multiple
may deliver elevated levels of sediment to stream purposes for developing monitoring networks
networks. Hydraulic and placer mining are also for mines, including, but not limited to: support
sources of elevated sediment delivery to the stream design of mine site, creating environmental impact
network. assessments, developing water management plans,
monitoring site conditions to identify/mitigate
Following the cessation of mining activities, peak pollution sources, fulfilling regulatory compliance or
concentrations of contaminants discharged from financial lender requirements, limiting liability and
mine sites may occur many years later. For open risk to false claims and enforcement violations, and
pit mines, delay of contaminant release arises improving site management. Both water quantity
because of groundwater and surface water filling and quality should be monitored, with the water
the pit following cessations of mining, leaching quality CoCs varying with the type of mining, local
metals and ARD from the oxidized minerals in the physiography, climate, land use and basin hydrology,
pit walls. Similarly, groundwater seeping through as well as with regards to potentially affected
subsurface mining drifts leaches oxidized minerals ecological and socioeconomic systems.
and drains through adits (Environmental Canada,
2009). Improper management of waste material The monitoring network should extend within
and tailing during mining can lead to widespread and around the mine operations. In order to
pollution throughout the river network for decades. characterize the subsurface water entering the
For example, common practice for the lead-silver mine site, monitoring stations should be located
Bunker Hill Mine (in Idaho, United States) was to upstream (surface water sources) and upgradient
dispose of the tailings along the Coeur d’Alene River (groundwater sources). In some instances, waters
bank so that high-water events would carry off the entering a mine site may have elevated CoCs,
material. More than 30 years after cessation of this thus the mine managers need to consider how
practice, the river system still has elevated levels the water is used in the operations (e.g., does it
of cadmium, lead, manganese and zinc, prompting need cleaning?), as well as to document that the
the river to be listed a U.S. Environmental Protection mine operations did not contribute water quality
Agency Superfund Site with cleanup efforts still degradation of the inflow to the site. On-site
underway. Finally, changes to the river channel by monitoring of surface waterways and groundwater

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

around mine workings, waste rock piles, tailings 7.3.2 Sampling CoCs
ponds and processing facilities can identify sources
As stated, the CoCs in water produced from mining
of CoCs and trigger measures to mitigate impacts
include high concentrations of metals, sulfide
to water sources. Surface water and groundwater
minerals, low levels of pH (ARD) and processing
at the downstream and downgradient boundaries
chemicals, and suspended and dissolved solids can
of the property should also be monitored to
negatively affect groundwater and surface water
determine the quality of water leaving the site. If a
in the catchment. Therefore, the CoCs monitored
plume released on-site and has migrated off-site,
need to reflect the mine type and practices;
downstream/gradient monitoring may be needed
climatic, physiographic, hydrologic and ecological
to delineate its extent and track its path. Existing
conditions in the catchment; and the downstream
monitoring network stations should be considered
ecosystems and human uses of water resources.
when selecting site locations.
In addition to guidelines presented in the previous
section, sampling frequency needs to be short
Duration of the monitoring should extend from
enough to capture mining activities. For example,
before mining begins, during development and
if large concentrations of suspended sediment
operations, and post-reclamation to demonstrate
occur in stormwater runoff from a site, the sampling
long-term impacts associated with mining
frequency needs to be sufficient to capture storm
activities. Ideally, monitoring should begin at least
events. Thus, monthly sampling for suspended
a year prior to mine development to capture the full
sediment is an insufficient frequency for sampling
hydrologic cycle, but longer lead periods will capture
at this site.
greater hydrologic variability, thus providing better
data for design and long-term management. For
Sampling fish and aquatic organisms in receiving
example, if the year preceding mine development
waters downstream from mines is another method
was a wet year, then the calculations and design for
of determining a mine’s impact on ecosystems
the mine’s water supply for processing ore may be
(UNEP & WHO, 1996). Size, weight and metal
insufficient during drier years, causing limitations
concentration within the organism are compared
in the mine operations. During the operations, the
between reference streams and the receiving
network needs to continue to be monitored, but
waters to determine if chemical discharges from the
it may need to be altered as the mining activities
mine site are affecting ecosystems. For example,
evolve, monitoring objectives change and data
in Suriname, where mercury is used by small-
collection limits are identified. Depending on the
scale miners in processing gold, fish tissues have
governmental regulations, the length of time to
been analyzed for mercury and shown to have a
continue monitoring following the reclamation can
concentration above those recommended in human
be a set length or criteria based. For example, for a
health consumption guidelines in regions of small-
site to be considered closed, the Idaho Department
scale gold mining (Ouboter et al., 2012). As fish is
of Water Quality requires commercial and industrial
a significant food source for local communities,
sites with leaky underground storage tanks to
concentrations of mercury in fish tissue exceeding
monitor quarterly until no petroleum measurements
human consumption standards are a risk to local
exceed the legal criteria for a period of two years.
communities.
As the effects of mining on water quality may
take decades to be observed, annual sampling for
7.3.3 Supporting Infrastructure
decades may be required to demonstrate that no
adverse impacts are arising from the mine site. In addition to the monitoring, other infrastructures
need to be developed to support analysis and
reporting. Laboratory facilities and staff are

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

required to process water quality samples collected

from the field. This includes laboratories and
vehicles to transport water quality samples from
the field. A data management system, as well
as the hardware and software necessary for its
functioning, needs to be put in place to process,
store and disseminate the data water quantity and
quality data. Outlining the procedures, monitoring
plans and data management plans should be
drafted providing methodologies, procedures,
quality assurance, emergency response and staffing
requirements. Finally, the monitoring network must
be supported with trained staff and adequate,
ongoing annual budgets. Though not as “exciting” as
implementing projects, water monitoring systems
are the foundation for better design, management
of the project site and surrounding environment to
minimize risk to both surrounding systems and the
long-term sustainability of the mine site.

7.4 Maripaston Case Study

The Maripaston gold mining area (15 km southwest
of Pikin Saron, Suriname) has historically been
worked by small-scale mining operations. These
Figure 17. Altered stream network and ARD resulting from small-scale
miners use excavation and hydraulics to extract mining activities in the Maripaston area
the ore from the weathered overburden. They use Photo courtesy of Carter Borden.
gravity (settling during washing) and mercury to
the small-scale miners’ excavations as well as
process and concentrate gold. The mining is done
potentially mining other areas in the concession. It
in a haphazard manner with little regard to waste
is understood by the author that Grassalco will use
containment, stormwater runoff and sediment
gravity to separate the gold (no mercury) and will
loading to streams. The activities have altered the
use best management practices to control sediment
stream channel and increased sediment, ARD and
and reduce runoff. In order to be in compliance
mercury loading to the stream network (see Figures
with ISO 14001 standards for environmental
17 and 18). As would be expected, these small-scale
management, Grassalco is implementing a water
mining operations do not have monitoring systems
quality monitoring network. Using the information
in place to determine the impacts to the stream
above, this section provides recommendations for
network and natural ecosystems.
developing a water quality and quantity monitoring
Grassalco has obtained the mining concession for network for the Maripaston project site.
the Maripaston area with plans to continue mining
activities (Figure 19). Initial mining activities have 7.4.1 Proposed His Network
been a reworking of the waste piles left by the The proposed monitoring network includes seven
small-scale miners in the northwestern quadrant certain and two potential surface water monitoring
of the concession. Once exploited, Grassalco will sites to capture the upstream, on-site and
continue the operations into the hardrock below

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

downstream water quality conditions for evaluating

impacts of current and future mining activities
within the concession (Figure 19). Monitoring sites
1, 2, 4 and 9 represent upstream conditions for
surface water entering the concession to provide
the natural background water quality conditions.
Monitoring site 3 is located downstream from
current activities to determine the immediate
impact to the stream network. Monitoring site 5 is
along the mainstem Maripaston Creek to determine
the influence of current activities downstream as
well as provide an internal upstream boundary if
Figure 18. Waste piles from small-scale mining activities
future mining activities are extended to the eastern
in the Maripaston area
half of the concession. The optional site 8 captures Photo courtesy of Carter Borden.
the impacts for the boutique mining activities
and provides an “upstream” boundary should and suspended sediments. The preliminary sampling,
mining being in the eastern half of the concession. along with the mineralogy of the gold deposit, will
Sites 6 and 7 represent monitoring stations that dictate the metals to sample in the future. Mercury
are characterizing water quality as it leaves the should be sampled to demonstrate how organized
concession. While sites 7 and 9 may be just outside mining activities, such as those conducted by
the eastern concession boundary, the accuracy of Grassalco, could improve downstream water quality
drainage network map is unclear in relation to the conditions over time.
aerial photograph, so they have been proposed. If
future mining activities where to expand into the
7.4.3 Instrumentation
eastern half of the property, characterizing this
stream would be useful in monitoring. Note that the Discharge should be continuously measured
sites recommended in Figure 19 are the approximate using a pressure transducer equipped with a data
locations. Site visits will be necessary for selecting logger at sites 1–7 (Table 13). These require little
the actual sampling location based on the criteria maintenance, are inexpensive and are easy to install.
presented in Sections 3.3, 4.2 and 6.3. Manually read staff gauges should be installed at
all sites. Monthly discharge measurements need to
As groundwater is not used in the mining process, accompany synoptic water quality sampling in order
for consumption by mine staff or by local to develop stage-discharge rating curves.
communities, no groundwater monitoring locations
have been proposed so far. Monthly sampling is recommended for all station for
the CoCs. As ARD and suspended sediment are of
7.4.2 Constituents Of Concern concern at the site, continuously monitoring pH and
turbidity is recommended. Water quality sondes are
Main elements relevant for HIS design are the recommended for stations 1, 2, 3, 5 and 6. If mining
impacts to the downstream water quality. activities are to be extended in the eastern half
Of interest is the metal production, ARD and of the concession, the instrumentation should be
suspended sediment load to the stream network. installed at least a year before mining development
The CoCs to collect will be baseline conditions of: activities begin.
temperature, conductivity, pH, DO, turbidity, metals
(aluminum, arsenic, cadmium, cobalt, copper, iron,
mercury, magnesium, nickel, lead, selenium and zinc)

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

Figure 19. Proposed sampling network for Grassalco’s Maripaston Mining Concession, Suriname. The red box delineates the concession boundary and
the orange box denotes the active mining. Dark blue lines represent the approximate course of the drainage network with flow moving from left to
right. Site locations are approximated and will be determined with a field visit and following a preliminary sampling event.

Table 13. Proposed water quality monitoring sites for Grassalco’s Maripaston Mining Concession, Suriname.

SITE NUMBER TYPE WATER LEVEL INSTRUMENTATION* WATER QUALITY INSTRUMENTATION

1 Certain Pressure transducer, staff gauge, monthly measurement Sonde, monthly grab sample
2 Certain Pressure transducer, staff gauge, monthly measurement Sonde, monthly grab sample
3 Certain Pressure transducer, staff gauge, monthly measurement Sonde, monthly grab sample
4 Certain Pressure transducer, staff gauge, monthly measurement Monthly grab sample
5 Certain Pressure transducer, staff gauge, monthly measurement Sonde, monthly grab sample
6 Certain Pressure transducer, staff gauge, monthly measurement Sonde, monthly grab sample
7 Certain Staff gauge, monthly measurement Monthly grab sample
8 Optional Staff gauge, monthly measurement Monthly grab sample
9 Optional Staff gauge, monthly measurement Monthly grab sample

7.4.4 Frequency curves. Pressure transducers and water quality

sondes should be take readings every hour. If the
All sites should be synoptically monitored for
continuous monitoring observes elevated water
discharge and water quality elements on a monthly
levels and turbidity levels during the rainy season,
basis. Initially, the sites may want to be visited more
more synoptic sampling may be required during
frequently to develop the stage-discharge rating
those periods to characterize the range of flow and
curve and turbidity-suspended sediment rating
sediment conditions.

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Water Quality Monitoring System Design

7.4.5 Data Management 7.5 Conclusions

As the data set is small and the information Establishing an HIS network to monitor water
is for internal monitoring and not for public quantity and quality provides the basis for
consumption, storage of the data in MS Excel or characterizing the watersheds as well as the
MS Access database is sufficient. However, these impacts of development such as mining on the
software packages do not have quality assurance project site and surrounding environment. The data
functionality, processing or standard viewing can be used for regulatory compliance, limiting
capabilities. It is recommended these capabilities be risk, infrastructure design, obtaining ISO 14001
built into these platforms or a third-party software certification, assessing impacts to downstream
specializing in organization, storage, processing and aquatic ecosystems and determining the efficiency
visualization of water quantity and quality data of mining processes. Furthermore, the data can be
be adopted. Once a platform has been adopted, used to determine if mining activities are affecting
if not already included in the monitoring plan, it water and food security for local communities.
is recommended that a data management plan
be developed to formalize how data is processed, Effective HIS monitoring and reporting provide
stored and shared and training provided to all staff transparent and useful data and information for
handling and using the data. The data should be monitoring the physical state of watersheds, as
posted on the company’s intranet for access by all well as the impact of mining systems on water
relevant staff. resources. This detailed assessment can provide
short- and long-term information relevant to
The availability of good quality data enables a understanding water security and WEF security in
variety of uses and ensures transparency and the context of mining.
accountability in a variety of ways. Grassalco’s
environmental managers can use the data to
monitor the water quality impacts of the mining
activities. Therefore, reporting tools should be
developed that automatically synthesizes the
data into a meaningful format for quick evaluation
by the managers. Such formats include maps of
concentration, statistical bar charts and time
graphs of CoC concentrations. Annual water
quality data reports will be necessary to maintain
the company’s ISO 14001 certification. Externally,
the data can be reported over the web and annual
report. By reporting the water quality results,
Grassalco demonstrates to local communities,
current and future investors, government agencies,
interested stakeholders and the general public that
they are concerned with environmental stewardship
as well as the health and well-being of local
communities.

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Published by the International Institute for Sustainable Development.

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