March 24th, 2011 Jane Hanger

Lab Partners: Ryan Wenger, Aaron Lam

Circuit’s Lab

Objective: In this lab our objective was to derive and verify how individual resistors combine in a series
and parallel circuit by measuring the individual and total components that make up both types of circuits
and are governed by Ohm’s Law(V= IR) . We also sought to familiarize and understand how to setup a
series and parallel circuit correctly with an ammeter and voltmeter connected properly.

Theory:

A circuit is a power supply and a closed conducting path. Most circuits also include a device
for the current to flow through. If a circuit is broken, that means its conductive elements no longer
form a complete path, and continuous electron flow cannot occur in it. In order for a charge to flow
through a wire it must be given energy. The source of energy referred to as the power supply can be a
battery, generator, solar cell, etc. If we connect the terminals of our power supply with a closed
conducting path we allow the charges to flow. As charges move through the closed conducting
path(wire) they collide with the molecules in the wire and give up some of their energy to the
molecules of the wire. This means it takes energy for the charges to move through any device. The
higher the resistance of the device the more energy the charges lose when traveling through the
device, or the more energy we must give to the charge so it can go through the device. For a circuit
the change in energy per unit charge or energy per unit charge given to charged particles by a power
supply is the potential difference or voltage. The units of voltage are Volts(1 Volt = 1 Joule/Coulomb
(1 V = 1 J/C)). The rate of flow of positive electric charge in a circuit is current (I), the unit of
current is 1 Ampere = 1 Coulomb/second.

There are two types of current that give rise to two different types of circuits: a dc or ac
circuit. A dc circuit has a direct current through it, which is constant in magnitude and direction,
whereas an ac circuit has alternating current that changes either magnitude or direction. Direct
currents can come from batteries and alternating currents are from generators or wall outlets.

When a constant potential difference, , is applied to a conducting material, a current

density, , is established that is directly proportional to the electric field, , created within the
E
material = ρ. The constant of proportionality is known as the resistivity ρ of the material and it tells
J
us how difficult it is for charges to flow through the material. This relation is known as Ohm’s Law.
A typically more useful form of Ohm’s Law is derived by defining the resistance(R) in a circuit,
which is the measure of the opposition to the flow of current. We represent resistance with "R" and it
has units of ohms symbolized with the Greek letter =1V/1A. The electric field created by the
potential difference (E= V/d) that establishes a current(I= JA) , in the wire along with the resistivity
of the wire gives the manipulated relationship of Ohm’s Law: V= ρ ( dA )I, where R≡ ρ dA . So the
second form of Ohm’s Law becomes the potential difference through a segment of conducting
material is directly proportional to the current and the resistance of a given length of material V= IR.

When there are two or more electrical devices present in a circuit with an energy source, they can
be connected in two basic ways or a combination of both. The two basic ways to connect devices in a
circuit are series and parallel connections. When all the devices are connected using series connections,
the circuit is referred to as a series circuit.

In a series circuit, each device is connected in a manner such that there is only one pathway by
which charge can traverse the external circuit. Each charge passing through the loop of the circuit will
pass through each resistor in consecutive fashion. The rate at which charge flows, or current(I),is the same
everywhere. It is the same at the first resistor as it is at the last resistor as it is in the power supply.
Mathematically, the current in a series circuit can be expressed as Ipowersupply = I1 = I2 = I3 = …, where I1, I2,
and I3 are the current values at the individual resistor locations. These current values can be calculated if
the power supply voltage is known and the individual resistance values are known. Using the individual
resistor values and the equation above, the equivalent resistance can be calculated. And using Ohm's law
(V = IR), the current in the battery and thus through every resistor can be determined by finding the ratio
of the battery voltage and the equivalent resistance: Ipowersupply = I1 = I2 = I3 = Vpowersupply / Req

Since the current is everywhere the same within a series circuit, the I value of V = IR is the same
in each of the resistors of a series circuit. The voltage of the power supply is the electric potential at the
positive terminal greater than the electric potential at the negative terminal. As current moves through the
circuit, it encounters a total loss of electric potential equal to the voltage of the power supply. The loss in
electric potential over each device in the circuit is referred to as a voltage drop. It occurs as the electrical
energy of the current is transformed to other forms of energy within the resistors.The voltage drop (V)
will vary with varying resistance. Wherever the resistance is greatest, the voltage drop will be greatest
over that resistor. The Ohm's law equation can be used to not only predict which resistor in a series circuit
will have the greatest voltage drop, it can also be used to calculate the actual voltage drop values over
each resistor by the mathematical relationship: V1 = I R1 , V2 = I R2, V3 = IR3.Where the voltage of the
power supply is equivalent to net sum of the voltage drops: V powersupply= V1+V2+V3 .

The above principles and formulas can be used to analyze a series circuit and determine the
values of the current at and electric potential difference across each of the resistors in a series circuit in
order to determine the individual resistance value for each resistor. The actual amount of current varies
inversely with the amount of overall resistance, whereas the potential difference is directly proportional to
the amount of resistance in each individual resistor and Ohm’s Law can be rewritten R 1=V1/I, R2=V2/I,
R3= V3/I. There is an obvious relationship between the resistance of the individual resistors and the
overall resistance of the collection of resistors in a series circuit. The equivalent resistance of a circuit is
the amount of resistance that a single resistor would need in order to equal the overall affect of the
collection of resistors that are present in the circuit. For series circuits, the mathematical formula for
finding the equivalent resistance (Req) is Req = R1 + R2 + R3. Or knowing the relationship between voltage
drop and current in a series circuit the equivalent resistance can be rewritten in terms of the power
supply’s voltage and the current equal to the net sum of voltage drops throughout the circuit over current:
Vpowersupply/I= V1/I + V2/I + V3/I.

A parallel circuit is a circuit in which all the devices are connected using parallel connections,
meaning each device is placed in its own separate branch of the circuit. The presence of branch lines
means that there are multiple pathways for charge to move through the circuit. Each charge passing
through the loop of the circuit will pass through a single resistor present in a single branch. When moving
charge arrives at the branching location, the charge has a choice on which path to take to travel back to
the low potential terminal of the power supply.

In a parallel circuit, charge divides up into separate branches such that there can be more current
in one branch than there is in another. Nonetheless, when taken as a whole, the total amount of current in
all the branches when added together is the same as the amount of current at locations outside the
branches. The current outside the branches is the same as the sum of the current in the individual
branches. It is still the same amount of total current, only split up into more than one pathway.
Mathematically the total current can be expressed Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3, where Itotal is the current outside the
parallel branches of the circuit and equal to the current in the power supply.

The total voltage drop over all branches in the circuit is equal to the gain in voltage as a charge
passes over the power supply. In a parallel circuit the charge does not pass through every resistor, it only
passes through a single resistor. So the entire voltage drop across that resistor must match the voltage of
the power supply. It doesn’t matter if the current passes through resistor one, two, or three, the voltage
drop across the resistor that it ‘chooses’ to pass through must equal the voltage of the power supply. This
relation is expressed mathematically as Vpowersupply = V1 = V2 = V3 .

The current through each branch in parallel can be solved for using the Ohm's law equation and
the voltage drop across the resistor and the resistance of the resistor. Since the voltage drop is the same
across each resistor, the factor that determines that resistor has the greatest current is the resistance. The
resistor with the greatest resistance experiences the lowest current and the resistor with the least resistance
experiences the greatest current. So charge chooses the path of least resistance as it moves through a
parallel circuit.. The individual currents of each path in equation form are I1 = V / R1 , I2 = V / R2 , I3 = V /
R3. By adding more resistors to a parallel circuit, the circuit will have less overall resistance. Since there
are multiple pathways that charge can flow, adding another resistor in a separate branch provides another
pathway for charge to flow and decreasing the resistance within the circuit. This decreased resistance
results from increasing the number of branches, and in turn will increase the current.

This inversely proportional relationship of current to total resistance, the equipotential branches
of a parallel circuit, and the conservation of charge give us the relationship of total current, and from
Ohm’s Law can be expressed: V/RT = V/R1 + V/R2 + V/R3 . Since resistors in parallel have the same
potential across them, equal to that of the power supply, we can derive the relationship of equivalent
resistance by removing the potential from the total current expression. Therefore the equivalent resistance
is 1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3 for resistors connected in parallel. If the values for the individual resistors are
unknown the potential difference across the circuit and the current over each branch in the circuit can be
used to solve for individual resistors, while the potential and the current outside of the parallel branches is
used to solve for the equivalent resistance of the circuit. This is expressed mathematically as : V/I Total =
V/I1 + V/I2 + V/I3.

To measure the values of current and voltage in a circuit with unknown resistor values we use an
ammeter and voltmeter respectively. An ideal ammeter or voltmeter would measure current or voltage
without otherwise affecting the circuit. But real test instruments do affect circuits in a small way because
they are an added device that don’t have perfect conditions in order to negate their quantities. Well-
designed instruments, correctly connected, minimize the interruption to normal circuit operation while
simultaneously measuring the desired value. Ammeters have extremely small internal resistances and
must be connected in series with the resistor that we want to measure the current through. Resistors in
series are added by summing their values. In this case the value of the resistor in the circuit being
examined and the value of the internal resistance of the ammeter are added together by: R circuit + Rammeter =
Req. The low value of the internal resistance of an ammeter does not have a significant contribution to the
total equivalent resistance and therefore gives a good approximation of the current through the circuit. If
we connected the ammeter in parallel to the series circuit the current would have a choice of paths to take
and the majority of it would follow the path of lowest resistance through the
ammeter rather than the resistors in series which would give us a very large inaccurate current reading.
For a parallel circuit resistors in parallel are added by summing their inverses, so if the ammeter were
connected in parallel as well than 1/Req + 1/Rammeter = 1/Rtotal. And because ammeters have a very small
internal resistance(Rammeter)results in a large increase in the value of 1/Rammeter. This results in a
significant decrease in the overall resistance of the circuit, which results in an increase in the current
flowing through the circuit. An ammeter, when connected in parallel, significantly changes the operation
of the circuit and therefore, ammeters are always connected in series in a circuit. So for each parallel
branch in the circuit the ammeter must be connected in series with that resistor in order to have an
accurate reading for the current through that branch. In order to measure the total current of the parallel
circuit the ammeter must be connected in series with the power supply so as to get an accurate reading of
the total current through the circuit.

Voltmeters have very high internal resistances and are connected in parallel with the circuit
component across which we want to measure a voltage drop. A voltmeter, with its extremely high internal
resistance, connected in parallel with a resistor has little effect on the operation of a circuit because most
of the current follows the path of least resistance through the resistor. Once again because resistors in
parallel are added by summing their inverses: 1/Req + 1/Rvoltmeter = 1/Rtotal, than a large value of
Rvoltmeter decreases the value of 1/Rvoltmeter so that the value of Req is approximately that of Rtotal.
And the result is a very small change in the overall resistance of the circuit. And because the potential in
parallel is everywhere the same the voltmeter is able to accurately measure the potential difference of the
parallel circuit. But if a voltmeter is connected in series with a resistor the result is a significant rise in the
overall resistance of the circuit because the extremely large resistance of the voltmeter is directly added to
the resistance of the resistor. This increased resistance lowers the flow of current through the resistor and
therefore the circuit. A voltmeter, when connected in series, significantly alters the operation of the
circuit. Therefore, voltmeters are always connected in parallel in a circuit. In a parallel circuit connecting
the voltmeter is simple because we only have to connect it in parallel one time to measure the potential
across all portions of the circuit. Whereas in a series circuit the voltage of the power supply is measured
by connecting the voltmeter in parallel over it, and the potential drop over each resistor must be measured
individually by connected the voltmeter in parallel with each.

Data and Analysis

Currents were measured in mA and converted to A for calculations.

We adjusted the power supply to approximately 5 Volts but used the voltmeter connected in parallel’s
reading of 5 Volts as measurement of voltage, and when there was a slight discrepancy between the two
no error was accounted for.

The internal resistances of the voltmeter and ammeter are assumed ideal and are negated in our
calculations, any error due to their resistance contribution was not accounted for.

The resistivity of the wires, clips, and multimeters are not accounted for in our calculations.

Both the voltmeter and ammeter have a 2% associated error with their measurement readings.
Ohm’s Law

Series Circuits

V = IR

Ipowersupply = I1 = I2 = I3 = Vpowersupply / Req

Vpowersupply= V1+V2+V3

Req = R1 + R2 + R3

Req = Vpowersupply /I, R1=V1/I, R2=V2/I, R3= V3/I

Vpowersupply/I= V1/I + V2/I + V3/I.

Table I: Series Circuit 1

Device over which Potential Difference: V Current: I Calculated Resistance: R=V/I

Values are Measured
(V) (A) (Ω)
R1 3.63 ± 2% 0.001021 ± 2% 3555 ± 101
R2 1.00 ± 2% 0.001021 ± 2% 979 ± 28
R3 0.26 ± 2% 0.001021 ± 2% 255 ± 7
Power Supply 5.00 ± 2% 0.001021 ± 2% 4897 ± 139

Measured Req from Power Supply Values: 4897Ω ± 139Ω

Calculated Req from R1 + R2 + R3 Measured and Calculated Values: 4789Ω ± 105Ω

Table II: Series Circuit 2

Device over which Potential Difference: V Current: I Calculated Resistance: R=V/I

Values are Measured
(V) (A) (Ω)
R1 3.74 ± 2% 0.001051 ± 2% 3559 ± 101
R2 1.02 ± 2% 0.001051 ± 2% 971 ± 27
R3 0.13 ± 2% 0.001051 ± 2% 124 ± 4
Power Supply 5.00 ± 2% 0.001051 ± 2% 4757 ± 135

Measured Req from Power Supply Values: 4757Ω ± 135Ω

Calculated Req from R1 + R2 + R3 Measured and Calculated Values: 4653Ω ± 104Ω

Parallel Circuits

V = IR

Itotal = I1 + I2 + I3

Vpowersupply = V1 = V2 = V3

1/Req = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3

V/ITotal = V/I1 + V/I2 + V/I3.

Table III: Parallel Circuit 1

Device Potential Potential Potential Potential Potential Current: I Calculated

over Difference Difference Differenc Difference Difference Resistance:
which Measured Measured e Measured Measured (A) R=V/I
Values at Power when Measured when when
are Supply: V Ammeter is when Ammeter Ammeter (Ω)
Measured in series Ammeter is in series is in series
(V) with Power is in series with R2: V with R3: V
Supply: V with R1: V
(V) (V)
(V) (V)
R1 5.00 ± 2% 4.96 ± 2% 4.85 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.80 ± 2% 0.001365 3553 ± 101
± 2%
R2 5.00 ± 2% 4.96 ± 2% 4.85 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.80 ± 2% 0.005070 974 ± 28
± 2%
R3 5.00 ± 2% 4.96 ± 2% 4.85 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.80 ± 2% 0.001900 253 ± 7
± 2%
Power 5.00 ± 2% 4.96 ± 2% 4.85 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.80 ± 2% 0.002610 190 ± 5
Supply ± 2%

Measured Req from Power Supply Values: 190Ω ± 5Ω

Calculated Req from R1 + R2 + R3 Measured and Calculated Values: 190Ω ± 7Ω

Table IV: Parallel Circuit 2

Device Potential Potential Potential Potential Potential Current: I Calculated

over Difference Difference Differenc Difference Difference Resistance:
which Measured Measured e Measured Measured (A) R=V/I
Values at Power when Measured when when
are Supply: V Ammeter is when Ammeter Ammeter (Ω)
Measured in series Ammeter is in series is in series
(V) with Power is in series with R2: V with R3: V
Supply: V with R1: V
(V) (V)
(V) (V)
R1 5.00 ± 2% 4.92 ± 2% 4.86 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.93 ± 2% 0.001364 3563 ± 101
± 2%
R2 5.00 ± 2% 4.92 ± 2% 4.86 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.93 ± 2% 0.005070 974 ± 28
± 2%
R3 5.00 ± 2% 4.92 ± 2% 4.86 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.93 ± 2% 0.004240 116 ± 3
± 2%
Power 5.00 ± 2% 4.92 ± 2% 4.86 ± 2% 4.94 ± 2% 4.93 ± 2% 0.004870 101 ± 3
Supply ± 2%

Measured Req from Power Supply Values: 101Ω ± 3Ω

Calculated Req from R1 + R2 + R3 Measured and Calculated Values: 101Ω ± 3Ω

Calculation of Current Conversion from mA to A:

Sample Calculation of R1 in Series:

Sample Calculation of Req from Measured Power Supply Values in Series Circuit:

Sample Calculation of Req from Calculated Resistance Values in Series Circuit:

Sample Calculation of R1 in Parallel Circuit:

Sample Calculation of Req from Measured Power Supply Values in Parallel Circuit:
Sample Calculation of Req from Calculated Resistance Values in Parallel Circuit:

Error Analysis:

 We adjusted the power supply to approximately 5 Volts but used the voltmeter connected in
parallel’s reading of 5 Volts as measurement of voltage, and when there was a slight discrepancy
between the two no error was accounted for.

 The internal resistances of the voltmeter and ammeter are assumed ideal and are negated in our
calculations, any error due to their resistance contribution was not accounted for but is reflected
in the difference of potential difference values for the parallel circuit when the ammeter is
connected to different resistors.

 The resistivity of the wires, clips, and multimeters are not accounted for in our calculations but
they account for added resistance to the circuit beyond the three resistors and power supply.

 Both the voltmeter and ammeter have a 2% associated error with their measurement readings.

Error Calculations

Sample Error Calculation of R1 in Series:

Sample Error Calculation of Req from Measured Power Supply Values in Series Circuit:
Sample Error Calculation of Req from Calculated Resistance Values in Series Circuit:

Sample Error Calculation of R1 in Parallel Circuit:

Sample Error Calculation of Req from Measured Power Supply Values in Parallel Circuit:

Sample Error Calculation of Req from Calculated Resistance Values in Parallel Circuit:
Conclusion:

In this lab we were able to verify how the resistance in individual resistors combine when they
are connected in series and parallel. We verified the connections within the circuits by applying the
relationships given by Ohm’s Law and measuring the current and potential drop over each resistor and the
power supply within the circuit. We also were able to correctly connect our voltmeter and ammeter to
measure the individual circuit values. The voltmeter was connected in parallel with the power supply,
next with R1, then R2, and finally R3 to give us the total and individual potential drops over the series
circuit. The voltmeter was also connected in parallel in the parallel circuit and although the potential
difference is the same in all branches of the parallel circuit when we measured it each time we connected
the ammeter with a different resistor because it changed the total potential for the whole circuit because
the resistance changed.

The ammeter was connected in series with the series circuit and the current which is the same
throughout was recorded, but the small internal resistance of the ammeter that contributed to the net
resistance over which the ammeter read current contributed a small margin of error in our resistance
calculation. When the ammeter is connected in series with the power supply, and each individual branch
of the parallel circuit it adds a greater contribution to the over all resistance of the circuit because
although it’s connected in series with each branch, and summed to that resistance, the inverses of those
resistances summed to give the parallel circuits equivalent resistance. The change of current through each
branch along with the equipotential voltage has a slight change due to the resistance added by the
multimeters.

In both series circuits we found using Ohm’s Law to calculate the individual resistance of the
resistors (R=V/I) and summing them gives a relatively accurate equivalent resistance of the circuit equal
to the resistance calculated from the voltage of the power supply and the total current through the circuit

In both of our parallel circuits our equivalent resistance calculated from the potential difference
with the ammeter connected in series with the power supply, and the current through the power supply is
very close to the equivalent resistance found by summing the inverses of the resistances found over each
branch of the parallel circuit. These values have less error between them because the change in potential
and current in the circuits due to the wires and multimeters are reduced by taking more measurements and
using those values in our calculations.

Overall our results verified how the combination of individual resistors in a series or parallel
circuit gave the equivalent resistance of the total circuit that is derived from the power supply in the
circuit. The unaccounted for resistance added to the circuits from the wires and multimeters were a source
of error in this lab, but the results were within a reasonable margin of error to validate the theoretical
relationships in series and parallel circuits.