Unit-1

Microprocessor:-
Microprocessor: Programmable integrated device that has computing ability and
decision-making capacity. It is the CPU of computer. A multipurpose,
programmable, clock driver, register based electronic device that reads binary
instruction from memory, accepts binary data, processes the data according to the
instruction and provides the results as output.

History of Evolution of Microprocessors: The microprocessor has become

more essential part of many gadgets. The evolution of microprocessors was divided
into five generations such as first, second, third, fourth and fifth generation and the
characteristics of these generations are discussed below.

First Generation Microprocessors: This was the period from 1971 to 1973 of
microprocessor’s history. In 1971, INTEL created the first microprocessor 4004 that
would run at a clock speed of 740 kHz. During this period, the other microprocessors
in the market including Rockwell international PPS-4, INTEL-8008, and National
semiconductors IMP-16 were in use. But, all these were not TTL compatible
processors.

Second Generation Microprocessors: This was the period from 1973 to

1978 in which very efficient 8-bit microprocessors were implemented like Motorola
6800 and 6801, INTEL-8085 and Zilog’s-Z80, which were among the most popular
ones. Owing to their superfast speed, they were costly as they were based on NMOS
technology fabrication.

The difference between the first generation microprocessor and second generation
microprocessors was mainly the use of new semiconductor technologies to
manufacture the chips. The result of this technology resulted in a fivefold increase in
instruction, speed, execution and higher chip densities.

Third Generation Microprocessors: During this period 16-bit processors

were created and designed using HMOS technology. From 1979 to 1980, INTEL
8086/80186/80286 and Motorola 68000 and 68010 were developed. Speeds of
those processors were four times better than the 2nd generation processors. These
types of microprocessors were different from the previous generations of
microprocessors in that all main workstation industrialists began evolving their
own ISC based microprocessor architectures.

Fourth Generation Microprocessors: From 1981 to 1995 this generation

developed 32-bit microprocessors by using HCMOS fabrication. INTEL-80386
and Motorola’s 68020/68030 were the popular processors. As many industries
converted from commercial microprocessors to in house designs, the fourth-
generation microprocessors are entered with outstanding design with a million
transistors.

Fifth Generation Microprocessors: From 1995 to until now this generation

has been bringing out high- performance and high-speed processors that make use of
64-bit processors. Such processors include Pentium, Celeron, Dual and Quad-
core processors. Fifth generation microprocessors employed decoupled super scalar
processing, and their design soon exceeded 10 million transistors. In fifth
generation, PCs are a low-margin, high volume business conquered by a single
microprocessor.

Microprocessor Instruction set :-

Instruction: An instruction (instruction format) is a command to the
microprocessor to perform a given task on a particular data. Instruction is a
combination of opcode and operands

An Instruction is a command given to the computer to perform a specified

operation on given data. The instruction set of a microprocessor is the collection
of the instructions that the microprocessor is designed to execute.

The programmer can write a program in assembly language using these

instructions. These instructions have been classified into the following groups:
1. Data Transfer Group
2. Arithmetic Group
3. Logical Group
4.Branch Control Group
5.Machine Control Group
1. Data Transfer Group Instructions,
which are used to transfer data from one register to another register, from
memory to register or register to memory, come under this group. Examples are:
MOV, MVI, LXI, LDA, STA etc. When an instruction of data transfer group is
executed, data is transferred from the source to the destination without altering
the contents of the source. For example, when MOV A, B is executed the
content of the register B is copied into the register A, and the content of register
B remains unaltered. Similarly, when LDA 2500 is executed the content of the
memory location 2500 is loaded into the accumulator. But the content of the
memory location 2500 remains unaltered.
2.Arithmetic Group
The instructions of this group perform arithmetic operations such as addition,
subtraction; increment or decrement of the content of a register or memory.
Examples are: ADD, SUB, INR, DAD etc.
3.Logical Group
The Instructions under this group perform logical operation such as AND, OR,
compare, rotate etc. Examples are: ANA, XRA, ORA, CMP, and RAL etc.
4.Branch Control Group
 This group includes the instructions for conditional and unconditional jump,
subroutine call and return, and restart. Examples are: JMP, JC, JZ, CALL, CZ,
RST etc.
5. Machine Control Group
This group includes the instructions for input/output ports, stack and machine control.
Examples are: IN, OUT, PUSH, POP, and HLT etc.

Computer Languages:-
A programming language is a notation designed to connect instructions to a
machine or a computer. Programming languages are mainly used to control the
performance of a machine or to express algorithms
Generally there are three types of computer languages
1.assembly level language
2.machine level language
3.high level language

1.Assembly Language :- The assembly language definition states that it acts as

the intermediate language between machine language and high-level programming
languages. In comparison to machine language, assembly language is easier to
comprehend and use; however, it is more complicated than high-level
programming languages.
Assembly language is referred to as low-level language because it is closer to the
hardware level.
Programmers using assembly language codes should have an understanding of
register structure and computer architecture .A specialized compiler termed as an
assembler is needed for converting assembly language commands to object code or
machine code .Assembly language statements comprise four sections. These are
mnemonic, operand, label, and comment .Mnemonics in assembly language
provide instructions to execute commands; operands are parameters put in use for
the command .Assembly languages also support macros that are a set of commands
with a name.

2.Machine level language:-Machine language is the language understood by

a computer. It is very difficult to understand, but it is the only thing that the
computer can work with. All programs and programming languages eventually
generate or run programs in machine language. Machine language is made up of
instructions and data that are all binary numbers. Machine language is normally
displayed in hexadecimal form so that it is a little bit easier to read. Assembly
language is almost the same as machine language, except that the instructions,
variables and addresses have names instead of just hex numbers.

3.High level language:-A high-level language (HLL) is a programming

language such as C, FORTRAN, or Pascal that enables a programmer to write
programs that are more or less independent of a particular type of computer.
Such languages are considered high-level because they are closer to
human languages and further from machine languages.
Large Computers to Single chip Microcontroller:-
Computers are classified into mainly three types
1.Large Computers
2.Medium Size Computers
3.Microcomputers
1.large computers:-Large computers are multipurpose, multiuser, multitasking
computers. These are used in computer scientific and engineering calculations , handle large
records for large corporations and government agencies. Large computers are two types
i)main frame
ii)super computers

i)Main frames:-A mainframe computer, informally called a mainframe or big iron, is

a computer used primarily by large organizations for critical applications, bulk data
processing such as the census and industry and consumer statistics, enterprise resource
planning, and large-scale transaction processing. A mainframe computer is larger and has
more processing power than some other classes of computers, such
as minicomputers, servers, workstations, and personal computers. Most large-scale computer-
system architectures were established in the 1960s, but they continue to evolve. Mainframe
computers are often used as servers

ii)Super computers:-super computers are fastest high-performance systems available at

any given time. Such computers have been used primarily for scientific and engineering work
requiring exceedingly high-speed computations. Common applications for supercomputers
include testing mathematical models for complex physical phenomena or designs, such
as climate and weather, evolution of the cosmos, nuclear weapons and reactors, new chemical
compounds (especially for pharmaceutical purposes), and cryptology. As the cost of
supercomputing declined in the 1990s, more businesses began to use supercomputers
for market research and other business-related models.

2.Medium size computers:-Medium-size computer systems provide faster

operating speeds and larger storage capacities than mini computer systems. They can
support a large number of high-speed input/output devices and several disk drives can be
used to provide online access to large data files as required for direct access processing
and their operating systems also support both multiprogramming and virtual storage.
This allows the running of variety of programs concurrently. A medium-size computer
can support a management information system and can therefore serve the needs of a
large bank, insurance company or university
3.Microcomputers:-A microcomputer is a complete computer on a small scale,
designed for use by one person at a time. An antiquated term, a microcomputer is now
primarily called a personal computer (PC), or a device based on a single-chip
microprocessor Common microcomputers include laptops and desktops.
i)Desktop microcomputer or pc:-A microcomputer that fits on a desk and runs on
power from an electrical wall outlet. The CPU can be housed in either a vertical or a
horizontal case. Has separate components (keyboard, mouse, etc.) that are each plugged
into the computer .

ii)Lap tops:-A portable, compact computer that can run on an electrical wall outlet or a
battery unit. All components (keyboard, mouse, etc.) are in one compact unit. Usually
more expensive than a comparable desktop. Sometimes called a Notebook

iii)Workstation Computers:-A workstation is a special computer designed for

technical or scientific applications. Intended primarily to be used by one person at a
time, they are commonly connected to a local area network and run multi-user
operating systems.
iv)Single board computers:-
A single-board computer (SBC) is a complete computer built on a single circuit board,
with microprocessor(s), memory, input/output (I/O) and other features required of a
functional computer. Single-board computers are commonly made as demonstration
or development systems, for educational systems, or for use as embedded computer
controllers. Many types of home computers or portable computers integrate all their
functions onto a single printed circuit board.
v)Single chip microcomputer:- Single-chip computers are mainly of the form known
as Microcontroller chips and used in embedded devices. They provide much more
basic functionality but are far simpler to work with as they don't require any external
chips in order to function.

Microprocessor controlled temperature system:-

Microprocessor controlled temperature system:-A Temperature Controlled System is a

type of control system that automatically controls the temperature of an object or an area.
This system sets two point :- 1.upper limit point
2.lower limit point

This system is excepted to read the temperature in room ,display the temperature at LCD
panel turn on a fan if the temperature is above upper limit point and turn on a heater if
 the temperature below lower limit point.This system has input and output ports for the
connection of input and output devices like transducer, fan ,heater and LCD etc.

System Hardware:-
1.Microprocessor
2.Memory
3.Input devices
4.Output devices

Microprocessor:-The processor read the binary instructions from memory and execute
those instructions continuously , it will read temperature , display it at the LCD display
panel ,and turn on/off fan and the heater based on the temperature
Memory:- The system includes two types of memory they are
i.ROM:-Used to store the program called the monitor program, that is responsible for
providing the necessary instructions to the processor to monitor the system
ii.R/W:- The read write memory is needed for temporary storage of data.

Input:-
In this system input device is temperature sensor a device that translates one
form energy into another form is called transducer ,here temperature sensor is a
transducer translate temperature into an electrical signal
A/D Converter:- The electrical signal is converted into binary using A/D converter,
the output of the a/d converter is easily understand by the processor and generates
control signals to output devices with respect to the temperature

Output:-
There are three output devices
1.Fan or cooler
2.Heater
3.LCD
Fan:-
This is system output device that is turned on by the processor when the temperature
reaches a set higher limit
Heater:-
This is turned on by the processor when the temperature reaches a lower limit
LCD :-
Lcd displays the temperature measured by the temperature sensor

Microprocessor Architecture:-
Arithmetic and Logic Unit: In this area of the microprocessor, computing
functions are performed on data. The CPU performs arithmetic operations such as
addition and subtraction, and logic operations such as AND, OR, and exclusive OR.
Results are stored either in register or in memory or sent to output devices.

Register Unit: This area of the microprocessor consists of various registers. The
register are used primarily to store data temporarily during the executing of a
program. Some of the registers are accessible to the user through instructions.

Control Unit: The control unit provides the necessary timing and control signals to
all the operations in the microcomputer. It controls the flow of data between the
microprocessor and peripherals

Input: The input section transfers data and instructions in binary from the outside
world to the microprocessor. It includes devices such as keyboards, teletypes, and
analog-to-digital converters.

Output: The output section transfers data from the microprocessor to output devices
such as light emitting diodes (LEDs), cathode-ray-tubes (CRTs), printers, magnetic
tape, or another computer. Typically, single-board computers include LEDs and
seven-segment LEDs as output devices.

Memory: Memory stores binary information such as instructions and data, and
provides that information to the microprocessor whenever necessary. To execute
programs, the microprocessor reads instructions and data from memory and performs
the computing operations in its ALU section.
The memory block has two sections : Read - Only Memory (ROM)
Random Access Memory (RAM)
System Bus: The system bus is a communication path between the microprocessor
and the peripherals; it is nothing but a group of wires that carries bits. The
microcomputer bus is in many ways similar to a one-track, express subway, the
microcomputer bus carries bits between the microprocessor and only one peripheral at
a time. The same bus is time - shared to communicate with various peripherals, with
the timing provided by the control section of the microprocessor.

Memory, Input and Output Devices:-

Memory:-
A memory is just like a human brain. It is used to store data and instructions.
Computer memory is the storage space in the computer, where data is to be processed and
instructions required for processing are stored. The memory is divided into large number of
small parts called cells.
Classification of memories:-
There mainly two types
1.primary memory
2.secondary memory
  Primary memory includes ROM and RAM, and is located close to the CPU on
the computer motherboard, enabling the CPU to read data from primary
memory very quickly indeed. It is used to store data that the CPU needs
imminently so that it does not have to wait for it to be delivered.

 Secondary memory by contrast, is usually physically located within a separate

storage device, such as a hard disk drive or solid state drive (SSD), which is
connected to the computer system either directly or over a network. The cost
per gigabyte of secondary memory is much lower, but the read and write speeds
are significantly slower.
 Over several periods of computer evolution, a wide of array of computer
memory types has been deployed, each with its own strengths and weaknesses.

Primary Memory Types: RAM and ROM 

1. RAM, or random access memory
2. ROM, or read-only memory

1) RAM Computer Memory

The acronym RAM stems from the fact that data stored in random access
memory can be accessed – as the name suggests – in any random order. Or, put
another way, any random bit of data can be accessed just as quickly as any other
bit.

The most important things to understand about RAM are that RAM memory is
very fast, it can be written to as well as read, it is volatile (so all data stored in
RAM memory is lost when it loses power) and, finally, it is very expensive
compared to all types of secondary memory in terms of cost per gigabyte. It is
because of the relative high cost of RAM compared to secondary memory types
that most computer systems use both primary and secondary memory.

Types of RAM
  DRAM: DRAM stands for Dynamic RAM, and it is the most common type of
RAM used in computers. The oldest type is known as single data rate (SDR)
DRAM, but newer computers use faster dual data rate (DDR) DRAM.
 SRAM: SRAM stands for Static RAM, and it is a particular type of RAM
which is faster than DRAM, but more expensive and bulker, having six
transistors in each cell. For those reasons SRAM is generally only used as a data
cache within a CPU itself or as RAM in very high-end server systems. A small
SRAM cache of the most imminently-needed data can result in significant speed
improvements in a system

2) ROM Computer Memory

ROM stands for read-only memory, and the name stems from the fact that while
data can be read from this type of computer memory, data cannot normally be
written to it. It is a very fast type of computer memory which is usually installed
close to the CPU on the motherboard.

ROM is a type of non-volatile memory, which means that the data stored in ROM
persists in the memory even when it receives no power – for example when the
computer is turned off. In that sense it is similar to secondary memory, which is
used for long term storage.

Types of ROMROM is available in several different types, including PROM,

EPROM, and EEPROM.

 PROM :-PROM stands for Programmable Read-Only Memory, and it is

different from true ROM in that while a ROM is programmed (i.e. has data
written to it) during the manufacturing process, a PROM is manufactured in an
empty state and then programmed later using a PROM programmer or burner.

 EPROM :-EPROM stands for Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory,

and as the name suggests, data stored in an EPROM can be erased and the
EPROM reprogrammed. Erasing an EPROM involves removing it from the
computer and exposing it to ultraviolet light before re-burning it.

 EEPROM :-EEPROM stands for Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-

Only Memory, and the distinction between EPROM and EEPROM is that the
latter can be erased and written to by the computer system it is installed in.

Secondary Memory Types

These include:
1.hard disk drives
2.solid state drives (SSDs)
3.Optical (CD or DVD) drives
4.Tape drives
5.Storage arrays including 3D NAND flash arrays connected over a storage area
network (SAN)
6.Storage devices which may be connected over a conventional network (known as
network attached storage, or NAS).
Input Devices:-An input device is a piece of hardware used to provide data to a
computer used for interaction and control.  It allows input of raw data to the computer
for processing. a list of some input devices used in computers and other computing
devices:
1.Keyboard – one of the primary input devices used to input data and commands. It
has function keys, control keys, arrow keys, keypad and the keyboard itself with the
letters, numbers and commands.  Keyboards are connected to the computer through
USB or Bluetooth.  A laptop keyboard is more compact than a desktop keyboard to
make the laptop smaller and lighter.  Smartphones and tablets use on-screen keyboard
to input messages and select commands.
2.Mouse – an input device used to control the cursor and coordinates. It can be wired
or wireless.  It allows the user to do the following:
a) Move the mouse cursor
b)Select
c)Scroll
d)Open or execute a program
e)Drag-and-drop
3.Microphone – an input device that allows users to input audio into their computers.
Here are some uses of the microphone:
a)Audio for video
b)Voice recorder
c)Voice recognition
d)VoIP – Voice over Internet Protocol
4.Digital Camera – is an input device that takes pictures digitally. Images are stored as
data on memory cards.  It has an LCD screen that allows users to preview and review
images
5.Scanner – is an input device that reads an image and converts it into a digital file. A
scanner is connected to a computer through USB.  There are different types of
scanners:
a)Flatbed scanner – uses a flat surface to scan documents
b)Sheetfed scanner – like a laser printer where paper is fed into the
scanner
c)Handheld scanner – the scanner is dragged over the page to be scanned
d)Card scanner – for scanning business card
6.Touchscreen – is an input device that allows users to interact with a computer using
their fingers. It is used widely in laptop monitors, smartphones, tablets, cash registers
and information kiosks.  Most common functions of touchscreens are as follows:
a)Tap
b)Drag
c)Swipe
Output Devices:-
A computer can still function without an output device.  However, without an output
device, there’s no way to determine what the computer is doing.  There is no indicator
of errors, nor of the need for additional input.  For example, if you detach your
monitor from your computer, the computer will still function, but it’s not going to be
very helpful.
Examples of Output Devices:-

1.Monitor – This is the most common computer output device. It creates a visual

display by the use of which users can view processed data.  Monitors come in various
sizes and resolutions.

Common Types of Monitors

 Cathode Ray Tube – this uses phosphorescent dots to generate the pixels that
constitute displayed images.
 Flat Panel Screen – this makes use of liquid crystals or plasma to produce
output. Light is passed through the liquid crystals in order to generate pixels.
All monitors depend on a video card, which is positioned either on the
computer motherboard or in a special expansion slot. The video card sorts out
the computer data into image details that the monitors can then show.
2.Printer – this device generates a hard copy version of processed data, like
documents and photographs. The computer transmits the image data to the printer,
which then physically recreates the image, typically on paper.
Types of Printers
 Ink Jet – this kind of printer sprays tiny dots of ink onto a surface to form an
image.
 Laser – this type utilises toner drums that roll through magnetized pigment,
and then transfers the pigment onto a surface.
 Dot Matrix – dot matrix printers utilise a print head to set images on a surface,
using an ink ribbon. These printers were commonly used between 1980 and
3.Speakers – speakers are attached to computers to facilitate the output of sound;
sound cards are required in the computer for speakers to function. The different kinds
of speakers range from simple, two-speaker output devices right the way up to
surround-sound multi-channel units.
4.Headset – this is a combination of speakers and microphone.  It is mostly used by
gamers, and is also a great tool for communicating with family and friends over the
internet using some VOIP program or other.
5.Projector – this is a display device that projects a computer-created image onto
another surface: usually some sort of whiteboard or wall. The computer transmits the
image data to its video card, which then sends the video image to the projector. It is
most often used for presentations, or for viewing videos.
6.Plotter – this generates a hard copy of a digitally depicted design. The design is
sent to the plotter through a graphics card, and the design is formed by using a pen.  It
is generally used with engineering applications, and essentially draws a given image
using a series of straight lines.

Example of Microcomputer system:-

The example of microcomputer system is microprocessor controlled tempearature system

A Temperature Controlled System is a type of control system that automatically controls the
temperature of an object or an area.
This system sets two point :- 1.upper limit point
2.lower limit point
This system is excepted to read the temperature in room ,display the temperature at LCD
panel turn on a fan if the temperature is above upper limit point and turn on a heater if
the temperature below lower limit point.This system has input and output ports for the
connection of input and output devices like transducer, fan ,heater and LCD etc.

System Hardware:-
1.Microprocessor
2.Memory
3.Input devices
4.Output devices

Microprocessor:-The processor read the binary instructions from memory and execute
those instructions continuously , it will read temperature , display it at the LCD display
panel ,and turn on/off fan and the heater based on the temperature
Memory:- The system includes two types of memory they are
i.ROM:-Used to store the program called the monitor program, that is responsible for
providing the necessary instructions to the processor to monitor the system
ii.R/W:- The read write memory is needed for temporary storage of data.

Input:-
In this system input device is temperature sensor a device that translates one
form energy into another form is called transducer ,here temperature sensor is a
transducer translate temperature into an electrical signal
A/D Converter:- The electrical signal is converted into binary using A/D converter,
the output of the a/d converter is easily understand by the processor and generates
control signals to output devices with respect to the temperature
Output:-
There are three output devices
1.Fan or cooler
2.Heater
3.LCD
Fan:-
This is system output device that is turned on by the processor when the temperature
reaches a set higher limit
Heater:-
This is turned on by the processor when the temperature reaches a lower limit
LCD :-
Lcd displays the temperature measured by the temperature sensor