RADIATION--

Radiation is a method of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the
heat source and the heated object as is the case with conduction and convection. Heat
can be transmitted through empty space by thermal radiation often called infrared
radiation. This is a type electromagnetic radiation . No mass is exchanged and no
medium is required in the process of radiation. Examples of radiation is the heat from
the sun, or heat released from the filament of a light bulb.

Heat transfer by radiation

Heat can be transferred by infrared radiation. Unlike conduction and convection, which need
particles, infrared radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation that involves waves.

Light from the sun reaching earth

Radiation can even work through the vacuum of space. This is why we can still feel the heat of
the Sun even though it is 150 million km away from the Earth.

Different surfaces

Some surfaces are better than others at reflecting and absorbing infrared radiation. The table
summarises some differences.

differences in surfaces absorbing radiation

ability to reflect infrared ability to absorb infrared
surface
radiation radiation

dull or rough Poor good

shiny good poor

If two objects made from the same material have identical volumes, a thin, flat object will radiate
heat energy faster than a fat object. This is one reason why domestic radiators are thin and flat.
Radiators are often painted with white gloss paint. They would be better at radiating heat if they
were painted with black matt paint, but in fact, despite their name, radiators transfer most of their
heat to a room by convection.

RADIATION:

Both conduction and convection require matter to transfer heat. Radiation is a method
of heat transfer that does not rely upon any contact between the heat source and the
heated object. For example, we feel heat from the sun even though we are not touching
it. Heat can be transmitted though empty space by thermal radiation. Thermal radiation
(often called infrared radiation) is a type electromagnetic radiation (or light). Radiation is
a form of energy transport consisting of electromagnetic waves traveling at the speed of
light. No mass is exchanged and no medium is required.

Objects emit radiation when high energy electrons in a higher atomic level fall down to
lower energy levels. The energy lost is emitted as light or electromagnetic radiation.
Energy that is absorbed by an atom causes its electrons to "jump" up to higher energy
levels. All objects absorb and emit radiation. ( Here is a java applet showing how an
atom absorbs and emits radiation) When the absorption of energy balances the
emission of energy, the temperature of an object stays constant. If the absorption of
energy is greater than the emission of energy, the temperature of an object rises. If the
absorption of energy is less than the emission of energy, the temperature of an object
falls.

Thermal Energy Transfer: Radiation

      Radiative heat transfer is the only way to transfer heat from one place to another that does
not require a medium. Let's look again at the electromagnetic radiation spectrum and the various
aspects and applications of radiation. Notice the relative energies of photons in the radio/TV,
microwave, IR (infrared, heat), optical (visible), UV (ultraviolet), x-ray, and gamma ray bands.

      We will demonstrate the transmission of infrared radiation (heat) through different glasses
using a light meter and two sources of light (normal and heat lamp) by feel and thermocouple.

Comparison of transmission through different glasses

Light meter reading without glass:

Temperature reading without glass:

  Visible Light IR (heat)

(visual and light meter) (feel and thermocouple)
 Normal glass    
E glass (energy efficient)    
Stain glass    
Dark double glass    

      Let's describe the basic concept of energy (or heat) transfer by radiation. We will develop the
basic equation for radiative heat transfer, Stefan's law. First, some definitions:

Radiation is the energy emitted from a surface as particles or waves. The rate of radiative
emission per unit time and per unit surface area , or radiative flux, is represented as Q. Note that
this "Q" is actually power per unit area, or P/A; it has different units than the "Q" that we used
for conduction. Again, to prevent confusion, just follow the units. In the MKS unit system,
radiative flux is given in joules per second (watts) per square meter (W/m²).

Radiative flux on the [4th power] temperature of the emitting surface:

Q [temperature]4 {where T is measured in Kelvins}

Emissivity ( ) is the ratio of a surface's ability to emit radiant energy compared with the ability
of a perfect black body of the same area at the same temperature. Emissivity is a dimensionless
constant having values between 0 and 1. Perfect reflectors would have = 0. Perfect absorbers
would have = 1.
A material with high emissivity is efficient in both absorbing radiation energy as well as
emitting it. Therefore a good absorber is also a good emitter.

Q emissivity ( ) {0 < < 1}

      Now that we have the parameters, we need a constant to balance the equation. This is
Stefan's constant () [also known as the Stefan-Boltzmann constant]. It has a value in the MKS
unit system of:

5.67×10-8 W/(m²·K4).

Putting this all together, we get Stefan's law (or the Stefan-Boltzmann law), which states that the
radiative flux (Q) is equal to the emissivity times the fourth power of temperature in Kelvins
times Stefan's constant:

Qemitted = T4

This could also be written as:

Qemitted = P/A = T4

      There are some important points to keep in mind when working problems dealing with
radiative flux. First, conservation of energy dictates that if you have any reflection (an emissivity
of less than 1), then:

Qincoming = Qabsorbed + Qreflected

Also, since emissivity affects radiation absorption in the same way that it affects emission:
Qemitted = Qabsorbed = Qincoming
Note that this means if you are in space (where you only deal with radiative heat transfer) and
you want to determine final temperature of an object with a given incoming radiative flux, the
emissivity of the object does not matter:
Qemitted = Qabsorbed = Qincoming = T4
so that: Qincoming = T4
Finally, keep in mind the possibility that your surface area for absorption may differ from your
surface area for emission. For example, if I have flat panel that absorbs radiation from the sun
(likely to occur only for one side of the panel at a time), the panel will emit radiation from both
sides (here we are assuming that the panel is thin enough so that you only need to deal with two
sides).

      To illustrate surfaces with different emissivities, we will place a black sheet and a white sheet
near a heat lamp and feel the difference by hand and by measurement. Notice the importance of
selecting a thermally efficient external color to energy conservation. A significant amount of heat
in the summer in Alabama houses is generated through radiation absorption by the roof.

Emissivity of Some Common Materials

Emissivity Values
Materials
(no unit, dimensionless)
Carbon 0.85-0.95
Aluminum 0.11
Brass (oxidized) 0.61
Brass (unoxidized) 0.030
Copper (oxidized) 0.60
Copper (unoxidized) 0.020
Black gloss paint 0.90
Gold (polished) 0.020
Fire brick 0.75

Heat Transfer by Radiation

A final method of heat transfer involves radiation. Radiation is the transfer of heat by means of
electromagnetic waves. To radiate means to send out or spread from a central location. Whether
it is light, sound, waves, rays, flower petals, wheel spokes or pain, if something radiates then it
protrudes or spreads outward from an origin. The transfer of heat by radiation involves the
carrying of energy from an origin to the space surrounding it. The energy is carried by
electromagnetic waves and does not involve the movement or the interaction of matter. Thermal
radiation can occur through matter or through a region of space that is void of matter (i.e., a
vacuum). In fact, the heat received on Earth from the sun is the result of electromagnetic waves
traveling through the void of space between the Earth and the sun.

All objects radiate energy in the form of electromagnetic waves. The rate at which this energy is
released is proportional to the Kelvin temperature (T) raised to the fourth power.

Radiation rate = k•T4

The hotter the object, the more it radiates. The sun obviously radiates off more energy than a hot
mug of coffee. The temperature also affects the wavelength and frequency of the radiated waves.
Objects at typical room temperatures radiate energy as infrared waves. Being invisible to the
human eye, we do not see this form of radiation. An infrared camera is capable of detecting such
radiation. Perhaps you have seen thermal photographs or videos of the radiation surrounding a
person or animal or a hot mug of coffee or the Earth. The energy radiated from an object is
usually a collection or range of wavelengths. This is usually referred to as an emission spectrum.
As the temperature of an object increases, the wavelengths within the spectra of the emitted
radiation also decrease. Hotter objects tend to emit shorter wavelength, higher frequency
radiation. The coils of an electric toaster are considerably hotter than room temperature and emit
electromagnetic radiation in the visible spectrum. Fortunately, this provides a convenient
warning to its users that the coils are hot. The tungsten filament of an incandescent light bulb
emits electromagnetic radiation in the visible (and beyond) range. This radiation not only allows
us to see, it also warms the glass bulb that contains the filament. Put your hand near the bulb
(without touching it) and you will feel the radiation from the bulb as well.

Thermal radiation is a form of heat transfer because the

electromagnetic radiation emitted from the source carries
energy away from the source to surrounding (or distant)
objects. This energy is absorbed by those objects, causing the
average kinetic energy of their particles to increase and causing
the temperatures to rise. In this sense, energy is transferred
from one location to another by means of electromagnetic
radiation. The image at the right was taken by a thermal
imaging camera. The camera detects the radiation emitted by
objects and represents it by means of a color photograph. The hotter colors represent areas of
objects that are emitting thermal radiation at a more intense rate. (Images courtesy Peter Lewis
and Chris West of Standford's SLAC.)
HEAT EXCHANGE EQUIPMENT

HEAT EXCHANGERS, BOILERS & FURNACES

INTRODUCTION

Earlier, we discussed 'Heat' and 'Temperature' and the principles of heat transfer. Heat can be
transferred by three methods: -Conduction, Convection and Radiation.

(See Figures: 19, 20 & 21 illustrated earlier on Page 49)

Heat exchangers are pieces of equipment used for the exchange of heat between a hot substance
and a cold substance. In the process, the hot material is cooled while the cool material is heated.
This exchange of heat energy is useful in conserving fuel and cooling water requirements in
process operations where large quantities of heat is to be added to, or removed from, process
fluids. The various names of heat exchangers and their function, as used in industry, are listed
below.

NAMES GIVEN TO HEAT EXCHANGERS

(Note: These are 'NAMES' of NOT ' TYPES' of Exchanger).

1. PRE-HEATERS:
As the name implies, these exchangers are used to add heat to a process stream before the main
heating system - (a furnace or boiler). At the same time, the fluid being preheated is removing
heat from (cooling), the heating medium which may be a hot product from a process or it may be
steam. Where steam is used, it is generally condensed by the heat exchange process.

2. VAPORISERS:
These are used to convert a liquid into vapour by the addition of heat, generally by superheated
steam. (Other high temperature media can also be used where steam may be difficult to produce
(as in desert regions).

3.CONDENSERS:
Are used to remove the latent heat from a vapour, gas or steam in order to convert it to liquid.
Usually, they will then reduce the temperature (cool) the fluid being condensed. The condensing
or cooling medium may be water or refrigerant depending upon the process.

4 COOLERS:
This exchanger simply cools the process fluid by exchange of heat between water or refrigerant.
Where refrigerant is used, the exchanger would be classed as a 'CHILLER'.

5. HEATERS:
These are used to add heat energy to increase the temperature of a process stream by using
Superheated steam, Hot oil, Other hot product streams or Burning fuel.
6.REBOILERS:
Generally used to heat and partially vaporise the bottom liquid of a distillation or regeneration
tower. They may be steam heated, or a 'Furnace type' or a 'Fire Tube' type. Most heat exchangers
use the principle of heat transfer by 'Conduction' in their operation, while furnaces and boilers
use all three heat transfer principles.

Heat exchangers are generally of the 'SHELL and TUBE' construction. i.e. they consist of an
outer shell which carries one of the process streams and an inner bundle of tubes for the other
stream. The external and internal construction of an exchanger will be seen in following
descriptions and diagrams.

TYPES OF HEAT EXCHANGER

(Note: Following are the 'Types' of heat exchanger used in industry and may be used for any of
the purposes listed previously in exchanger names).

1.FIXED HEAD or FIXED TUBE-SHEET EXCHANGER:

This is a 'Shell & Tube' type exchanger in which the tube-sheet ends are fixed (rigid), with no
allowance for expansion. They are mainly used for low temperature heat exchange with low
differential temperature (.T), between the heat exchange fluids.

The Tube-sheets, one at each end, consist of metal plates into which a bundle of tubes are fixed
by 'Rolling' or 'Welding'. The length of the tubes is prevented from bending by 'Transverse
Baffles', each of which hold half of the bundle. These baffles also provide channels for the shell-
side fluid direction to constantly change and flow across the tubes a number of times.

(See Figure: 21)

Figure: 21

2. FLOATING HEAD EXCHANGER:

In this type, also a shell & tube exchanger, one end of the tube-sheet (the 'Bell-end'), has
provision made for expansion and contraction of the tubes. They are generally used for high .T
between the fluids.
(See Figure: 22)
Figure: 22

3. THE ' U ' - TUBE HEAT EXCHANGER:

Here the tubes are formed into a horizontal ' U' shape and held by a single tube- sheet. This gives
the fluid passing through the tubes a 'Double Pass' through the exchanger.

(See Figure: 23)

Figure: 23

4. THE DOUBLE-PIPE EXCHANGER:

This is simply two pipes, one placed inside the other. The outer pipe will carry one of the process
streams and the inner pipe carries the other stream. The pipes may be fitted with 'Fins' to increase
the heat transfer rate.

Figure: 24

5. THE AIR-FIN (OR FIN-FAN) HEAT EXCHANGER:

An air-fin exchanger is, in principle, exactly the same as the radiator of a car engine.

The fluid to be cooled passes through the tubes while air is blown (forced draught), or pulled
(induced draught), over the tubes by a fan or fans causing cooling of the fluid. The tubes may be
plain or finned depending upon process requirements. Cooling control can be either by variable
pitch fan blades or by variable speed or on/off motor, all of which will vary the amount of air
flow across the tubes.
Figure: 25

Photo of an Air-Fin Cooler as used in Industry

In the operation of a heat exchanger, the type of fluid flow through the equipment plays a big
part in the heat transfer rate. For better heat transfer, a turbulent flow is preferred which will
prevent a 'skin effect' - a layer of cooler, slower moving fluid on the inside surface of the tubes.
With laminar (streamline) flow, such a layer will decrease the heat transfer rate.

(See Figure: 26 below)

Figure: 26

Another factor in the heat transfer rate, is the number of 'Passes' made by the fluids both in the
shell side and the tube side.

In the shell side, as explained earlier, the 'Transverse Baffles' will cause the shell fluid to pass
across the tubes a number of times. In some exchangers, shell-side passes can be increased by
'Longitudinal' baffles. The baffles increase the time taken by the fluid to pass through the shell
and, at the same time, will cause turbulent flow. The heat transfer rate is therefore increased.

In the tube side, the number of passes is increased by Baffle plates in the 'Channel Head'.

(See Figure: 27)

Figure: 27

A further consideration is the flow of each fluid. Generally, the most efficient heat transfer is
achieved by 'Counter-current Flow' - i.e. the two fluids are flowing in opposite directions through
the exchanger.

However, certain operating requirements may call for the fluid flows to be 'Co-current' - i.e. the
two flows are in parallel and in the same direction through the exchanger.

(Figures : 28, 29 & 30)

Figure: 28

Figure: 29

Figure: 30