PRE-COLONIAL HISTORY OF ZIMBABWE:

THE STONE AGE CULTURE TO IRON AGE CULTURE

 Very little is known about the lives of the Stone Age culture
people in Zimbabwe except by relating what we knew about
similar groups elsewhere e.g the San and Khoisan but iron users
in Zimbabwe were premised by the hunter-gatherers of the
Stone Age people.
 The problem is that the archaeologists did not easily recognise
some of the vegetable remains but linguistic evidence point out
that they used the Khoisan language.
 Most likely, these were of the san by descent who depended
heavily on hunting and gathering and used caves as their
homes.
 Because of the mode of life, they were very mobile in constant
search for lucrative hunting grounds.
 As hunter-gatherers, they were to live in small loosely
organised groups to ensure and secure food supply.
 Fragmantation was quite common when the group became too
large.
 This likely prevented the formation of large communities or
state formation in this period.
 Resources were quite plenty hence conflicts were rare. It
follows that people lived in harmony with their enironment
 They could have existed during the times of the San and
Khoisan-hunting and gathering.

1
  Some scholars argued that the use of iron was brought in by
the coming of the Bantu speaking people while others argued
that the local people introduced the use of iron themselves.
 Despite this argument, it is true that people started to make
use of iron instead of stones in making tools.
 The introduction of iron whether brought by the Bantu or being
introduced by the local people, fundamental social, political
and economic changes occurred in their communities which
were marked by great improvement in their lives.

STONE AGE PERIOD

 This period was dominated by the San and Khoisan people who practised
hunting and gathering.
 Though the San were regarded as backward people, some of their
actitivities were far ahead of their time.
 e.g such as rock art, preservation of food, burying of the
dead,clothing,basket making,sense of beauty,sharpening of tools,sharing
of food,division of labour,fishing techniques,hunting skills,family
planning (pre-occupied by various activities),conservation and
nomadism.
 Their social and economic life showed that they had the know-how to
relate well like any other human being and conquer the environment to
sustain a living.
 They were able to manipulate their environment for their survival.They
depended on what nature provided i.e as hunter-gatherers, they relied
on their environment for their survival-food i.e fruits,honey,game meat
and insects and got medicines from tree roots,leaves and bark.
 They got shelter from caves, temporary shelter made from bush
materials like tree branches, grass or reeds.They got clothes from animal
skins and firewood from the environment.
 They used ostrich egg shells for carrying water and tree bark for carrying
fruits.Fish was obtained from rivers and other aquatic animals.However,
despite the fact that the San depended on what nature provided, they

2
 also found other means of survival e.g. they stole from the khoikhoi and
the Bantu.
 They also worked as cattle herders for the khoikhoi.Thus; nomadism was
a result of the San’s desire to live within an environment that could
furnish them with everything.

THE IRON AGE CULTURE

 the stone age was a way of life and ended about 1000AD
 The Iron Age did not affect the early habitants on the Zimbabwean
plateau.
 Instead the stone age people in pre-colonial Zimbabwe co-existed with
the Iron age culture
 the early iron age people ushered in a new way of life and a new
economy based on agriculture,trade with foreigners,pastoralism and
mining
 One revolutionary change noted was the use of iron tools which were
more effective than stone tools.
 There is much heated debate about these early Iron Age people.
 some argued that these people had migrated from Katanga region in the
north and entered the Zimbabwean plateau
 However,some historians believed that these were the local who had
adopted the new way of life
 it is this period that the skill of pottery and emergence of states took
shape e.g Mapungubwe state,Mutapa state
 New economc activities like trade, mining and crop farming encouraged
the development of large communities and settled settlement hence
political control was a necessity.
 Iron Age sites like Mabveni were situated along rivers and lake shores
that attracted crop farming.
 differences in pottery were seen due to distance and time
 the early iron age people were Bantu but according to Beach,the
language used is not known but what is certainly known was that it was
not shona

3
  The Gokomere culture was replaced by the Gumanye culture and it is
this culture group that constructed Great Zimbabwe villages which were
now found around hills at the site.
 However, it is very possible that the Iron Age people in Zimbabwe were
Bantu speaking people because all cultural features that can be
observed in any Iron Age culture correspond with those of Bantu
speaking people elsewhere.
 linguistic evidence shows that the Bantu language began to separate
from a common parent language
 it is agreed even today that the iron age cultures spread from the north
to a Zimbabwean plateau
 However,it is not clearly established on the exact origin of these people
 Oral traditions refer to Guruuswa, an environmental term as their
original home but the probable location of Guruuswa was a subject of
unending speculation and debate.

Impact of Iron Age technology on the Iron Age Zimbabwean

societies (from Early Iron Age to Later Iron Age)

Economic Changes brought about by Iron Age technology

 Keeping of livestock ensured people of availability of food-milk

and meat
 Thus, improvements in farming were accompanied by
improvements in the domestication of animals such as cattle,
goats, and sheep.
 These improved the diet and could be accumulated as form of
wealth.
 Improved crop production through use of iron hoes, plough,
axes. This revolutionised agriculture i.e increased food
production-through clearing and tilling of land-grass cereals
such as sorghum and millet were added to various roots,
melons and bean crops.
 improved diet lessened dependence on hunting and gathering

4
  Improved hunting-became easier and big game was now
hunted through use of iron weapons such as arrows and spears.
 improved fishing
 -Improved mining –marked by beginning of trade with Swahili
and Arab traders on the Indian Ocean Coast.
 introduction of trade-regional trade and inter-regional trade
 division of labour and specialisation
 exploitation of man by man

Social Changes

 accumulation of wealth through accumulation of cattle resulted

in emergence of social classes ie rich and poor people-social
stratification
 Rapid population increase and growth of communities due to
food security promoted building of permanent homes and
beginning of religion-worship of Supreme Being and ancestral
spirits-unifying force.
 development of permanent settlements due to permanent crop
farming
 Development of large villages and groups due to concentration
of people in one area
 Division of labour according to gender,age and skill-formation
of social classes
 marriages intensified backed by payments of lobola using cattle
 specialisation in areas such as mining,blacksmithing,weaving,
basketry
 Religion-institution of social regulation (elders in society and
those people who had accumulated considerable wealth in
cattle and trade). This perharps formed the basis for a political
idealogy based on scarced leadership.

5
Political Changes

 bloody wars arising out of dispute over succession necessitated

by use of better iron weapons e.g spears
 Formation of villages created the bases for chiefdoms for
example Leopold’s kopje and state formation e.g Mapungubwe
and Great Zimbabwe.
 state formation due population growth
 growth of villages leading to quest for leadership

BANTU MIGRATION

Theories of Bantu migration

Introduction

 The origins and expansion of the Bantu has been traced

through linguistic, oral traditions, anthropology and written
records by Arabic, Portuguese, and English and also through
archaeology which has reflected settlement artifaccts and dates
through carbon 14 datings.
 There are three schools of thoughts that attempt to explain
bantu dispersal as shown below

1. Murdock’s theory

 Attributes that migration to have been due to the introduction

of crops from Malaysia like Banana, yam, taro and such crops
resulted in the growth of population hence the need to move.

2. Wrigley’s theory

 Rejects Murdock’s theory and puts forward that the primary

factor was the knowledge of iron working not Malaysian crops.
 Iron technology meant that they could clear large forest areas
or defeat weak groups as they went.
6
3. Posnasky’s theory

 Argues that both iron and introduction of Malaysian crops were

responsible for the migration. This theory attempts to provide a
balanced argument with regards to Bantu dispersal in Africa
from the Katanga region in Cameron in North Africa.

Conclusion

 However, there were other causes such as search for better

grazing and farming land.
 Competition for natural resources.
 However, the nature of migration carried in the form of
invasions but movement was not massive exodus from one
area to another but gradual process taking the Eastern,
Western and Southern direction from the Katanga region.

Reasons for the Bantu’s success over the San on the Zimbabwean
plateau before 1450

 better military organisation and tactics

 strong and durable shelter e.g huts
 food security due to crop cultivation
 the establishment of permanent settlements
 social cohesion e.g existence of chiefs
 use of more advanced tools and weapons
 superiority in numbers due to large population

Impact of Bantu migration on the region

 displacement of the san people from the Zimbabwean region

 Bantu permanent settlement on the plateau
 Spread of Iron Age technology and end of Stone Age period.

Contribution of Iron Age Sites in tracing the movement of Bantu

7
Early Iron Age

Nyanga –found in the eastern plateau

-Ziwa-4th century to the 11th century –activities include pottery

metallurgy, bones, and grains –these were archaeological remains

-human activities include animal husbandry, crop cultivation, trade

etc

Gokomere pottery found in central Zimbabwe-Mabveni-6 th century,

Malipati-9thcentury, tunnel rock shelter-6th century, Zimbabwe
acropolis-4th century

Later Iron Age

i.Leopard’s Kopje-11th century-western Plateau

-Bambandyanalo suggested southward migration-cattle

2. Musengezi (central Plateau)-13th –ivory trade

3. Mapungubwe-Southern plateau-trade and animal husbandry.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Evaluate the view that some of the activities of the San people
were far ahead of their time.

2. Critically evaluate the theories of the spread and diffusion of the

Bantu in Zimbabwe up to 1000 AD

3. Respond to the assertion that the use of iron from Early Age to
Later Iron Age brought revolutionary changes in their societies.

8
Rozvi state and its Rise
Introduction
 There is disagreement among historians as to the origin of the Rozvi
state. The word Rozvi ‘means’ destroyers. It seems to have been used by
the Portuguese and the north Eastern Shona communities to refer to the
powerful army of the ruling lineage of changamire family who fought
Mutapa and the Portuguese in the 1490s.
 The state may have adopted the name for itself. Oral tradition said that
the changamire dynasty got its name from one of its founder members
“changa’ for whom little is known about him.

Two main theories about its Origins:-

 Some historians believed that the Rozvi came from the area in the
NE of Zimbabwe Plateau between Mutapa and Torwa states.
 They invaded and conquered all the Torwa people in the South
west. Thus, the Torwa state was taken over by another expanding
Shona group (Rozvi) from the North east.
 The weaknesses of the Torwa had facilitated the move as well as
its riches (source of attraction).
 The takeover by changamire dynasty was not particularly violent
and destructive but was more of mere absorption by a powerful
state. It appears to have been an easy conquest-why? e.g
intermarriages between the two cultures could have cemented
the fusion process resulting in its origin i.e the stronger group
absorbing the weaker group thus creating a new state as Rozvi
state.
 B.The Changamire state or dynasty (sub-rulers) had existed within
the Mutapa in the NE but following their unsuccessful rebellion
against Mutapa in the 1490s caused them to move to the SW to
avoid further retaliation.

9
  This dynasty disappears from history but after 150 years later, the
changamire dynasty quite possibly related to the early changamire
is recorded as being based on the NE plateau.
 This was the area of its origin .Though the information
surrounding its history is scanty; various sources of history were
used to gather more information about its origin such as oral
tradition.
 It originated in the NE but was not yet a state because it had no
administrative boundaries but however, the military strengths of
the Rozvi State greatly impressed both the Mutapa and
Portuguese (Rozvi state is known for its military might).
 Other traditions of history suggest that the Rozvi state was a
continuation from a Torwa state probably under a new ruling
lineage but certainly under a new name after 1680.
 They refer to great conflicts between different ruling lineages over
who should rule Torwa centred at Khami and a new capital was
built at Danan’ombe in SW but however, not much is known
about these events.

Reasons for its Rise

1. Weaknesses of Mutapa and Torwa states

 Civil wars and succession disputes within these states—this enabled
the emerging powerful Rozvi army to take advantage of this.

2. Portuguese involvement in the Mutapa

 was an added advantage to the Rozvi army---the Mutapa state was

shrinking while Rozvi state was growing since the two were
competing for geographical space

3. Charismatic nature of the first Changamire

 Military genius of the first Chimurenga-e.g- raised a huge army which

he used to carve territories out of Mutapa and Torwa states.
 Used this army to eject the Portuguese influence in the area with
much great success.

10
4. Environmental factors

 Rich soils, enough rainfall and free tsetse flies area encouraged farming
(promoting keeping of large herds of cattle)
 The area had a lot of gold and ivory, salt for trading purposes with locals
and foreign groups.

5. The impact of Maravi invasion and rebellions of its political provinces

 was an added advantage for the rise of Rozvi state.

STUDY QUESTION

Evaluate reasons to the rise to power of the Changamire rulers in the 1680s

AREA OF CONTROVERSY ABOUT ITS HISTORY

The question of its Domination in the 17TH and 18TH Century AD

 The Rozvi power grew in the late 17 th and 18th AD during the period of
great confusion and violence i.e Portuguese influence in the Mutapa
state.
 It was a period when Portuguese were attempting to conquer the
Mutapa and Torwa states.
 The Rozvi army of the Changamire was very strong enough to make war
in areas far beyond the direct authority of the Changamire
 e.g Portuguese trading post at Dambarare was overrun by Rozvi army
and were forced to abandon it and remained confined to the town of
Sena and Teve.
 Throughout the 18th century, the relation between Portuguese and
Rozvi was tense but peaceful
 e,g Portuguese paid tribute to Changamire. It must be noted that the
Portuguese traders were not allowed in the Rozvi state but interaction
between the two cultures was through the vashambadzi.
 Changamire’s policies conficted with those of the Portuguese because
like any other shona leader, he was aware of the harmful consequences
of the Portuguese presence.
 e. g during the battle of Maungwe 1684 –Portuguese were defeated.

11
  In 1693, another war broke out because the Portuguese refused to pay
tribute-Portuguese were defeated and vacated the area.
 The Rozvi state was growing at the expense of Mutapa state
 i.e while growing Mutapa was shrinking due to Portuguese influence for
they were competing for geographical space. The Rozvi armies are said
to have been famous throughout central Africa at the height of its
power-operating as far as Zumbo along the Zambezi valley to the north
as far Manyika to the East.
 In the SW, many kalanga communities as far as Soshangane Hills in
Botswana paid tribute to Rozvi until the 19th century.
 Most of the shona chiefdoms living in the plateau must have been
tributary at one time to the Rozvi ruling class built did not mean that
Mambo ruled all over the shona chiefdoms
 e.g some powerful chiefdoms refused to pay tribute to the Rozvi.The
Rozvi power or influence was not constant but sometimes it was at its
peak, sometimes at its lowest but however, the fact remains that it was
the largest and most powerful to many shona chiefdoms throughout
this period.
 Its power was likely to have been extended by force rather than
common culture/lineage e.g young men from different chiefdoms and
lineages may have been encouraged to join the Rozvi armies by rewards
in cattle captured by raids.
 One wonders why Rozvi state offered the least resistance to Nguni
incursion having ascribed as a powerful state in the region
 e.g between 1743 and 1781, the Portuguese requested to Rozvi
protection against other groups in Zimbabwe as they wanted to create
favourable trading conditions for themselves, i.e a situation which
continued up to the 1830s when Rozvi power was destroyed by the
Nguni groups.
 Thus, the Rozvi dominance of the period in question can not be denied
but what we do not know at present is how local and regional histories
tie up to produce ‘a Rozvi past which has either been exaggerated i.e
they were sometimes presented as empire builders or mere collection
of Karanga dynasties united under the authority of Changamire.

12
  Rozvi power forced the Portuguese to change their destructive trading
tactics in the interior and they eventually accepted Rozvi power e.g
important victories of changamire against Portuguese ( 1680-1690)—
Mutapa,Maungwe and Manyika, their conquests of Guruuswa (Torwa
state) greatly demonstrates its powerfulness as a state in the region or
in central Africa.

WHY THEN DID ROZVI OFFER LITTLE RESISTANCE TO NGUNI

GROUPS AFTER BEING ASCRIBED AS A POWERFUL STATE IN THE
REGION?
1. Mzilikazi’s arrival in 1836

 Completed the conquest of the Rozvi and finally settled in the western
part of the region.
 This could have been due to less competent rulers of Rozvi state e.g
Tohwechipi who lacked political experiences.
 The impact of Ndebele over the Rozvi was more of cultural than military

2. Continued internal crises

 e.g civil wars, succession disputes. This could have disrupted the political
base of the state hence weakening its political structure (order,stability
and peace). The Nguni groups took this as an added advantage to
destroy the state.

3. Drought

 This could have been responsible for the decline of its economic base i.e
successive droughts led to environmental degradation.
 This meant that agricultural economy i.e cattle rearing and crop farming
was no longer as strong as it used to be.
 Thus, drought weakened its economic base hence causing unnecessary
migration of people in search of good pastures for their cattle. The state
became stateless hence vulnerable to Nguni groups

4. Impact of earlier Nguni groups e.g raiders—Nxaba, Nyamazana, Maseko,

Soshangane.

13
  These had negatively ravaged the Rozvi state making it easier for the
Ndebele to complete the process which had already underway. These
raided cattle, women, grain.Its population were assimilated thus leading
to Rozvi depopulation.
 Nyamazana killed Chirisamhuru in 1836 and Nxaba also attacked Rozvi.
 Some human bones in graves were discovered showing the extent of
their destruction so therefore one should not be blinded by the impact
of droughts within the state.

5. Superior military tactics of Nguni groups

 These were fully equipped with Zulu tactics of Shaka-e.g the death of
Chirisamhuru left the state without a strong political leader but his son
Tohwechipi tried to command the state but this was not very effective
because of political divisions between the Changamire dynasty and
Mutinhimira family.
 This makes the state vulnerable to external attacks and then offers little
resistance.
 Some of the Rozvi houses placed themselves under the Ndebele rule by
1840 possibly they did not want to be raided by the Ndebele.
 Michael Tidy and D.Leeming pointed out that the Ngoni under
Zvangendaba brought disaster to large parts of central and East Africa
destroying the Rozvi empire e.g on their migrations they were like a
swarm of locusts destroying anything they pass by.
 Used scotched earth policy i.e burning villages and their crops---
thousands of people were killed and dragged away to join the Ngoni
army.
 During these wars, the Rozvi people were unable to cultivate their fields
and sometimes crops were destroyed. They also attacked trade routes
between Danhamombe, Zumbo and Masekesa.
 In the final analysis, agricultural production, trade and gold mining
declined thus weakening the economic base of the state. Again their
herds of cattle were raided and Nyamazana with a small Ngoni army
fought against the already weaked Rozvi Empire resulting in the killing of
Chirisamhuru leaving the state without a competent leader.Young men
were also raided affecting agriculture.

14
6. Size of the state

 the empire was too vast to be ruled by one leader

 People were scattered all over the region such that there was no
effective control.
 some sub-rulers started to rebel against Tohwechipi thus affecting the
political,social and economic structure of the state e.g resistance in
paying tribute thus affecting the economic status of the state

7. Civil wars and succession disputes

 The 18th and 19th century was characterised by civil wars thus worsening
the political situation of the state
 e.g. struggling for power among the Rozvi families: Changamire vs
Mutimhira family e.g Swabazvi Lukuluba remained jeosousy towards the
legal successors (Changamire dynasty)
 A weak economic base coupled with a weakening political system
resulted in a gradual loss of territory by the Rozvi i.e there was lack of
control over the vassal chiefs who paid tribute to Changamire dynasty.
 Such groups started to mount raids against the Rozvi people.

8. Depletion of resources

 e.g gold and ivory-trading items no longer able to sustain the Rozvi
economy.

STUDY QUESTION

1. Evaluate the view that Rozvi state was violently disrupted, though not
completely destroyed by the Nguni incursions.

15
IMPACT OF NGUNI INCURSIONS ON THE ZIMBABWEAN PLATEAU
OR SHONA SOCIETIES: A CASE OF ROZVI STATE 1830-1860
 The question is the extent to which some Nguni groups affected the
various shona/karanga groups in Zimbabwe up to 1860.
 The Nguni groups were brought about by the Mfecane, the great
disturbances of Southern Africa often associated with state formation in
KwaZulu Natal.
 In Zimbabwe, many historians think it brought to an end to the
Zimbabwean culture following extensive raiding and killings, absorption
of some people in to their groups.
 Many people are said to have been forced into hills and mountains to
seek refuge however some of these accounts have been exaggerated.
 The Nxaba group and Gaza Nguni arrived in the region first before 1830
and their effects are felt in Manyika, Tete and Sofala.
 Later groups arrived after 1831 but these too are hardly felt as they
fought among themselves and were moving rapidly across the plateaus
e.g Zvangendaba’s group.
 However, it was the south western regions that were badly affected e.g
Changamire Rozvi were overrun by Nguni and their state centred at
Danan’ombe and Manyanga were destroyed.
 The Rozvi eventually succeeded in driving away these groups but at
considerable loss to their army and leadership indicating the state was
not completely destroyed. but was shackened.
 The Ndebele arrived in 1840 but by that time there were no other Nguni
groups left in Zimbabwe except the Gaza-Nguni.
 The Ndebele occupied the kalanga in the south west and established a
considerable tributary area.
 The Ndebele impact on the local kalanga should not only be seen in
terms of raiding but acculturation (language) .
 By 1860, this process was already in motion such that the Rozvi/karanga
identities were no longer apparent.The groups involved were:--Ngwane-
Maseko-Ngoni, Zvangendaba-Ngoni,Nyamazana’ s group and Mzilikazi-
Ndebele.

16
  Each of these groups weakened shona societies in various ways though
the Ndebele are said to have inflicated the final and decisive blow.
 Beach says that the impact of Mfecane on Rozvi state has been
exaggerated and the question to ask is what was being exaggerated?
 Negative impacts as opposed to positive impacts.
 The question of raiding was raised and it became a problem among the
shona societies but it must be remembered that raiding was a way of life
of the Nguni groups even during Shaka’s time in Zululand but however it
did not generate such catastrophe.
 With any incursions, the process of dispossession, dispersions and
acculturations were inevitable.
 In the final analysis, shona societies were disrupted by Nguni groups
through constant raiding
 imposition of their dress,customs,language were effected for the
purpose of common identity thus shona societies were culturally
absorbed thus assuming Nguni identity.e.g Gaza dress and weapons
were brought in.
 This brought in a culture of raiding of weaker groups. Thus ,socially,
economically and politically, the shona societies were negatively
affected e.g cattle were raided by the Ndebele which was part of their
economy and it was also raiding which also affected their political
control of their sphere of influence e,g some shona placed themselves
under Ndebele influence possibly because of fear to be raided by them.
 This further created political division among the shona societies e.g
Nxaba restocked its human population and cattle by raiding the
Manyika, Teve area.

TRIBUTE PAYMENT

 Sometime force was used to those who rejected their.

 it must noted that the Rozvi economy was not destroyed but weakened.
 Ngoni invasions brought untold sufferings and destruction on Rozvi state
e.g villages were destroyed and thousands of people perished-some
excavations were carried out and some human bones were discovered
thus reflecting the extent of the destruction and violence to the state

17
 but however successive droughts could have led to similar extent of
destruction.
 It must be admitted that Nguni invasions disrupted their economic,social
and political life e.g agriculture and trade with the Portuguese

POSITIVE IMPACTS
1. New military skills of fighting were introduced along Zulu lines

2. Idea of centralisation of power, unity, and loyalty to the rulers was

demonstrated to the shona society by Mzilikazi.

 state formation process was also brought in by Mzilikazi as a state

builder i.e people of different cultural backgrounds were infused
together through inter-marriage and adoption of shona religion and
Ndebele language

3. New kind of unity was demonstrated though Ndebele society was stratified

4. Rozvi never came under Ndebele influence

 the Rozvi collapsed through the influence of Nguni groups but the shona
never came under the control of the Ndebele except those who lived
closer to their kingdom
 e.g the new changamire Tohwechipi successfully resisted Ndebele raids
who attempted to expand in Mashonaland but the struggle went up to
British invasion in 1890s.Those who fail to pay tribute to Mzilikazi were
the ones who were raided

5. Concept of peace was brought in by Nguni groups

 e.g sometimes the Ndebele made peaceful arrangements with the shona
e.g the Ndebele got youngmen to strengthen their army and in turn gave
the shona cattle but with no right ownership.The Ndebele did not
disrupt their trade with Portuguese but they slotted into the pattern of
shona long distance trade.
 It must be noted that Ndebele raiding was exaggerated by European
missionaries,explorers,traders to justify their existence in Zimbabwe

18
 MUTAPA STATE
ORIGIN AND RISE OF MUTAPA STATE

Introduction

 Scattered Portuguese records, archaeological and oral traditions

provided the foundation of our knowledge for the history of the Pre-
Mutapa period.
 It is noted that the Gokomere people were the first to live at Great
Zimbabwe.
 The multi-disciplinary approach enabled us to look at the history of pre-
colonial Zimbabwean people as a whole in order to deal with the
fundamentals of their civilisation, social, political, economic, cultural,
religious and technical practices.
 The history of Mutapa people has been traced via archaeology,written
records and oral tradition for example salt theory and hunting
expedition theory and totems.
 The approach has enabled us to see the African side of History from
within (Afro centric) thereby enabling us to write our own history not as
a desire for self grolification but as a method of looking at ou growing
awareness of ourselves and our indentity.
 It is essential to investigate the internal patterns first before searching
for external influences, e.g the Hungwe bird carvings discovered by
archaeologists reflected totems on their importance through oral
tradition and now a national symbol of modern Zimbabwe.
 Therefore, oral tradition may correct misconceptions from written
records but on the other hand, oral tradition noted that the shona were
aware of the value of minerals in their environment and developed
mining techniques.
 Black smithing was a great skill among the people of Great
Zimbabwe.Mutapa state is regarded as a conquest state i.e there was a
conquering army under Mutota in the Dande valley.

19
  It is argued that the state was an offshoot of Great Zimbabwe state but
however authors point out that the relationship between Mutapa and
Great Zimbabwe state was obscure or not clear. Little is known on how
Mutapa state came into being. Portuguese record sources could be used
to reconstruct its history but there is a problem of reliability of these
sources i.e 1420-1470 the dating is very inaccurate and unreliable.
 One has to rely on oral traditions collected during the 18 th and 19th
century.

Independent theory

 Some questioned whether Mutota existed or not especially Beach.

Abraham does not link Mutota with Great Zimbabwe but with Guruuswa
that is environmental term rather than a specific place because the
Mutapa dynasties are claimed to have been originated in Guruuswa.This
is referred as an independent theory which rejects an element of
migration of people to the North from Great Zimbabwe.
 Though, this theory sound more convincing considering the availability
of resources in the north, it lacks archeological evidence hence its
validity is questionable as possible explanation for its origin.

Migration theory

 The second version with regards to the rise and origin of the Mutapa
state is linked to Great Zimbabwe e.g evidence of similar stoneworks at
Chitakochangonya i.e Mutota’s capital i.e archaeological evidence
indicates its link with Great Zimbabwe in terms of similar stoneworks.
 According to archaeology, Great Zimbabwe’s culture had spread far
beyond its vicinity of its ruins and started to fall in the middle of the 14 th
century for reasons which are not clear.
 Mudenge says that it spread even as far as Mozambique coast and the
lower Zambezi.
 Despite archeological evidence, oral traditions also suggested that
factors like civil wars, overpopulation, decline in gold production,
shortage of salt, fall in trade, vastness of Great Zimbabwe state could
have led to the downfall of Great Zimbabwe hence marking the rise of a
new state quite similar to Great Zimbabwe in the north.

20
  It is suggested that some groups under Mutota started moving
northwards from Great Zimbabwe towards an area already in touch
with Great Zimbabwe.
 Oral traditions sources have given the version of the conquering army
from Great Zimbabwe under the leadership of Mutota thus
overpowering Tavara, Tonga in the north searching for salt.
 Its foundation was a gradual process through assimilation of the
conquered groups in the Dande area.Thus, environmental factors like
availability of good pastures, ivory, good fertile soils, good rainfall and
weak societies could have attracted this intruding group from Great
Zimbabwe to settle there.
 However, push factors such as deterioration in natural resources i.e
salt, gold, ivory, copper, and succession disputes, civil wars at Great
Zimbabwe could have forced some of Gumanye culture people to move
away in search of green pastures.
 The salt theory has been overused to explain the critical shortages of
most basic necessities in their way of life.Thus, both push and pull
factors could be used to explain the rise and origin of Mutapa state.
 In the final analysis, the well accepted version today is of the migratory
group from Great Zimbabwe with a strong army which was used to
conquer the weaker societies in the north e.g Tavara, Tonga.
 The rationale behind the acceptance of this version is the similarities of
stoneworks between Great Zimbabwe ruins with those at
Chitakochangonya.
 Thus, the change of environmental conditions at Great Zimbabwe could
have led people to abandon the area looking for new areas i.e shortage
of pastures, mineral resources, salt, firewood etc.

FACTORS FOR ITS EXPANSION

21
  When the group started to get settled, the expansion process started to
take shape under the leadership of Mutota and his successor’s e.g
Matope.

1. Installation of his relatives in charge of vast empire

 e.g Nyamhita i.e one of his daughters controlled the Handa district

2. Personal advantages

 Had some divine position from his ancestors i.e he was feared by his
people who saw him as a barometer of the condition of the state
 E.g a health king means a health state. This instilled an element of unity
based on fear (forced unity)

3. Alliance system

 Was used to expand the state i.e making vassal chiefs paying tribute in
form of gold and ivory in a peaceful manner.

4. Strong conquering army

 this enabled him to establish himself among the local people e.g
Tavara,Tonga hence consolidating his state

5. Marriage alliances

 This created more relatives and this approach is credited for more
relations with local people.

6. Availability of mineral resources, salt

 this promoted external trade and trade relations with foreigners

22
DOWNFALL OF MUTAPA STATE

The Mutapa state had largely declined before the arrival of the Portuguese
why?

1. Succession disputes of inexperienced Mutapas

 E.g Nyahuma-this affected the political stability of the state.Succession

disputes seemed to be one of the common problems prevailed in most
shona traditions and were not handled properly.
 This could have attracted foreign intervention hence facilitating its
downfall e.g Portuguese factor.

2. Civil wars

 There were civil wars among the Mutapa people as result of succession
disputes e.g Chikuyo against Nyamanda in the 1490s and Negomo vs
Chiputo in the 1550s.
 This division in the state weakened the political base of the state
 They weakened the moral fibre of the state and divided people.The
division within the state resulted in the creation of puppet rulers’ e.g
Mavura allying with Portuguese against fellow rulers.
 It was now a state within a state where Portuguese were controlling the
state through use African rulers.
 They intensified internal political division and disunity within the state.

3. Rebellions from vassal chiefs

 These included chiefs like Changa and Togwa of Guruuswa, laying the
basis of what was to become the Rozvi Empire.
 Thus, the rise of Rozvi mambos from the Mutapa group had a strong
bearing towards its downfall.
 Emergence of other strong chiefdoms like Uteve and Barwe offered
great challenge to its survival.

23
4. Incompetent leadership

 The incompetence leadership of Mutapa rulers were demonstrated by

Gatsi Rusere, Chioko, and Mavura whose weaknesses were manipulated
by the Portuguese to their advantages to interfere into the internal
politics thus creating a state within a state i.e planting the Portuguese
colony.
 The royal fire was made useless thus the vassal chiefs Madanda and
Uteve broke away.
 Thus, the state became too vast for young inexperienced and
incompetent leadership.Thus; weak rulers after Matope could not
effectively implement the centralised system of Mutapa.

5. Series of droughts

 This roughaged the state to its decline.

 There was also outbreak of epidemic and plagues which killed many
people- depopulation

6. Loss of Manyika, Teve, Danda provinces

 Had left the authority of Mutapa confined to Dande, Chidima and

Zambezi valley. From this, it can be argued that the Mutapa had lost a
large part of its territory in the 15th century.
 Its downfall was rather gradual as evidence by its loss of provinces.
 The Portuguese only arrived in the Empire in the 16 th century when the
state had already reduced and became weak.
 The Portuguese were only responsible for a fall of the small remnant of
the state.However; the Portuguese should not be completely dismissed
since they completed the process of decline of the state through their
intervention (social, political and economic aspects within the state)

24
FOREIGN INTERVENTION

1. Threats from the Portuguese

 Through charismatic and military expedition’s e.g Fransisco
Barreto in 1569 and Vasco Homen in 1574.
 These did not lead to the downfall of the state but their failure to
effectively penetrate the state encouraged other Portugueses to
come in dozens in order to plant a colony.
 The death of Gonzalo da Silveria really attracted Lisborn to take
some measures against the conservative elements of the Mutapa
people.
 This Portuguese missionary was killed because Christianity had
weakened the moral fibre of the state and this had divided
people.
2. Loss of land
 Their agricultural economy was paralysed through creation of
prazo system i.e large pieces of land were taken by the
Portuguese.
 This affected their economy based on crop farming.

3. Control of trade and mining

 Now being controlled by Portuguese.

 Portuguese were no longer paying tribute to Mutapa rulers.This
negatively affected the economy of Mutapa.

4. Intermarriage.

 Practised resulting in the creation of mulato population.Cultural

erosion was inevitable.The Portuguess used the chikunda army to
curb opposition and recruit cheap labour.

5. External threats from the Rozvi at Guruuswa e.g campaign of 1684-85.

 Was a crushing blow on the state in 1695 thus Portuguese joined

forces with the Rozvi against Mutapa

6. Division within the state

25
  Resulting in the creation of puppet ruler’s e.g Mavura Mhande.It
was now a state within a state where Portuguese were controlling
the state through use of African rulers.
 They intensified internal political division and disunity within the
state.

7. Exhaustion of natural resources through trade with Portuguese

 The Portuguese were actively involved in mining of mineral resoures

 Impact- depletion of resources.This negatively affected the economic
base of the state.

8. BSAC marked the final end of Mutapa

 state after the Portuguese gave in to fearing British authority in 1890

26
General early state formation in the
Zimbabwean plateau and its neighbours
 In the period before 1250 AD, there arose emergence of
early states in Zimbabwe and its neighbours.
 most of these states emerged in the dry environments
near the Limpopo and Kalahari desert e.g Mapungubwe,
Toutswe, Leopard Kopje and Great Zimbabwe State
 The common factor leading to the state formation was
cattle accumulation but one should take into cognisance
of the role of trade which speeded up the process of
state formation which had already begun.
 One of the earliest states to emerge in the south west
of the region was Toutswe around 700 AD and cattle
accumulation was the best possible explanation for its
rise.
 Environmental conditions in this regard played little
significance due little and erratic rainfall where
agricultural activities were less important.
 Again there were no indications for the importance of
trade because there were no gold deposits found. This
did not point much to the role of trade in the area
 Hall argues that although it is true that the rulers of
Toutswe state had controlled large herds of cattle, it is
difficult to see how this form of economic activity alone
could have enabled to facilitate state formation.

27
MAPUNGUBWE STATE
 Huffman also went to justify the trade theory that
Mapungumbwe state rose to prominence due to trade
with the coastal people i.e the Swahili people.Hall is up
to the claim that trade itself is not completely
satisfactory in explaining the rise of this state.
 Cattle accumulation continued to be a paramount
importance in explaining its rise.
EMERGENCE OF LEOPARD SOCIETY in the Zimbabwea
Plateau
 It is attributed to cattle accumulation
 it is argued that the area was occupied by immigrants
from either Angola/ or Botswana who were pastoralists
 evidence was that large number of cattle bones were
found in the area, all point to the importance of cattle
accumulation
 it is argued that cattle offered the earliest means of
exchange and by which wealth could be accumulated
 However, trade could also play a crucial role because of
the availability of ivory and gold in the south western
part of Zimbabwean plateau.
 The importance of agriculture and trade were still
questionable because the climatic conditions were less
favourable for crop cultivaton.

28
 GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE
Introduction

 It is the biggest and best known state of the many Madzimbabwes

structures scattered in the sub-Saharan Africa and in Zimbabwe in
particular.
 These Madzimbabwes share similar archaeological style with dry stone
walling.
 The stone structures seem to have been built for defensive purposes, to
show the powers of the kings, prestigious, ritual purposes, protection
and privacy.
 There is great controversy as to who actually built those stone structures
as well its purposes.
 There is also debate as to the major reasons for its rise and how it
declined as well as its economic system.It is located to the south-east of
Masvingo town.

ORIGIN OF GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

 There are various theories which were advanced on the origins and
construction of Great Zimbabwe State but in some instances,it was
deliberately distorted. E.g distortion is seen in those who have tried to
deny the local origins of state and point much to foreign influence.
 The debate here is that, Who built it?.There are theories which have
been advanced to possibly explain the people who built it but today,
there is no general consensus on who actually built it.
 The assumption was based on the view that anything good in Africa was
due to the work of whites. (Hamatic hypothesis
 -ie any good in Africa was subjected to the work of foreigners on the
basis that Africa is viewed as cradle of mankind while Asia was the cradle
of civilisation).

29
  It is believed that state was built by the Jews or Phoenicians without
much verification and analysis.
 Euro-centric historians base their arguments on the complexity of stone
structures, existence of foreign goods.
 However, archaeological findings and oral traditions leave no doubt that
they were of African creation. This is a striking example of the generally
held belief that African Negro had played a active part in history for
example, the Lemba who were multi-skilled particularly the Tavakare
clan of the Lemba who were the mansons and it is believed that they
were the designers and builders of stone structures.
 Afro-centric theorists argue that artefacts at Great Zimbabwe are similar
to contemporary shona (Karanga) and so many Madzimbabwes are
found throughout Zimbabwe and in parts of central Africa.eg Afro-
centric theorists like James,E. Mullan give credit to locals.

 Such assumptions made by colonial historians tended to create a

situation among professionals and nationalist historians to have detailed
research on the history of Great Zimbabwe state. This has created an
intellectual crisis. The writings of African historians as a counterview at
last were rather cosmetic in over glorifying African achievement
especially in this case of this state.

 It was more of attacking racism by racism thus making African past

unpleasant. It is agreeable that the idea of state formation could have
diffused from coastal areas into the interior by traders.

 The initial ideas of state formation had already begun though not
complex as one might suppose. Historians like Beach, Peter Garlake and
other archaeologists such as Getrude Caton-Thompson and Randall
Maclver came out in support of the local origins of GZ. Those against
local origins include Carl Mauch, James Theodore Bent, Ian Smith, Cecil
John Rhodes, Richard Hall,Joao de Baros

30
THE RISE AND EXPANSION OF GREAT ZIMBABWE STATE

INTRODUCTION

 There is no single factor which can be used to explain the rise

and expansion of the state.Several factors have been suggested
by historians basing their arguments on different historical
sources i.e others used oral tradition while others used
archaeological evidence and written records to advance their
arguments.

1. Downfall of Mapungubwe state.

 After about the 12th century, the Mapungubwe state was the
dominant formal political state in South Africa.
 It is generally regarded as the predecessor to Great Zimbabwe.
 The rise of Mapungubwe was associated with the introduction
of livestock between Limpopo and Shashe valley. Acquisition of
livestock facilitated the relatively stable economy that
warranted developments of settlements.
 The area between the shashe and Limpopo Rivers offered good
grazing grounds for livestock keeping.
 Gold was later introduced at Mapungubwe but it was not all
that significant.An important aspect of the economy was the
trade in ivory.
 The fall of Mapungubwe was a result of several factors. It is
believed that an increase in livestock led to deterioration of
grazing lands and ultimate inadequate food supplies for the
animals.
 The situation was worsened by periodic droughts and veld fires.
 There was an ultimate reduction in livestock productivity
hence the decision by the people to abandon the area.There

31
 was also change in trade routes as people migrated to other
parts of the continent.
 At that point in time, the disintegrating state meant that the
economy in that area was no longer sustainable at a time when
prices of gold have gone up.These chances were seized by the
people of Zimbabwe plateau as they had access to alluvial gold
which enabled them to take control of gold trade with the east
coast.
 In the process, the people at Geat Zimbabwe State controlled
markets that had belonged to Mapungubwe. With the
expansion in gold trade, the people of Great Zimbabwe
strengthened their political power especially at the time the
demand for gold was at its highest.
 The rulers at GZ started to build a bigger settlement area so as
to consolidate their political power.
 The rise of GZ coincided in the growth of Kilwa—a trading post
on the East African coast.
 Since the 12th century Kilwa had become a new city-state and
was ruled by Moslem dynasty called Shirazi who manipulated
and bought goods from the interior.
 GZ was one of the suppliers of trade goods.
 GZ was the most successful and largest of all states in Southern
Africa in trading activities with foreigners
2. Role of Trade (Trade theory)—the basis of the state’s economy

 The other argument is that GZ arose as a trading centre.

 Archaeologists have found evidence of important trade goods such as
ceramics, glass beads made from Persia which are evidence of external
trade.
 Trade brought new forms of wealth to the people of Great Zimbabwe
State.

32
  The weakness of this argument is that the state did not lie on the
famous trade routes e.g Sena-tete route and Zambezi-limpopo route.
 Again, the area had very little trading goods like gold, copper and ivory
but however, these trading items were available due to local trade with
the interior people and due to raiding through use of their strong army
and payment of tribute.
 Its strategic position enabled them to exploit the interior resources in
the western part of the region.
 Curtin points out that the fall of Mapungubwe’s external trade in ivory
and gold further north to the Zimbabwe plateau with its richer gold
deposits in the western Zimbabwe-led to the rise of the state as an
entreport or commercial centre which resulted in the accumulation of
new forms of wealth.
 This indicates the fundamental role of trade as one of the bases of
state’s economy. Pwiti concurs with Curtin that the direct fall of
Mapungubwe’s foreign trade with the coastal people –Arabs/Swahili
saw the rise of state.
 This suggests that there was no competition for this interregional trade
—i.e trade monopolisation-full control of the interior i.e producing
areas.
 Garlake views control of trade as the prime factor in the growth of the
state and main bases of its economy.
 It is expected to have played a part in its development i.e its importance
enabled concentration of people at GZ thus becoming an entreport than
a political centre.
 Trade brought new forms of wealth that intensified its political base and
social stratification which was already in existence----rich people gained
political power.
 Through trade, ideas of state formation could have been spread (Hamitic
hypothesis).Trade is seen an enabling factor for its growth, rise and
development.The state was already in existence.

3 .Strategic position of the state

 Location of the state is very questionable in relation to desired resources

.i.e gold and ivory.The area had little gold and ivory and most its trade

33
 items were through raiding the Iron Age people living in the western
part of the region where gold and ivory were plenty.
 the state used its military power to gain trade items.The army was also
used to enforce payment of tribute in form of gold and ivory.Thus,
external trade with coastal people helped to consolidate political
centralisation of the state which had already been achieved through
cattle accumulation.
 This indicates the diversity of its economy based on trade, tribute
payment, and cattle accumulation and raiding of weaker societies.
However, being strategically positioned with the coastal people, they
managed to acquire gold and ivory.Archaeological evidence turn to
prove this interregional trade by presence of Chineseware, Chinese
bowls, ceremics, beads etc.

NB/ It is believed that both theories—hamitic hypothesis and independent

theory with regards to the rise of the state complement each other e.g Africans
could have borrowed ideas to build such elaborate buildings(stoneworks)
similar to those in East African coast e.g Kilwa, Malindi.

3. Cattle accumulation/pastoralism---basis of the state economy

 Great Zimbabwe arose as a result of pastoralism.This argument is

convincing to a reasonable extent.
 There is large evidence of cattle keeping by large quantities of cattle
dung and bones excavated by the archaeologists in graves.Secondly, the
area had palatable grass which was suitable for cattle keeping and area
was tsetsefly free hence conducive for cattle keeping.
 Good climatic conditions were favourable for animal husbandry.The fact
that it was densely populated support the notion that there were lots of
cattle to sustain the population in terms of food hence promoting
population growth.
 the initial economic base of the state was cattle accumulation while
trade was an enabling factor for its further expansion.Trade promoted
concentration of people at GZ centre resulting in the emergence of large
community that required some kind of political control –i.e beginning of
leadership roles within the state.Some scholars argued that luxurious
goods had no relevance to the state’s expansion.
34
  David Birmingham says ‘the management of transhuman cattle economy
more than gold mining led to different forms of wealth and emergence
of kings’.
 Beach concurs that cattle enabled men to marry more wives who had
many children who helped to strengthen the military might of the
state.This cattle accumulation led to population growth, increase in
wealth and strengthen the military power that was used for raiding
purpose to acquire gold and ivory.
 Thus, state’s economy was so diverse and complex which complimented
each other for sustenance of the state.However, the major weakness of
this argument is that it fails to explain the role of ordinary people as
cattle ownership was a preserve for rich or ruling elite.

5. Crop farming

 Central to its economy was crop farming which led to population growth
and settled settlement.

6. The role of the army

 One of the arguments put forward was that Great Zimbabwe grew as a
result of militaristic activities which gave rise to the state.
 It conquered and absorbed weaker groups in the region.The army
enforced the payment of tribute to consolidate its economic power.

7. The role of religion

 one argument is that the state arose as a religious centre that was for
praise and worship (praising God through spirit mediums)
 e.g there were some symbolic birds dotted around the Hill signifying that
they practised religion which acted as a unifying factor.
 Supporters of this argument also associated the conical tower with
sheveron pattern on clay pots with religious activities thus the faith
theory based on oral tradition and archaeological evidence.

35
STUDY QUESTION

React to the view that Great Zimbabwe State had a diversified and complex
economy.

NB/ consider the role of the following in your discussion

1. Role of trade for its growth and development

 remains of copper bangles and beads indicating the existence of

external trade
 trade viewed as a new form of wealth to the locals
 sea-shells suggesting some indirect connections with the Indian
ocean
 Foreign goods brought in by traders as gifts to local chiefs so as
to foster trade relations with locals.
 List of variety of foreign goods verify the importance of trade
contacts not only with such areas as China, India,Middle East but
with other African region e.g iron gongs possibly made in Central
Africa.

2. Role of cattle accumulation

 evidence of hidden bones suggesting the domestication of animals and

these were more important as a source of meat
 Pit structures thought to have been used as cattle pens-i.e cattle
enclosues demonstrate the importance of pastoralism.
 Cattle bones discovered in graves demonstrating the religious
importance of cattle in their society.

3. Raiding

4. Crop farming

 old water furrows demonstrating their use of available water

resources
 presence of wide cultivation ridges covering hundreds of hactures of
valley soils

36
  Site was surrounded by a valley which contained agricultural terraces
e.g remains of seeds of cow peas; sorghum confirms rich agricultural
activities by the people.
 pottery remains suggesting that they were food producers
 remains of iron tools done to support agricultural technology

5. Mining

6. Tribute payment

7. Hunting

NB. Make use of historical sources to advance your line of thinking by citing
specific evidence to demonstrate their existence in the state e.g archaeological
evidence.Which one do you think was the most important base of the state’s
economy.Establish the contribution of each aspect of the state economy.

Controversy surrounding the purposes for builing Great Zimbabwe State

STUDY QUESTION

1 Respond to the view that Great Zimbabwe State was built by the Shona for
defensive purposes

In evaluating the purposes for building Great Zimbabwe State, one needs to
consider the archaeological evidence to support their lines of thoughts or
arguments.

Defensive purposes

 was built for defensive purposes but there is no tangible evidences that
the people at Great Zimbabwe were war-like in their lives.Possibly, the
stone walls were meant to protect the royal family and the king himself-
king’s residence was found at the center and possibly to protect valuable
goods such as gold.

Prestigious reasons

 was a symbol of power and emblem of prestige, honour and privacy

Religious purposes

37
  was built as a religious centre

An Expression of fertility and success

As a trading center or entreport

 archaeological evidence supports the role of trade e.g Chinese

bowls,iron gongs,beads ect

38
Reasons why the State declined as a centre of political power and
wealth during the 15th century.

Introduction
There are a number of possible factors that could safely account its demise

1. Environmental catastrophes e.g drought and aridity

 This really affected their economy based on farming –crop cultivation

and livestock keeping

2. Civil wars

 It should be stressed that neither written records nor archaeology has

been of much help in understanding the demise of the state but what is
clear is that from 15th century there was productive reduction of the
state following the emergence of new centres elsewhere on the
Zimbabwe plateau in the north.
 Perharps the rise of polites elsewhere challenged the authority of Great
Zimbabwe e.g Ingombe illede, Torwa, Mutapa.
 Civil war is a practical possibility but remains poorly documented or
completely unremembered in oral traditions as a cause for its demise.
 It must be noted that there is divergence of explanations regarding its
demise both as a town and centre of a powerful state.

3. Change in the environmental conditions i.e environmental degradation,

siltation, exhaustions of resources like salt, firewood, pastures,

 Its fall is closely linked to the change in the environment which occurred
sometime in the 15th century.
 Thus, ecological upheaval caused considerable stress to the people at
Great Zimbabwe State and its immediate periphery.
 However, this explanation remains largely inconclusive because neither
archaeological nor historical records are of much in telling us what led to
the fall of the state.
 Oral tradition refers to fall of the state to critical shortage of salt.

39
  This salt should be seen as an environmental factor rather than taking it
literally.Oral traditions have overemphasised to severe shortage of salt
but it alone could not have led to the fall of the state.
 Salt must be seen as an important item in the ways of life of people as
well as trading.
 It has been suggested that salt shortage mentioned by oral tradition may
indicate severe shortage of good pastures and food supply.
 Thus, the general shortage of salt may have disrupted people’s way of
life and trade.This explains why Mutota decided to move away due
north in search of salt in the Dande valley according to oral traditions.
 It must be noted that the general reduction of natural resources must
have been a gradual process which reached dangerous levels.It is
important to highlight the importance of trade and environmental
factors towards the downfall of the state.

4. Loss of control of external trade/change of traded routes

 If the status of the town of the state resulted from surplus wealth from
trade, one can argued that Great Zimbabwe state had lost the ability to
control trade to the north
 e.g the gold and ivory trade to the Sofala coast had shifted north from
Sub-Lundi valley towards the Zambezi valley in the north, just as it had
previously shifted from Shashe-Limpopo valley to the Save valley
marking the downfall of Mapungumbwe state.This could have caused
some people to move due north leading to the successive development
of Mutapa state.

5. Internal revolts/succession disputes

 One may speculate that competition within the ruling families may have
caused dispersion of people from the the state e.g.Mutota and small
group of people.
 He was an ambitious ruler who wanted to form his own state.—
succession disputes forced Mutota to move north with his followers
where he built a new state just similar to Great Zimbabwe state in terms
of stoneworks at Chitakochangonya hill ( role of archaeological
evidence)

40
6. Political size of the state

 Great Zimbabwe State became too vast –that it was unable to supply the
basic necessities of life to the people e,g food,wood,good pastures
 overpopulation caused by concentration of people at the center due
trading activities resulted in environmental degradation

7. Challenges of new states e.g Mutapa, Torwa or rise of new states

 As fewer and fewer goods moved through their hands (Gumanye culture
people), they were no longer able to channel benefits to their clients
 Where possible, their followers sought benefits elsewhere, e.g Mutapa.
 Thus, the rise of Mutapa and Torwa states have diverted and disrupted
the long standing markets of the people of the state e.g by 15 th century
GZ ceased to have commercial significance as this was verified by the
early Portuguese sources which were silent about the state in the early
16th century.

41
 SOURCES OF HISTORY
Introduction
 African or Zimbabwean history can be reconstructed through main
sources of history which are archaeology, written records and oral
traditions. Oral history concerns with the recent past or personal
collections while oral traditions are concerned with messeges passed
from one generation to another by word of mouth. These can be backed
by linguistics and anthropology -as subjects of art of language and the
study of living beings respectively

Archaeological evidence

 This is a form of unwritten records concerned with remains of man’s

past i.e artifacts obtained through excavation.
 It refers to the scientific study of artifacts or fossils.
 It is the study of human history and pre-history by excavations of sites
and analysis of physical remains e.g pottery, tools, human bones, beads,
jewellery and metal remains.
 No foreign writers visited the interior of Zimbabwe and people during
the pre-colonial period had no knowledge of writing. They did not write
any book concerning their hstorry. This suggests that we have to rely on
unwritten evidence i.e oral tradition and archaeology.
 the history of pre-colonial states such as Great Zimbabwe State and
Mutapa may come from archaeological evidence through their material
remains e,g knowledge from old bits of pottery have been useful as sen
in telling about our early iron age period. Cattle bones in given sites may
suggest that people were cattle herders.
 Remains of iron tools at some Iron Age sites e.g Gokomere, Ziwa and
Mabven suggest importance of mining. Pottery found at these sites
clearly indicates that they were cultural communities who probably
cultivated grains and beans. However, triangulation of sources is a
necessity in an effort to come up with objective history of this past and it
helps to reduce bias or prejudice on Portuguese and Arabic records.

42
  Around 200-300 AD, farming settlements appeared south of the
Zambezi.These villages were associated with a number of pottery
traditions which suggest not only settled communities but also shared
identities.
 They grew crops, kept livestock and used iron.Their appearances marks
the inception of the Iron Age in Zimbabwe.
 Whether this culture came from north as a result of Bantu dispersal or
developed locally from the later Stone Age cultures-is still debatable.
However, evidence for the early iron age is known from such sites as
Kadzi (northern Zimbabwe), Ziwa (Nyanga, Eastern Zimbabwe),
Gokomere and Mabveni (southern Zimbabwe)
 E.g the later possessed sea-shells suggesting some indirect connections
with the Indian Ocean during the first half of the first millennium AD.
 The pottery found at these sites clearly suggests that they were
agricultural communities (food producers) who probably cultivated
grains and beans.
 This further supported by the location of the sites which seem to favour
fertile soils near streams as in the case in northern Zimbabwe. These
communities were basically subsistence farmers and also kept livestock.

Archaeological evidence that represents an agricultural society

Ziwa as a case study

 Ziwa complex was an early Iron Age farming community which existed
from around 1300 AD.
 pottery remains dated 16th and 17th century
 remains of agricultural seeds which were probably grown by the people
 remains of iron tools done to support agricultural technology
 ruined stone built homesteads used as defensive forts
 pit structures thought to have been used as cattle pens as well as
homesteads
 old water furrows demonstrating their use of available water resources
 presence of wide cultivation ridges covering hundreds of ha of valleys
soils
 cattle bones in graves indicating religious importance of cattle in these
early societies
43
ARCHAEOLOGICAL EVIDENCE OF EXTERNAL TRADE

Great Zimbabwe State as a case study

 There was also archaeological evidence that external trade was practised
by these societies with coastal people e.g presence of sea-shells, beads,
ceramics whose origin is Asia have been discovered at Great Zimbabwe.
 However, carbon dating has made possible to give approximate date for
many living things or sites occupied in the past.
 Archaeological records can be used to show trade contacts and
interactions between societies in the pre-history of Great Zimbabwe
state.
 Much evidence has been mainly obtained from archaeology.Excavations
at Great Zimbabwe in 1903 produced a variety of assorted finds of
goods.
 These were found in several enclosures.Some of the goods were dated
back to the 13th and 14th centuries-goods consisted of Persian bowls,
Chinese dishes, iron lamp holders, copper chains, rings.
 These foreign goods may have been brought to Zimbabwe by traders as
gifts for chiefs to promote good trade relations.A variety of glass
Beads(yellow,green,blue),brass wire,sea-shells iron wire,axe,chisels were
most likely trade items from foreign traders.
 However, local goods such as ivory, iron gongs, gold wire and beads,
soapstone dishes were found at Great Zimbabwe but appear to have
been manufactured elsewhere in the region.
 The list of trade goods testifies that people of Great Zimbabwe had trade
contacts not only with such areas as China, India and Middle and Near
East but with other African regions such as Central and Eastern
Africa.Iron gongs were of Africa but certainly not made in Zimbabwe.
 They were probably made in Central Africa. However, some of the
traded items were found elsewhere e.g in some graves at Ingombe IIIede
on the banks of the Zambezi River.
 All these give evidence that the people in Great Zimbabwe took part in
regional and inter-regional trade.
 Thus; archaeological records are used to show contacts and interactions
between societies in Pre-history of Zimbabwe.

44
WHAT CAN ARCHAEOLOGY DO?

 can tell history of pre-colonial Zimbabwe especially when studying the

period where ther was no written records e.g case of Great Zimbabwe
 Can classify pieces of pottery into similar styles, each new style then
interpreted as evidence of new migration (indicates signs of indentity)
Thus, content of archaeological finding is important since it provides
reasonably accurate dating and speaks for itself.
 contibuted a lot in the form of artifacts e.g pottery, tools,
skeletons.These are silent witness to man’s past but this depends on the
archaeologist’s interpretation
 It can be precise in dating as long as artefacts are found.
 It furnishes documents that can not speak for themselves e.g has been
useful in unearthing the pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.
 Social activities such as burial systems, pottery making, farming, religion
are usually best explained using archaeology.
 can tell the economic bases of the people e.g agricultural activities and
trade who lived at a particular site
 Can also tell the approximate date of the existence of particular culture
of people through carbon dating.

LIMITATIONS OF THIS SOURCE

 Contribution of this source is weighed down by the fact that it neglects

the political and other cultural aspects e,g language, hierarchy of
dynasty but may be obtained from oral traditions.
 Can not tell accurate dates
 Can not tell language and religion of the people as well as their names
unless there are inscriptions on an artefact. e.g Great Zimbabwe,
Mapungubwe were given by later people.
 Historical knowledge from archaeological evidence is not accurate
because its history is derived from conclusions of past remains and it is
possible that these conclusions could be wrong.e.g artifacts are silent

45
 witness to man’s past but however, this depends on the archaeologist’s
interpretation.
 artifacts can be destroyed by weather e.g evidence can be destroyed by
floods
 expensive to use in Africa
 information can be scanty and incomplete e,g no names are provided
and even religion

WRITTEN RECORDS

 These are pieces of evidence found in national

archives,libraries,textbooks,Magazines, newspapers (processed evidence
or secondary sources)
 unpublished papers such as reports, minutes, treaties, diaries
(unprocessed evidence)-primary sources.
 Rock paintings can also be classified under written records e.g on caves
during the later Stone Age and left many traces of their activities.These
are silent written records e.g depicted animals which were hunted and
tools used.These sources are useful where Africans had no contact with
whites’ e.g Arabs, Muslims, and Portuguese.

PORTUGUESE AND ARABIC RECORDS

 Written documents written on the pre-colonial societies by Arabs or

Portuguese who were ignorant of some of the Shona customs hence
tended to be biased.
 Documents became very useful after the arrival of the Portuguese
because they had direct contact with the shona people through trade.
 The earliest written sources referring to the Zimbabwean plateau came
from the earliest Arab traders/visitors but the Portuguese came later to
trade with the shona.
 However, some of those who visited the Mozambiquean coast recorded
second hand information about the circumstances of the interior.
 They gathered information from earliest traders’ e.g Swahili/Arabs who
had initially ventured or others who had encountered the communities

46
 of a Zimbabwe plateau personally e.g the most important sailing source-
manual by Ibn Madjid written sometime between 1475 and 1489.
 This source gives us the idea of what was known of the Sofala region and
the hinterland. However, this source is repetitive and confusing because
it does not specifically mention Great Zimbabwe and Mutapa states.This
demonstrates that written records of these early Europeans were not
useful enough to account the pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.
 Reference to GZ is found in Portuguese sources but these are clearly
second hand accounts.
 The Swahili traders had narrated them e.g Joa and Barros. In this light,
these sources are rather limited in that they rely heavily on the
information supported by others (Arabs).
 This support the idea that the Portuguese recordings are not reliable
with regard to our pre-history i.e human element should not be ruled
out such motive and interests of the writers.
 Besides that Portuguese were well established in the interior until 1630-
1640s.
 They only made sporadic references to the Mutapa state. Thus, written
sources of Portuguese and Arabs have both limitations and strengths
referring to Zimbabwe plateau prior to 1870. Though Portuguese
sources made references to GZ and Mutapa states, their sources should
be treated with much caution because their sources are second hand
information.

LIMITATIONS OF WRITTEN RECORDS

 Written records like any other source may be prone to abuse by the
writer or the historian i.e informants select what to write and what to
leave out.
 the information may be distorted to advance one’s agenda i.e can
present a one sided perspective
 Illiterate classes can not use the source
 Important information may be left out due human element i.e there is
high element of subjectivity.These weaknesses will be rectified through
use of other sources.

STRENGTHS OF WRITTEN RECORDS

47
  Accounts of Arabs, Portuguese on Mutapa and GZ or missionaries are
important bedrock of pre-colonial history but we should be aware of
the biases embedded in these documents .e.g Portuguese accounts of
central African states have played the foundation from which other
sources built on.
 Available only where Africans had contact with whites.
 Are created for larger number of audiences and widely distributed.
 Are considered to be more reliable for they combine in them
information gathered through other sources.
 once written, they are not subject to change and therefore most
reliable
 provides dates
 information last for a long time if the documents are well kept thus it
can be passed from generation to generation
 collected data is relatively accurate
 Clear records of dates, names and events.

ORAL TRADITION

 The task of historian of Zimbabwe history has a lot of problems. In

contrast to Asia, Europe or North America where history is well recorded
but Africa south of Sahara has short of written history.
 This suggests that African historians should rely on oral
traditions.Vansina describe the oral traditions as reliable if all
collaborated by other sources of history such as written records from
early European travellers such as Arabs, Portugueses and Muslims or
Swahili traders and archaeology.
 This meant that oral tradition on its own is not reliable for the study of
pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.
 Thus; oral traditions can never be relied upon with any certainity as a
true account of events because nothing is known of these eye witnesses
to those those who subsequently transmitted the information. Oral
traditions help to fill the gaps of written records and without oral
traditions one would know very little about our pre-history of
Zimbabwe.In this light, oral tradition has a part to play in the
48
 recnstruction of the past e.g they can correct other perspectives e.g
African had no history because of scanty recorded information.
 This is totally wrong because foreigners wrote our history with racial bias
in such way to justify their existence.
 Oral traditions are verbal testimonies or reported statements about the
past and can be treated as historical archives that spelt out a wealth of
information relating to past events e.g pray songs, poems about lineages
and often recited on shona tradition.
 Oral traditions are messages or information about the past transmitted
by word of mouth over generations.
 Free testimonies are messages passed by the word of mouth. Eye-
witness account is the most of the oral tradition about pre-colonial
Zimbabwe recorded by Europeans and had a lot of inaccuracies.
 Oral tradition complements other sources such as archaeology, written
records, anthropology and linguistic evidence.
 In other words,a multidisciplinary approach should be used.Ki-Zerbo
states that oral tradition provides cloth and other sources add bone and
flesh

Weaknesses of Oral tradition

 Precaution need to be taken to make sure that material of oral sources

are carefully sorted and sifted.
 Chronologically limited or has problem of chronology and dating-lacks
chronological references and sequence of events.
 It is subjected to loss of memory and preservation of oral history
depends on the powers of memory of individuals.
 It is subjected to bias or distortation and is prone to addition or
substraction of information to suit story teller.
 Oral history fails to give accurate dates for specific events
 It tends to ignore small communities or figures and only concerned with
great people e.g kings.
 Oral tradition can not extend for more than 500 years dating back as
according to Thomas.
 Thus, time depth is critical as oral traditions in Zimbabwe does not go
beyond four centuries.Most common traditions are often political

49
 identified with dynastic groups some of which are part of large state
systems e.g Mutapa,Great Zimbabwe state etc.
 Traditions often contain myths relating to origins of their societies e.g
some of these traditions relate to movements of shona groups to their
present locations and some traditions carry environmental information
mentioning events that occurred at a time when certain areas were
forested than the present.
 Some of this information carries historical significance but the problem is
their timelessness.
 Thus, oral traditions can not give acomplete picture of the pre-colonial
past hence the need to use other sources in the reconstruction of our
past such as written sources and archaeology.

Strengths of Oral tradition

 Oral history is of great value when used alongside with other sources
such as archaeology, written records, rock painting etc. It can
supplement or correct written records
 Thus, oral tradition is complementary source which plays a central role
in the reconstructing our pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.
 Provides first hand information or evidence if it is based on eye-witness
accounts.
 It is participative. The hearer can keep on asking questions to the story
teller for clarifications.
 it puts flesh on the bones of the past e.g archaeological evidence
 Major source in illiterate societies that could neither read nor write i.e it
is a democratic source i.e illiterate people have access to it.
 It is a living museum of social culture stored up by people who were
purported to have no written records.

STUDY QUESTION

1. Examine critically the sources that have been used in reconstructing the
Pre-colonial history of Zimbabwe.

2. Justify the use of a multidisciplinary approach in the study of Zimbabwe’s

history before 1450.

50
3. Why should oral tradition continue to be used to reconstruct the history of
pre-colonial Zimbabwe despite its weaknesses?

51
 THE NDEBELE STATE

INTRODUCTION

 The Ndebele state came into being as a result of Mfecane wars

generated by Shaka, the Zulu in Nguniland.
 It was regarded as a migrant state because most of its people became
part of the state during their migration process from South Africa.
 Were assimulated into the original Khumalo clan?
 The groups included the Sotho and Tswana who formulated their
distinctive class known as the Enhla while the original ruling class was
described as the Zansi.
 The final group to be absorbed when the Ndebele finally settled in the
present day Zimbabwe were the Shona and Kalanga-were referred as
the Hole.
 Thus, the Ndebele society was a stratified with distinctive social classes
of different cultural backgrounds.Mzilikazi, being the leader of the group
managed to cement these different groups despite their different
cultural backgrounds into one state and unified them following the
Ndebele culture though they adopted some cultures of other absorbed
groups.
 The Ndebele established their state in the area and continued to
assimilate some of their neighbours and forcibly asked them to pay
tribute as form of showing allegiance to the king.

Branches of Ndebele economy

 Most European scholars had deliberately distorted the basis of the

Ndebele economy.They argued that the Ndebele were nomads and their
survival essentially depended on raiding.
 It must be noted that the society was based among other things on
raiding and was used as a way of life since the days of Shaka.
 The end of raids would mean the change of Ndebele society based on
raiding which was rather difficult to achieve.
 The end of raids might mean the end of both Mzilikazi and Lobengula’s
power and authority.

52
  This implies that raiding as an economic system of the Ndebele economy
was part and parcel for its survival.
 For Ndebele to give up raids meant complete economic re-organisation
but both leaders were not strong enough for that and certainly not
ready for the idea.
 Raiding was done to re-assert their power.
 It can be inferred that raiding though not their backbone of their
economy, was essentially part of its economy.
 However, the assertion that raiding was essentially backbone of the
Ndebele economy is not true because the basis of the backbone of the
Ndebele economy was crop farming and cattle keeping.
 Raiding was only carried out during the migration from Zululand to the
present day Zimbabwe and again raiding was carried out in the initial
years of the Ndebele settlement in the 1840s
 Later on, the Ndebele developed a mixed economy where cattle keeping
and crop farming were the backbone to their economy.
 Thus, one need to appreciate that raiding was not only an economic
system but a political one and raiding was a political practice from
Nguniland.
 Raiding was simply a way of life of Nguni groups and it was done out of
need, for example they raided cattle to supplement their loss of cattle
due to lung diseases,
 They raided young men in order to build their Ndebele army which was
more instrumental in maintaining order, peace and stability within the
state as well as used in raiding expeditions.
 They also raided young women in order to build their their state. Grains
were raided in order to supplement their food. Again, raiding was
condemned by both Mzilikazi and Lobengula because it disrupted
peaceful co-existince with their neighbours.
 It was not done regularly but sometimes was used as a punitive measure
to those people who refused to pay tribute to the state.Therefore,
raiding played various functions and in that it can not viewed much as
one of the backbone of the Ndebele economy.

53
  It is not fair to say the Ndebele economy was essentially a raiding
economy.There were other various branches of Ndebele economy that
sustained the lives of the Ndebele in the region.These included
 crop farming
 cattle keeping
 trade
 tribute payment
 hunting and gathering
 mining
 fishing
 basketry
 The above economic activities became central after they settled in the
western part of the present day Zimbabwe, for example, raiding was
done during agriculture off season when the Ndebele were not busy
with their farming activities.
 This shows that raiding was their part-time economic activity.
 It must be noted that Ndebele economy was highly diversified.For
instance,both men and women were actively involved in crop farming –
grew crops like beans,sorghum,groundnuts,melons,maize etc.
 Men cleared the fields and looked after cattle while women cultivated
the fields.Cattle being the main basis of the economy was highly valued
e.g cattle was a symbol of wealth and was used in marriage
ceremonies,rituals and special occasions like inxwala ceremonies.
 Above all, cattle was a source of meat, milk and skins.By 1893, the
Ndebele had large herds of cattle and were being loaned to his people.
 This signified that cattle keeping rather raiding were essentially the
backbone of Ndebele economy.However, again, it is very unfair to
dismiss completely raiding as being as non-economic activity because
the area in which the Ndebele settled was affected long periods of
droughts.
 This meant that it was not possible to produce enough food for the
growing population.This suggests that the Ndebele were forced to go
and raid their neighbours for food and cattle to supplement their
economy.

54
  They had to develop their trade relations with locals in order to
supplement their basic necessities of life.This indicates that the basis of
the Ndebele economy complex and highly diversified.

Ndebele-Shona Relations

 Relations between Ndebele and Shona can be analysed from a mythical

persepective and also from a realistic perspective.The initial relations of
the Ndebele soon after their arrival in Zimbabwe were largely depended
on raiding the shona for cattle, grain and manpower.Raiding was
rampant during Mzilikazi’s reign but later on their relations greatly
improved as evidenced by the following:
 assimulated shona were no longer raided
 shona chiefs could freely pay tribute and were not raided but the rogue
ones like Chivi and Nemakonde were punished
 those on the periphery of the Ndebele state were left alone on
condition that they respected the call by the Ndebele king to provide
labour
 Some areas in the region did not experience any raids from the
Ndebele.
 The Ndebele depended on the Njanja for iron implements and
mishonga/miti or medicines from Mberengwa
 However, the Ndebele were not very superior especially after long
hours of walking on foot e.g episodes of the Ndebele defeats in
Chirumanzu
 Ndebele-shona relations also proved to be cordial when they both
fought against imperialist presence in 1896 i.e Chimurenga 1
 There was changing nature of the Ndebele relations with the
shona.Raiding was not a permanent feature of Ndebele economy.

Failure of the missionary activities in the Ndebele state

 the Ndebele were unwilling to accept Christianity because they were

economically self-sufficient
 had a strong religion and centralised political system
 Ndebele militarism
 conservative nature of Ndebele society

55
  inexperienced and tactlessness of the missionaries in dealing with the
Ndebele
 security considerations that are Ndebele especially the king, lobengula
was suspicious of the intentions of the missionaries and whites in
general
 Christianity despised their customs and beliefs such as polygamy.

56
 LOBENGULA AND THE NDEBELE NATION

The nature of lobengula’s response to European penetration/encroachment

 The Ndebele attitude towards white intruders (Boers, Germans,

Portuguese, British)
 lobengula and his army resisted colonisation either by British or
Boers
 Several factors explain the Ndebele attitude but it all depended on
where one puts emphasis and E.Stokes and R. Brown emphased view
that lobengula’s lobengula position in policy in general was
influenced and determined by the nature of the Ndebele society and
their general expectations i.e pressure from below.
 While this view is reasonable to some extent, it is a objectionable
because on his part, lobengula while taking these pressures into
account, he seemed to be genuinely interested in keeping Ndebele
sovereignity.
 While historians tend to emphasise on one view,he failed to resist
because of his association to imperialism.Lobengula appeared to
have followed the middle of the road polcy i.e fence sitting policy and
could not afford to resist or start to collaborate.

POPULAR PRESSURE FROM BELOW

 Lobengula’s position as a new king though fairly strong, he was

rather insecure and his power was surrounded by controversy.
 After the death of Mzilikazi in 1868, the state was divided into
two factions thus the king had problems in determining his policy
and of coarse he had to take into account the expectations and
demands of that faction that demanded him to be in power.
 However, some favoured Nkulumane.Lobengula was in no way in
which he could depart from Mzilikazi techniques of welcoming
missionaries and traders but at the same time restricting some of
their activities in a peaceful co-existence.

57
Military Factor

 The Ndebele army had been largely misunderstood i.e some

instisted that they bitterly resisted white penetration because
they were aware that white settlement would interfere with their
raiding activities.
 However, pressure from below i.e the army should not be
discounted.The amajaha were rather impulsive and could demand
that lobengula should allow them to deal with the white problem
through direct confrontation so that they could settle white
problem once and for all.
 Being pragmatic, lobengula continued to moderate these
demands and remained opposed to the conversion of his people
to Christianity probably because he was aware of the fact that it
would lead to a destruction of his state.
 One has the feeling that his policy was in line with that of
Mzilikazi.It can be argued that Mzilikazi did not want to oppose
the wishes of his people thus lobengula was following a status
quo.
 The other controversial issue is that the Ndebele forced lobengula
to resist because they were self –confident.The position of
strength led them to a position of resistance.
 Their military success was quite famous in Zululand but what can
not be proved is whether this self-confident could be
paraded/displayed to the imperialst forces.
 We are also aware that despite the impulsive forces may not have
been prepared to square up with imperialist forces i.e type of
weapons used and training. To sum, the Ndebele therefore might
have been speaking of pride and independence than overconfince

Lobengula’s real position with regards to his resistance

58
  Lobengula resisted not because he was overconfident but
because he wanted to preserve Ndebele independence.He
appears to have understood the fact that imperialism meant
the end of the Ndebele independence.Even though Khama’s
people had been strengthed by European protection, he used
Khama as a good example where people would deprive of their
independence. Having followed events in Zululand in 1879, he
was quite aware that collaboration was dangerous and in fact
lobengula wanted to be left alone. He wanted to form a Chinese
isolation e.g Lobengula granted a mining concession to Thomas
Baines at Tati area (Tati Treaty).
 This demonstrates his indirect resistance. It was to be noted
that Tati was located in a disputed area between Ngwato and
the Ndebele. If he wanted to cooperate he should have allowed
them direct in his state.Despite this, lobengula continued to
observe a strict law against prospecting whites in his area.

IMPERIALISTS LIES

 As the scramble for Zimbabwe intensified,other unscruplus sought

to discredt each other in lobengula’s eyes.Lobengula soon realised
that they were telling lies to him and Samkange agues that
lobengula ‘s problem was not only what to do with the whites but
also uncertain in the propaganda polcy made by each group.
 He resisted because he knew that these promises were calculated
into inducing him in a favourable agreement as he got more and
more in the whitemen’s diplomacy with the Great White Queen.
 Having realised a trick was being played for him; he also
developed his own diplomacy. It became common for lobengula
to resist what he had said earlier claiming that he was illiterate.
 Lobengula hoped that concession seekers would get tired and
loose hope.After all, we can not ignore the pressure applied t him
by lotshe to counteract lobengula’s act. Rhodes bribed lotshe so
can we say lobengula resisted or he was trying to clear his name.

The Extent of Lobengula’s complicity or involvement in wrong doing

59
  The issue of whether lobengula accused in placing Zimbabwe
under colonial rule in 1890 or whether he can be exonerated is a
controversy.
 It is not easy to place a blanket on lobengula or is it easy to take
him out of the case.Lobengula seemed to have been stuck as he
tried his best for his people e.g he used a trick of playing whites
against each other denying any knowledge to the extent of the
treaties he signed thus giving in a little at a time so as to avoid
open confrontation and protesting to the highest authority to the
Great White Queen.
 In mitigation, lobengula tried hard not to hand over his country
but to get the best out of it was almost impossible.
 Manson notes that lobengula was determined to cede no
sovereignity but to avoid war and give up the least that would
enable him to keep what remained.
 However, one mistake that we make would assessing lobengula is
to judge him using our current standards and values.Signing of
Grobler treaty was to keep good relations with the Boers.If we
were to accept this explanation, it is because he benefitted by
keeping old boundaries of the state.
 It must be noted that each time the whites tried to manipulate
lobengula through written documents; he constantly denied their
interpretations claiming that he was illiterate.
 Whether this was his trick or not he re-asserted his independence
through the signing of Grobler treaty and Moffat treaty. This can
not be taken seriously as an element of colonisation of the country.
 By the very fact that these treaties or Tati treaty amounted to
nothing, it is deduced that lobengula’s intentions were to keep the
political independence of his state.
 On the Rudd concession, lobengula emphasised that there was
great disparity between the written agreement and the verbal
agreement indicating that he did not want to place his country
under colonial rule.
 He continued to reject what was levelled against him but some of
his denials would no longer hold water because the circumstances

60
 surrounding him had changed. It appears that by 1888 lobengula’s
biggest problem was no longer what to do with whites but who
amongst of them to trust. The area was now infested with
concession seekers and the Great White Queen said ‘they sat like
hungry dogs around a bone......’the signing of the Rudd Concession
was the turning in the occupation of Ndebele kingdom. His motive
was to choose one dependable group which would give him the
best terms.
 Mary Stocker says ‘Lobengula’s mark on the Rudd Concession can
be seen as an attempt to neutralise white penetration. It was made
to scare off the rest of concession seekers. This appeared to be in
line with his policy of giving in little at a time.Quite possibly, he
may not have been aware of the contradiction that in an attempt
to give little at a time, he was giving too much.
 Mary Stocker says ‘lobengula had now shifted from a policy of
accommodation to that of cooperation with whites. It is argued
that lobengula choose to cooperate with one group in order to
serve the state in the manner of Khama of Bechuanaland and
Lewanika of Barotseland had done.It is argued that they were
driven into this by the fact that Khama and Lewanika were getting
stronger and stronger while the Ndebele state was fallng apart.
 This is doubtful because lobengula never admired Khama and
Lewanika’s actions. Lobengula was aware of what happening
around him e.g Lotshe was killed by him in order to appease the
anger of his people.
 In other words, lobengula signed Rudd Concession to get
protection against his people who opposed him. Mary Stocker says
‘if you go against me, i will have to call the whitemen to help me’

THE EXTENT OF THE RUDD CONCESSION 1888

 It is highly debatable especially when taking interpretation by

lobengula on one side and Rudd on the other side. Lobengula
continued to insist on one hole (verbal agreement) and resisted
the written agreement claiming that he was illiterate.

61
  It appears that the Rudd concession may not have been fully
explained to lobengula in its written form.
 Lobengula argued that the document was premature. He said ‘ i
told them to bring what they will give and i will show them
what i will give’ This suggests that the actual deal had not been
clear.By insisting on verbal agreement and killing of
lotshe,lobengula was trying to appease the anger of his people.

VALIDITY OF RUDD CONCESSION

 Both in law and practice, the Rudd concession does not appear
valid. T.M. Rushwaya argues that ‘the terms of international, the
Rudd concession was a fraud’ this suggests that the Royal Charter
of 1889 was based on wrong foundation.

LOBENGULA’S ACTIONS IN FACILITATING THE COLONISATION OF ZIMBABWE

 Signing of treaties e.g Grobler treaty , Moffat treaty, Rudd Concession

and Tati treaty
 Allowing missionaries in his kingdom e.g Charles Helm
 His association with Europeans e.g Lippert concession (Land
concession with Germans)
 Restraining his impi to fight whites
 Adopting his father’s policy

62
 OCCUPATION OF ZIMBABWE

The Berlin Conference of 1884-85

 The conference held in Germany was meant to ensure peaceful partition

of African continent by European powers namely Britain, France,
Germany, PortugaL etc.
 These European powers conflicted in the Congo region.
 Thus, open conflict in non-European areas was avoided more largely as
result of Bismarck‘s diplomacy but had much pressure from Germans
who felt that the country was being left behind in the colonial race.
 Bismarck responded by a change of his attention in Europe but in the
interest of keeping Germany at peace, thus he took the lead in calling
the conference in 1884.
 The focus of the conference was on sphere of influence of each
European power over Africa.
 What prompted the calling of this meeting was the Congo issue where
most European states had interests in the region; this could have caused
unnecessary conflicts.
 The results were that the Congo Free State was set under King Leopold
of Belgium.
 It was agreed that there should be fair treatment of local people, fair
trade practices among nations, free navigation of Niger and Congo rivers
for all nations and doctrine of effective occupation was to be applied by
every state in order to avoid unnecessary conflicts.
 A phase of division of Africa was achieved with great peace between
great powers but there were some difficulties between Italy and France
over Tunisia, Britain and France over Egypt and Britain and Germany
over East Africa.However, these challenges did not result in a war except
the crushing defeat of the Italians at the battle of Adowa in 1896.

Results of the Conference in the colonisation

 Left the whole of Africa vulnerable to European occupation

 Doctrine of effective occupation was to be applied fully by any power in
Africa to avoid unnecessary conflicts.

63
  n the case of Zimbabwe’s occupation, this speeded up rivalry between
Rhodes and Boers from South Africa to grab the Second Rand north of
the Limpopo R.
 Both parties took significant steps to make concessions with Lobengula
to have influence in the area e.g Rhodes representing the British gvt
took significant steps towards implementing the doctrine of effective
occupation by sending J.S Moffat to negotiate a friendship treaty with
Lobengula,signing of the Rudd Concession in 1888,obtaing the royal
charter from the Great Queen,seeking financial and political from his
gvt,formation of BSAC, orgainising the Pionner column and the final
destruction of the Ndebele state by 1893-4.
 All the steps were made possible as way of fulfilling the doctrine of
effective occupation of the country.
 The invasion of Mashonaland by the Pionner column was a partial
fulfilment of the doctrine and the invasion of Matebeleland marked the
final implementation of the doctrine.
 It can be noted that the Berlin conference of 1884 speeded up the
process of colonisation of Zimbabwe by Rhodes who feared other
concession seekers who attracted to this region because of its abundant
resources such as gold, wildlife, good pastures, good soils and it
provided the missionary route from Cape town to Cairo which was
Rhodes’s dream of painting the whole Africa red.
 much pressure was given to lobengula after the conference by
concession seekers and the rush for lobengula to put his signature may
include
 the intention to occupy an area was to be made clear
 effective occupation of territories
 signing of treaties and publicising them in newspapers to avoid clashes
over the same territory
 lobengula signed the following treaties before the Rudd Concession-
Moffat treaty,Grobler treaty e.g Grobler treaty-caused panic to Rhodes
and led to signing of Moffat treaty
 e.g Moffat treaty limited lob’s decision making power in foreign policy

64
Grobler Treaty 1887

 This treaty caused much panic to Rhodes since the Boers had created a
friendship with Lobengula.
 This led Rhodes to send Moffat, a missionary to go and negotiate a
treaty of friendship with Lobengula.This treaty was meant to cancel the
Grobler treaty of Boers.Thus, the Berlin conference intensified
compettion amongst interested concession seekers to claim their areas
of interests quickly as evidenced by Rhodes with the Boers from South
Africa.

RUDD CONCESSION

 was also to obtain Royal Charter

 used to form the BSAC and Pioneer Column
 facilitated the actual occupation
 used to put a bay against other competitors
 there was cheating on the one hand and on the other hand lobengula
desired partnership with the British
 lobengula was reluctant and hesitant and hence kept on temporising
 by the time of signing the Rudd concession lobengula was ill,
agreements signed by sick people are not viable (axiom)
 -indiscriminate use of bribes-C.D Helm, Lotshe, J.S.Moffat
 use of Queen’s name
 lobengula’s metaphorical story of chameleon and the fly
 use of acquaintances
 the police drill had a psychological impact
 Lobengula’s philosophy of the middle of the road approach and playing
the whites against each other.
 the military clause had a magnetic effect
 Fear of the neighbours by Lobengula e.g Khama.
 fear of the Boers
 Lesson of the succession crisis.
 NB/ Lobengula was cheated yet he also wished to work with British but
the agreement was a fake

65
 MODERN EUROPE
(1789-1945)
FRENCH REVOLUTION

INTRODUCTION

 During the 18th century, the whole of Europe was administered by kings
and these kings were called divine kings with absolute powers
(monarchy government).
 The French society was stratified and the official religion in Europe was
Catholicism.
 Women were not considered to be equal to men thus displaying an
element of oppression of women in society.
 Again, it was a period of enlightenment where people started to
question the existing institutions such as church, social structure and
existing governments
 These were the philosophers’ e.g Rosseau, Voltaire, Didrot,
Montesquieu-demanded reasoning,freedom and sovereignity
 It was period of reasoning and people were moving away from
superstition.

66
  The philosophers condemned the abuses of the ancien regime.
 Their writings were directed to the educated elite not the illiterate
population.
 Their influence could not be underestimated to this group who became
the revolutionary leaders and were the ones who interpreted their
writings to their illiterate through rallies.
 Their writings gave the direction to the revolution.This led to birth of
Declaration of the Rights of man.
 were not after political revolution but clamouring for constitutional
monarchy rather despotic government
 Wanted reforms for the betterment of the common people-equal
taxation, banning of aristocratic privileges, equality and civic freedom,
religious tolerance, fair judicial system.
 It is questionable whether the writings of these great thinkers caused
the revolution but in actual fact, the defects and abuses of the ancien’
regime were the chief cause of the revolution.
 The philosophers only managed to undermine and destroy the bases of
faith, religion and Christian morality.

CAUSES OF FRENCH REVOLUTION 1789

Role of Louis XVI

 It was not only what Louis XVI did, but all that he failed to do which
caused the Revolution.
 The king ruled not by permission of the people but by divine right and all
power of government rested in the king himself.
 Louis XVI was incompetent and failed to use the power enshrined in his
office.

What the King failed to do?

 Louis XVI was described as weak-willed i.e was inconsistent in his

policies-inability to pursue a determine course and lacked self
confidence and indecision and very slow to grasp issues.
 However, he had the ability to identify and appoint able ministers-
Necker, Turgot and Calonne but he failed to support these people when

67
 pressure mounted on by his wife, his family and his advisors-nobility
who aimed to protect their sectoral interests in the system.
 He withdrew his support from ministers at critical moments.
 His advisors did not understand the needs of the time.
 As a result, therefore, the king failed to make meaningful reforms to the
people.
 He did not reform the ancien’ regime system which he inherited from his
predecessors e.g the unfair taxation and the privileged system were not
reformed.
 Again, nothing was done to reduce expenditure at the Royal court, with
Marie Antonette as the major culprit.
 nothing was done to alleviate the effects of the poor harvasts of 1787-
1788

ERRORS COMMITTED BY LOUIS XVI

 Louis XVI’s errors were—(1) dismissing competent ministers e.g Necker

and Turgot who could have saved him
 Their focus was to reduce gvt expenditure and increase gvt revenue
through equal taxation.
 Sanctioning involvement in the American war of independence
 Here soldiers who participated in these wars brought in liberal ideas that
intensified revolutionary spirit.
 Allowing to be influenced by the aristocracy e.g was responsible for his
failure to make reforms as they did not want to part with their
privileges-royal family and the nobles.
 They were instrumental in frustrating the effects of Turgot and Necker to
reform the privilege system and solve the financial crisis

His incompetence

 The Third Estate for a long time was plagued by a multitude of problems
and the plight was made more by intolerable and insensitivity of the king
to his people-peasants.
 The king perpetuated inefficient system of government which existed
before him.

68
  He stated that ‘the state is my self’ and people of France could not have
share in government.
 The Estate General had last met in 1614 and king was now passing laws
that suit himself.
 The only parliament that was left for France was the Parliament of Paris
and this parliament was powerless.
 No freedom of press, expression and speech and the unfair social
structure could have been revised but he ignored it .Loius XVI-knew
what people wanted but he ignored e.g he refused to make reforms in
order to protect the interest of the First and Second Estates even though
he was influenced by them.
 His incompetence is seen through his failure to make reforms e.g
abolition of privilege system, dismissal of able-bodied ministers,
corruption-abuse of state funds and endless parties at the king’s palace.
 Calling of the General meeting in 1789 was a fatal mistake for him
because this resulted in a revolution because he sided with the First and
Second Estate against the wishes of the majority who had genuine
grievances.
 The king was weak-willed and was under the influence of his wife and
the royal family.
 Mismanagement of state funds was seen through his involvement in the
American war of independence-effect-heavy borrowing resulting in
heavy debt and bankruptcy of the state.
 The country used state funds to finance the war- it was question of pride
to defeat Britain which had defeated France in the Seven years war.
 This war affected the country politically (brought the practical aspect
which had been theorised by great thinkers)-brought in new ideas of
democracy and liberal feelings.
 Perpetuation of absolute power was no longer fashionable in France-
monopolisation of political posts and divine rights of kings.
 The king did nothing to alleviate the effects poor harvest-1787-89 thus
demonstrating his insensitive to the needs of people
 This resulted in the outbreak of the revolution-Paris mob.
 He also protected the sectional interests of the ambitious nobility

OTHER FACTORS
69
Role of philosphers

 Influence of philosophers-sow the seeds of revolution through their

work (provided much of theory than practical).
 They did not cause the revolution directly but gave the direction of the
revolution
 New ideas from philosophers and soldiers returning from American war
of Independence (liberal ideas) put much pressure on the king.

Privilege System

 First Estate---consisted of the royal family and the clergy –had many
privileges.
 The state and the church were inseparable where the church was used
to pacify people and safeguard the king in order to perpetuate his
oppression of the Third Estate.
 Second Estate—consisted of the nobles—had many privileges e.g
exempted from paying taxes, the right to be tried by their own special
courts, a monopoly of the highest offices in the administration of the
state and offices in church, military and diplomatic services.
 Third Estate wanted social, economic and political redress on the
priviledges enjoyed by nobles and clergy.
 The ambitious nobility was more concerned with its sectional interests
than the reforms of the country
 continued to resist reforms and influenced the king to dismiss
competent ministers
 resulted in the Tennis Court Oath and setting up of National Assembly
 Launched a revolution to preserve their interests in the army.

Summoning of the Estate General

 Third Estate-the most exploited class—almost everybody else-had

deprived of these privileges e.g the bourgeoisie-did not like their
exclusion like their exclusion from politics-workers, peasants, lawyers,

70
 industrialists, scholars, educated elite-had no political representation
despite their level of education.
 The combination of the peasants and the middle class in forming the
Third Estate was crucial in the outbreak of the revolution.
 Thus, the effecs of priviledged system in the French society played a
greater role in causing the revolution.
 They had limited voting power and it was the quarrel over the vote that
led to the declaration of the National Assembly
 Was the first Revolutionay gvt in France.Thus, that the authourity of the
king was challenged?
 Louis xvi was forced to make the first two Estates meet the Third
Estate.The Third Estate preceded to the declaration of the Rights of Man
and the drawing of the constitution of 1791.
 The revolutionaries wanted a constitutional mornachy only and nothing
else.
 There was the march of women to force the price of bread down.From
1789, Paris dominated the revolution and by 1793, the king was
beheaded despite efforts by the Girondins to stop his execution.
 These demanded upward social mobility, political power and wanted the
same privileges of the First and Second Estates.
 Though, there were exempted from some of the heaviest taxes, they
were strongly opposed to the endeavours of the monarchy. They
demanded that the social, legal and political privileges of the aristocracy
be banned.
 The writings of the philosophers influenced them to attack the system of
government which discriminated against them unfairly.
 the peasants which constituted the majority played a great part in the
French Revolution- their dissatisfaction was growing and would become
an important factor in the revolution-heavy taxation and all forms of
oppression by their landowners e.g unpaid labor

FINANCIAL CRISIS

 Was a short-cause of the revolution-the king put the country on huge

deficit through his involvement into American war of independence-
helping the American colonists to defeat the British government

71
  Taxation was source of revenue but could not meet the demand
resulting heavy borrowing.
 Necker and Turgot were dismissed and these people could have
resolved the problem
 The king failed to exercise his powers but greatly influenced by those
who sought to maintain the system for their own benefit-he failed to
save his position.
 Financial and political crisis in the country intensified due to his actions
in the country.
 The nobility and clergy were against any kind of reforms in the country.
—fighting for survival.
 Thus, the economic crisis greatly led to led to the outbreak of the
revolution in France.
 Bankruptcy forced the king to agree to call for the Estate General
meetings whose outcome directly led to the fall of crown. Bankruptcy
worsened the harvest failures and the food shortages because they
could not raise money to feed its people
 there was general rise in prices of bread due to poor harvests.It should
be noted that the revolution itself was a culminating point of a long
period of social, political and economic grievances in France.
 Whilst factors which became more clearly visible in 1789, such as
financial problems and king’s weaknesses, are often cited as more
important, the root causes of the revolution should never be
underestimated.

The Poor harvests of 1787-1789

 This poor harvest greatly affected the unprivileged classes-crop failures

led to food shortages-rise in prices and widespread unemployment in
cities-misery both in rural and urban created a sharp explosive situation-
rural-urban migration-Paris mob i.e women demonstrating their
discontent on social issues
 Poor harvests added to the disorder and chaos in both towns and
country-side.

72
OUTCOME OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION

GROUPS BENEFITTED FROM THE REVOLUTION

 NB/ the revolution brought Social, economic and political changes for
the majority in France
 The Third Estate
 The Tennis Court Oath saw this group gaining political power
 Peasants
 Declaration of Rights of man resulted in the abolition of -abolition of
feudal dues and priviledges
 gave this group all they wanted
 Bourgeoisie
 Political power was largely transferred from the nobles and clergy to this
group.
 Middle class
 the directory , the upper middle class was empowered and while other
classes were excluded

GROUPS THAT DID NOT BENEFIT FROM THE REVOLUTION

 Clergy and Nobles

 lost their priviledges i.e abolition of Fuedal dues deprived the nobility
and clergy their former priviledges
 The Civil constitution of the clergy saw the church and the clergy lost
their wealth and influence
 The king was supposed to sign but was forced to flee to Varrenes and
finally led to his execution.
 Louis XVI’s flight to Varenes resulted in him losing political power and
eventually his life.
 The Reign of terror was introduced to educate the masses who wanted
to reverse the gains of the revolution
 It was introduced by the Jacobins but this resulted in loss of life of
people from various social classes especially peasants.
 there were internal and external problems facing the country such as
inflation,hoarding of goods by business people,war profiteers etc

73
 NAPOLEON BONAPARTE 1800-1814

Introduction

 Once in power,after the downfall of the last revolutionary gvt in France-

The Directory,Napoleon merged the ideas of change brought about the
Revolution of 1789
 These were principles of the revolution-equality, freedom and fraternity
and autocratic principles of the Bourbon Monarchy-centralisation of
power.
 While bringing change to the French society, power was centralised in
his hands thus perpetuating elements of ancient regime of Louis XVI.

NATURE OF NAPOLEON 1’S DOMESTIC POLICY

 Being the child of the revolution, Napoleon 1 saw the need to implement
some aspects of the revolutionary gains in order to meet the needs of
the revolutionaries in France.
 On the other hand, he had to perpetuate some of the autrocratic
principles of ancient regime so as to ensure total control of the state.
 Thus, his policies were blend of despotism and progressivesim e.g he
adopted the principles of the Revolution of liberty, fraternity and
equality
 Nap being the by-product of the revolution, he brought order and
ended anarchy which had engulfed France since 1789.
 The Directory had failed to eradicate confusion, chaos and anarchy and
this was his advantage to gain power in France in 1799.
 Education was still in shambles, laws had not been unified, the economy
was in a state of decay- inflation, and corruption and unemployment
were the order of the day.
74
  It was against this chaotic situation that enabled Nap to gain power in
France and basis of his domestic policy
 He implemented policies aimed at eradicating chaos thus he successfully
crushed revolts and silenced opponents through use of secret police and
introduction of strict censorship of the press.

Despotic elements of his domestic policies

 Some of his policies were despotic-i.e the Executive government was

invested in the First Consul-Napoleon himself-centralisation of power in
his hands.
 There were traces of ancien regime in his new gvt
 Were no mention of liberty, equality or fraternity but he just promised
that he would uphold in his regime.
 Dictatorship was common in his administration through military and
there was absence in the constitution of the declaration of human rights
 Despite having elements of ancien regime in his gvt, he also borrowed
some revolutionary ideals to uphold his regime-eg universal suffrage,
equality before law, equal taxation, and confirmation of the peasants’s
possession of land gained during the revolution.
 Napoleon 1 could be described as a borrower and innovator in his
regime.
 Ministers were appointed by Napoleon himself-no elections were held
to select potential candidates
 Used his power against the will of the people thus promoting
inefficiency within the political system.
 He centralised power in his hands by creating political structures which
were to rubber stamp his policies.
 Codification of laws was completed and this brought sanity in the social,
political and economic spheres.
 The code Napoleon was his greatest achievement as it was appreciated
and implemented by other European powers.
 He ended the conflict between the church and the state through the
ooncordat with the pope.

75
  Prefects and sub-prefects were appointed by him though leaders of
local Councils were politically weak thus promoting inefficiency in
government.
 Historical tendencies are seen in education where the curriculum was
censored e.g no history or philosophy which would promote political
dissent.
 Monitoring of education pacified students and created a docile and
obedient citizens
 Though education was open to all classes-poor or rich,was denied to the
girls thus demonstrating suppression of women in society.
 The authority of the father tended to be dictatorial that is the role of
women was undermined.
 Thus, element of equality was violated by Napoleon thus defeating the
whole purpose of revolution
 .Education was controlled by a man appointed by Napoleon. Thus, all
crucial appointments in gvt wer made by him with all appointees
complying with his whims.
 Press censorship was implemented in order to ensure peace and
stability-violating freedom of expression.
 There was use of secret police to curb opposition.
 Catholicism was recognised as the religion of the French majority but
however, freedom of religion was allowed-i.e the state and church were
still inseparable.
 This demonstrated that there was strong tie relationship between the
two, a common feature during Louis XV1
 He gained and enjoyed support from church members

Progressive nature of his government

 Being the child of the revolution, Nap had learnt something from the
revolution e.g Freedom of religion was allowed though Catholicism was
recognised as a state religion.
 Education was open to all classes, thus demonstrating one of the
principles of the revolution i.e equality though denied to the girls.
 Thus, his gvt was characterised by elements of oppression.

76
  Promotion in the army was open to talent from all classes i.e career
open to talent
 concept of merit was applied which rather fair in system
 Thus, the principle of equality was applied here.
 Again, his gvt was marked by better administration and removal of
corruption.The ideas of equal taxation was shown in rule ie all people
were seen as being before God and should be subjected to the
treatment.
 Education system was greatly improved reflecting that he was an
innovator e.g between 1802-1809-France had the best education system
in Europe.
 Again, important changes in industry were effected though trade
unionism was not allowed.
 Athough Napoleon’s gvt had some elements of oppression, overally, Nap
was a great servant of France since he did a lot to upgrade the status of
his country-peace and political stability was ensured through his policies.
 His vision was that ‘France first’ showing that he loved his country than
anything else in Europe.
 There was good representation in parliament.Thus, the legion of honour
ensured efficiency in his political system.However, peace and stability
were enjoyed but at the expense of freedom of speech and expression
of French people as result of the establishment of press censorship.
 Social stability was established through the corcordat which was made
between the state and the Pope.Roman Catholic Church was made an
official religion although other religions were tolerated.
 In some respects,Nap promoted the ideas of revolution though he was
retrogressive in his thinking by applying some the elements of ancien
regime.The Pope was protected by Nap.What ever Nap did was in self-
defence for his attained position as the leader of the French as his
domination in the Continent.Also public works ensured employment for
many.
 Equilty before the law was achieved through the code Napoleon

NAPOLEON 1’S FOREIGN POLICY

77
The influence of revolutionary ideals on Napoleon’s conduct of foreign policy
in Europe

 France emerged as powerful nation in Europe through the works of Nap

but this was direct challenge to Britain as a sea power.
 The two states could not co-exist together thus war with each other was
inevitable.
 Whatever Nap did both in his country and beyond her borders, was in
self defence to his newly acquired position both in Europe and France
especially as he felt permanently threatened by the British naval
supremacy.
 Napoleon’s diplomatic and militaristic adventures were among other
reasons, aimed at preserving and spreading the revolutionary’s ideals e.g
aspect of equality, freedom.
 The revolution was under siege or attack when Nap took office in 1799
e.g foreign detractors like Austia, Britain, Spain, Holland, Russia, Prussia;
Austria had fought revolutionary France in a bid to restore the ancient
regime in France.
 Nap had then continued resisting and even took the war to these foreign
detractors e.g in states he conquered.
 Napoleon introduced revolutionary ideals such as equality and
fraternity,code Napoleon,education,science,literature,efficient and
effective administration structure.He also banned feudalism.Thus, to this
end, Napoleon’s conduct of foreign policy was also influenced
revolutionary ideals of the French revolution of 1789.
 However, despite this, his policy was influenced by insatiable desire to
conquer and control Europe as well as to create an empire for himself
and his relatives.
 This evidenced by his endless wars with other European states.
 Again, his policy was also aimed at achieving military glory for the
emperor and French people as evidenced by the continental system,
Moscow campaign.

Strategies used by Napoleon to control Europe

 Napoleon’s strategies had both strengths and shortcomings as

illustrated below:-
78
1. Creation of independent republics as satellite states:

 Was important as his army lived on conquered states. Though, this

approach was good to ensure effective control of the conquered lands,
this created future problems for Napoleon since this raised the growth
of Nationalism, which became a powerful force to control e.g Spain,
Portugal,Netherlands,Italy,Belgium etc

2. Military conquests or War

 His early military success gave him false confidence in an attempt to

control Europe and as a result general peace and stability was disturbed
by him.
 War seemed to be a major weapon used by Napoleon in his foreign
policy though he eventually embarked on other methods such a
continental system, marriiage alliances, installation of his brothers,
relatives and friends as kings to control Europe.
 All his methods had some limitations.War being a major instrument was
not surprising since he was a soldier-military genius-he rose to power
through military means and a record of military victories in Europe e.g
Italian campaign, Egyptian campaign, war against Russia, war against
Austria and Prussia.
 but however, he was defeated in some wars e.g Moscow campaign in
Russia, battle of Trasfalgar with Britain, Peninsular wars in Portugal and
Spain and the battle of the nations in 1814 which marked his final defeat
in Europe.
 His early victories before 1807 had misled him hence resulted in his
future failures.His endless wars had greatly drained French’s financial
resources and also resulted in loss of human resources.NB.
 So far, Austria, Russia, Prussia were defeated except Britain, so therefore
Napoleon had devised another new alternative to deal with Britain.
 The Continental system was his new idea to deal with Britain because he
was so convinced that physical war would not yield results to have
complete control of the continent.

3. Introduction of Continental system

79
  Was an alternative method used to fight Britain
 This was a way of forbidding all conquered states and some of British
allies to trade with Britain.
 It was an economic warfare between Britain and France where Napoleon
tried to isolate Britain economically.
 Britain was declared to be in a state of blockade and all states were
forbidden to trade with the country.
 His allies, subject territories and France herself were forbidden to trade
with Britain.
 Thus, the Berlin and Milan decrees of 1806 launched the continental
ststem.
 Any state was not allowed to accept British means of export or British
ships to be excluded from all ports and British to buy not to sell.
 Napoleon wanted to bring his enemy to bankruptcy and practically was
to be applied to the whole Europe- effective control was needed.
 It was the economic power of Britian which was the real source of
danger to NAPOLEON.

Why continental system failed?

 Was costantly smuggling of British goods- honest and competent custom

officials were not always available-this demonstrates an element of
ineffectiveness of the system
 Though French agriculture flourished others sectors suffered heavily that
relied on British materials-so therefore there was an element of
resistance within France
 Lost support of the French rich class -blamed continental ststem for
economic depression(1810 -11)
 Britain possessed more ships, sailors and merchants than any other
country-demonstrates the strengths of Britain against Napoleon 1
 Britain offered cheap goods-thus continental system were of no effect
and there was much dissatisfaction amongst states controlled by France
especially where there were less industrialisation e.g Portugal,Spain and
Russia had abandoned the system.

4. Alliance system or treaty system

80
  His domination in Europe was achieved through alliances up to 1807 e.g
treaty of Amiens which was signed under the realisation by Napoleon
that he would never defeat Britain militarily.Here, diplomacy was
displayed by Napoleon since this was done in order to have a breathing
space for consolidating his acquired position in France as a leader and
Britain also wanted peace in order to protect her trade.
 This peace treaty was shortlived hence resulted in the resumption of war
at Transfagar in 1806 wth Britain but the French were defeated.
 Treaty of Tilsit was signed by France and Russia- this was in order to
please Alexander for adopting his continental policy and she allowed in
taking Poland and Finland as a reward.
 Alexander responded by recognising Napoleon’s control in Europe.
 For Russia, the relationship did not last with the launching of Moscow
campaign which resulted in the heavy defeat of Naploleon.
 This war was caused when Alexander dropped the continental system
since it affected negatively her economy.
 This reflected the ineffectiveness of Napoleon’s system. Other allies of
Napoleon were Denmark, Sweden, and Norway and were heavily
affected by this system.
 Despite the system having some shortcomomgs, Napoleon had the
ability to negotiate with his enemies hence showed a flair for diplomacy
and state craft.

5. Installation of members of his family and friends

 installed them as kings e.g his brother Joseph was made king of Naples
and another brother –louis was made king of Holland
 Third brother Jerome was made king of Westphalia
 Bernaotte- his friend was made king of Sweden.
 This approach was very effective in controlling all the conquered states
but it suppressed the issue of nationalism, patriotism, liberalism hence
generated revolts in Spain, Portugal and Italy
 a powerful force was raised that was beyond Napoleon 1’s control- the
force of nationalism in Europe i.e all conquered states were against his
influence in Europe.

6. Marrige alliance
81
  Treaty of Pressburg with Austria was consolidated by marriage alliance
when Austrian Princes Marie Louisse married to Napoleon but this
relationship did not last when Austria joined the 4 TH Coalition in 1813
against him that resulted in the battle of the nations in 1814

REASONS FOR HIS EARLY VICTORIES UP 1807

Weaknesses of his enemies up 1807

 In 1799, France was saved by the break-up of the second coalition

(Britain, Austria, Russia and Prussia).
 Npoleon took this as advantage to use his divide and rule policy
dominate the continent
 this was not out of his personnal abilities but the weaknesses of his
enemies
 Napoleon’s enemies fought as weak coalitions
 they were divided and often willing to make separate peace treaties with
France and this was not out of Napoleon 1’s creation e.g Peace of
Amiens with Britain in 1803
 Austria pulled out after Pressburg and Russia after Friedland leaving
Britain to fight alone in 1805 against France.
 Again this was not his own making but the weaknesses of his enemies
 Napoleon played on Prussia’s s desire to annex Hanover to keep it out of
the Third Coalition. This enabled him to effectively use his divide and
rule policy in Europe.
 Enemies of Napoleon suffered from lack of reform and transformation in
their armies
 They lacked ability to plan and organise-this costed Austria and Russia
victory at Austerltz
 The opposition group had poor generals Archduke Charles, Kutosov and
Blutcher.

His personnal strengths

 He succeeded because of his abilities as a general-was a military genius

82
  Very effective in strategy e.g very swift in attacking his enemies and
never gave chance for enemies to regroup
 Benefited from the timely support of general’s e, g Desaux at Merego
and Murat at Austerlitz-had the ability to motivate and give morals to his
soldiers-his motto was honour, victory and glory.
 had the ability to negotiate peace treaties with his enemies and as well
as convincing them to his advantage e.g Peace of Amiens with Britain

NAPOLEON’S METHODS IN CONSOLIDATING HIS POSITION IN FRANCE

 coup by Napoleon created a sense of insecurity and this enabled him to

control opposition in France e.g from Royalists, Republicans/Jaccobins
and Moderates
 However, opposition was killed through despotism-he gave power with
one hand and took away with the other hand.
 amnesty was granted to the émigrés- enabled him to gain support from
the ordinary people
 force was used e.g Jacobins were executed
 agreement with the Pope –gained support from the French Catholics
 appointment of mayors, prefects and sub-prefects was done by him
 press censorship was used though being oppressive in nature -
limitations to the freedom of the press
 Propaganda and spies were used-i.e use of secret police to curb all forms
of opposition in the country.
 Napoleon managed to stabilise the French economy hence gained
support from men of property
 Repression of the opposition depended on the efficiency and
effectiveness of local government.
 It must be noted that Napoleon 1 used both populist and repressive
measures to consolidate his position as a leader in France.

QUESTION OF SUPPORT IN FRANCE

DID NAPOLEON ENJOY SUPPORT FROM FRENCH PEOPLE

His populist measures

83
  The code of Napoleon- well accepted and appreciated by many people
both in France and abroad
 The concordat with the Pope- enjoyed support from many French
Catholics i.e thus good internal policy saved the country from civil wars
through his relationship with the pope
 Beautification of Paris- even today many French rejoice the legacy of
Napoleon in France
 Development of French economy- trade and industry expanded thus
creating employment for the French populace- rich class in France also
enjoyed from his rule.
 Development of education- everybody benefited except the girl child
 His administrative genius

REPRESSIVE MEASURES

 Dictatorial stance which included a police state under Joseph Fourche

 Press censorship which violated human’s rights of speech and expression
 Reasons for oppositions stemmed from his autocracy
 The French people did not enjoy his rule because some of policies
violated the revolutionary gains of the French Revolution e.g principles
of the revolution- equality, liberty and fraternity for example use of
secret police to curb opposition, girls being denied access to education,
use of press censorship, centralisation of power under his hands, killing
of radcals such as the Jaccobins, endless of his wars that resulted in loss
of human life and draining of financial resources of the country.
 his fights with Britain up 1814 drained much resources of the country
without any tangible benefits
 all private interests for the people,civil and political rights were
subordinated to the interests of the Emperor-Napoleon himself
 The country became a mere despotism-his government was against the
will of the people.
 Despite the shortcomings of Napoleon 1, he managed to ensure general
peace and political stability in his country.

84
 Downfall of Napoleon in 1814

 It is sometimes argued that his downfall was inevitable from the start-
meaning to say that the qualities that brought him success before 1807
were the ones that guaranteed his eventual downfall in 1814.
 His egoism, sense of destiny and single minded determination helped
him to win his endless wars in Europe.
 However, the flaw was that he did not know when to stop in an attempt
to create the French Empire.
 His endless wars and domination of subject areas raised other powerful
forces that proved to be beyond his control- force of nationalism.
 His early military success bred in him self-belief that led him to ignore
advice or not to seek it e.g his eventual defeat in Peninsular wars in
Spain, Portugal and Moscow campaign was due to lack of advice
 Napoleon lacked the quality of statesmanship that could have enabled
him to make lasting peace treaties with his enemies.e.g Peace at Amiens
with Britain which failed to recognise the most important point that
both states could not coexist thus his endless wars with Britain whether
physical or economic would make his downfall inevitable.
 Other examples were peace with Russia at Tilsit and Prussia. These were
generally short and one-sided.
 As long as Napoleon was on the throne, permanent European peace
could not be guaranteed in Europe since he had a strong feeling that
France could win at all costs and had much interest in the fate of France.
 This on its own could have made his downfall inevitable.
 Constant opposition of Britain to France –struggling for mastery in
Europe would eventually result in his downfall

85
  Napoleon is blamed for failing to recognise the supremacy of Britain on
the Sea and colonial areas.
 Britain‘s material resources enabled her to fight on and subsidize her
allies until Napoleon was finally defeated –this was real source of danger
for Napoleon
 Continental system
 Rise of nationalism e.g in Spain and Portugal were a source of influence
to other Eurpean states against Napoleon 1
 caused by installation of his family membersin conquered states-
 Nations started to rise against the Emperor.Thus, the Spanish rebellion
had inspiring influences on other European nation’s e.g Germans.
 The Spanish revolt drained French resources-troops and financial
resources.Napoleon was heavily defeated because Britain helped her
trading partners and the mountaneous terrain in Spain and Portugal
proved very difficult for Napoleon’s troops.
 The size of the French Empire:
 was too vast to be kept together-by 1810-had reached its zenith.The
empire was kept intact through military forces but his endless wars
made the army became weak due to lot of losses-many people were
demoralised with his endless wars hence the empire was bound to start
crumbling.
 Moscow campaign 1812
 Was a humialiting defeat for the French and this was good signal for his
eventual downfall.
 Formation of 4th Coalition 1813
 His blunder was his refusal to accept Britain’s commercial and colonial
dominance, thus Britain and other European powers had to have strong
coalition to wipe out Napoleon from the scene.
 It can be seen as an important reason for downfall of Napoleon in 1814-
both had interests in Egypt and domination in Europe.
 this was strong coalition which comprised Britain, Russia, Prussia and
Austria-For his first time –Napoleon was confronted with a joint forces
of 4 large states.His tactis of divide and rule was no longer applicable
here-Napoleon was cornered-his forces were outnumbered-so the battle

86
 of the nations marked the end of Napoleon in Europe.This marked the
beginning of new era after 1815.

VIENNA SETTLEMENT-1815 ONWARDS

PERIOD OF CHANGE, REACTION AND CONTINUITY

Characteristic of the period 1815 onwards

INTRODUCTION

 The end of French Revolution and Napoleonic wars in 1814 had great
impact on post 1815.
 this period heralded a new era which demanded progress/change in
social, political and economic spheres
 It was a period that was influenced by ideas of freedom and equality
and fraternity (principles of the French Revolution of 1789)
 It was a period that challenged autocracy and absolute rule (period of
reacton) e.g Spain, France against CharlesX’s (new wine in an old
bottle).
 It was a period of continuilty of existing governments (oppressive
governments) e.g Russia and Austria through suppressing revolutions in
small states so as to ensure their dominance and influences in these
weaker states.
 Liberal and nationalist ideas began to spread e.g in Germany, Italy and
France in the 1830s and 1848 revolutions
 The period was also characterised by social and economic changes-
period of industrialisation:
 E.g in France under Louis Phillipe (1830-1848)-

87
  growth of socialism- workers of the world have nothing to lose but
their chains
 Growth of middle class who demanded capitalism at the expense of
poor people.
 Most gvts reacted to these changes that threatened the existing
systems by suppressing internal revolutions.
 The revolutions were put down throughout 1820s,and 1840s.The
problem was that the reaction was too harsh which forced people
into extreme ideas e.g socialist ideas grew in France and by 1848
Karl Marx and Engles had produced the Socialist Manifestos which
stipulated that, workers of the world have nothing to lose but their
chains i.e united we stand,divided we fall’.
 This inspiriration intensified the revolutionary spirit among the
common people in Euorpe against all forms of exploitation (period
of reaction)

Impact of Napoleonic Wars and French Revolution in the perid after 1815

 The French revolution and Napoleonic Wars had a great impact on post
1815 Europe.
 The end of Napoleonic wars and the advent of Vienna settlement of
1815 heralded a new era that was influenced by ideas of freedom and
equality.
 The victors against Napolon were Russia,Britain,Prussia and Austria
 Were confronted with a lot of complex challenges created by the French
Revolution of 1789 and Napoleonic wars from 1802-1814.
 The French Revolution spread the forces of modernisation and change
but Vienna was dominated by members of the old regime and
aristocracy (Russia and Austria) and who demanded progress in society
(Britain).
 thus Vienna settlement of 1815 was a gathering of governments with
varying views about the future destiny of the continent

Challenges created by Napoleonic Wars

 kings who had lost their thrones put forward their claims

88
  those states which were responsible for the defeat of Napoleon 1
submitted their claims for compensation e.g Austria, Russia, Prussia
 national boundaries which were disturbed by Napoleon had to be set
right
 dilemma of punishing France and her allies for causing political upheaval
in Europe
 Challenge of putting Europe together in order to ensure permanent
peace and stability for the sake social, economic and political progress
and continuity. (Concert of Europe)
 Dilemma on the destiny and future of France as well as handling
Napoleon 1.
 Growth of new forces of change-nationalism, liberalism, socialism-new
Europe demanded the implementation of these ideals especially all the
oppressed small states in Europe
 There was demand for constitutional gvts against the continuity of
autocratic gvts which were desired by Russia and Austria.

Challenges posed by French Revolution

 implementation of principles of French Revolution

 was more of a challenge since some of the members were
conservative in nature e.g Russia and Austria
 issue of nationalism and liberalism of small states that became victims of
major powers e.g Italy and Germany

AIMS AND TERMS OF VIENNA SETTLEMENT

Introduction

 The congress of Vienna was one of the most important international

summits of European history- why-it determined the future boundaries
of Europe, boundaries that still impact Europe today.
 Though, France was the loser,the framers of this settlement were
remarkedly mild towards France and stopped explosive issues from
getting out of hand e.g the Poland Question ie Russian aimed to
dominate Eastern Europe but this move was blocked by other members
of the Vienna settlement.
 Peacemakers/architects of the Settlement:
89
  Britain-Castlereagh-bargained for liberal settlement for her
economic consideration-question of self interest
 major believer in banning slave trade- clamoured for legitimate
trade
 was for creation of parliamentary governments or elected
governments in affected states
 was against the continuity of oppressive governments
 was against the idea of internal interferences of revolutions in
small states which were against autocracy
 remained at odds with her allies in the Vienna and Congress
system
 Russia-Alexander 1-also wanted a liberal settlement to advance
her interests of becoming more powerful than any other state by
taking greater part of Poland and bargained for the continuity of
existing gvts to ensure peace and order at the expense of smaller
states-question of self interest
 believed in suppressing internal revolutions in small states to
ensure existence old system of governmnts
 Austria-Metternich-also bargained for the continuity of existing
gvts-question of self interest
 Prussia-Fedrick William 11 ( neutral state)
 France-Talleyrand
 was just an observer
 In view of the above scenario, the settlement could be described as a
network of bargains of negotiated compromise among the great powers
as well as advancing their agenda.
 From the onset,great powers revealed their individual interests but at
the same time needed to compromise in some areas in order to
promote international relations
 e.g the future of France and creation of buffer zones were against the
will of other people thus they created future problems in Europe
 Austria was given some Italian states as compensation for losing
Netherlands- concept of nationalism and liberalism was compromised.
 Preservation of political divisions in Germany and Italy-basis of
unification programmes.

90
 Legitimacy

 the Bourbon Monarchy in the name of Louis XV111 was to be restored

in France or rulers who had lost their states because of Napoleon 1
conquest should be restored
 better solution- was to implement revolutionary gains e.g in France old
dynasty was restored but was granted the charter to use to avoid
another revolution in France
 But however old kings were restored in Spain to suppress forces of
change – this in favour of Russian and Austrian to perputiate their
influence and dominations in Europe.

Compensation

 Those states which had been instrumental in bringing about the

downfall of Napoleon 1 should berewarded for their labour.
 Territories should be distributed among the victors-determined to make
most gains.
 When their aims and interests conflicted, the loser was generally
compensated-e.g Austria was given some Italian states as well as Prussia
was given Genoa and Rhineland
 However, Russia being, the strongest power made extravagant claims in
Europe.This demonstrate shameful example of self –interests by
individual states at the expense of smaller states.
 The Poland question could have led to war or further hostility but it was
handled with extreme care by a group of very capable diplomats
 Vienna congress mediated many tensions and conflicting interests
through peaceful negotiations-thus the congress was a success of
diplomacy.

AIMS

Restoration of balance of power

 Great powers were driven by both common aims and divergent

views.However, collectively,they were not prepared to see any one
nation becoming powerful but but that is, in practice, this usually meant

91
 in one region rather in Europe e.g Russia in Eastern Europe,Prussia in
Germany and Austria in in Northern Italy.
 Thus, the idea of balance of power among the great powers was central
with regard to their aims.
 What they did was to accept France into congress and again, the
arrangement with France and its neighbouring territories were meant to
create a balance of power.
 Austria and Britain agreed that France was to be weakened. This would
have been based on an exaggerated estimate of France’s ability once
more to disrupt the peace of Europe.
 After a generation of turmoil threatening their own states, the framers
were anxious to establish political stability between nations and that
peace was inevitably part of this arrangement.
 The way they redistribute the territories demonstrates that they were
guided by the idea of maintaining balance of power
 It must be remembered that the Balance of power was fundamental but
certainly not the sole consideration of the settlement.

Promotion of European peace

 Collectively, the framers of this settlement wanted peace though they

had divergent views about the purpose of this peace.
 All of them stood for prevention of future French aggression for the
purpose of peace.
 It was issue of liberalism and nationalism that divided Britain and her
allies over the position of small states
 Britain wanted smaller states to have constitutional gvts achieved
through revolutions while states like Russia and Austria wanted to
suppress these revolutions in order to ensure continuity of existing
systems of autocracy as a way of promoting their domination in other
states.
 e.g demands for constitutions could be seen in the revolts of 1820s in
Spain,Portugal and Italy.
 Their diverdent views drove the big powers apart and created alliances
which had divided Europe by 1825 e. g The Holy Alliance- Russia and

92
 Austria. Britain was not part of this alliance and described it as a high
sounding nothing.
 peace was common interest of all powers whether strong or weak
 This was not an shameful example of self-interest but each of the victors
as well as France wanted peace for their own benefit .e.g Britain wanted
peace in order promote prosperity of her overseas trade than anything
else

Need to contain France

 There was need to create a barrier around France i.e the framers of the
settlement aimed at strengthening the territories on the borders of
France to deter the French from future aggression-creation of buffer
zones.
 During the reign of Napolon 1, France proved to be dangerous in Europe
and because of this background, the victors wanted to have some checks
and balances to contain France within their orbit so as prevent future
aggression of the French in Europe.
 The common fear of Napoleon 1 had been a uniting factor despite
having conflicting aims and motives about the whole purpose of the
settlement.
 This was done through creation of buffer zones around the borders of
France to check her future expansion (fear of the unknown).
 This was also done at the expense of smaller states which were forced to
join together to form strong buffer zones around France.Their interest of
nationalism and liberalism were not considered by great powers e.g
Belgium and Holland.
 However, the affected states were compensated e.g Austria which had
lost Austrian-Netherlands was given two Italian states-Lombardy and
Venetia.Again, the interests of these smaller states were not considered
but reflecting elements of oppression of smaller states by the strong
nations.

Territorial readjustments

93
  defeated France was forced to return to its 1790 boundaries.The
diplomats believed that one way in which peace could guaranteed
would be through territorial re-adjustment by weaker states would be
given more territory to strengthen them and so that they could defend
themselves in the event of attack by any other state and no one could be
too powereful or too weak thus demonstrating element of balance of
power.
 France was stripped off the conquests she had made during the times of
Napoleon 1 but that was not out of cruelty-but rather –to prevent her
from remaining powerful.
 Netherlands and Italian kingdom of Piedmont were created because
members were afraid of a strong France.
 e.g Austria lost Belgium and Holland-were merged together to create a
bigger state which was supposed to be capable of defending itself
against France or any other state.
 Austria won back control of Italy while Prussia got the Rhineland and 2/5
of Saxony
 France lost most of its overseas colonies to Britain and this admittedly
was to reward victorious Britain
 France was clearly punished as a loser but the concept of balance of
power objectives was uppermost in the minds of diplomats.
 However, in any case, France was treated with great leniency e.g
Napoleon 1 was allowed to retain his title as Emperor and was given an
island of Elba and again France was accepted to the circle of great
powers.
 The whole territorial rearrangements among the victors reflected the
settlement was shameful-example of self-interests at expense of smaller
states.
 It ignored the forces of nationalism and liberalism of small states-e.g the
buffer zone creation,restoration of Bourbon Monarchy with the new
charter
 Austria sought a settlement that would guarantee the continuation of
Hapsburg dynasty in Europe-shameful example of self interest
 Territories of Germany were shared to meet the interests of Prussia and
Austria.

94
  France had to surrender Belgium and the left bank of the Rhine which
she had held for than 20 yrs.France surrendered several colonial
possessions
 Russia got Polland in Eastern Europe
 Prussia was given Genoa and Rhineland.

NB. Thus, France’s boundaries were reduced by great powers possibly due to
fear of future French aggression as well as the need to create the balance of
power in Euope.

Preservation of Political divisions of Germany and Italy.

 Prussia dominant in Germany

 Austria dominant in nothern Italy ( Venetia and Lombardy)
 Nationalism was basically the desire by people of the same language,
culture and origins to rule themselves
 While liberalism was the right to property, freedom of speech and
expression, worship, Vienna settlement had suppressed these twin
principles after 1815 but eventually gave birth to unification
programmes in Germany and Italy.
 Both countries Germany and Italy were kept divided for the sake of
maintaining balance of power.
 The unifications of the two states by 1870 through the work of Bismarck
and Cavour really disturbed the balance of power which was created in
1815 by the victors.
 Nationalism and liberalism of these two states were violated.
 This was the bases of their unification programmes that started as early
as 1815.

Banning of Slave trade.

 was in favour of legitimate trade-Britain’s interests

Restoration of legitimate gvts

 the victors restored the hated Bourbon Monarchy in France but with a
charter as recognition of revolutionary change.This was in response to

95
 Talleyrand who persuaded the Allies to apply the principle to the
restoration of Bourbons in France
 The Bourbon king in Spain was returned as well as the Pope to their
thrones.

Congress system 1815-1825

 After the congress of Vienna, the victors entered into periodic meetings
in order to ensure the implementation of their interests but the question
remains-Whose interests were best served by these series of congresses
up to 1825
 These series of congresses were known as congress system there was
nothing so systematic about these congresses but were conducted in a
hapzard way.
 They only reacted to events that is they were rather reactive than
proactive.
 This was one major weakness made these victors after 1815.The phrase
is a useful description of international relations during this period.
 The major meetings were congress of Aixa-chapelle 1818, Troppau 1820,
Laibach 1821,Verona 1822 and the abortive meeting at st Petersburg
1825.
 these congresses were meant to serve the interests of individual states
 A general point is that all states benefitted because Europe avoided
international war in this period (peace).
 However, the suppression of revolutions in smaller states (national and
liberal feelings) benefitted particularly Austria under Metternich and
Russia under Alexander who aimed to maintain the status quo in
Europe. e.g Metternich sought to preserve the authority of the Hapsburg
against destructive forces of nationalism and liberalism.
 Britain did not benefit because she was at odds with conservative
autocracies like Russia and Austria.
 France benefited because she was readmitted to the circle of major
powers that directed European affairs.
 Though the congress system lasted not more than 10 years,in the
context of its time, international cooperation through periodic
congresses was created,condemnation of slave trade was effected and

96
 peace prevailed for 40 years-no major hostilities occurred until the
Crimean War of 1854.

ITALIAN UNIFICATION FROM 1815-870

Background

97
  The destiny of Italy was decided by 1815 Vienna congress, so therefore
its unification would be a violation to this settlement and a change of
balance of power.
 The framers of this settlement were not prepared to see such kind of
development.
 Metternich referred Italy ‘as a mere geographical expression’-meaning
to say that it was not a country worth mentioning.
 The framers of the Vienna did not want to disturb the balance of power
by advocating the united Italy.
 His description seemed appropriate with the following attributes of the
state:
 Communication between different areas was not easy because of
physical barriers such mountains and rivers which were not navigable-
north, central and south.
 Patriotism of the people was focused on their city
 There were custom barriers which hampered trade-thus the differences
between north and south were deep and real.
 The Pope in the central Italy had been opposed to territorial
consolidation under a common ruler-thus Italian situation has less
national aspirations.
 Adminstrative unity was shattered by the terms of Vienna congress in
1815 and once again Italian states had been reduced to a mere
geographical expression-thus its boundaries had been drawn by the
congress of the powers and its unification was an international question
as it would entail the overthrow of the 1815 settlement.
 Italy became a rockpit of Europe where foreign powers contented for
mastery e.g Napoleon invaded Naples and later on, Austria was given
Lombardy and Venetia as compensation for her loss of Austrian-
Netherlands.
 Some Italian states such as Parma, Modena, Tuscany were handed over
to the Austrian princes.
 Pope was restored and controlled all the states in central Italy
 The Spanish Bourbon monarchy gained the two Sicilies-Naples and Sicily
in the south

98
  The Italian ruler of Piedmont was restored and gained Sardinia, Nice and
Savoy but the last two states were inhabited by the French. Thus, in the
final analysis, Italy was mere a divided state into north, central and
south.The three zones needed to be united as one state.
 From the above observation, the road to unification required leaders
who were practical, diplomatic, and tactful in nature in their approach.
From the three architects of Italian unification (Count Cavour, Mazzini
and Garibaldi), Cavour proved to have best qualities in handling this
delicate situation though the contributions of the other could not be
ruled out.
 Austria was their common enemy, thus expulsion of Austria from its
territory was absolutely essential for the liberation and unification of the
country since Austria was a foreign state and would have no part in
Italian unity
 Austria was given the mandate by the congress of Vienna to control the
Italian Peninsula.Metternich was determined to destroy the idea of Italy
as a political expression and there was little opposition to his views from
other powers.The whole process of Italian unification needed a radical
change in attitude for Italians,its rulers and as well as non-Italians.

Factors that hindered the process of unification

 Most Italians were found to be lacking political awareness and did not
have the will to forge unity.
 Italy did not have leaders worth mentioning but was extremely
backwards in all respects.
 All early liberal opinions and uprising were put down by Austria e.g
Charcoal burners staged a revolt against king Ferdinard of Naples but the
success was temporary since Metternich intervened and suppressed the
uprising.
 The rule of Pope became unpopular and did not support the idea of
unification-0pposed all forms of reforms and he protected French
garrison in 1849.
 The earliest movement directed towards achieving freedom from
foreign rule was confined to small section-secret societies-charcoal
burbers-the Carbonaris but very few Italians as yet thought in terms of

99
 national unification.They encouraged people to revolt but were not yet
ready for the cause.
 Austrian presence was a major obstacle to Italian unity.
 Different approaches to Italian unity was a problem e.g Mazzini was for a
republican government, Cavour wanted a monachial government
(kingships) whilst the Pope wanted a federal state under his Presidency-
so they lacked common approach.
 Italy was marked by physical barriers-is a mountainous areas-aspect of
physiography.
 Numerous customs barriers-hindered trade relations amongst Italian
states.
 Italy had many sovereign states e.g The Papal states in central Italy,The
Bourbon states in Southern Italy and Northern states were under
monarchist government.

Lessons gained from early revolts

 The early failures in 1820s, 1830s and 1848-9 Revolutions were not
without lessons for others e.g Mazzini and Cavour learnt something from
these revolts.
 They realised that they had to change the way to go about the issue of
unity and freedom.It was clear that the defeat of Austria would ensure
Italian freedom and unification.
 They was need to have backing from the masses hence need for
mobilisation of the masses because the Charcoal burners failed because
they did not have the backing of the masses, possibly people were not
ready for the cause.The other lesson was that the Italia fara dese does
not work since all early uprising by the Italians were suppressed by
Austria.

THE Role of Cavour: his contribution by 1861

100
  By 1861, the situation in Italy had greatly changed i.e much of Italy had
been annexed to Sardinia-Piedmont e.g Lombardy was surrendered to
Piedmont after the defeat of Austria in 1858.
 the kingdom of Italy was declared in 1861, with Victor Emmanual 11 as
king of Italy
 rulers of smaller states in Central and Southern Italy had been swept
away and these states were annexed to Piedmont
 Austrians had been destroyed from Northern Italy through French help,
although they still entrenched in Venetia but Lombardy was acquired by
Cavour.
 However, the French garrison remained in Rome. All these were due to
Cavour’s role in solving the problems of 1848. The complete unification
was achieved by 1870 with the role of Bismarck who was pursuing his
own interests in Germany e.g Autro-Prussian war in 1866 at the battle of
Sadowa-here was defeated and Venetia was taken by Piedmont.
 This marked the end of Austrian influence in Italy.The Franco-Prussian
war of 1870-71 by Bismarck finally unified Italy by defeating France
which had influence in Rome, Nice and Savoy.
 Thus, Cavour’s idea of foreign assistance was fulfilled by Bismarck by
1870-71.Though much credit can be attributed to Mazzini and Garibaldi,
Cavour had the ability to manipute events as they come to Piedmont’s
advantage as the rallying point for Italian unification.
 Therefore, the unification of Italy is attributed to so many players e.g
Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, Victor Emmanuel 11 and Bismarck who was
pursuing his own interests in Germany. Again, the unification of Italy was
subject to both planning and chances which were exploited by Cavour.

Cavour’s Approch

 Derek Beales comments that the unification of Italy happened very

quickly owed much to good fortune and was largely an affair of war and
diplomacy....’ It was a result of risorgimento-national revival not the
sudden and accidental upshot of war and diplomacy.
 Cavour was not a revolutionary but was a realist and believer of
freedom, economic, military and political progressiveness.He was
inspired by the status of Britain.

101
  Cavour favoured an expanded Piedmont that who lead to a stronger
northern Italy.Victor Emmanuel and Cavour who were the leaders of
Piedmont, saw success being achieved through foreign aid because
Piedmont was too weak to fight alone with strong common enemy
Austria and did not wish to raise revolutionary forces elsewhere.Cavour
supported a united Italy at a later date and had the misgivings about the
wisdom of including the South and Rome.
 Intervention in the Crimean War of 1854-1856 was a significant step
which he took to gain foreign aid against Austria in 1858-1859.Cavour
favoured an expansionist policy that would lead a stronger northern Italy
against a powerful Austria.
 Thus, Cavour’s internal reforms were quite instrumental in making
Piedmont to stand a chance against a strong Austria which proved to be
a stubbling block to Italian unification e.g he signed commercial treaties
with Britain, France, Belgium, Netherlands, German zollverein and also
lowered tarrifs duties with other Italian states as way of promoting
trade.Railway construction was greatly improved to promote
communication with other Italian states, France and German states.
 Scientific farming was encouraged and Commerce and Industry were
promoted thus Piedmont’s exports greatly increased by 50%.There was
also military reorganisation in order to meet European standards-the
army was well equipped and trained.
 As a result, Piedmont-Sardinia had become unchallenged leader of Italy,
most liberal and progressive state in the peninsula. The whole process of
Italian unification needed a strong state and leadership to champion the
process. This need was done by Cavour himself after identifying the
weakness of the 1848 revolution in Italy. Cavour learnt something from
his predecessors and had the ability to manipute to his advantage.

Crimean War 1854-1856

102
  Cavour believed that Itala fara dase or Italy will do it alone was not
practical as evidenced by the failure of revolutiories like Mazzini and
Garibaldi.He believed in blood and iron and diplomacy through use of
Foreign aid.
 This foreign was not easy to get from either Britain or France since the
destiny of Italy was the product of Vienna settlement. It clearly
demonstrates that the expulsion of Austria and possible unification of
Italy would entail re-adjustment of the balance of power and would
become a concern for European states.
 Cavour waited for his chances to come and his finest hour came when
the Crimean war broke where he joined on the side of Britain and France
against Russia over Turkey.
 The defeat of Russia resulted in a Peace treaty of Paris in 1856 where
Cavour presented his issue to Britain and France.Cavour never thought
of a united Italy comprising the whole entire peninsula but was probably
thinking of a defined kingdom of Northern Italy.
 This was a diplomatic approach for Cavour to gain friends in order to
oust out Austria.Thus, Cavour’s plan was successful because she got
military support from France and moral support from Britain.
 Napoleon 111’s motives was to upgrade French glory abroad by having
some territorial gains from Italy-Nice and Savoy as compensation for
helping Cavour.Napoleon 111 did not want to see a united Italy since
such kind of move would violate the 1815 arrangement.
 To Cavour, sought much of freedom rather than Italian unification.Thus,
a territorial expansion of Piedmont in Northern Italy was planned with
the inclusion of states which were under Austria.
 Cavour was seeking nothing but territorial expansion.Cavour’s aim was
to use the Italian movement and the friendship of Napoleon 111 for the
advantage of Sardinia.
 The idea of Italian unity was hypothetical, remote from immediate
reality-setting Piedmont at the head of national movement.National
unity may have been a remote ideal but later was forced by
circumstances of events that led him to think of a united Italy but under
the leadership of Piedmont.Cavour was clearly in closer touch and in
close sympathy with national movement in Italy. As a result, Piedmont,

103
 became focus of national aspirations e.g many liberals had a slogan
‘Victor Emmanuel, king of Italy’. Unification was distant objective and
the immediate task was the liberation of Italy from the Austrian yoke
and set up of North Italian kingdom.

The role of Mazzini

 Mazzini and Garibaldi were advocating for the unification of all Italian
states-central,northern and southern.Mazzini did not reconcile to
Cavours’s Italy.Mazzini(idealist-not practical) was a republican whose
ideas embraced all of Italy.He believed that Italy could free itself through
revolution-‘Italia fara dase’ –meaning Italy will go alone.
 This was not a practical approach considering the military strength of
Austria and again the initial phase of the call, most Italians were not yet
prepared for the cause.
 He is credited for raising the national feelings among the young Italians
through his creation of the Young Italy and Young Europe.He laid the
foundation for the forthcoming nationalist leaders and these learnt a lot
from his mistakes.He was just an idealist not a practical man-wanted
unity of all people thus he sow the idea hence the father of Italian
unification.
 Mazzini, being a revolutionary wanted to create a republican state.The
1848 revolution failed because they were too parochial and
uncoordinated, lacked popular support and lack of realism among the
revolutionaries.
 These revolts hardly have produced significant results.The failure of
these revolts had shown Mazzini’s ideas to be unrealistic and the
shortcomings of his leadership had been exposed.The slogan that ‘Italia
fara dase i.e Italy will do it alone’ was an illusion.This clearly proved that
freedom could not be achieved without foreign aid.

The role of Garibaldi and Southern Italy

 Harsh despotism of Bourbons led to revolts of 1860 in Naples and Sicily

but Garibaldi did not have much interest in Italian unity.However ,he
assisted them against despotism.Cavour took this chance to send

104
 Piedmontese army and papal troops were defeated so they marched
southwards to link up with Garibaldi.
 Garibaldi handed over his conquest to Victor Emmunuel 11 and the
retired to his home island.The southern part of Italy’s success was due to
Garibaldi’s efforts but Cavour only manipulated to his advantage.
 The central states demanded union with Piedmont and these events put
Sardinia to its advantage and Napoleon 111 supported this since Nice
and Savoy wanted union with France.
 The Pope Pius 1X refused to become president of an Italian
confederation and angered many, hence turned against him. Garibaldi
also participated in Cavour’s wars with Austria though being a
revolutionary.

CONCLUSION

 The unification of Italy was completed in June 1871 when Rome became
capital city of United Italy.
 The Pope was accorded full liberty and spiritual authority.Italian
unification began with the secret societies of the 1820s and took the
next 50 years to complete for some reasons-the architect was Cavour-it
was him and his policy which succeeded and not Mazzini.
 Cavour reformed Piedmont, negotiated European assistance and
manipulated events to annex other states to Piedmont.His death was a
tragedy for Italy-a major part of unification had been completed.
 Cavour alone fully mastered the complex situation that requires
somebody practical in his approach-after his death a stable gvt ended-so
Cavour died before the final completion of Italian unification was
achieved

Study Questions

1.’The Italian revolution was not inevitable but was the result of wisdom,
valour and chance’ Discuss this verdict.

2.’Cavour had no long-term plans but masterly grasp of immediate realities’

Discuss.

105
3.’Without Mazzini and Garibaldi, Cavour’s policy would have been
unworkable’ Discuss

4. Do you agree that Cavour’s success owed more to Great Britain than any
other foreign power?

106
 SECTION B
RUSSIA
Role of Joseph Stalin 1928 -1941
Introduction

 The Communist regime in the Soviet Union’s aim was to to industrialise

the economy.
 Lenin made advances under his New Economic Policy (NEP) but
surprisingly, Soviet Union remained behind the rest of Europe.
 It was against this background that Joseph Stalin had to adopt his Five
Year Plans to break away from Lenin’s policy.
 The changes introduced by Joseph Stalin under his plans were to
transform the USSR from a backward, peasant country into modern,
urban and industrial-based society.

Reasons for introducing programmes in USSR

Fear of foreign invasion

 Russia was still backward despite Lenin’s efforts to introduce modern

economy in USSR and again Russia had abundant resources e.g coal and
iron.
 Stalin believed that Russia should have strong industrial base if she was
to defend herself against capitalist states like France and Britain.
 The capitalist world (Britain, France & Germany) wanted to destroy
communism ideology in Russia.
 Stalin said ‘We are 50 to 100 years behind the advanced countries, we
must make good this distance in 10 years, either we do it or we shall be
crushed’.
 Thus, Stalin’s cry for socialism in one country was to be achieved
through industrialisation.
 Hitler’s anti-communism statements provided a further incentive for the
successful implementation of the Five Year Plan as a strategy to
introduce modern economy in USSR.

107
Economic reasons

 Under New Economic Policy of Lenin, industrial production although

improving remained disappointing to many Communists.
 Again, civil war Russia and disruption of First World War of 1914-1918
damaged Russia’s infrastructure.
 All these contributed to Russia’s backward in Europe.
 The Five Year Plan introduced by Stalin was strictly controlled by the
Russian government to ensure enough production and distribution of
essential materials.
 Thus, to Stalin economic control by the govenment would maximise use
of USSR’s resources hence fast-tracking the growth of its economy-
command economy.

Political reasons.

 To all Communists, industrialisation was seen as a necessary

development in order to ensure the survival of the revolution.
 Chances of survival of socialism in a non-industrial society were quite
slim.
 It was therefore, essential to undertake the programme of industrial
development. Thus, industrialisation process would create many more
members of the proletariate who would be the backbone of the
revolution.
 The Five Year Plan would get rid of all private business people and
traders who had gained under New Economic Policy
 They made excessive profits at the expense of the poor majority.
 The capitalist elements concerned with selfish gains needed to be wiped
out and the Five Year Plan would achieve this objective.

STALIN’ s contribution in creating a modern economy in Russia

 Without Stalin, USSR would have perished, so they had been taught
what lay ahead despite their suffering.

108
  Initially, Stalin’s rule was appealing but later on, his rule reflected his
tyrannical in order to introduce a modern economy to the standards of
other European powers.
 Stalin decided by starting with agriculture in turning around the Russian
economy where he believed that industrial development would only be
possible if it was supported by an increase in agricultural production i.e
need for food for the workers.
 Thus, mechanisation of agriculture would allow people to work in
industry –availability of labour.
 This policy of industrialisation could be achieved only if agriculture was
made more efficiently.That was Stalin’s assumption in his policy of
introducing modern economy in USSR.
 This programme was introduced after a strong power struggle within the
Communist Party which was divided between the Right,Left and the
Centre.The struggle for power was between Trostsky and Stalin but this
was not a mere struggle but involved serious differences over matters of
policy where Stalin wished to build socialism in one country while
Trostsky regarded the need for a communist world revolution as soon as
possible.
 Stalin believed in building a modern industrial state first before doing
anything in order to improve the standards of living and to resist attacks
from other capitalist states.
 Stalin was accepted by Communist Party Congress against Trostsky.
 New Economic Policy of Lenin was abandoned and introduced the push-
towards industrialisation in 1928
 Industrialisation was state controlled.

The Five Year Plans and collectivisation 1928-1933

 In introducing modern economy, Stalin’s first focus was on agriculture

before looking at the industrial sector.
 Stalin thought that this was going to be an easy process.
 These Five Year Plans to be successful, it required financial backing to
kick off but Russia was still a poor country.
 However, the question is-Where could Stalin get the money?

109
  The possible alternatives were to get it from western states but Stalin
feared that they would exploit her profits and again they had different
ideologies.
 Another possilibility was to wait for gradual improvement from his
programmes but this one was ruled out by him.
 Finally,Stalin was convinced that Russians would be hauled into a
modern world by sweat and blood of the Russian people while this
needed proper planning i.e First Five Year Plan 1928-1932 and Second
Five Year Plan-1933-1937

The First Five Year Plan 1928-1932

Collectivisation of Agriculture

 The focus was on food production for the workers in industry in order to
consolidate the industrial sector-so extra food was to be gained through
his reforms on agriculture.
 The aim of this programme was to build up Russia’s heavy industry-coal,
iron and steel and to collectivise agriculture.
 The rationale was to do away with individual farms of peasantry in the
countryside and to base agriculture on large farms run collectively under
centralised director.
 Thus, collectivisation was a policy of creating larger agricultural units
where peasants would farm collectively rather than on individual basis
on farms.
 The purpose was to increase agricultural production through extensive
use of machinery.
 Initially, the First Year Plan was carried out at the expense of low living
standards but this was a fundamental step towards creating a modern
industrial state.
 The plans converted Russia into a modern industrial state and it
provided the basis for resistance to Hitler in the Second world war in
1939

Effects of farm collectivisation

 This aroused widespread resistance and produced a situation of near

civil war in many farming areas e.g heavy resistance came from richer
110
 peasants or kulaks who lost their properties and were heavily taxed and
evicted from their farms.
 Their products would be taken by the Stalin’s government at low price.
 The response of these richer peasants to the state was quite heavy i.e
they killed their livestocks and burning of their crops as well as
destroying their farm buildings.
 Stalin had to introduce forced collectivisation if he had to promote
socialism in one country to ensure survival of the revolution and create a
modern economy as per his vision.
 It was a state of confusion and loss of production. e.g grain production
rapidly fell below the 1913 level thus Stalin in the 1930s was forced to
introduce the slower pace in collectivisation especially when it was
found that over 60% of livestock was lost.
 Stalin allowed many of the deported peasants to return from prison
camps to the villages and he provided incentive e.g given little private
plots of land of their own.
 Despites this, by 1932, the government had achieved its aims and the
collective farm system had come to stay.
 There was a huge increase of tractor production in the 1930s which led
to a rise in agricultural production after 1932.
 Though,the use of command economy had some shortcomings, Stalin
was bit flexible in dealing the situation when things turned against him-
e.g resources were wasted,consumer industries suffered heavily while
coal,iron and steel production increased and managers tended to inflate
figures, hence led to corruption.

Second Five Year Plan 1933-1937-INDUSTRIAL PROGRESS

 The Five Year Plan had increased industrial wealth and huge industrial
centres e,g Stalingrad grew up in these years.
 Moscow-Volga canal was built and a great hydro-electric dam was
completed on the Dnieper for the electrification of the countryside,
towns of Ukraine and to spearhead rapid industrial production.
 This was quite necessary in order to create a modern industrial state.

111
  Thus, creating a modern state was seen by Stalin as a means of raising
standards of living of the Russian people and a means of resisting attacks
from the capitalist world.
 Stalin though he created a harsh environment for the people, he
managed convert Russia from a backward country into a great modern
industrial state in Europe which his predecessors like Lenin failed to do
so
 By 1938, Russia produced more than 5 times the amount of coal
produced in 1913 and 6 times the amount of steel.
 Though Stalin’s approach in introducing Modern state economy in
Russia, people had to go without many consumer goods and thus life
was hard and living standards remained low.
 There was shortage of housing and labour was being exploited in
industries.
 Resistance increased against Stalin but the police terror against
suspected persons were introduced to curb opposition
 Widespread party purges took place resulting in loss of human life.
 By 1939, both agriculture and industry had been transformed at a cost of
self-sacrifice by many people under harsh regime e.g purges were
introduced-to get rid of anyone Stalin did not trust e.g about 15 million
people were killed in his effort to create a modern industrial state in
Europe.
 Thus, though Stalin achieved his goals in introducing a modern state, the
remaining part of his rule was marked by severe criticism from workers,
peasants and even everybody in Russia.
 Stalin claimed that he was doing it for the good of all the Russians
because Hitler hated communism.
 Thus, purges were a necessary evil for his success as well as human
suffering-Why?
 His plans eventually turned Russia into an industrial giant.
 However, his critics eventually accepted the suffering because they
believed that they were building a better future for next generation.
 A good living example of Stalin’s contribution for the Russians even
today is that of defeating Hitler in 1941.

112
  So without the industrial strength that Stalin had given it, the Russians
could have been crushed.
 Stalin’s new steel works,power stations and factories saved Russia but
the people suffered a lot to build it.Thus,
 Stalin’s policies had brought about successful modernisation of the
country but achieved at enormous human cost.
 It should be noted that Stalin’s approach initially was quite appealing but
later on Stalin had to use force to make things happen since some of his
predecessors had failed to industrialise the country.
 He had created good foundations for the Russians which are being
remembered by the new generation in the world especially their survival
from Hitler’s attacks during the Second World war in 1941.

113
 SECTION B
GERMANY HISTORY-1919-1945

RISE OF ADOLF HITLER

Background

 Germany and her allies Austria, Turkey, Bulgaria were defeated in the
First World War in 1914-1918.
 This war had affected the country’s her previous position as a great
power under Bismarck and William 11 (The German Kaiser) between
1870-1918
 The German reich/empire was lost since the victors of the First World
War (Britain, France, and Italy) took some of her territories.
 This resulted in the singing of Versailles Settlement which saw Germany
on the losing side in all respects
 It was against this background that Adolf Hitler worked hard to rectify
the situation after 1919.
 he defeat of Germany saw the abdication of William 11 from power and
the creation of a new democratic government known as ‘Weimur
Republic’
 It is this government which was associated with the hated Versailles of
1919 by Germans including Hitler himself.
 The question to ask is-what really contributed to the rise of Hitler in
1933 in Germany?
 the weaknesses of Weimur Republic (1999-1932)
 OR other factors-his personal abilities or Great depression of 1929
in the World or effects of Versailles settlement of 1919 or
weaknesses of the League of Nations
 it is imperative to note that the rise of Hitler in Germany is a
debatable issue that need proper evaluation for comprehensive
argument

114
The Weimur Republic (An Experiement)

 Germany’s defeat in 1918 brought to an end to German’ Reich/Empire in

Europe.
 The abdication of William11 saw the establishment of a new German
Republic called the Weimur Republic,the first of its kind in Germany
history
 It adopted this title because it was based at Weimur city in Germany.
 On paper, its constitution was truly democratic but on the ground, it
failed to promote its application right from the beginning.
 The problems faced by this government right from the beginning were a
good recipe for Hilter’s rise in 1933.This became bases of Hilter’s point
of reference in his campaign for leadership in Germany.
 The challenges faced by this government were political, social and
economic in nature
 These challenges were manipulated by Hitler to his advantages but
however, his abilities enabled him to grab power from this govenment
by 1933.
 Therefore, Hitler’rise is attributed to both challenges faced by this
government and his personal abilities that appealed to many Germans.
 The Great depression of 1929, effects of the terms of Versailles
settlement of 1919 and shortcomomings of the League of Nations played
a part in his rise in 1933.

Conditions that enabled Hitler and the Nazis to rise to power

 The attainment of power by Hitler and the Nazis was largely a product of
the weakness of the Weimur republic and the general economic, social
and political problems of the time.
 The Weimur constitutional with its proportional representation
facilitated the rise of Hitler
 The constitution led to the setting up of unstable governments from
1999 to 1932 under different chancellors

115
  Failure of democracy caused a lot of problems-e,g political
assassinations and disturbances in form revolts against the Weimur
Republic.

Political challenges of the Weimur Republic

 The Weimur Republic government was associated with the hated treaty-
versallies which adversely affected the Germans socially, politically and
economically.
 This government never won confidence of the German speaking people-
had no faith in this government
 This situation was largely created by the leaders who accepted and
signed the Versallies treaty.
 The treaty was labelled as a diktat by many Germans.
 The new rulers of this gvt were accused as sell-outs and were given all
sorts of unpalatable names e.g the November criminals.
 The democracy which the new rulers of German adopted on assuming
power was alien to the Germans who had been used to an authoritarian
system of government.
 This was more of a challenge to this governmentt hence people lost faith
in it.
 Its future of survival was now questionable from the start.
 This political environment provided a good opportunity for Hitler to grab
power in Germany.
 Democracy was very unpopular amongst many sections of the
population who included the Business people, army officers and the
Prussian junkers who had never wished to see the survival of this type of
gvt.
 Again, the introduction of democracy also promoted the mushrooming
of many political parties whose views and interests were diverse as the
parties’ themselves.eg no single party won a clear majority in the
parliament or Reichstag, thus signifying that the German speaking had
different interests and views in the country.
 This resulted in a series of shortlived and weak coalition governments’
e.g chancellors came one after the other in rapid succession rendering
the republic ungovernable.

116
  Examples of parties created were Nazi party under Hitler, Communist
(Sparticist) Party, Social Democratic Party, Catholic Centre Party, and
Bavarian Peoples’ Party.
 Thus, the introduction of democracy in German created more problems
for this gvt as evidenced by formation of many political parties in the
country.
 This resulted in various attempts to overthrow this governmentt eg.the
first attempt was of the Communist uprising(Spartist Purtsh)-its a
German word for an armed rising
 in 1919-this took place in Berlin and it was inspired by the Russian
revolution in 1917 which had resulted in the creation of the Bolshevik
gvt under Lenin – the need to spread communism in other states.
 However, this revolt was crushed by Nationalists who did not want to
see the spread of communism in their country from the Russians.
 Another attempt was the Munich Putsch of 1923 where the Nazi under
Hitler attempted to seize power.
 They wanted to march from Munich to Berlin imitating what Mussolini
did in Italy when grabbed power in 1922 by marching into Rome.
 Hitler felt that the time was right to overthrow the gvt since he had a lot
of support in Munich.
 This attempt resulted in Hitler being imprisoned where he wrote his
book-‘The Mein kampf-My struggle’.
 It was a matter of time before this gvt was removed.
 The importance of this attempt was that Hitler’s name was known all
over German and this became a sort of a Bible which expressed his ideas
about the future of Germany.
 Most Germans were tired of this type gvt because people were not
benefitting from it since the country had many social, political and
economic problems created by the FWW but not government itself.

Social challenges

 There was general social unrest in the country e.g political violences,
demonstrations and strikes amongst workers whose wages and savings
were eroded by the hyper inflationary environment.
 These became the order of the day.

117
  Dieseses also took a toll on the German populace e,g thousands of
children suffered from life threatening diseases such as TB,Stomach
diseases.Large number of German were left homeless and some were
maimed by World War 1.
 Many widows and orphans were created by the war and there was
widespread unemployment due to demobilisation of the army.
 From this situation, most Germans resented this scenario and wanted a
government that would rescue them.
 The Weimur republic seemed not show any sign of improving the
situation and this created more chances for Hitler’s campaign to win
power in Germany in 1933

Economic challenges

 The grave unemployment worsened by demobilised soldiers added to

the general poverty in the country.
 Therefore, the general economic,social and political dislocation in
Germany during the Weimur republic’s rule aided the rise of Hitler and
the Nazis to power.
 The French-Belgium occupation of the Ruhr caused the collapse of the
mark and appalling inflation in 1923.
 Germany faced one of the highest inflation ever record in history in the
20th century.
 The vaue of Germany mark dropped soon after the end of the First
World War.
 Notes were printed daily and became meaningless and this did not help
the situation.
 However, some people resorted to barter trade and use of foreign
currency when doing their transactions.
 Many workers were retrenched resulting in more unemployment rate in
the country.
 Huper inflation eroded workers’s wages and savings.
 Banks and industries were closed resulting in the drop of Gross
Economic growth.
 Again, this inflation affected the propertied class e.g the middle class,
who became potential supporters of the Nazis.

118
  Payment of reparations was a thorny issue which resulted in heavy
borrowing thus increasing the country’s debts.However,the economic
situation slightly improved when Gustav Stressman became the German
chancellor of this gvt but it was shortlived because of the effects of
Great Depression of 1929
 .Gustav saved the country from total collapse in 1924-1929 when he
embarked on several measures which brought hope e.g he introduced
new currency and on the international scene,he agreed to the Dawes
Plan of 1924 and the Young Plan of 1929
 He two schemes assisted the gvt in the payment of reparations by
installments hence by 1926; Germany was accepted in the League of
Nations.
 The effects of these measures were that trade with other countries
greatly improved
 The Germans had more work and food.However, Germany’s hope was
spoiled by the effects of World Great depression which started in
America.
 The effects of the Great Depression e.g the Wall Crash and death of the
able Stresemann worsened the Republic’s problems and increased
support for the Nazis
 industrialists sytmpathised with Nazi hoping to have their properties
protected.They sympathised with the Nazi programme,especially the
revision of the Versailles treaty.This slump hit Germany very hard e.g
unemployment figures rose sharply,many shops went out business and
forced to close.
 Many banks collapsed and producers stopped to produceThe majority
felt that the Weimur republic had failed
 some turned to communism and some turned to Hitler.e.g the elections
of 1930 and 1932 saw the numbers of Nazis in the Reichstag/parliament
rising from 12 to 230 seats
 the party had more seats than any other party.Hindenburg who was
German President believed that it was Hitler who could stop
communism in Germany and in 1933 was made the chancellor of
Germany.

119
  Hitler hated the Jews, Versailles treaty, Weimur republic and
communism and was lucky that most Germans had the same feelings,
hence got much support from the people.
 It was at the height of this economic collapse that the Weimur Republic
collapsed, hence giving Hitler the chance to grap power in Germany by
1933.

Remarks

 The rise of Hitler to power was based upon long term factors which
include Germans resentment of the terms of Versailles settlement which
they saw as a diktat
 The social, economic and political problems created by the war and
world depression as well as the the failure of democracy.
 The weakeness of the Weimur republic system gvt was exploited by
Hitler through his propaganda.
 The term of office by Gustav Streseman from 1924 -1929 brought hope
for most Germans such that Hitler found it difficult to get support for his
plans to overthrow the gvt by force.
 Most Germans became contented with Gustav’s measures which saw
country reviving from its economic,social and political problems
 The measures adopted by him had a bearing on the social lives of the
Germans so discontentment decreased
 the measures brought economic prosperity and international
recognition of Germany.
 He was very lucky when Gustav died in 1929 and the beginning of world
slump revived his support from rich business people who did not want
see the communist taking power in Germany.
 Confidence in the gvt was affected by the Great Depression e.g loans
from America ceased.
 Government failed to deal with the crisis with the result that extreme
politics returned with the Nazis.
 Hitler capitalised and attacked the gvt.
 Fear of communism made it difficult for the Weimur to deal with the
Nazis challenges.

120
  There was a leadership crisis with the death of Stresemann, e.g Muller
resigned and Bruning and Von Schleicher did not help much. Thus, self
interest of the political parties led to bickering in the Reichstag and so
Hindenburg had no option but to call Hitler.
 With his appointment, republicanism had given way to dictatorship.
 He got financial backing from them for his campaingns to stop
communist from gaining power.
 In the final analysis, Hitler rose to power as a result of long term
bitterness and deep anger about the FWW and treaty of Versailles which
created an underlying bitterness which Hitler’s viciousness and
expansionism appealed to so many Germans
 So the people of Germany gave him support. In fact, the weakness of the
constitutions crippled the Weimur republic and many Germans wanted
to return to the authotarian type of gvt when the crisis came in 1929.
 Noone was prepared to fight to stop Hitler but instead gave him moral
and financial support to run his propaganda and election campaingn.
 Thus, Nazi propaganda convinced many Germans to believe that the
Jews were to blame for all the misfortunes of the country-bloodsuckers
of their economy and should be removed through force-and was made
to believe that he was their last hope.
 Hitler promised everybody something so that they supported him.Hitler
was a brilliant speaker (orator) and his eyes had a peculiar power over
the people.
 He was good organiser and politician.He believed that he had been
called by God to become a dictator in Germany and rule the world.This
kept him going when other people might have given up.This self-belief
persuaded people to believe in him.
 Hitler used various measures to gain support from the Germans-used
violence i,e Storm Troopers beat all opponents in the streets and the
Enabling Act of 1933 allowed Hitler to do whatever he likes and Nazi rule
of terror begun and all political parties were outlawed.
 He was more determined to gain –power e.g in 1933,17 million voted for
him and 20 million voted against him but this did not stop him despite
having strong opposition from communists.

121
  Thus, the terror of the Storm Troopers and the brilliance of his Speeches
attracted many Germans.

Summary

 The question to ask is, was the rise of Hitler to power attributed to long
term factors or to challenges faced by the Weimur republic or was due
to personal abilities? However, the position is that both long term
factors and his personal advantages assisted him to gain power in
Germany.
 It is important to note the weaknesses of the Weimur republic played a
greater role for Hitler to grab power in Germany.The weaknesses of this
gvt was Hitler’s strengths in order to win support in Germany.
 This is evidenced during the time Gustav when most Germans got
contented and was very difficult for Hitler to gain support.
 However,he was bit lucky in 1929 when Gustav died and the occurrence
of world slump otherwise his future rise was now questionable
 At the same time, his personal advantages enabled him to win people
and see him as their last hope in this crisis of the post-war period in
Germany.
 The Great depression was not the Weimur republic’s creation but was a
world event that affected German economy.
 The fault of the gvt was that it did not do anything to help the situation,
hence its weaknesses.
 The rapid succession of chancellors one after the other shows that this
gvt had riddled with a lot problems right from the onset.
 Thus, the Weimur republic was more of an experiment that failed to last
since the system of such gvt was a new thing to the Germans.

122
 SCRAMBLE FOR AFRICA 1870-1919

Introduction

 The late 19th century is often called the age of imperialism during which
European powers extended their influences over the less-developed
parts of the world-China, Asia, and Africa.
 In 1879, only a small part of Africa was under European control but yet
by the beginning of 20th Century European powers were claiming
soveregnity over virtually all of Africa except Ethiopia and Liberia.
 The hasty with which Africa was parcelled out popularised the idea
known as scramble for Africa.
 African colonies were obtained by force or fraud
 Before 1879, few European had ventured into African continent.
 The calling of Berlin conference by Bismarck in 1884-85 was more of
diplomatic since he wanted to divert his opponents from Europe to
Africa but at the same time to facilitate the process of colonisation of
Africa in a peaceful manner.
 Thus, the whole process was largely controlled by Bismarck both at
home and abroad.
 The doctrine of effective occupation was devised to allow each country
to effectively occupy its area of interests in order to avoid unnecessary
conflicts.
 There were specific motives which inspired particular European states to
occupy African states.

Non-Economic motives/The official view-Robson and Gallagher

 This view regards events in Africa not in Europe.This is the non-Marxist

which rejected the economic motives as the sole factor for the scramble
but regarded it as one of the factors in the game.

123
 Robinson Gallagher accepted that there was an outpouring of money,
people, and goods throughout the 19th century.
 Their fixed aim of statesmen was to ensure security of economic
growth,political power either through military force or political control
 Rapid extension of European power after 1870 in Africa had caused
historians to argue that this was necessary because of profound changes in
European economy.
 Robinson argued that the tempo or pace of western economies remained
the same.Why should they come?
 The area- North Africa had no significant expansion of trade and
investment.Africa had nothing to offer for instance Britain was not
interested but drag in by some ambitious man like Rhodes and Leopold in
Congo.
 If economic motives were not the driving factor, how this could be
explained the rapid expansion and partition of Africa.
 Robinson argued that the concerns for security of existing trade and power
interests in the rest of the world were the main consideration.
 Africa was important for military and political strategy not for economic
considerations.The extreme north i.e Meditterenean and extreme south i.e
South Africa controlled British Sea routes to the East and Australia e.g For
France, north Africa was important for security of Medittereanean sea
routes.Thus, the crisis in Egypt and South Africa sparked off the scramble
e.g Suez canal crisis in Egypt.
 In Egypt, France and Britain shared and jointly controlled the Suez
canal.Thus, the instability in Egypt caused apprehension in Britain and
France because it endangered the security of Suez Canal i.e British and
French interests had already there.
 Thus, the Suez Canal in the interior-linking two seas i.e cape and Cairo to
keep out other powers-medittereanean and Atlantic.
 The Egyptians resented foreign economic and political control-thus Britain
invaded Egypt in 1882 because she wanted to protect her economic
interests already there i.e to ensure the safety of Suez canal to the East i.e
trading and probably to the east not in Africa.
 Thus, Robinson claimed for European interests on strategic points not
economic motives.

124
 Europeans had no economic interests but to protect the route to the east
because Egypt had nothing to offer.
 However, it is difficult to separate economic considerations and strategic
reasons e.g Egypt and Cape.
 the rush for possessions and for hegemony in Africa after 1870,by
Europeans was dictated by considerations of European power
diplomacy- e.g After 1871, Germany and Italy became unified countries
thus disturbing the balance of power created by Vienna settlement of
1815.
 European gvts ceased to be pre-occupied with European problems and
to resolve the deadlock they looked for fresh regions to find scope for
their ambitions-thus projecting European conflicts elsewhere e.g in
Africa
 e.g Bismarck supported France to take Tunisia in order to divert her
attention in Europe after France’s humiliation defeat by Prussia in 1870-
71.
 Another aspect of diplomacy displayed was that the balance of power
which had changed made some European powers to look for colonies in
Africa to compensate their loses at home e.g France sought to regain her
glory after the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-71.
 The French sought African colonies to fulfil their ambitions of regaining
their lost French glory.
 There was a lot of jealousies amongst nations i.e any increased power
obtained by another e.g Germany and Italy-
 in response France was jealousy about this as well as Britain.These two
states (Britain and France) began to expand as a response to this new
development for Germany and Italy.
 Britain started an active colonisation policy of Africa to keep
ahead.Britain’s major concern was to protect her established interests in
Africa and safeguard the route to the guaranteed markets in Africa.
 Another diplomatic argument advanced was the need for security e.g
British wanted to extend control in West Africa after numerous conflicts
with the Ashanti people in West Africa.

125
  However, apart from these diplomatic manuvers that propelled these
European states to acquire colonies in Africa, there were economic
motives that encouraged them to colonise Africa.

Economic motives/Marxist view/Economic theory

 Represented by J.A.Hobson and Lenin and they put much stress on

economic considerations as being the primary motive for imperialism or
scramble for colonies.
 Lenin drew upon Hobson to formulate his theory of imperialism as the
highest stage of capitalism but some argued that there was no link
between capitalism and imperialism.
 This has been exaggerated as an underlying cause of imperialism but it
was still important.
 This view regards the scramble as being economically determined.
 This perspective sees a change in the nature of capitalism in Europe
from 1870.
 International trade amongst European powres intensified i.e struggle for
raw materials, markets thus home governments intervened in support of
traders and industrialists.
 Thus, improved communications facilitated the move e.g steam
engines,telegraph
 Thus,the initial opening up of Africa was due to the work of
explorerers,missionaries, traders,hunters and imperialists.Thus, the
rapid rise for growth of industries among newly industrialised nations
like Germany,USA also gave rise to competition for markets and raw
materials from Less Developed countries.
 Thus, the need for monopoly trade could be achieved through political
control.Thus, acquisition of colonies became a national struggle and
main objective among great powers but propelled by forces within
Europe i.e industrialisations i.e the rise of Cartels or giant cooperatives
and political events e.g France wanted to maintain her political status by
acquiring more colonies in Africa.

126
  This was a way to compensate her humiliating defeat in 1870-71 and old
order i.e the balance of power was disturbed by Bismarck.
 Hobson and Lenin believed that imperialism was a result of economic
developments within Europe not in Africa.
 Thus, imperialism is regarded as the highest stage of capitalism i.e
industrialisation hence the need for raw materials,markets,areas of
investment,cheap labour.For example, Rhodes once said ‘ I have always
maintained that British empire is a matter of bread and butter, if you
wish to avoid civil war,you must become an imperialist’..
 Thus, indeed the political element had always been pressed by small
groups of traders,explorers to embark on colonial acquisition in Africa
The emphasis placed was economic events in Europe that pushed
European states to rush for colonies in Africa.
 The industrial revolution and industrial growth in Europe was closely
connected with imperialism due to the following reasons:
 Created demand for colonies to supply with raw materials.
 It was discovered that Africa provided cheap supplies and valuable
commodities for their factories.
 Due to mass production, there were short-supply of these raw materials
in their home states e.g gold, ivory, oil (North and West Africa) and
Rubber in Congo.
 Need for markets-these colonies provided markets for surplus
manufactured goods.
 As a result of abandonment of free trade in Europe in the 1870s,
European powers became eager to obtain key trade areas.
 Need for investment-Britain looked for new fields of investment for
surplus capital when USA and Turkey defaulted e.g Chartered companies
were used by Britain for overseas expansion e.g BSAC, Royal Niger
Company.

CONCLUSION

 While the arguments of Robinson Gallagher were powerful and

comprehensive and well constructed, the partition of so a large a
continent could not be ascribed to one factor.

127
  A single connected explanation in trying to advance the point of African
crisis or scramble was overdone e.g in the 1870s and 1880s active
trading activities were taking place in West Africa well before the
Egyptian crisis.
 Home gvts were prepared to give their merchants some backing.
 There is no evidence of connecting West Africa to Egypt.The Egyptian
crisis quicken the process.
 The French gvt was anxious for some compensation in West Africa.
 Professor Stokes asserts that the specialised statesman was primarily
strategic rather than economic and that territorial expansion usually
occurred at economic margins or fringes
 European powers were motivated by security.
 It seems that if strategic and economic are to be separated,it is
economic factor which takes precedence over everything else.
 It is the economic interests whether new or existing which had to be
protected.
 Robinson Gallagher brush aside that the notion of the scramble for
Africa was motivated by capitalism.
 He argued that in terms of trade from the colonies, the losses of colonial
acquisitions far outweigh the limited gains.
 Some financial minority and industrial ministries gained handsomely.The
chief feature of imperialism was surplus capital-were driven to seek
investments because of under consumption and money surplus at home.
 The profitability of trade was nothing compared to the profitability of
export capital.
 Bismarck responded to colonial demands in the interests of domestic
and foreign policy thus political and economic factors are closely related
in some cases.

BRITAIN

 Britain took measures to protect her existing strategic and economic

interests against France and Germany so she declared a protectorate
over Niger Delta, Bechuanaland and took the Natal Coast to check the
expansion of other powers in Egypt and she deemed it necessary to
deny them access to the Nile.

128
  As a result, Britain found herself laying hands on the whole of the Nile,
Uganda, and Kenya down to the Sea.
 There were no economic considerations but strategic interests.
 However, major powers did not want to be deeply involved in the
interior because of costs that these powers found themselves
shouldering costs on governing African people was an unexpected
development springing from events in Africa.
 Local resistance movements forced the European powers to counter by
military means because the local political system had been swept away.

SOUTH AFRICA

 Britain had a large financial state by 1885 which promised to expand

rapidly with the discovery of gold and diamond in South Africa.
 The diamond mines fell within the Boers territory-Transvaal.The danger
was that a hostile expansionist Boer nationalism perharps backed by
Germany could transform the Transvaal into hostile power in South
Africa thus threatening Britain hold on the Cape.
 To neutralise that Britain supported Rhodes’s schemes to serve strategic
interests Transvaal and Central Africa-not economic interests but
missionary route into central Africa could be blocked by Boers.
 Both crises in South Africa and in Egypt were local in origin not in Europe
and both arose from emergence of indigenous movements hostile to
British interests.
 British occupation in 1882 in Egypt intended to be temporarily became
the centre on which the whole scramble evolved.
 Because of her weaknesses and problem in Europe and Germans have
been left out in Egypt to recover her lost position.
 She resolved to harass and threaten the British interests elsewhere in
Africa.Thus, she now backed up Leopold 11 in the Congo and thwarted
British interests

Central Africa

 In Central Africa, political strategic and economic factor invariably played

their role in the scramble.

129
  The appearance on the scene of new states not previously involved in
the continent sharpened mutual suspicion and appepitite for colonies
creating a sense of urgency for acquisition for colonies
 .The first newcomer was Leopold 11 of Begium in CONGO- was acting on
his personal capacity not for the state.
 He used his position to achieve his imperial ambitions.
 The stations were to be garrisoned to serve as bases of attacking slave
traders and to protect mission stations-philathropic reasons.
 However, Leopold was interested in extracting maximum financial profit
from Congo.
 He was a free agent operating behind the clamflouged philathropism.
 Leopold developed his ideas of colonialisation before becoming a king
through his studies of colonial enterprises in America.
 The economic exploitation of undeveloped lands was more profitable
than investing in Belgium industry.To this end; he used Stanely to exploit
the Congo basin.
 Firstly, he did not consider political domination necessary for economic
exploits.However, his intentions was to establish a private commercial
company to raise capital through private subscription of investors from
any country.
 He was forced to exercise political domination in order to keep out other
powers that it would preferable to have a Congo basin to be a free trade
area under under International Association than under competing
states.Paradoxically, the appearance of Leopold speeded up the
Scramble and created that atmosphere of urgency and suspicion.
 Germany and Britain could not be deceived by Leopold’s intentions
which Bismarck called it a swindle-obtain by fraud.
 Not surprisingly, the next power to join the scramble was Germany.
 Bismarck for a long time had resented imperial adventure.Bismarck
changed his policy-wanted to divert France’s intention in Europe to
Africa-encouraged her to take Tunisia in 1881.
 The question is did Bismarck change his mind? This was an act of his
diplomatic policy-wanted to isolate France in Europe.
 Thus, events in Europe caused the scramble.According, to Oliver and
Fage, Germany entered Africa not primarily to satisfy the desire for an

130
 empire but rather as part of a wider design to deflect French hostility
against her in Europe by formenting rivalries in Africa and a situation in
which she will be the arbiter-one with entire control-between France
and Britain.
 Throughout the Egyptian crisis, Germany supported Britain but on
condition that Britain acquielled-agree without protest Germany action
elsewhere in Africa.
 The aim of her action in Africa was to incite the French to take action in
Africa against Britain and in this way; the loss of Alsace-Lorraine would
be forgetten.
 It is also clear that Bismarck was prepared to give solid state support to
Germany business interests in the LDCs.Germany agriculture owing to
the importation of cheap foreign food motivated the Germans to
persuade Bismarck to embark on colonisation.What finally determined
Bismarck’s change of mind was his dubious/doubtful stance over South
West Africa.
 The pending elections at home and realisation that Germany had to set
up colonies in order to prevent the closing up of overseas trading areas
by rival powers.In the early years of the scramble, France maintained a
very cautious state-the costly defeat at the hands of Germany
dominated her thinking.
 The French economy was not geared to overseas expansion as of slow
industrialisation.At the Berlin Congress of 1878, Bismarck made it clear
that France expansion in Africa would gain the solid support of
Germany.His aim was to prevent cooperation between France and
Germany.
 Thus, the geographical society of Paris was pressing for overseas
expansion to spread French civilisation and influence.For the
politician,Africa was the sole hope for expansion left open to
France.Leopold’s activities on Congo stimulated the French to develop a
treaty networks in Central and West Africa.

BRITAIN

131
  For Britain, the expansionist struggle for South and Central Africa was
mainly engineered by Rhodes, an avowed imperialist whose dream was
to establish British interests throughout Africa.
 To establish a chain of colonies in Africa linked by a railway line in order
to spread civilisation.He believed that British civilisation was the finest of
all in the world.

GERMANY

 Bismarck exploited the Anglo-French rift to further his European

interests.He backed German merchants and adventurers to take
Togoland, Cameroons and Tanganyika.

BELGIUM

 Leopold was interested in Belgium expansion abroad in order to secure

an outlet for the Belgium manufactured goods.His concern was for the
benefits which the colony would bring to the mother state but is also
alleged that he considered the interest of the colonised people.Was he
philanthropist or exploitative.
 Was he more exploitative than developmental.The independent state of
Congo was entirely the creation of the Leopold of Belgium.Was much
concerned in overseas projects and felt confined in little Belgium and
finally settled in Congo.
 By 1894 secured international recognition for the independent state of
Congo with himself a king.The most strong allegation was that Leopold
was philanthropist venture but evidence reveal that there was little of
philanthropism but rather untamed exploitation i.e between 1884-1908
the Congo witnessed exploitation by Europeans.However,there were
campaigns against Arab slave traders,opening up of new lines of
communication.His rule was associated with heartless exploitation of
mass and natural resources e.g rubber which was in demand in Europe
but this was accompanied by astrocities on a large scale.

132
  Congo was carved up with a stroke of a pen.The majority of the
Congolese were controlled by Europeans-natives had no share in the
profits e.g rubber and ivory-Africans provided cheap labour in the
collection,transport of rubber,in public works-building of houses and
prisons,to feed the army.
 In this light,Africans were slaves by law-Africans paid taxes in labour and
in kind.This forced Britain and USA to intervene on humanitarian
reasons-Britain wanted free trade with Congo but was impossible under
independent state.Despite this, Leopold modernised transport system-
railway,telegraph lines-laid down the foundation of modern cities e.g
Leopoldville.Missionaries opened up new schools,churches,hospitals and
attempts were made to control slave slave trade activities of the
Arabs.In 1884 at Berlin,Leopold was able to defend his position against
Great powers who were persuaded to support his claims of being
philanthropists after all Congo was open to trade to these
Europeans.Europeans accepted that Africans would benefit from
colonisation.
 A commission of Inquiry was set up to investigate Leopold astrocities-
this led to Casement Report-that the existence of African abuses came
to be accepted and the Reformers Association enlisted the support of
influential members of Britain of House Heads and Mps to take action.
 Thus, Robinson that events in Africa-slave trade in the Congo-forced
Britain and USA to come and serve Africans who were exploited by
Leopold but Hobson on the other hand, argued that it was a result of
demand for ivory and rubber in the Congo that attracted European
powers to come and colonised Africa.

OTHER FACTORS

Psychological factors

 this idea took root after 1870.It was argued by some writers that a
powerful nation was justified in seeking colonies elsewhere to show
their strenghth e,g Herber Spencer popularised the theory of the ‘the

133
 survival of the fittest i.e European powers were struggling for power e.g
Britain,France,Germaany.
 Again, it was argued that some states wanted colonies for national
prestige e.g preservation as compensation for some failure in domestic
or foreign policy e.g France in 1870-71 and Russia in 1856 and 1879.

Cultural factors

 Some people desired to spread religious faith or bring the benefits of an

advanced civilisation or a way of life to others e.g missionaries were
keen to spread the Christian faith and also encourage the humanitarians
who wanted to abolish unchristian customs in Africa e.g Britain justified
her extension in West Africa to suppress local slave trade.

Racial factors

 Racist’s ideas popular in Britain and Germany e.g Joseph Chamberlain

claimed that the British race is the greatest of governing races that the
world has ever seen.The justification was that there was need to help
educate and civilise the less fortunate elsewhere.

Conclusion

 By 1914, European powers directly or indirectly influenced the destiny of

most African states and all forms of African opposition were ruthlessly
suppressed by Britain, French and Germans in Africa.

REFERENCES

ROBINSON,R and GALLAGHER,J (1967) Africa and the Victorians,The official

mind of Imperialism

Hobson,J.A, Imperialism

Lenin,V.I Imperialism, the highest stage of Capitalism

New Cambridge Modern History Volume x

Brown. R (ED) (1962) Historians in tropical AFRICA

Ronbick,R (1979) Economic imperialism theory and practice.

134
 ITALIAN HISTORY

MUSSOLINI 1922-1939

Introduction

Key questions to ask-How did Mussolini obtain and solidify his power? What
did he do with it at home and abroad? These questions come naturally to mind
when considering the role played by Mussolini from 1922 to 1940. Mussolini
ruled for over 20 years, a period long enough to give some good answers to
these questions.For the purposes of analysis, the fascist regime is divided into
3 parts

Mussolini’s appointment -1922-24

 serious efforts were made to preserve at least the appearances of the

constitutional structure of monarchical Italy

Consolidation of his power 1925-1934

 Dictatorship was consolidated replacing democratic gvt and the

machinery of the corporate state erected.

Economic-self sufficiency and growing involvement -1935-1939

 a drive toward economic self sufficiency and growing involvement in war

135
PROBLEMS IN ITALY

Versailles settlement

 it failed to satisfy Italian demands and in response, she tried to regain

territories e.g the much desired regions were Fuime, Trieste.
 Though, she regained some, some extreme nationalists were not and
could not be satisfied.
 The substantial gains were not enough.The war had cost her 148 billion
lives, much casuality.
 Thus; Italy was the first country to fall under fascist sway.
 Italy should regain her former glory and retake territories that rightfully
belonged to her.

Frustrated nationalism

 Was prevalent among the mobilised officer class and soldiers, many of
whom were unemployed.
 They felt that their struggle in the war had not fully rewarded.
 Thus, they were there to give strong support for any party or leader to
complete the job and further give validity to Italy’s greater power status
in Europe by enough territorial expansion.
 Thus, the mobilised officer class supplied cadres that helped the fascist
into power in 1922.
 Some believed that nationalists’ expansion was feasible and that the
Versailles settlement could be mended unilaterally by force in Italy’s
own favour.

Greater power status

 Connected to nationalism was the desire in acquisitions of colonial

territories e.g Italy had jumped on the backwagon of colonialism in
Africa in the 19th century but was a failure and humiliation in Ethiopia.
 The fascist made a plan to retain Italy to its former imperial greatness
and improving the standard of living in the country by means of planned
colonial expansion.

136
Weaknesses of the Italian Parliamentary system

 Parliament was never a model of probity or efficiency.

 It was the weakness of the parliamentary system that made it possible
for the coming of Fascist to power.
 Italy as a new state with centuries of political divisions, lacked strong
and courageous leaders whose faith in democracy was absolute.Victor
Emmanuel 111 was relatively powerless.
 The fear of communism added to the appeal of Fascism and the Catholic
democratic and Socialist parties were not strong enough.
 Thus, politics of violence could have been a strong appeal to the
weaknesses of Italian parliamentary system.

Economic problems

 Weaknesses of democratic parties in Italy contributed considerably to

the rise of fascism
 They showed themselves unable to face Italy’s post war problems e.g
inflation, unemployment, high cost of living.
 Thus, the working class and propertied classes were not interested in the
compromises necessary to make the democratic constitution work.

DOMESTIC POLICY

 Mussolini made the’trains run on time’. The Italians were involved in

draining marshes. He increased wheat production.improved internal
transportation i.e state roads were built to improve communications,
drained swamplands.
 He reduced the number of landless labourers and increased the number
of owners and tenants.
 Italy stopped to be predominantly rural perharps many left for city life.
 Thus, the centrepiece of his domestic policy was the erection of the
corporate state-united state.
 Corporation was not fascist intention but catholic corporatists had for
many years advocated a middle road between capitalist individualism
and Marxist collectivism.

137
  A more important influence on fascism was the national syndicalists-
association of people-socialist hereyics expelled from Italian socialist
Party for advocating a programme of trade unionism, nationalism and
class collaboration.
 Under Mussolini, corporation was about increased production-was to be
achieved through organised use of capital and labour under the
supervision of the state.
 Thus, corporation meant no strikes and demonstrations-ie industrial
peace.
 Industrialists were given freedom and most Italian industries were
grouped i.e industry to remain fairly self –directed and labour state
directed.
 Thus, the state let business run-itself.Thus, Italy’s fascism made safe for
private property and leadership of Italian industry always remained aloof
and uneasy.
 This was an idea of solving its economic problems.All in all, economic
development took place thus Italy joined the select ranks of those
nations with predominantly industrial economies.
 Death rate was greatly reduced and important advances were made in
chemicals, HEP, merchant marine and electrification of railways.
 Automobile industry was expanded and FIAT Firms produced 4/5 of
Italian car output.Schemes was introduced for the development of oil
refinery. He was also involved in mining, cement and smelting.
 By 1930, Italy had built a considerable aircraft industry.Thus, Fascist’s
economic policy sought to make up for Italian industrial backwardness
by encouraging the larger and more progressive firms such as OLIVETTI,
Pirelli-economic miracle.
 With all its emphasis on production, Fascism never worked out a
comprehensive investment policy or realised the necessity of good trade
relations with other states.
 Mussolini made Italian goods costly overseas and hurt tourism. He did
this for prestige despite harmful economic effects.
 He had stopped communism in Italy, pacified the church and
augumented the empire.saved Spain from communism, given Italy a
stable gvt and industrial progress.

138
  The less attractive aspects of the regime were the militarilisation of
children, corruption of bench and army through favouritism, shameless
exploitation of religion.
 The battle of grain-population of 40 million had to be raised i.e bachelors
were heavily taxed and prizes for larger families given-battle for
births.Education and culture-full control of Mussolini-thus
propagandising for his beliefs.
 All ant-clericalism-church of his earlier days was thrown overboard in an
attempt to gain the genuine support of the catholics.
 In 1929,came to an agreement with the Pope and Laterian treaty was
signed and Catholicism was recognised as a state religion.Thus,
Mussolini accepted the compulsory teaching of religion in schools.This
diplomatic success consolidated his esteem both Italy and abroad.
 By 1930,through tight organisation of public opinion backed by terrorism
of the police party, Mussolini’s possessions of power became
guaranteed.

STUDY QUESTIONS

1. Account for the appeal of fascism in Italy in the inter-war period

2. Assess the achievements of the Fascist regime in Italy up to 1939

3. How far, and for what reasons, could it be claimed that Mussolini enjoyed
the support of the Italian people in the period 1922 to 1940

4. How far did the Italian fascist govt have any significant domestic
achievements by 1940?

5. Why had Italy become a fascist dictatorship by 1929?

139
GERMAN UNIFICATION

1815-1870

BACKGROUND

 German unification was one of the European problems which European

powers failed to offer realistic solution.
 They failed to satisfy the hopes of those who had wanted to see some
form of German unity i.e constitutional reforms in individual German
states had not been fulfilled to any great extent.
 Apart from reducing German states into 39 states, the Vienna
settlement increased the influence of Austria and Prussia thus creating
future unnecessary competition between Austria and Prussia over
German domination e.g Austria proved to be a common enemy for both
the Germans and Italian people.
 The 1848 revolutionaries tried to bring about a unified Germany through
the Frankfurt Assembly but were defeated in1849.Prussia’s efforts at
little Germany were defeated by Austria in 1850-thus Austria dominated
a divided Germany and the liberals lost hope.
 Thus, Bismarck‘s policy was to assert Prussia’s rights against Austria,by
war if necessary.
 This was new because it solved the dilemma of Greater or Little
Germany-therefore Bismarck introduced the method of ‘blood and iron’
and diplomacy.The whole process of unification reveals an element of

140
 plan and grasp of opportunities as they arose and used them to Prussia’s
advantages.

The French revolution-July revolution in 1830

 Gave a signal of a revival of liberalism throughout Germany e.g outbreak

of violence were few and their effects were insignificant.

The Polish Revolt-1831

 this event also arose liberal enthusiuam in Germany

 Were now in favour of constitutional gvts-students, lawyers, writers,
professors’ etc.However, due to the influence of Metternich system and
influence of Austria- the 1848 revolution was a failure.

Factors that contributed to the unification of Germany

Zollverein 1834

 creation of German customs of union in 1834 under Prussian leadership

was the most important step towards Germany unity on economic
dimension and it excluded Austria
 most German states joined it and this improved trade among German
states as well as industrial development e.g banning of internal customs
barriers between states.However, this economic development had a
political effect of Prussia.
 This prepared Prussia for political leadership in Germany against Austria
and it gave rise to militant working class which was very active in 1848
Revolution- e.g the creation of Liberal Party.In 1861, they formed the
National Chamber of Commerce that represented the interests of all
business people.In 1859, liberals inspired by Italy’s example,they formed
the German National Association but supporting a little Germany under
Prussia’s leadership.
 These trends would seem to make union inevitable.Thus; economic
exclusion of Austria was a great advantage to Prussia to spearhead the
unification of Germany.

1848 Revolution in Germany

141
  there was a growing need for national unity i.e need for sharing political
power by middle class

Reasons for failing to create a unified Germany in 1848

 A lot of divisions in parliament and limited support from workers-were

no military support-wasted time on endless debates.
 Competition between Austria and Prussia made it impossible for the
parliament to make progress.Thus, the constitutional means had failed
and therefore force would have to be used to overcome opposition of
Austria.

Modernisation of Prussia under the influence of Bismarck

 Bismarck’s scheming
 Strong Prussian army
 Exclusion of Austria in 1866 and France in 1870-71.

Remarks

 German unification was achieved by Prussia through war and diplomacy

and all the essential elements for successful union were present
beforehand but however,Bismarck’s policy radically changed the
situation-achieved union of Germany on his own terms
 Bismarck was the arch-opponent of the liberals of 1848 revolution-
achieved the union by his own means, war and not by constitutional
programme-liberals got attracted to Bismarck who revoked nationalist
feeling through wars.
 Thus, the unification was made possible,as it had not been before,by
Bismarck’s statesmanship.He made the union to suit his own needs and
made it in his own way and his personal power was assured as from
1871.
 The failure of German revolutionaries created a leeway for Bismarck to
fulfil the cause through using a different road-diplomacy and blood and
iron.
 Thus, German unification was not Bismarck’s role alone but there were
other players though much credit should accord to him.

142
  He learnt something from the 1848 revolution-mistakes made by
revolutionaries.The Zollverein had created the foundation of Prussian
leadership against the removal of Austrian influence-a stumbling block
to German unity under Prussian leadership.
 Bismarck realised that the realistic solution to German problem was to
use war if all other means failed to yield results.
 This reflected that Bismarck did not war with his enemies but he wanted
to implement his diplomatic skills in order to pursue Prussian interest
than anything else.It is questionable whether Bismarck wanted to create
German unity or to meet Prussian interests in Germany.
 Bismarck had to create a powerful Prussian army,reorganise Prussian’s
economy in order to outcompete Austrian domination in
Germany.Bismarck said ‘Not through speeches and majority decisions
are the questions of the day that decide-that was the great mistake of
1848 and 1849 -but it is through blood and iron’.
 Bismarck realised that he was dealing with a powerful state, so therefore
force was needed to wipe out Austria from Germany.Bismarck was not
interested in the liberal constitutional programme-
 he started to reorganise the Prussian army-was opposed by many
liberals-so home opposition was his challenge-thus Bismarck managed to
win them by pursuing foreign policy which would unite Germany in
national feeling.

Advantages enjoyed by Bismarck

 Got support from William 1-king of Prussia-was appointed by him to be

prime minister.
 The presence of Von Roon and Von Moltke-minister of war and chief
General Staff respectively.Both were ant-liberal and ant-Austria.This
suits quite well to him.The above mentioned issues show that the
process of German unification was not one man’s band.
 Zollverein made most of German states an economic unit and
industrialisation of Northern Germany was well underway by 1862
under Prussian leadership.Banning of tarrifs and promotion of Free
trade improved economic strengths of Prussian leadership
143
  Good railway networks were added advantage for future wars-reflected
element of planning in his strategy to wipe out Austria.
 Personal qualities of Bismarck-was a diplomatist and strategist in his
foreign policy.
 In 1859, the liberals inspired by Italy’s example formed the German
National Association to promote union.They supported Little Germany
under Prussia’s leadership
 The intellectuals raised enthusiasm for the concept of a united state and
they also supported Prussia’s leadership-were ant-Austrian
 Crimean war-1854-56 dissolved the Holy Alliance by which Prussia was
now against Austria-Russians supported the Austrians but this alliance
was shattered by 1856 war thus Prussaia was now safe to follow a
foreign policy against Austria without Russian opposition.Thus, the
above trends would seem to make union inevitable since the rich class
needed unification for their business interests

External advantages

 Man can not create events but occur naturally-chances.

 He did not have immediate plans but he exploited events as they occur.

War against Denmark- 1863-64

 This war was the first step in his new policy of blood and iron and it
proved that Prussia was capable of taking an initiative, fighting and
winning on issues considered to be essential for them.
 the two states which were under Denmark –Holstein-had Germany
majority and in Schleswig-majority were Danish but was part of
Germany(mixture).The death of the king of Denmark provided the
opportunity for Prussia to assert her claim to the duchies
 Denmark was defeated with the combined efforts of Prussia and Austria.
 Under the Gastein Convention of 1865, it was agreed that Austria should
control Holstein with Germany majority while Prussia was to control
Schleswig with Dainsh population.
 It was deliberate trap laid by Bismarck to lure Austria into a war, thus his
diplomatic scene was demonstrated here.However, and tension arose

144
 between Austria and Prussia over the control of German speaking
people in Holstein.

War between Austria and Prussia-1866-battle of Sadowa

 The war was the first step in Bismarck’s new policy of blood and iron and
it proved Prussia was capable of taking the iniative and fighting for the
issues she considered essential.
 Bismarck had never doubted that Prussia would have to fight Austria in
order to exclude her from Germany and thus secure Prussia’s
domination of Germany.Bismarck realised that Prussia’s whole position
as a great power depended on defeating Austria.
 Within 7 weeks, Austria was defeated and excluded from Germany bund
and this secured Prussian domination in the north and the southern part
of Germany became independent.
 Austria ceased to be a great power and Prussia established her claim to
dominate Germany.Before declaring war to Austria, Bismark made sure
that his enemy was completely isolated and made alliances with other
powers and made sure that his wars should short as possible e.g a secret
alliance was made with Italy where Italy would receive Venetia from
Austria.
 It must be noted that Italy the natural ally of Bismarck.The Italians
fought Austrians but defeated-humiliation but-she gained Venetia
through Bismarck’s effort in pursuing his own interests.
 Bismarck again met Napoleon 111 at Biarritz in 1865 and prepared a way
for French neutrality in the event of a struggle with Austria.
 Russian’s relations with Austria-were no good since the Crimean War of
1854-56 and again he supported the Russians against the Polish revolt-
e.g the 1863 Polish revolt against Russian control was a direct challenge
to Bismarck.Bismarck had written ‘every success of the Polish Nationalist
movement is a defeat for Prussia ‘.
 This explains why Bismarck helped Russians to stop the revolt and again
he refused to join with Britain,France and Austria to prevent Russian
demanding certain liberties for the Poles-thus Bismarck built good
relations with Russia-isolating Russia from Britain,Austria and France.

145
  Throughout his career, Bismarck feared Franco-Russian alliance more
than anything else-displaying his diplomatic skills to gain future support
in his never ending pursuit of promoting Prussian interests.
 Bismarck’s relations with Russian were dominated by the fact he
required Russian neutrality to further his policy of constructing a unified
Germany and that she should stand aside as Bismarck planned his
conflicts with Austria and France respectively-1866 and 1870-both were
regarded as essential to forge the political unity of Germany people.At
that time Prussia was militarily strong to take risk against France and
Austria.
 Thus, Bismarck’s requirement before 1871 had been war to bring
Germany people together.Thus; Russia played a passive role throughout
when Bismarck fought Austria and France.
 This demonstrated that Russia was put in heavy debt to Bismarck hence
could not do anything except to remain passive despite the fact that
Germany conflict would upset the Balance of power of 1815 which
Russia relied upon for the security of her own frontiers.
 Thus, was completely isolated from France, Italy and Russian by
Bismarck-thus her defeat was quite clear.
 This reflected Bismarck’s personal abilities in achieving his goals-
pursuing Prussian interests-to make Prussia a powerful state over other
Germany states, make Prussian leadership in championing the struggle
for German unification, to exclude Austria from Germany bund and to
make the northern part of Germany strong.

War between France and Prussia

 Napoleon 111 had supported Italy’s union but pursuing French glory
abroad by taking some Italian states as reward for assisting Italians to
Austria from their country.It must be noted that Napoleon 111 did not
want to see a strong Italy-did not support Italian unification.
 France feared a strong power on her northern-Eastern border and she
felt that Prussia’s victories of 1864 and 1866 had consolidated Prussia’s
position as great power hence this was more of a challenge to France’s
prestige.Thus, tension between Prussia and France was likely to occur.

146
  the question of Spanish succession throne finally brought France and
Prussia to fight- the problem was that Prussia supported Prince Leopold
to take the Spanish throne while France was not willing to see any
succession of the Hohenzelens of Spanish throne.
 War was declared which resulted in the humiliation defeat of Great
France-their previous was overshadowed by this defeat by a small
country.Britain and Russia staged neutral through Bismarck’s
efforts.Bismarck used the chance of the Spanish question to create war
with France because he saw that this could lead to Prussian’s
domination in Germany even though the country was not fully prepared
for a war.

REMARKS

 German unification process was not a master plan but was subject to
chance
 Thus, Bismarck was more of an opportunist who profited on the
mistakes of others and also managed to manipulate events to his
advantage-especially in creating good relations with other powers at the
right time.
 He was a diplomatist and strategist in his thinking-war was his last resort
if all other means failed to yield desired results.He intiated and provoked
events in order to pursue Prussian interests in Northern Germany.Aspect
of planning can be seen through making secret treaties and alliances
with other European powers for purpose of defeating his common
enemies-Austria and France.
 In three wars, he made sure that the period of fighting should be short
and to make sure that the common enemy should be completely
isolated.
 As a result,through his three wars,he asserted Prussia’s leadership and
achieved unification of Germany-the first war asserted Prussia’s
leadership,the second defeated her rival-Austria and the third,
completed unification and made Germany the dominant power in
Europe.
 Bismarck deliberately created a war situation because he saw it could
lead to Prussia’s final domination even though the country was not fully

147
 prepared for war-e.g Bismarck edited telegram coming from France-
provoked war.On the other hand, like Cavour, he used opportunities
that arose.

END

148