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WOLLEGA UNIVERSITY

SCHOOL OF GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

SHEAR BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM WITHOUT


TRANSVERSE REINFORCEMENT BASED ON CRITICAL SHEAR
DISPLACEMENT BY ABAQUS SOFTWARE

A Thesis submitted to Wollega University College of Engineering and


Technology, Civil Engineering Department in The Partial Fulfillment of the
requirement for degree of Masters of Science (MSc.) in Structural
Engineering.

NAGASA FIRDISA

Major Advisor: Temesgen Wondimu (PhD)

Co-Advisor: Kesahun Kebede (MSc)

January 2020
Nekemte, Ethiopia
APPROVAL SHEET FOR SUBMITTING FINAL THESIS
As members of the board examining the final MSc. Thesis open defense, we certify that we
have read and evaluated the thesis prepared by NAGASA FIRDISA, under the title “shear
behavior of reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement based on critical
shear displacement by ABAQUS” and recommend that the thesis be accepted as fulfilling the
thesis requirement in the Degree of Master of Science in Civil Engineering (Structural
Engineering).

1._______________________ ____________ __________


Chair Person Signature Date
2.___________________________ _______________ ____________
Internal Examiner Signature Date
3.___________________________ _______________ ____________
External Examiner Signature Date
Final Approval and Acceptance
Thesis Approved by
______________________ _________________
______________
Department, PGC Signature Date
_____________________ _________________
______________
Dean College Signature Date

Certification of the final Thesis

I hereby certify that all the correction and recommendation suggested by the board
of the Examiners were, incorporated in to the final Thesis entitled “Shear behavior
of reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement based on critical
shear displacement by ABAQUS software” by NAGASA FIRDISA

_____________________________ _____________ _____________

Dean of SGS Signature Date

i
Declaration

I, Mr. NAGASA FIRDISA, hereby declare and affirm that the thesis entitled “ Shear Behavior
of Reinforced Concrete Beam without Transverse reinforcement Based on shear critical
displacement by ABAQUS” is my own work and conducted under the supervision of
TEMESGEN WONDIMU (PhD). I have followed all the ethical principles of scholarship in
the preparation, data collection, data analysis and completion of this thesis. All scholarly matter
that is included in the thesis has been, given recognition through citation. I have adequately cited
and referenced all the original sources. I also declare that I have adhered to all principles of
academic honesty and integrity and I have not misrepresented, fabricated, or falsified any idea /
data / fact / source in my submission. This thesis is, submitted in partial fulfillment of the
requirement for a degree from the Post Graduate Studies at Wollega University. I further declare
that this thesis has not been, submitted to any other institution anywhere for the award of any
academic degree, diploma or certificate.

I understand that any violation of the above will be cause for disciplinary action by the
University and can evoke penal action from the sources which have thus not been, properly cited
or from whom proper permission has not been, taken when needed.

NAGASA FIRDISA ITICHA __________ ___________

Student Name signature date

TEMESGEN WONDIMU (PhD) __________ __________

Major-Advisor signature date

KESAHUN KEBEDE (MSc) ___________ __________

Co-Advisor signature date

ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENT

It is because of the durable aid and provision of the almighty lord that the crumbly
being manages to achieve even the slightest success in life. However, this one
great, and for his merciful kindness, I praise the lord.

Then, my immense gratitude goes to my advisor Dr. Temesgen Wondimu for


positive attitude and guidance since the commencement of this research work. His
constant encouragement also up kept the momentum of this work until the end.

I would like to give thanks to my co-advisor Mr. Kesahun Kebede who played a
great role from the beginning to end my thesis. He has been so kind and dedicated
to provide every help needed.

I would also like to thank department head of civil engineering, Mr. Bekesha
Merara for his positive attitude and kindness.

Finally, I would like to give thanks to all my friends and all peoples who has been
supporting me in my work.

iii
Contents page
List of Tables.................................................................................................................................vi

List of Figures..............................................................................................................................vii

ABBREVIATIONS......................................................................................................................ix

NOTATION..................................................................................................................................ix

ABSTRACT..................................................................................................................................xi

1. INTRODUCTION...................................................................................................................1
1.1 Background.............................................................................................................1
In order to give soundness to this thesis it was important to define the goal of the simulation
as precisely as follows..................................................................................................3
1.2. Statement of Problem.............................................................................................4
1.3. Objectives of the Research....................................................................................5
1.4. Significance of the Study.......................................................................................6
1.5. Scope and Limitations of the Study.......................................................................7
2. LITERATURE REVIEW.........................................................................................................8

2.1. Introduction...........................................................................................................................8
2.2. BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS UNDER SHEAR FORCE
ACCORDING TO EXPERIMENTAL TEST.............................................................................8
2.3. BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM WITHOUT SHEAR
REINFORCEMENT ACCORDING TO RATIONAL THEORY............................................22
2.4. METHOD OF ANALYSIS................................................................................................28
2.4.1. Finite Element Method (FEM).........................................................................28
2.4.2. Finite Element Analysis by Software (ABAQUS)...........................................29
2.4.3. Elements in ABAQUS......................................................................................31
2.4.4. Concrete Compression Model..........................................................................33
2.4.5. Concrete Tension Model...................................................................................34
2.4.6. Concrete Damage Modelling............................................................................38
2.4.7. Concrete Plasticity Modelling..........................................................................39
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY...........................................................................................41

3.1. General................................................................................................................................41

iv
3.2. Material and Data Used......................................................................................................41
3.3. Procedure Used...................................................................................................................41
3.3.1. Pre-processing or modeling..............................................................................41
3.3.2. Processing or finite element analysis:...............................................................45
3.3.3. Post-processing or generating report, image, animation, and graph from the output
file:..............................................................................................................................45
4. VALIDATION OF THE PROPOSED MODEL..................................................................46

4.1. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF BEAMS FAILING IN SHEAR..........................46


4.2. Leonhardt’s Shear Beams...................................................................................................47
4.2.2. Load versus displacement validation response.................................................49
4.2.3. Crack pattern Validation...................................................................................52
5. RESULT AND DESCUSION.................................................................................................54

5.1. RATIONAL THEORY VERSUS ABAQUS.....................................................................54


5.2. Cracking patterns tracked using ABAQUS software.........................................................58
5.3. Effects of Parametric Under Study.....................................................................................59
5.3.1. Effects of Steel Reinforcement Ratio...............................................................59
5.3.2. Effects of Concrete Compressive Strength.......................................................60
5.3.3. Effects of Beam Size.........................................................................................61
5.4. Numerical result obtained from ABAQUS software..........................................................61
6. CONCLUSION AND RECCOMANDATION.....................................................................62

6.1. CONCLUSSION................................................................................................................62
6.2. RECCOMDATION............................................................................................................63
References....................................................................................................................................64

List of Tables

v
TABLE 2. 1. DIMENSION OF THE TESTED CONCRETE BEAM............................................................21
TABLE 2. 2 MATERIAL PARAMETERS USED....................................................................................21
TABLE 2. 3 REINFORCING BAR PROPERTIES..................................................................................22
TABLE 2. 4 GEOMETRIC, LOAD AND MATERIAL USED...................................................................22
TABLE 2. 5 BASE VALUE OF FRACTURE ENERGY 𝐺𝐹𝑜 (N MM/MM2) (CEB-FIP, 1990).................36
TABLE 2. 6 COEFFICIENT 𝛼𝐹 USED TO ESTIMATE 𝑤𝑐 (CEB-FIP, 1990)........................................37

TABLE 3. 1 BEAM CHARACTERISTICS GEOMETRY.........................................................................42


TABLE 3. 2 STEEL REBAR PROPERTIES.......................................................................................43
TABLE 3. 3 DIMENSION OF THE TESTED CONCRETE BEAM............................................................48
TABLE 3. 4 MATERIAL PARAMETERS USED IN THE FE ANALYSES FOR THE CONCRETE...............49
TABLE 3. 5 PEAK LOAD AND MID DEFLECTION AT PEAK LOAD....................................................50
Y

TABLE 4. 1 DIMENSION OF THE TESTED CONCRETE BEAM.............................................................48


TABLE 4. 2 MATERIAL PARAMETERS USED IN THE FE ANALYSES FOR THE CONCRETE................49
TABLE 4. 3 PEAK LOAD AND MID DEFLECTION AT PEAK LOAD.....................................................50
TABLE 5. 1 SHEAR STRENGTH OBTAINED FOR DIFFERENT BEAM SPECIMENS................................61

List of Figures

FIGURE 2. 1 FLEXURAL AND SHEAR STRESS VARIATION ACROSS THE CROSS SECTION OF A RECTANGULAR BEAM........9

vi
FIGURE 2. 2 STRESS DISTRIBUTION IN RC BEAMS (A) BEAM WITH LOADING (B)–(E) STRESSES IN ELEMENTS..............10
FIGURE 2. 3 CRACKING OF BEAMS DUE TO TENSILE STRESSES (A) TYPICAL CRACKING (B) THEORETICAL
REINFORCEMENT REQUIRED TO RESIST SUCH CRACKING...................................................................................11

FIGURE 2. 4 TYPICAL CRACK PATTERN IN AN RC BEAM...............................................................................................12


FIGURE 2. 5 EFFECT OF AV /D RATIO ON SHEAR STRENGTH OF BEAMS WITHOUT STIRRUPS (A) BEAM, SHEAR FORCE,
AND MOMENT DIAGRAMS..................................................................................................................................13

FIGURE 2. 6 MODES OF FAILURE OF DEEP BEAMS (A) ARCH ACTION (B) TYPES OF FAILURES SOURCE: ACI-ASCE
COMMITTEE 426 1973, REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM ASCE..................................................................13
FIGURE 2. 7 BEHAVIOR OF BEAM WITHOUT SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (A) TYPICAL CRACK PATTERN (B) TYPICAL
FAILURE OF BEAM WITHOUT SHEAR REINFORCEMENT (C) SHEAR COMPRESSION FAILURE SOURCES: (A) AND (C)
—ACI-ASCE COMMITTEE 426 1973, REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM ASCE (B)—ANGELICO’S, ET AL.
2001, REPRINTED WITH PERMISSION FROM ACI................................................................................................14
FIGURE 2. 8 EQUILIBRIUM OF INTERNAL FORCES IN A CRACKED BEAM WITHOUT STIRRUPS (A) ACTUAL (B) IDEALIZED........................15
FIGURE 2. 9 RC BEAM UNDER EXPERIMENTAL TESTS...................................................................................................21
FIGURE 2. 10 SHEAR STRESS–SHEAR DISPLACEMENT RELATIONSHIP AT DIFFERENT CRACK WIDTH ACCORDING TO
WALRAVEN’S AGGREGATE INTERLOCK MODEL (FCM = MPA, MAXIMUM AGGREGATE SIZE 32 MM).................24
FIGURE 2. 11 CRACK PROFILE SIMPLIFICATION BASED ON FLEXURAL CRACKS FOUND IN SHEAR TESTS.......................25
FIGURE 2. 12 THE SIMPLIFIED RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN VAI AND Δ.............................................................................27
FIGURE 2. 13 VARIOUS ELEMENTS TYPES (DSS, 2014)...............................................................................................31
FIGURE 2. 14 SHEAR LOCKING OF FIRST-ORDER ELEMENTS (DSS, 2014)....................................................................32
FIGURE 2. 15 THE REDUCTION OF INTEGRATION POINTS (DSS, 2014).........................................................................32
FIGURE 2. 16 HOUR GLASSING IN REDUCED INTEGRATION POINT (DSS, 2014)............................................................33
FIGURE 2. 17 IDEALIZED UNIAXIAL STRESS-STRAIN CURVE OF CONCRETE UNDER TENSION (STONER, 2015)...............34
FIGURE 2. 18 STRESS-CRACK OPENING DIAGRAM FOR UNIAXIAL TENSION (CEB-FIP, 1990)......................................37
YY

FIGURE 3.1 DIMENSION OF BEAM GEOMETRY..............................................................................................................42


FIGURE 3. 2 TWO POINT LOADED BEAM........................................................................................................................44
FIGURE 3. 3 MESHED BEAM..........................................................................................................................................44
FIGURE 3. 4 DEFORMED BEAM......................................................................................................................................45
FIGURE 3. 5 LOAD VERSUS DISPLACEMENT GRAPH FROM OUTPUT................................................................................45
FIGURE 4. 1 GEOMETRY AND CONFIGURATION OF THE TESTED BEAM AND NUMERICAL MODEL..................................48
FIGURE 4.2 OBSERVED CRACK PATTERN OF THE BEAM, FROM LEONHARDT’S AND WALTER (1962)............................48
FIGURE 4. 3 EXPERIMENTAL AND NUMERICAL LOAD/DISPLACEMENT CURVES.............................................................50
FIGURE 4. 4 ILLUSTRATION OF ELEMENT SIZE IN MODELS TO STUDY MESH SENSITIVITY A) FINE MESH B) COARSE
MESH.................................................................................................................................................................51

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FIGURE 4. 5 LOAD AND DISPLACEMENT RESPONSE FOR FINE AND COARSE MESHES IN TWO PROGRAM ........................52
FIGURE 4. 6 BEAM CRACK PATTERN UNDER EXPERIMENTAL TEST................................................................................53
FIGURE 4. 7 CRACK PATTERN AT PEAK LOAD. A) SKETCH OF THE OBSERVED CRACK PATTERN FROM THE EXPERIMENT
B) FROM ABAQUS...........................................................................................................................................53
FIGURE 5. 1 CRACK PATTERN SIMULATED FROM ABAQUS.........................................................................................55
FIGURE 5. 2 CRACK PATTERN SIMPLIFIED ACCORDING TO RATIONAL THEORY.............................................................55
FIGURE 5. 3 SHEAR FORCE-VERTICAL SHEAR DISPLACEMENT CURVE FOR RATIONAL THEORY VS ABAQUS..............56
FIGURE 5. 4 SHEAR STRESS VERSUS VERTICAL SHEAR DISPLACEMENT FOR BOTH ABAQUS AND RATIONAL THEORY 56
FIGURE 5. 5 SHEAR STRESS VS HORIZONTAL SHEAR DISPLACEMENT (CRACK WIDTH)..................................................57
FIGURE 5. 6 LOAD-DEFLECTION CURVES FOR THE EXPERIMENTAL VS ABAQUS BEAM..............................................57
FIGURE 5. 7 PREDICTED CRACK PATTERN FROM ABAQUS..........................................................................................58
FIGURE 5. 8 SHEAR STRESSES, S23, CONTOURS DIAGRAMS.......................................................................................59
FIGURE 5. 9 EFFECTS OF REINFORCEMENT RATIO FOR LOAD VERSUS MID SPAN DEFLECTION (EFFECTS OF DIAMETER) 60
FIGURE 5. 10 LOAD VS MID-SPAN DEFLECTION CURVE (CONCRETE COMPRESSIVE EFFECTS)........................................60
FIGURE 5. 11 LOAD VS MID SPAN-DEFLECTION (SIZE EFFECTS)....................................................................................61

viii
ABBREVIATIONS

ACI American Concrete Institute


ASCE American Society of Civil Engineering
CEB Committee European Breton
CSA Canadian Standard Association
CSCT Critical Shear Crack Theory
FEM Finite Element Method
FE Finite Element
BCM Brittle Cracking Model
CDPM Concrete Damage Plasticity Model
RC Reinforced Concrete
ES EN Ethiopian Standards based on Euro Norms

NOTATION

Pult Ultimate shear stress


E Elastic modules
EC Elastic modules of concrete in linear stage
ES Elastic modules of steel in linear elastic stage
Vult Ultimate Shear Capacity
Mcr Cracking Moment, the moment that makes the stress at an edge of the beam cross-section
higher than the tensile strength of the material
leff effective length
lch Characteristics length
fctm characteristics compressive strength of strength
fctsp Splitting tensile strength
Vcr Diagonal cracking shear force
Ac, eff effective concrete area
a shear span
d Beam depth
Vd Shear force
σC Compressive stress

ix
VCZ shear in the compression zone of concrete
Vaz vertical component of the shear transferred across the crack by the interlock of aggregate
Vd dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement
Vai aggregate interlock shear force

x
ABSTRACT

The main objective of this thesis was to investigate the shear behavior of Reinforced concrete
beam without transverse reinforcement based on shear critical displacement through ABAQUS
software to fill the drawback of new concept of rational theory. The numerical exploration was,
carried out on the shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams without transverse reinforcement
having flexural-shear failure based on the critical shear displacement.

In this thesis, simple supported and singly reinforced concrete beams were, modelled to
investigate crack patterns and flexural-shear capacity. The simulation was carried out through
finite element program, ABAQUS software and the results obtained was validated with the
experimental result available in literature. The result obtained from ABAQUS software was in
well agreement with the experimental result. After the validation, the ABAQUS software was
utilized to solve the drawback and limitations of Rational Theory. During the analysis, Concrete
strength, shear span to effective depth ratio, and reinforcement ratio are important parameters
that has studied.

It was observed that, according to Rational theory, shear capacity of the member is over
estimated because of inclined crack pattern is simplified to straight line which is perpendicular to
longitudinal axis of the member and result in poor design of the structural member. In addition,
ABAQUS result shows the shear behavior of RC beam without transverse reinforcement has
been, affected by concrete strength, shear span to effective depth ratio, and reinforcement ratio.

Key words: -critical shear displacement, reinforced concrete beam, transverse reinforcement,
rational theory and ABAQUS

xi
1. INTRODUCTION
This chapter deal with the general idea and relevance of the study. It defines background,
problem statement, objectives, and significance of the study, and scope.

1.1 Background
A beam may exposed to shear, axial thrust or tension, torsion, and flexure. Shear loading on
structures has been recognized as one of the most relevant (subject issue) actions determining
structural safety since the 19th century[ CITATION Yug141 \l 1033 ]. Therefore, better
understanding of the shear behavior of reinforced concrete members seems to be more critical. It
has found that failure mechanisms in reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement
under flexural-shear force considerably varies.

According to[ CITATION NSU131 \l 1033 ] The mechanism of the brittle-type diagonal tensile
failure of Reinforced Concrete beams with no shear reinforcement (stirrups) is complex and not
up till now fully understood. The behavior of beams failing in shear may vary widely, depending
on the a/d ratio (shear span to effective depth ratio) and the amount of web reinforcement. Very
short shear spans, with a/d ranging from 0 to 1, develop inclined cracks joining the load and the
support. These cracks, result in, change the behavior from beam action to arch action. Such
beams with the a/d ratio of zero to one are termed as deep beams. These beams normally fail due
to the anchorage failure at the ends of the tension tie.

Beams with a/d ranging from 1 to 2.5 develop inclined cracks and, after some internal
redistribution of forces, it transmits some additional loads due to arch action. These beams may
fail by splitting failure, bond failure, shear tension, or shear compression failure. For slender
shear spans, having a/d ratio in the range of 2.5 to 6. When the load applied and gradually
increased, flexural cracks appear in the mid-span of the beams, which are vertical in nature. With
further increase of load, inclined shear cracks develop in the beams, at about 1.5d– 2d distance
from the support, which sometimes called primary shear cracks. The typical cracking in the
slender beams without transverse reinforcement, leading to the failure, comprises two branches.
The first branch is somewhat inclined shear crack, with the typical height of the flexural crack.

It was, followed by a tensile splitting crack (destruction of the bond between steel reinforcement
and concrete close to the zone of support). Depending on some geometric parameters of the

1
beam, the critical crack further extends in the compression zone and finally meets the loading
point, leading to the failure of the beam. The failure is by shear compression due to the crushing
of concrete, without sufficient warning and at comparatively small deflection. The nominal shear
stress at the diagonal tension cracking at the development of the second branch of inclined crack
was, taken as the shear capacity of the beam. Very slender beams, with a/d ratio greater than 6.0,
will fail in flexure prior to the formation of inclined cracks. It should be, noted that the inclined
cracking loads of short shear spans and slender shear spans are approximately equal. Hence, the
a/d ratio is, not considered in the equations for shear at inclined cracking. In the case of slender
beams, inclined cracking causes sudden failure.

According to the new concept of rational theory, the analytical formula for shear capacity of
reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement based on shear critical displacement
was, derived based on crack opening and height. This means if the crack pattern of the model not
well tracked it is impossible to obtain precise result. Since the crack face and pattern observed
from experimental test is complex, the new concept of rational theory, simplify this crack as flat
crack surface and straight-line perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam to derive the
formula. In addition, parameters, which affects shear capacity of the member, was, not
considered in this theory. Hence, the shear behavior of the member was, not well investigated.

This Thesis presents model validation, finite element simulation in ABAQUS software, which
explains the shear failure of a slender reinforced concrete beam without shear reinforcement, and
predicts the corresponding maximum capacity to fill the above gap.

The study also, presents the difficulties talked previously with regard to evaluation of shear
resistance, tracking crack pattern by new concept of rational theory and compare the result with
ABAQUS software based critical shear displacement.

2
In order to give soundness to this thesis it was important to define the goal of the
simulation as precisely as follows.
 Which question is to be, answered?
 Which quantities are to be calculated?
 Which conclusion are going to be, drawn from the simulation?

3
1.2. Statement of Problem
Shear failure usually considered as one of the most critical structural failure modes for reinforced
concrete structures, particularly for the structural members without shear reinforcement. Unlike
other failure modes, almost no warning occurs, signalizing that the structure is at the onsets
(oncoming) of failing in shear. Hence, at high priority this type of failure must be avoided.

Even if the experimental observation is more realistic than the others are, it is not possible to take
all structural system under the experimental test. So, analytical model was needed in order to
minimize the cost for experimental test and analysis of all structural system to be designed. To
overcome these problem, simplified formula[ CITATION Wal16 \l 1033 ] was derived from the
experimental test. This simplified formula was presented in the new concept rational theory.
According to new concept of rational theory, the crack pattern of the model recognized as
straight line, which is perpendicular to the longitudinal axis of the member. This results in over
estimation of shear capacity of the member and poor design of structural members. Therefore,
the new concept of rational theory done by [ CITATION Wal16 \l 1033 ], which is an extensive
research of Yang (2014), could not predict shear behavior of a member with adequate accuracy
because of simplified crack profiles and the evaluation of critical shear displacement is
uncertain. Hence, to fill this gap it is important to do the analysis with help of ABAQUS
Software.

4
1.3. Objectives of the Research
1.3.1. General objectives
The main goal of this research is to verify nonlinear finite element model based on benchmark
study using mean material property to investigate the shear behavior of reinforced concrete
beams without shear reinforcement based on critical shear displacement to fill the gap of new
concept of Rational Theory with the help of ABAQUS software.

1.3.2. Specific objectives


1) To address the difficulties found in the new concept of rational theory

2) To investigate crack pattern of flexural-shear failures of Reinforced concrete beam without


transverse reinforcement.

3) To evaluate flexural-shear capacity of reinforced concrete beam without transverse


reinforcement after critical inclined crack formed.

1.4. Significance of the Study


Better understanding of shear behavior of reinforced concrete structure is important to design
against shear failures. However, analyzing flexural-shear behavior of reinforced concrete beam
with the help of experimental test is time consuming and not economical. In case of rational
theory, which was, proposed by Walraven, shear capacity of the member was, overestimated and
result in poor design of structural members.

Hence, this research attempts to presents finite element simulation of shear behavior reinforced
concrete beam without transverse reinforcement to overcome the above problem with the help of
ABAQUS software. Also in this thesis crack pattern and flexural-shear capacity of the members
could be determined with respect to concrete strength, shear span-effective depth ratio, and
reinforcement ratio with the help of ABAQUS software, so that it is practicable in order to
minimize the cost by applying it to real structures.

5
1.5. Scope and Limitations of the Study
Due to the unavailability of testing machines and economic constraints, experimental
investigation required for this particular study not covered in this thesis. Within this research,
the following aspects are included:

Shear behavior of reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement based on critical
shear displacement analyzed by ABAQUS result was, validated with Experimental results
available in literature.

Primarily, only shear behavior of reinforced concrete beams without transverse reinforcement
addressed. There is no internal shear reinforcement such as stirrups, or any other external
reinforcement along the depth of the beam. The beam is not pre-stressed and the reinforcing bars
are conventional steel rebar. In addition, the shear behavior of fiber reinforced concrete beam
not discussed, since fibers can have conceived as a type of shear reinforcement too.

Secondly, Rectangular simply supported beam with two-point loading was studied and it is
singly reinforced concrete beam. Loads very close to the support is not included (i.e. shear
behavior of slender beam based on critical shear displacement was studied). The variables of the
investigation involve concrete strength, shear span to effective depth ratio, and longitudinal
reinforcement ratio and other parameters assumed constant.

1.6 organization of the thesis

This research was composed of six chapters. Chapter one deals with the

6
2. LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Introduction
A commonly recognized phenomenological definition of shear failure is that it is a brittle failure
occurring under a shear force, with diagonal cracks developing in the span. Research on the
behavior of concrete members loaded in shear has been, carried out for more than 100 years; a
reliable definition of shear failure of reinforced concrete beams without transverse reinforcement
does not exist yet[ CITATION Yug141 \l 1033 ]. The most important point in this type of failure
are the shear force and the diagonal cracks in the span. According to the classic beam
theory[ CITATION deS56 \l 1033 ], the maximum shear stress is located at the neutral axis of a
linear elastic beam section. Consequently, the direction of the first principal stress is in the
diagonal direction. Once diagonal cracks observed in concrete members at the neutral axis of the
cross section, researchers related those cracks to the principal stress distribution described in
classic beam theory. They supposed the maximal shear stress close to the neutral axis results in
opening of the diagonal cracks. Thus, this type of failure denoted as shear failure. The so-called
diagonal cracks in most reinforced concrete beams are actually inclined flexural cracks due to
the shear force, or flexural shear cracks as described in[ CITATION ASC98 \l 1033 ].

2.2. BEHAVIOUR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS UNDER SHEAR FORCE


ACCORDING TO EXPERIMENTAL TEST

The behavior of RC beams under shear may be, classified into the following three types:

1. Behavior when the beam is not cracked

2. Cracked beam behavior when no shear reinforcements are provided

3. Cracked beam behavior when shear reinforcements are provided

Behavior of Un-cracked Beams


The loads acting on a structural element is in equilibrium with the reactions, and the bending
moment and shear force diagrams can be, drawn for the entire span. Before cracking, the
Reinforced Concrete beam may be, assumed to behave like a homogenous beam[ CITATION
NSU131 \l 1033 ].

7
Figure 2. 1 Flexural and shear stress variation across the cross section of a rectangular beam
The bending and shear stress distributions across the cross section of rectangular beam were,
shown in Figure 2.1. It should be, well known that the shear stress variation is parabolic, with the
maximum value at the neutral axis and zero values at the top and bottom of the section. Thus, the
maximum shear stress is 50 per cent more than the average shear stress. Neglecting any vertical
normal stress fy caused by the surface loads, the combined flexural and shear stresses can be
resolved into equivalent principal stresses f1 and f2, acting on orthogonal planes and inclined at
an angle α to the beam axis, as shown in Fig.2.2(a)–(f). The direction of the principal
compressive stresses is in the shape of an arch, while that of the principal tensile stresses is in the
shape of a catenary or suspended chain. As discussed before, the maximum bending stresses
occur at mid-span and the direction of stresses have a habit of to be parallel to the axis of the
beam. Close to the supports, the shear forces have the maximum value and hence the principal
stresses come to be inclined; greater the shear force, greater the angle of inclination.

8
Figure 2. 2 Stress distribution in RC beams (a) Beam with loading (b)–(e) Stresses in elements
1 and 2 (f) Principal stress distribution.
From above figures, f1 represent major principal stress, f2 is minor principal stress, and fx is
flexural stress, τ is shear stress and α is inclination angle of stress and tension being taken as
positive. The direction of the major principal stress from the beam axis was, given by


tan2α =
fx

The elements located at the neutral axis are subjected to pure shear (see Figs 2.2b and c) where τ
is the maximum and fx = 0. Hence, f1= f2 = τ max and α= 45°. Since concrete is weak in
tension, tension cracks as shown in Fig.2.2(c) will develop in a direction perpendicular to the

9
principal tensile stresses. Accordingly, the compressive stress trajectories (see Fig.2.3a) indicate
the potential crack pattern (depending on the magnitude of tensile stresses developed). It should
be noted that once a crack develops, the stress distribution shown in Fig.2.2 is no longer valid in
that region, as the effective section properties are altered[ CITATION NSU131 \l 1033 ].

Figure 2. 3 Cracking of beams due to tensile stresses (a) Typical cracking (b) Theoretical
reinforcement required to resist such cracking
Types of Cracks

10
The classic crack pattern of a beam subjected to loads was, shown in Fig. 2.4. Near the mid-span,
where the bending moment dominates, the tensile stress trajectories are crowded and are
horizontal in direction as shown in Fig. 2.2(f). Hence, flexural cracks perpendicular to the
horizontal stress trajectories (i.e., cracks will be vertical) will appear even at small loads. The
longitudinal tension bars governs these flexural cracks. In the zones where shear and bending
effects combine, that is, in zones midway between the support and mid-span, the cracks may
start vertically at the bottom, but will become inclined as they approach the neutral axis due to
shear stress

[ CITATION NSU131 \l 1033 ] (See Fig. 2.4). These cracks were, called flexure shear cracks.
Near the supports that contain concentrated compressive forces, the stress trajectories have a
complicated pattern[ CITATION NSU131 \l 1033 ]. As shear forces are predominant in this
section, the stress trajectories are inclined (see Fig. 2.2f) and cracks inclined at about 45° appear
in the mid-depth of the beam (these cracks are rare and occur mainly near the supports of deep
and thin webbed beams, as in I-section beams, or at inflection points of continuous beams).
These cracks are termed as web-shear cracks or diagonal tension cracks.

Figure 2. 4 Typical crack pattern in an RC beam


Behavior of Beams without Shear Reinforcement
According to [ CITATION NSU131 \l 1033 ] the mechanism of the brittle-type diagonal tensile
failure of Reinforced Concrete beams with no shear reinforcement (stirrups) is complex and not
yet fully understood. The behavior of beams failing in shear may vary widely, depending on the
a/d ratio (shear span to effective depth ratio) and the amount of web reinforcement (see Fig. 2.5).
Very short shear spans, with a/d ranging from zero to one, develop inclined cracks joining the
load and the support. These cracks, in effect, change the behavior from beam action to arch
action. Such beams with the a/d ratio of zero to one are termed as deep beams. In these beams,
the longitudinal tension reinforcement acts as the tension tie of a tied arch and has uniform

11
tensile force from support to support (see Fig. 2.6). These beams normally fail due to the
anchorage failure at the ends of the tension tie (see Fig. 2.6).

Figure 2. 5 Effect of av /d ratio on shear strength of beams without stirrups (a) Beam, shear
force, and moment diagrams
Beams with a/d ranging from 1 to 2.5 develop inclined cracks and, after some internal
redistribution of forces, carry some additional loads due to arch action. These beams may fail by
splitting failure, bond failure, shear tension, or shear compression failure (see Fig. 2.7). For
slender shear spans, having a/d ratio in the range of 2.5 to 6, the crack pattern will be as shown in
Figs 2.7(a) and (b). When the load applied was gradually increased, flexural cracks appear in the
mid-span of the beams, which are vertical in nature. With further increase of load, inclined shear
cracks develop in the beams, at about 1.5d– 2d distance from the support, which sometimes
called primary shear cracks. The typical cracking in the slender beams without transverse
reinforcement, leading to the failure, involves two branches. The first branch is the slightly
inclined shear crack, with the typical height of the flexural crack.

The second branch of the crack, also called secondary shear crack or critical crack, initiates from
the tip of the first crack at a relatively flatter angle, splitting the concrete in the compression zone

12
Figure 2. 6 Modes of failure of deep beams (a) Arch action (b) Types of failures Source: ACI-
ASCE Committee 426 1973, reprinted with permission from ASCE
It is followed by a tensile splitting crack (destruction of the bond between steel reinforcement
and concrete near the zone of support), as shown in Fig. 2.7(a). Depending on some geometric
parameters of the beam, the critical crack further extends in the compression zone and finally
meets the loading point, leading to the collapse of the beam[ CITATION Yan11 \l 1033 ]. The
failure is by shear compression (see Fig. 2.7c) due to the crushing of concrete, without sufficient
warning and at comparatively small deflection. The nominal shear stress at the diagonal tension
cracking at the development of the second branch of inclined crack was, taken as the shear
capacity of the beam. Very slender beams, with a /d ratio greater than 6.0, will fail in flexure
prior to the formation of inclined cracks. The internal forces across an inclined crack in a cracked
beam without shear reinforcement were, shown in Fig.2. 8. Consequently, shear was, transferred
across the line ABC by the (a) shear in the compression zone of concrete, Vcz, (b) vertical
component of the shear transferred across the crack by the interlock of aggregate particles on the
two faces of the concrete, Vaz, and (c) dowel action of the longitudinal reinforcement, Vd. The
equilibrium of vertical forces gives the following equation: V = Vcz + Vaz + Vd (6.4) For
rectangular sections, Vcz, Vaz, and Vd may be in the range 20–40 per cent, 33–50 per cent, and
15–25 percent, respectively (ACI-ASCE Committee 426 1973).

Figure 2. 7 Behavior of beam without shear reinforcement (a) Typical crack pattern (b) Typical
failure of beam without shear reinforcement (c) Shear compression failure Sources: (a) and (c)
—ACI-ASCE Committee 426 1973, reprinted with permission from ASCE (b)—Angelico’s, et
al. 2001, reprinted with permission from ACI

13
Taylor (1969) observed that Vd and Vaz carry 40–60 per cent of the shear forced, after the
inclined cracking. As the load is increased, the crack widens the contribution of Vaz decreases,
and the contribution of Vcz and Vd increases. Due to the doweling action, a splitting crack
appears along the longitudinal reinforcement (see Fig. 2.8a), causing the reduction of Vd to a
minimum value and the beam fails subsequently by the crushing of concrete. In general, the
shear failure of a slender beam without stirrups is sudden. In high-strength concrete (HSC)
beams, the failure is sudden and explosive[ CITATION Car81 \l 1033 ].

Fig
ure 2. 8 Equilibrium of internal forces in a cracked beam without stirrups (a) Actual (b)
Idealized

2.1.1. Influence of Crack Pattern on Shear Failure Mode


Experimental observations demonstrates that when reinforced concrete beam without shear
reinforcement subjected to shear loading it fail in to two different ways. Those failure modes
distinguished by whether or not the specimen loses its bearing capacity after opening of a critical
inclined crack[ CITATION Yug141 \l 1033 ]. A critical inclined crack is a flexural crack with
two secondary branches, one approaching the support at the level of the tensile reinforcement
and the other to the point with maximum rotation in the compression zone. It has been, generally
denoted as a diagonal crack to indicate the over all of the crack and a better name would give as
a flexural shear crack because this reveals the origin of the crack. In this paper, the failure mode
caused by the opening of a flexural shear crack therefore denoted as flexural shear failure.
Failure often caused by crushing of the concrete in the compressive zone; if the beam is, do not
fail immediately after opening of the flexural shear crack. As suggested by [ CITATION
Fen68 \l 1033 ], the two failure modes reveal different ways of transferring shear force before
failure. These are Variation of internal forces acting over a constant lever arm, and Constant
internal forces acting over a variable lever arm. Flexural cracks could not develop at cross

14
sections farther away from the loading point, for the beams with plain bars, because of the poor
bond between reinforcement and concrete.

One of the factors that may significantly influence the uncertainty of the failure mode is the
associated to the critical inclined crack. This illustrated indirectly in [ CITATION Mut08 \l
1033 ] by testing the shear resistance of concrete beams with ribbed bars or with plain bars.
Formation of flexural shear cracks was therefore not possible; neither did the corresponding
failure mode occur. Similar test results also reported in[ CITATION Leo62 \l 1033 ].

[ CITATION Yan11 \l 1033 ] Did direct Experimental investigation, on shear behavior


reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement. They report that, the difference
between two failure modes is mostly due to the difference of crack pattern and the residual
capacity of the beam after the formation of the flexural shear crack was not sufficient to carry a
load of the same level. In addition, the opening of a critical inclined crack is a characteristic
feature, which observed in a shear test and the opening of a critical crack goes along with and
initiated by, the opening of a secondary crack that starts at a flexural crack and develops along
the tensile reinforcement. Only when the shear span of the member is so small that a
compressive strut can always formed disregarding the position and profile of the critical inclined
crack. In this thesis, only beams with shear slenderness (a/d) of more than 3.0 is investigated and
the opening of dowel crack is conceived as the cause of the opening of the critical inclined shear
crack.

According to[ CITATION Hil76 \l 1033 ], the development of the inclined crack take place when
the maximum tensile stress in the diagonal direction reaches the tensile strength of concrete. The
comparative experimental study on specimens with and without pre-cracking show that even
though in a pre-cracked beam the major part of the critical crack has already been formed, the
resultant Vcr is still almost the same as without pre-cracking. For the specimens that fail
immediately after the formation of a critical inclined crack, the failure occurs because the shear
resistance of the cracked section is lower than the shear force under which a flexural crack forms
at this section. Therefore, the shear behavior of the cracked section defines the shear failure of
the beam, but a failure does not necessarily happen immediately after the formation of the crack.

In addition, [ CITATION Vec861 \l 1033 ] have described similar conclusions. The transfer
mechanisms of shear force at a cracked section investigated in their models attributing the failure

15
of a cracked section to the failure of aggregate interlock between the two crack faces. The
reasoning behind this assumption is that the interlock action of aggregates in the crack faces
represents the largest contribution to the shear resistance at failure.

Though aggregate interlock has clearly shown its strong relevance to the shear resistance of
cracked beam, it appears to be inappropriate to link the brittle shear failure process to the
interlocking of aggregates. Chana (1987) has already witnessed the fact that the development of
a critical inclined crack initiates from the opening of the dowel crack along the tensile
reinforcement.

However, according to tests by Baumann and Rush (1970), the maximum shear force that can
carried by dowel action is very limited and According to Regan (1993), it is typically 15–25% of
the total shear resistance. The development of a secondary crack (dowel crack) along the tensile
reinforcement shown to be more relevant to the shear failure than the contribution of dowel
action to the shear capacity. It causes the separation of the reinforcement from the concrete and,
as a result, the stiffness of the tensile zone significantly reduced, which causes the increase of the
flexural crack width. With a larger flexural crack width, a larger shear displacement needed to
reach the same shear stress level in the crack; this shear displacement is then causing further
detachment of the reinforcement. In this way, the crack width increases further, and finally the
continuation of the whole process causes the collapse of the beam. A sudden shear failure is thus
possible.

2.1.2. Concrete Strength and Crack Roughness


Cracks in concrete can transfer shear forces by virtue of the roughness of their interfaces. With
respect to this roughness, the aggregate particles protruding from the crack faces play an
essential role. In high-strength concrete, however, the matrix is stronger than in concrete of
normal strength, so that interlocking capacity was, reduced. In concrete with normal and low
strengths, the cracks cross the cement matrix but propagate around the relatively strong
aggregate particles. In a concrete with high strength concrete, however, the cracks traverse, and
pass through the aggregate particles, such that the roughness of the crack faces is considerably
different; the number of contact areas can be, significantly reduced, thus reducing the capability
of transmitting shear forces[ CITATION Wal99 \l 1033 ].

16
[CITATION Fen60 \l 1033 ] First looked at, shear transfer across cracks by interlocking particles
in detail. This was aggregate interlock action, and shear displacement (or shear slip) parallel to
the direction of the crack was a prerequisite of shear transfer by aggregate interlock. The authors
examined the principal mechanisms of shear resistance in reinforced concrete beams. The
concrete strength ranged from about 20 MPa to 60 MPa was, studied. Based on tests done on
concrete shear blocks, the authors found that as the concrete strength was, increased to 60 MPa,
the shear transferred across the cracks increased.

[ CITATION Car81 \l 1033 ] Studied the behavior and micro cracking of high-strength concrete
subjected to short-term loading. The authors concluded that high-strength concrete has much less
micro cracking at al1 stress levels than normal strength concrete, but fails more suddenly with
fewer planes of failure. The authors looked at the differences in the mechanical properties of 30,
50 and 70 MPa concretes in terms of formation and propagation of micro cracks. They found that
under uniaxial compression, normal strength concrete developed highly irregular failure surfaces
including numerous instances of bond failure between the coarse aggregates and mortar. Medium
strength concrete developed a mechanism similar to the normal strength concretes but at a higher
strain. The failure mode of high-strength concretes was typical of that of a nearly homogeneous
material. Failure occurred suddenly in a vertical, nearly flat plane passing through the aggregate
and the mortar.

[ CITATION Wal99 \l 1033 ] Did experiments on concrete push-off specimens of various


concrete strengths [ CITATION Wal81 \l 1033 ]. The highest concrete strength studied had a
cube strength of 1 15 MPa. The crack width and normal stress were, also varied in the test
program to isolate each parameter. For a crack width of 1 mm and a shear slip of about 2 mm,
the shear stress transmitted across the crack for the 59 MPa and the 115 MPa concretes was 6
MPa and 4 MPa, respectively. In general, Walraven found that the shear friction capacity of
cracks in high-strength concrete significantly reduced due to fracture of the aggregate.

It could be, expected that the surface of a diagonal tension fracture in a high-strength concrete
beam would be relatively smooth, as obtained in uniaxial compression, and the smooth surface
might be deficient in aggregate interlock, which is an important component of shear
resistance[ CITATION Eva68 \l 1033 ]

17
2.1.3. Longitudinal Reinforcement
The percentage of longitudinal reinforcement in a reinforced concrete beam also has a prominent
effect on the basic shear transfer mechanisms. An important factor that affects the rate, at which
a flexural crack develops into an inclined one, is the magnitude of shear stress near the tip of that
crack. The concentration of principal stresses above the flexural crack depends on the depth of
penetration of that crack. The larger the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement, the les the
penetration of the flexural crack. The less the penetration of the flexural crack, the less the
principal stresses for a given applied load, and consequently a higher shear is required to cause
the principal stresses that will result in diagonal tension cracking[ CITATION Eva68 \l 1033 ].

Increasing the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement also affects the aggregate interlock
contribution to shear resistance. Beams with a low percentage of longitudinal reinforcement will
have wide, long cracks in contrast to the shorter, narrow cracks found in beams with a high
percentage of longitudinal reinforcement. Since the aggregate interlock mechanism depends on
the crack width, an increase of aggregate interlock force is to be, expected with an increase in the
percentage of longitudinal reinforcement (Elzanaty et al 1986).

Increasing the percentage of longitudinal reinforcement also increases the dowel capacity of the
member by increasing the dowel area and hence decreasing the tensile stresses induced in the
surrounding concrete (Elzanaty et al 1986).

As mentioned above, one feature of high-strength concrete that affects structural response is the
tendency for cracks to pass through, instead of around the aggregate. This creates smoother crack
surfaces, reducing the aggregate interlock action, and hence, reducing the shear carried by the
concrete, Vc. Because of the reduced aggregate interlock, higher dowel forces occur in the
longitudinal reinforcing bars for high-strength concretes.

2.1.4. Shear Tests on Reinforced Concrete Beams


[ CITATION Eva68 \l 1033 ] Investigated the shear capacity of 18 reinforced concrete beams (3
of which contained stirrups) using high-strength concrete. The variables were the concrete
strength, longitudinal reinforcement ratio, and shear span-to-depth ratio. The concrete strength
ranged from 21 MPa to 83 MPa. The beams without stirrups were, designed to investigate the

18
effects of concrete strength, shear span-to-depth ratio, and percentage of longitudinal
reinforcement.

The authors concluded that the shear strength of beams without stirrups increased when the
concrete strength increased. However, they found that the crack surfaces were distinctively
smoother for the higher strength concretes, indicating that the shear force carried by aggregate
interlock decreased with increased concrete strength.

The authors also concluded that for al1 concrete strengths, increasing the percentage of
longitudinal reinforcement increased the shear strength of the test beams without stirrups. It was,
witnessed that beams with high-strength concrete and small amounts of longitudinal
reinforcement had deficient dowel action, and splitting of the reinforcing bars followed
suddenly.

Apart from varying the shear span-to-depth ratio, the present study examines the same
parameters as the study by[ CITATION Eva68 \l 1033 ]. It was, expected that the results will be
very similar. One significant difference in the two experimental programs, however, is the size of
the specimens. The beams tested by Elzanaty et al (1986) measured approximately 300 mm in
height and 175 mm in width, the present study examines beams with a height of 1000 mm and a
width of 300 mm. This size difference in the specimens will influence the crack widths. Large,
lightly reinforced beams, relative to smaller ones at the same stress level, exhibit wider cracks.
After cracking, shear was, resisted by aggregate interlock, dowel action of the main reinforcing
bars, and resistance of the still un-cracked concrete at the top of the beam. If the cracks are
wider, the aggregate interlock mechanism will not be as effective. In addition, as the concrete
strength, increases and the crack surfaces become smoother and as a result more dowel action is
required.

2.1.6. EXPERIMENTAL TEST PROGRAM


To determine maximum shear stress and the minimum web reinforcement required Leonhard’s
and Walter (1963) tested several beams to insure adequate safety against shear failures. The
geometry, reinforcement and configuration of the tested beam were, shown figure 2.9. The beam
have two longitudinal reinforcement bars’ ∅26, with the concrete cover 37mm and the beams
lack vertical shear reinforcement. The beam loaded symmetrically with concentrated load acting
at a distance “a”, see table 1 from the support.

19
Figure 2. 9 RC Beam under experimental tests
Table 2. 1. Dimension of the tested concrete beam

member Length Distance to Width Height Shear span


load a(mm) to depth a/d
l(mm) b(mm) l(mm)
beam 1950 810 190 320 3

Table 2. 2 Material parameters used.

Initial elastic modulus Ec = 31.72 GPa


Poisson’s ratio Ѵ = 0.2
Compressive cylindrical strength fc = 28.48 MPa
Strain at fc ԑco= 1.79 mm/m
Tensile strength ft = 1.64 MPa
Steel Properties
Table 2.3 summarizes the reinforcing bar properties. Reinforcing bars were, used as the main
longitudinal reinforcement. No. 2 reinforcing bars (13mm diameter) or 2Ø26mm reinforcing
bars.

Table 2. 3 Reinforcing bar properties

20
Rebar type Cross-sectional Yield stress(MPa) Ultimate
area(mm) stress(MPa)
S413 530.66 413 630

2.3. BEHAVIOR OF REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAM WITHOUT SHEAR


REINFORCEMENT ACCORDING TO RATIONAL THEORY

Rational theory is analytical model derived from experimental tests to evaluate the shear capacity
of reinforced concrete beams without shear reinforcement having flexural-shear
failure[ CITATION Wal16 \l 1033 ]. Table 2.4 shows geometric and material properties of tested
member from which a new concept of rational theory formula was, derived.

Table 2. 4 Geometric, load and material used

NTREINFORCEME
CONCRETE

LOAD
 

 
 

GEOMETRIC

fctm Ast
shap fc(MPa (MPa (mm fsy Vct
S.No e b(mm) h(mm) d(mm) a/d ) ) ρ (%) ) (MPa) (KN)

1 Rect. 200 450 420 3 24.1 2.241 0.74 622 440 70.6

2.2.1. Criterion on Opening of the Critical Inclined Crack


Since in experiments it was, observed that a beam collapses as soon as an inclined crack formed,
some researchers suggest that the development of the inclined crack occurs when the maximum
principal stress in a diagonal direction reaches the tensile strength of the concrete[ CITATION
Leo62 \l 1033 ] and [ CITATION Hil76 \l 1033 ]. The comparative experimental study on
specimens with and without pre-cracking showed that even though in a pre-cracked beam the
major part of the critical crack has already been formed, the resultant Vcr is still almost the same
as without pre-cracking. This shows that the development of the inclined crack is not the direct
cause of the shear failure, or that the loss of the tensile capacity in the un-cracked concrete has
been, compensated by other actions in the crack. For the specimens that fail immediately after
the development of a critical inclined crack, the failure take place because the shear resistance of
the cracked section is lower than the shear force under which a flexural crack forms at this

21
section. Therefore, the shear behavior of the cracked section defines the failure of the member,
but a failure does not necessarily happen immediately after the formation of the crack.

Vecchio and Collins (1986) and Reineck (1991) have drawn similar conclusions.

The shear transfer mechanisms at a cracked section were, investigated in their models attributing
the failure of a cracked section to the failure of aggregate interlock between the two crack faces.
The reasoning behind this assumption is that the interlock action of aggregates in the crack faces
represents the largest contribution to the shear resistance at failure. This conclusion has been,
validated based on experimental measurements by Campana et al. (2013). These models give
rather good accuracy in comparison with experimental results.

However, aggregate interlock has clearly shown its strong relevance to the shear resistance of a
cracked beam, it appears to be inappropriate to link the brittle shear failure process to the inter
locking of aggregates. The experiments reported by Walraven (1981) illustrate that for the reason
that of the plastic behavior of the cement paste in compression and the friction, the interlocking
between the aggregate behaves in a plastic very in general. Moreover, a much higher shear stress
can be, transferred across a crack than the equivalent shear stress calculated at the failure of a
beam.

The maximum shear stress is higher than 10 MPa even for concrete with a relatively low
compressive strength. Walraven proposed a theoretical model to explain his experiments. An
example of the output of this model was, given in Fig. 2.10. The model implies that the shear
displacement Δ and the crack width w were, related to the shear stress τ and the normal stress in
the crack[ CITATION Wal16 \l 1033 ].

22
Figure 2. 10 Shear stress–shear displacement relationship at different crack width according to
Walraven’s aggregate interlock model (fcm = MPa, maximum aggregate size 32 mm)
According to Yang (2014), the theoretical maximum shear determined by Walraven’s model
would result in a much higher ultimate shear capacity.

According to tests by Baumann and Rüsch (1970), the maximum shear force that can be, carried
by dowel action is very limited. According to Regan (1993), it is typically 15–25% of the total
shear resistance. Moreover, after the maximum dowel force has been, reached, an approximately
plastic behavior is measured. Therefore, based on force criteria, dowel action usually neglected.

2.2.2. Simplified Crack Pattern


Regarding the shear force transfer mechanisms, it has been, generally accepted that if a free body
is taken from a beam along a flexural crack, the shear force can be transferred by four
mechanisms. ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on Shear and Torsion (1998) has summarized them.
Among them, the shear stress transfer in the un-cracked compression zone is independent of the
crack opening by definition. The tensile stress that was, transferred across the crack does not
have a substantial contribution to the overall shear capacity, nor to the shear failure mechanism;
can the dowel action be, assumed to have the maximum contribution if the shear displacement in
the crack reaches the critical value

With regard to aggregate interlock, the shear force that was, transmitted across a crack mainly
depends on the shape of the crack and the normal and tangential displacement of the crack along

23
the crack profile. These two aspects were, discussed further in the following sections. Several
approximations have to be, introduced to simplify the calculation procedure.

Before further elaboration, the crack types that have the potential to develop into a critical
inclined crack were, defined. Although flexural cracks usually well distributed along, the tensile
rebar due to the bond between, rebar and concrete, not all the flexural cracks are able to develop
further toward the compression zone of the beam. Because of the stress reduction near a crack,
the stress level needs to be, regenerated from the crack face towards sections further away.

A flexural crack generated at a cross section with a/d > 3.0 was, shown in Fig. 2.11(a). The crack
was, observed in a test reported in Yang et al. (2012). Two key features are:

1. The crack is composed of two branches: the major crack part, which is formed directly after
the crack initiation, and the secondary branch in the compressive zone, which enables additional
shear displacement in the major crack part when the shear force in the cracked section increases;
and

2. The major crack plane can be, simplified as perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the
beam.

Figure 2. 11 Crack profile simplification based on flexural cracks found in shear tests
Based on these two observations, a simplified crack profile was, derived, as shown in Fig.
2.11(b). It is composed of a major crack branch, in which the shear displacement generates
aggregate interlock stresses, and a secondary branch that enables the shear displacement in the
major crack[ CITATION Wal81 \l 1033 ]. Because of this simplified crack profile, the tangential
crack opening of the major crack only related to the shear displacement. While the normal crack

24
opening was, related to the crack width along the tensile direction of the member. The two
variables defining aggregate interlock totally separated in this way, which makes it possible to
introduce a more sophisticated aggregate interlock relationship into the model while keeping the
calculation still practical.

Nevertheless, one has to be aware of the following aspects with regard to this simplification. The
major cracks are not always perpendicular to the longitudinal direction of the beam, and this
simplification may result in an overestimation of the shear resistance[ CITATION Yug141 \l
1033 ].

2.2.3. Simplified Shear Force-Displacement Relation Ship


With the simplified major crack profile, the shear force transferred by aggregate interlock can be,
calculated by implementing the relationship between shear stress and displacement of the crack
faces. The shear stress carried by aggregate interlock was, defined as τai (Δ, w)

The crack width w decreases linearly with the increase of crack height, while the shear
displacement remains constant over the crack height. Thus, the total shear force transferred along
the crack can be, expressed by
scr

Vai = ∫ τai[Δ, w(s)] bds (2.1)


0

If the value of w is greater than 0.04mm, the contribution to shear force is very limited (< 15 %).
Thus, the expression of Vai was, simplified into a function with only one variable Δ.

0.03
Vai = f 0.56 scr b (-978 Δ 2 + 85Δ – 0.27) (2.2)
c
wb −0.01

Where, fc is compressive strength of concrete

Δ is shear displacement

According to Walraven, a reasonable estimation of Vai was, obtained from the above equation
and aggregate interlock shear force versus shear displacement drawn as shown below.

25
Experimental observations show that when reinforced concrete beam without shear
reinforcement

Figure 2. 12 The simplified relationship between Vai and Δ.


According to[ CITATION Wal16 \l 1033 ] the shear force-displacement relationship becomes
relevant rather than the maximum shear capacity like in other models Because of the shear
failure criterion defined as the critical shear displacement Δcr.

According to ASCE-ACI Committee 445 on shear and Torsion (1998), the shear force can
transferred by four mechanisms. Among them, the shear stress transfer in the un-cracked
compression zone is independent of the crack opening by definition. The tensile stress that
transferred across the crack does not have a significant contribution to the overall shear capacity,
nor to the shear failure mechanism. The dowel action assumed to have the maximum
contribution if the shear displacement in the crack reaches the critical value Δcr. With respect to
aggregate interlock, the shear force that transmitted across a crack mainly depends on the shape
of the crack and the normal and tangential displacement of the crack along the crack profile.

26
Before further elaboration, the crack types that have the potential to develop into a critical
inclined crack defined. Although flexural cracks usually well distributed along, the tensile rebar
due to the bond between, rebar and concrete, not all the flexural cracks are able to develop
further toward the compression zone of the beam. Only the major cracks are able to develop
further into a critical inclined crack.

2.4. METHOD OF ANALYSIS

There are three analysis strategies, which normally utilized by researchers: experimental,


analytical, and numerical. Although empirical investigations make up the
majority of records compiled on strengthened concrete beams, there are a few limitations related
to the feasibility of testing large-scale specimens and being very pricey and time consuming.
On the opposite hand, analytical strategies generally used to model easy elements due to the
issue of reproducing the boundary situations and any geometry limitations.

Therefore, many complicated engineering problems cannot be, analyzed by the use


of the last two methods, and analysis that is more realistic is normally carried out the use
of numerical approaches. This method includes breaking down a structure (domain) into smaller
pieces (sub-domains). The commonplace numerical solution strategies were, provided in
the next sections.

2.4.1. Finite Element Method (FEM)


This technique depends on the rule of mechanics, and depending on the nature of the
problem, it can be interrelated with solid or structural mechanics, fluid mechanics, or
thermos-mechanics.
The selection of elements such as beam, truss, 3D continuum, mesh, and boundary conditions
included in the FE method. The combined solutions of all the elements form the solution of the
entire part. This method typically employed to analyses structures with complex features and
various material properties[ CITATION Mic071 \l 1033 ].  

Also, it gives an effective analytical way for reading structural conduct of reinforced concrete
members, which include cracking, nonlinear fabric houses tension stiffening, and
interface behavior.

Tension stiffening implies the consequences of concrete acting in tension between the cracks on


the strain of metal reinforcement. All tensile stress was, carried with the aid of the reinforcement
27
at cracks. Whereas between the cracks a few quantities of the tensile stress is
transmitted via bond to the encircling concrete, which bring about reduction of
reinforcement stress and strain and reasons the reinforcement stress at un-cracked section to
be much less than the reinforcement stress on the cracked sections.

However, the reliability of this method relies on the accuracy of the original model and the
degree of agreements between the numerical results and the actual data from the prototype
structure[ CITATION Mon08 \l 1033 ]. Finally, the great advantages of this technique made it
the method of choice in the numerical analysis section of this research study.

2.4.2. Finite Element Analysis by Software (ABAQUS)


For finite element detail evaluation of reinforced (bolstered) concrete structures, some
commercially software programs are available. Some, which includes ADINA (Automatic
Dynamic Incremental nonlinear analysis) which was, used for modelling fluid structure
interactions, heat, transfer. DIANA (Displacement Analyzer) developed with the aid of TNO
DIANA, which employs the displacement technique and especially used for structural and
geotechnical analysis (TNO DIANA BV, 2015). ANSYS developed via ANSYS Company, is
used for simulation in distinct technologies together with structural mechanics, fluid mechanics,
and electromagnetic (ANSYS, 2015)[ CITATION Mic071 \l 1033 ].

However, ABAQUS is the finite element software that was, selected for the simulation
performed in this study (DSS, 2014). ABAQUS is a very powerful finite element analysis tool
due to its broad selection of materials and elements and its capacity to model one, two, and three-
dimensional projects. The ABAQUS program suite includes three major products:
ABAQUS/CAE, ABAQUS/Explicit and ABAQUS/Standard. The first product refers to
Complete ABAQUS Environment, which was, used to create, analyze, and visualize model
output. ABAQUS/CAE gives the option of creating the model geometries using the software
drawing tools, or importing CAD models that have been prepared by another compatible
products. Users can then submit the assembled and meshed model parts for analysis. Then results
reviewed and graphed by the help of the available comprehensive visualization tools.
ABAQUS/Standard was, generally used for finite element simulations of structures that were,
subjected to static and low-speed dynamic effects. On other hand, ABAQUS/Explicit is more
suitable for transient dynamic and highly nonlinear simulations. However, ABAQUS/CAE

28
supports both Standard and Explicit version for pre-processing and post-processing simulations
(DSS, 2014).

Constitutive Models of Concrete in ABAQUS


According to[ CITATION Ric06 \l 1033 ] There are three concrete constitutive models
supported by ABAQUS, and their application depends on the type of structural loading and
crack analysis. These models encompass Smeared Crack Model (SCM), Brittle Crack Model
(BCM), and Concrete Damage Plasticity Model (CDPM). The three models are fully capable of
modelling a variety of concrete structures such as beams, trusses, shells, and solids. However,
these simulations could be, used for plain concrete or other quasi-brittle materials; they
employed to model reinforced concrete structures (Stoner, 2015).

The Smeared cracking Model (SCM) can be, employed in ABAQUS/Standard and mainly used
for concrete structures exposed to monotonic loading at low confining pressure. Concrete
cracking is the most critical characteristics in any structural analysis, and thus it is imperative to
implement the cracking and post-cracking behavior of concrete in the modelling. However, this
technique does not track the formation of macro cracks; instead, it updates the stress and stiffness
material properties to account for the crack effect.

The Brittle Cracking Model (BCM) is usually implemented in ABAQUS/Explicit and is intended
for applications in which tensile cracking of materials is dominant. This method is appropriate
for ceramics, brittle rocks, and plain concrete. In this modeling, the behavior of concrete
compressive was, assumed linear-elastic, which is a huge simplification of the actual response.
Thus, the BCM is only practical in applications where tensile behavior dominates the assumption
of linear-elastic compression model. Beside this, the Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model
(CDPM) was, used in both ABAQUS/Standard and ABAQUS/Explicit. It usually used to
analyze plain concrete and other qausi-brittle materials. The CDPM can be, applied for concrete
structures analysis under monotonic, cyclic, and dynamic load under small confining pressure. It
was, confirmed that CDPM is highly flexible in modelling concrete under different loading
conditions. Therefore, the CDPM model was, selected for reinforced concrete materials analysis
in this study, and be, reviewed in broader details in the following section.

29
Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model
In most recent numerical studies of concrete materials, including this research work, plasticity
and damage evolution of concrete parts were, considered in the basic finite element modelling.
The typical damaged plasticity modeling uses the ideas of isotropic compressive and tensile
plasticity to characterize the concrete inelastic behavior. These ideas were, reflected by the
assumption of failure mechanisms of crushing in compressive zone and cracking in tension zone
of concrete.

2.4.3. Elements in ABAQUS


The general procedure of modelling any structure in ABAQUS is to assemble meshed sets of
finite elements into one global assembly, and then evaluate its overall response under loading.
ABAQUS provides a wide library of finite elements that can be, effectively used to model a
variety of materials. Each element in ABAQUS has a unique name. Figure 2.13 illustrates some
of the most usually used elements.

Figure 2. 13 Various elements types (DSS, 2014)


In order to evaluate the field (usually displacements) at all nodes within the element domain,
interpolation of these nodal value was, performed. The number of nodes per finite elements
governs the order of the interpolation (e.g. linear, quadratic, cubic, etc.). The 8-node continuum
brick element, shown in Figure 2.13. Uses linear interpolation and referred to as a first-order
element. Besides, a 20-node continuum element employs quadratic interpolation and known as a
second-order element. In theory, second-order elements provide precise results than first-order
elements, if they were, used in adequately small applications. However, using of higher-order
elements has some of drawbacks associated with convergence problems, especially when used in
highly nonlinear analyses. For that reason, it is vital to select the appropriate type of elements to

30
achieve a sound numerical analysis. Although first-order elements are a reasonably practical
choice for huge applications, they happen to show a phenomenon called “shear locking”. This
phenomenon can be, seen as a constrained distortion, which might lead to extreme convergence
issues. For example, when the two-dimensional block illustrated in Figure 2.14(a) subjected to
pure bending, the entire element will deform in the manner shown in Figure 2.14(b). However, if
a 4-noded, two dimensional, quadrilateral, linear element with four integration points is used to
model that block, the material was, expected to deform as seen in Figure 2.14(c).

Figure 2. 14 Shear locking of first-order elements (DSS, 2014)


In Figure 2.14(c), the dashed lines are no longer perpendicular at each integration point, which
implies that the shear is not zero at these points. This development contradicts the assumption
that material under pure bending do not exhibit shear stresses. This was, recognized as the
inability of linear elements to have curved edges. As a result, strain energy is generating shearing
deformation as opposed to the expected bending deformation, which results in stiffer elements.
However, one of the effective resolutions to this issue is to reduce the number of integration
points per element so the excessive restraint is prevented (check Figure 2. 15). Integration point
is the point inside an element at which integrals were, evaluated numerically. These points were,
selected in such a manner that the results for the unique numerical integration scheme are the
most accurate.

Figure 2. 15 The reduction of integration points (DSS, 2014)

31
The reduced integration method considered rather advantageous in modelling three-dimensional
problem as it decreases the time of analysis. Within the environment of ABAQUS, the user can
choose the type of integration to be, used on the elements. A solid element such C3D8 is an 8-
node continuum element with 8 integration points refers to full integration option. While a
C3D8R is the same element with the exception of having only one integration, point (reduced
integration option). Although, this practice is effective in eliminating shear locking, it may also
result in a phenomenon named “hour glassing”. The quadrilateral element in figure 2.16 has only
one integration point (reduced from a fully integrated element with four integration points).
When this element subjected to pure bending, the length of the two dashed lines and the angle
among them stay unchanged. This implies that all the components of stress at the element’s
single point of integration is equal to zero. In another word, the strain energy in the element
assumed zero, and thus the element will not resist this type of deformation, as it has no stiffness
under this loading. As a result, the occurrence of hour glassing may cause significant
uncontrolled distortions in the mesh (stoner, 2015). However, ABAQUS offers elements with
hourglass control to overcome this issue.

Figure 2. 16 Hour glassing in reduced integration point (DSS, 2014)


2.4.4. Concrete Compression Model
The uniaxial stress-strain behavior of concrete in compression was, modelled by means of the
constitutive relationship proposed by [ CITATION Hog50 \l 1033 ]. In this model, the acceding
branch of the compressive stress-strain curve modelled with a parabolic relationship. The curve
inflection point resides at the peak stress of concrete, 𝑓𝑐′′, and at which the corresponding strain
called 𝜀𝑐𝑜. The peak compressive strength of concrete was, calculated as the product of a
constant k, which was set equal to 0.9, and the compressive stress determined from concrete
cylinder tests, 𝑓𝑐′. This constant was, identified as the ratio between the compressive strength
obtained from concrete cylinders to that of concrete in the real tested member. However, the
concrete also exhibits an elastic phase prior to the occurrence of first cracking. Experimental
evidence has shown that this linear response can be limited to the range (0.4𝑓𝑐′′). After the peak

32
load point, 𝑓𝑐′′, the parabolic branch starts descending linearly with increasing strain until the
maximum usable strain in the concrete reached, 𝜀𝑐𝑢. The stress corresponding to the maximum
concrete strain assumed equal to 85% of the peak stress. The material properties of concrete,
used in the element model, were, adopted from the experimental tests of[ CITATION Bre01 \l
1033 ].

2.4.5. Concrete Tension Model


According to [ CITATION Mic071 \l 1033 ]Concrete in tension usually assumed to behave linearly
up to the stress corresponding to its tensile capacity 𝑓𝑡′. The type of aggregates, compressive strength
of concrete, and the presence of confining stresses governs the tensile strength of concrete. This
value can be, determined by various test settings, including the direct tensile test, split-cylinder test,
and the modulus of rapture test. The latter was, commonly chosen to determine the tensile strength of
concrete, because of the difficulty of applying the first two tests as well as the tensile capacity of
concrete under flexure-shear is a primary concern.

There are three methods to define the uniaxial post-peak tensile behavior of concrete in the concrete
damaged plasticity:

(1) Stress-strain approach;

(2) Crack-opening-displacement;

(3) Fracture energy approach. The following subsections elaborate on the procedure of each
approach.

1. Stress-Strain Approach

The tensile strength of concrete beyond the cracking was, often ignored in design standards.
However, in reality concrete is capable of carrying some tensile stresses between cracks when there
is sufficient bond between the concrete and the internal reinforcement. This phenomenon known as
“tension stiffening”, and can be modelled using a descending post-peak tensile response (see Figure
2. 17).

33
Figure 2. 17 Idealized uniaxial stress-strain curve of concrete under tension (Stoner, 2015)
The following constitutive model, proposed by[ CITATION Tam88 \l 1033 ], used to plot the
stress-strain behavior of concrete:

𝑓𝑡 = 𝐸𝑐𝜀𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑡 ≤ 𝜀𝑐𝑟 (2.1)

𝑓𝑡 = 𝑓𝑡′ (𝜀𝑐𝑟𝜀𝑡) 0.4 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑡 > 𝜀𝑐𝑟 (2.2)

𝜀𝑐𝑟 = 𝑓𝑡′/𝐸𝑐 (2.3)

Where 𝐸𝑐 is the modulus of elasticity of concrete, 𝜀𝑐𝑟 is the concrete strain at peak stress
(cracking), and found to be 0.00013.

Nevertheless, many studies have found that employing the stress-strain approach to model
concrete response under tension has significant drawbacks. It was, observed that the use of such
model might lead to convergence issues and premature termination of the job analysis
particularly in ABAQUS software. This problem can be, caused by the sudden change in
curvature of the stress-strain curve at the peak stress (Wang & Hsu, 2001). Additionally, models
implementing this technique might encounter major mesh sensitivity issues, especially when
large regions of concrete has little or no reinforcement (e.g. beams with no stirrups) (DSS,
2014).

2. Fracture Energy Approach

34
The tensile behavior of concrete can be, defined by the use of fracture energy [ CITATION Hil76 \l
1033 ]. This response was, assumed linear when this method adopted. The fracture energy parameter
represents the energy required to propagate a tensile crack of unit area in concrete under tension.
These parameters depends on several factors such as water-to-cement ratio, maximum aggregate
size, curing condition, and age of concrete. The effect of type and quality of aggregate become more
significant in high strength concrete. Tougher aggregates are more difficult to fracture and may cause
the crack orientation to change; hence, more energy needed in the fracture process (Stoner, 2015).

In the absence of experimental data, 𝐺𝑓 may be, calculated using the following expression
introduced by Model Code 1990:

fcm 0.7
Gf = GFo ( )
fcmo

Where 𝑓𝑐𝑚𝑜 is equal to 10MPa. 𝑓𝑐𝑚 is the mean value of the concrete compressive strength,
and expressed as a function of the characteristic compressive strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑘, as shown below:

fcm = fck + ∆f

Where Δ𝑓 were, taken as 8MPa. [ CITATION Rei91 \l 1033 ] Proposed that the characteristic
compressive strength, 𝑓𝑐𝑘, could be, estimated as a function of the concrete cylinder strength, 𝑓𝑐
′, as explained below:

fck = fc’-1.6MPa

The 𝐺𝐹𝑜 is the base value of fracture energy, and it depends on the maximum aggregate size, 𝑑𝑚𝑎𝑥, as
given in the table5.

Table 2. 5 Base value of fracture energy 𝐺𝐹𝑜 (N mm/mm2) (CEB-FIP, 1990)


dmax(mm) GFo
8 0.025
16 0.030
32 0.058
In this finite element model, the values of the base fracture energy, 𝐺𝐹𝑜, taken as
0.025Nmm/mm2, corresponding to the aggregate size of 8mm that were used in[ CITATION
Bre01 \l 1033 ] test. When fracture energy approach used in the Concrete Damaged Plasticity
model within ABAQUS, the user needs to select the “GFI” tension type and only enter the values
of the tensile strength of concrete and the fracture energy.

35
3. Crack-Opening-Displacement Approach

This method allows the user to plot a custom stress-displacement relationship and implement the
response into ABAQUS model[ CITATION Ric06 \l 1033 ]. While the pre-cracking tensile
response of concrete assumed linear, the post-cracking behavior was, defined as a function of crack
opening displacement, 𝑤. The post-cracking tensile behavior of concrete can be, simulated in various
forms, including bilinear relationship was, adopted to model the post-cracking behavior of concrete
subjected to tension (see Figure 18).

Figure 2. 18 Stress-crack opening diagram for uniaxial tension (CEB-FIP, 1990)


The constitutive models introduced by the model code 1990 taken for a cracked section, and
presented as follow:

w
ft = fctm(1-0.85 ) for 0.15fctm≤ ft≤ fctm
w1

fctm
ft = 0.15 (wc-w) for 0≤ ft ≤0.15fctm
wc−w 1

Gf
w1 = 2 -0.15wc
fctm

Gf
wc = α F
fctm

fck 2/3
fctm = fctko,m ( )
fcko

Where the code value of 𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑘𝑜, were, taken as 1.40MPa, and 𝑓𝑐𝑘𝑜 as 10MPa. The 𝑤 represents the
crack opening (mm), 𝑤1 is the crack opening at (𝑓𝑡=0.15𝑓𝑐𝑡𝑚), 𝑤𝑐 is the crack opening (mm) at the
complete failure point (𝑓𝑡=0), and 𝐺𝑓 is the fracture energy calculated using equation (2.3). Finally,
𝛼𝐹 is a coefficient given by the following table, and was taken as 8 for the aggregate size of 8mm:

36
Table 2. 6 Coefficient 𝛼𝐹 used to estimate 𝑤𝑐 (CEB-FIP, 1990)
dmax(mm 8 16 32
)
αF 8 7 5
This method was, employed in modelling the tensile response of concrete in this study due to the
impracticality of the first two techniques.

The stress-strain approach lead to mesh sensitivity issues, and thus produces inaccurate results. On
the other hand, and despite the fact that the fracture energy method is simple and does not require
many parameters to implement, it enforces a linear stress-displacement curve, which might offset the
actual tensile behavior of cracked concrete. For those reasons, the crack-opening-displacement
approach was, adopted in the Concrete Damaged Plasticity Model throughout the numerical analysis
segment of this research.

2.4.6. Concrete Damage Modelling


According to [ CITATION Mic071 \l 1033 ] the loading of concrete member beyond the elastic
region induces plastic strains, and hence the subsequent unloading of this member will result in a
degraded modulus of elasticity. The concrete damaged plasticity model in ABAQUS allows for the
consideration of this effect by applying the damage parameters, 𝑑𝑐 and 𝑑𝑡, for both compression and
tension loading, respectively. In ABAQUS model, the user needs to define these parameters in
tabulated forms as a function of the inelastic strain, 𝜀𝑐𝑖𝑛. The compressive damage parameter, 𝑑𝑐, is a
function of the plastic strain, 𝜀𝑐𝑝𝑙, and elastic strain, 𝜀𝑐𝑒𝑙. The inelastic concrete strain can be,
expressed as:

σc
ε ¿c = ε c-ε eloc = ε c =
Eco

Where 𝜎𝑐 and 𝜀𝑐 are determined using the specified constitutive models. The plastic strain of

concrete,ε cpl, can be approximate using a proposed model by Polling (2001):

ε cpl = b c ε c
¿

The recommend value of 𝑏𝑐 for concrete under compression is 0.7. Thus, the elastic strain
corresponding to the damaged concrete can be using the following:

ε elc = ε c = ε cpl = ε c-b c ε c


¿

37
Along with the calculated elastic strain, the compression damage parameter at any given strain level
can be determined by:

σc
dc = 1- ε elc
Eco

Similarly, the damage parameter of concrete subjected to tension, 𝑑𝑡, can be, inputted into model in a

tabulated form as a function of either the cracking strain, ε ck


t , or the cracking opening displacement,

𝑤. When using the stress-strain approach to define the tensile response of concrete, the tensile
damage parameter, 𝑑𝑡, was, evaluated in a similar fashion to that of the compression damage
parameter, 𝑑𝑐.

σt
ε ck el
t = ε t-ε ot = ε t-
Eco

ε tpl = b t ε ck
t

ε elt = ε t-ε tpl = ε t-b t ε ck


t

σt
d t = 1- ε elt
Eco

In the case of implementing the crack-open-displacement approach, 𝑑𝑡 was, entered as a function of


crack displacement, 𝑤. The damage parameter varies from (𝑑𝑡=0) at crack opening of zero to
(𝑑𝑡=1.0) at the maximum crack opening, 𝑤𝑐. In ABAQUS software, the vertical shear
displacement, Δ and horizontal crack opening, w was, measured with help of displacement
components U1 and U2 respectively.

In order to avoid possible excessive damage, which might lead to convergence issues in ABAQUS
model, the damage parameter is usually limited to 90% reduction of the elastic modulus (Stoner,
2015).

2.4.7. Concrete Plasticity Modelling


The plasticity modelling within the concrete damaged plasticity model was, governed by the
following parameters: 𝜖, 𝜎𝑏𝑜/𝜎𝑐0, 𝐾𝑐 and 𝜇. As mentioned before, the parameters 𝜎𝑏𝑜/𝜎𝑐0 and
𝐾𝑐 directly influence the yield function[ CITATION Mic071 \l 1033 ]. The term 𝜎𝑏𝑜/𝜎𝑐0 was,

38
defined as the ratio of the initial equa-biaxial compression to the initial uniaxial compressive
yield stress. The ratio of equal-biaxial to uniaxial of concrete is an important parameter in the
determination of failure criterion for concrete, which has been widely adopted in finite element
codes in simulation of fracture and failure of concrete. The default value of 1.16 was, used for
this ratio in all simulations. The parameter 𝐾𝑐 represents the ratio of the second stress invariant
on the tensile meridian to the second stress invariant on the compressive meridian. The default
value of 2/3 was, used for 𝐾𝑐 for all beam simulations. 𝜖 corresponds to the potential
eccentricity, which influence the flow potential function, 𝐺. The default value of 0.1 was,
adopted through the plastic model.

The dilation angle of concrete is a material parameter that also used to control the plastic flow
potential function, 𝐺. The dilation angle defines amount of plastic volumetric strain induced in
plastic shear. This angle is a measure of the inclination of the plastic flow potential function
within the meridional plane relative to the hydrostatic pressure axis at high confining pressure. A
numerical study, using ABAQUS, was, performed by[ CITATION Ric06 \l 1033 ] to examine
the effect of the dilation angle on the structural response of reinforced concrete beams. The study
suggested that small dilation angles of concrete (10o) induced very brittle response, while angles
larger than 40o generated response that is more ductile and produced larger peak loads. The
author has concluded that dilation angles between 30o and 40o provided the best fit the
experimental results. Lee and Fenves (1998) have recommended a dilation angle of 31 o for both
uniaxial tension and compression. For this reason, a dilation angle of 10 o was, adopted for the
plastic modelling of concrete in all simulations in order simulate shear response.

39
3. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1. General
This section specializes in the material and techniques used to conduct this research.

3.2. Material and Data Used


Material used for analysis of RC beam without transverse reinforcement includes ABAQUS
software version 14.0, Microsoft excel sheet version 16.0, Microsoft word version 16.0, power
point version 16.0.

In the ABAQUS software, the member was modelled, analyzed, and the result was, obtained
from input data. Microsoft excel sheet was used to graph the extracted result from the ABAQUS
software result. All document in this thesis was, written Using Microsoft word and the main
point of the research was, presented using Microsoft power point.

3.3. Procedure Used


Every complete finite-element analysis consists of three separate stages:

Pre-processing or modeling, processing or finite element analysis, and post-processing

40
3.3.1. Pre-processing or modeling: this stage encompasses creating an input file, which
contains an engineer’s design for a finite element analyzer. Input files were beam geometries and
material properties. Steps in pre-processing or modeling includes

Creating parts: this involves creating parts separately and giving dimension for each parts

Parts included in this thesis were plain concrete, bottom longitudinal reinforcement, two support
plates, and two loading plates.

Defining material properties: material properties were, defined with elastic and concrete
damaged plasticity model (CDPM) for linear and nonlinear respectively. To obtain input data for
Material properties of concrete the equation available on ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 table 3.1, was,
used. The dimension of the member was illustrated as on figure 4.1.

Table 3. 1 Beam characteristics geometry

BEAM
Total Distance from ends of the width Distance between two point load
length beam to center of support
1950mm 50mm 190mm 230mm

41
Figure 3.1 Dimension of beam geometry
The other variables were depends on parametric under study

The behavior of reinforcing steel was, used according to ES EN 1992-1-1:2015 section 3.2.2

Table 3. 2 Steel Rebar properties

Elastic modulus, E (GPa) Poison’s ratio


200 0.3

Other input data were varied asper the model according to equation from ES EN 1992-1-1:2015

Assembling all created parts: at this stages all created parts were, assembled to form full model
of the member.

Step: this involves determining the desired field output and rate of loading. In this thesis the
field output load, displacement, shear force, shear stress, and tensile damaged (DAMAGEDT.)
were, selected.

Interaction: At this stage all created parts were, connected properly by means of tying, coupling,
and embedding. In order to avoid stress concentration, plates were provided at support and

42
loading point. Therefore the plain concrete beam and the plates were, connected by means of
tying.

Since applied load is concentrated load the loading point were located at the mid- point of the
plates to prevent eccentricity effect and this point was fixed by means of coupling. To avoid
slipping of longitudinal reinforcement through plain concrete deformed bar (steel rebar) was,
used. Steel rebar has been, used to increase the bond between plain concrete and longitudinal
reinforcement. Therefore, embedding technique was, selected to consider the bonding effects
between plain concrete and longitudinal reinforcement using ABAQUS software.

Load: two point concentrated load were, applied to the member and the distance between the
two loads were 230mm.

Figure 3.2 Two point loaded beam


Meshing: the meshing system used for all models was coarse mesh with L = 40mm

43
Figure 3.3 Meshed beam

3.3.2. Processing or finite element analysis: this stage yields an output visual file.

After pre-processing or modeling the member finite element analysis were, started for assembled
part from input data. At this stage the deformed model, field output results and crack patterns
were, visualized.

44
Figure 3.4 Deformed beam
3.3.3. Post-processing or generating report, image, animation, and graph from the output
file: this stage is visual rendering stage.

Figure 3.5 .Load versus displacement graph from output

45
4. VALIDATION OF THE PROPOSED MODEL

4.1. FINITE ELEMENT MODELLING OF BEAMS FAILING IN


FLEXURAL-SHEAR
To investigate the ability to model the behavior of flexural-shear wth a Finite Element-package,
a few examples were analyzed. The studied examples were singly reinforced simple supported
reinforced concrete beam, which fail in flexural-shear. So that the failure is a pure material
failures, all studied lack shear reinforcement. The FE analyses were, made to study if the similar
crack pattern and shear capacity is attained in numerical analysis as in the experiments. The
results of finite element analyses were also compared to the measured load/deflection curves to
realize how well the program estimate the load and the behavior of the structures. The analyses
done with material model concrete damaged plasticity in ABAQUS. The experiments used for
validation in this thesis only include one experiment per beam, in other words they are not
reproduced. If the experiments are reproduced it is likely the there would be differences in the
obtained results.

4.1.1. General description of the Numerical Model


The ABAQUS models were made with materials definitions of concrete damage plasticity
model, where the element can damage either tension or compression.

The material parameters used in the finite element analyses with ABAQUS was, based on
measured cubic strength of the respective beams. The numerical analyses were, based on
equations presented below. In all equations, the strength should be, put in in MPa.

46
Equations for calculating materials parameters
Parameters equations

Initial elastic modulus Ec =22*(fcm/10) ^0.3 [MPa]

Poisson’s ratio Ѵ = 0.2

Compressive cylindrical strength fc = 0.85fcu [MPa]

Strain at fc ԑc0 = 2fc/Ec

Tensile strength ft = 0.24 fcu2 /3 [MPa]

4.1.2 Loading in the Numerical analyses


All the studied experiment were loaded with a load-controlled system, which means that load
could only increases. The unloading part after the maximum load was, reached could never be
measured. Therefore, the loading system in ABAQUS were load-controlled system.

4.2. Leonhardt’s Shear Beams


4.2.1. Description of the measurements
To determine maximum shear stress and the minimum web reinforcement required Leonhard’s
and Walter (1963) tested several beams to insure adequate safety against shear failures. Figure
4.1 shows the geometry, reinforcement and configuration of the tested beam. The beam have
two longitudinal reinforcement bars’ ∅26, with the concrete cover 37mm and the beams lack
vertical shear reinforcement. The beam loaded symmetrically with concentrated load acting at a
distance “a”, from the support.

a)

47
b)

Figure 4.1 Geometry and configuration of the tested beam and numerical model
Table 4. 1 Dimension of the tested concrete beam

element Length Distance to Width Height Shear span


load a(mm) to depth a/d
l(mm) b(mm) h(mm)

beam 1950 810 190 320 3


The beams were loaded with 10% expected load capacity in each load stage.

The loading rate during the load stage was 50KN/minutes. Figure4.7 demonstrate the crack
pattern at failure observed in the measurements of the beam. In the measurements of the beam,
the last loading stage prior to failure is 58.9 KN with the mid deflection of 2.57mm. The beam
was loaded until shear failure was, reached at 68.35KN.

Figure 4.2 Observed crack pattern of the beam, from Leonhardt’s and Walter (1962).

48
4.2.2 Description of numerical analyses
The finite element analyses have been, made with 3D solid model. The FE models were,
compared with both measured load versus deflection curve and the crack pattern to evaluate the
reliability of the models. The material parameters used in the models were, calculated for cubic
strength of 33.5MPa.

Table 4. 2 Material parameters used in the FE analyses for the concrete.

Initial elastic modulus Ec = 31.72 GPa


Poisson’s ratio Ѵ = 0.2
Compressive cylindrical strength fc = 28.48 MPa = 0.85*fcu
The FE models have been, made for several different element sizes and element types to find
converging solutions. The load versus displacement (deflection) response shows good agreement
for quit coarse mesh while to get good estimate of crack pattern a detail mesh required.

4.2.2. Load versus displacement validation response


According to [ CITATION Ric06 \l 1033 ] in the measurement of the beam, the last loading prior
to the failure was 58.9KN with deflection of 2.57mm. The shear failure occurred directly after
this load step at the left side of the beam at the load of 60.3KN. After this left side of the beam
strengthened, the beam was loaded until shear failure load reached on the right side at76.5KN.
Averagely the shear failure occurred at average load of 68.35KN

The load versus displacement curve from the experiment was, presented in fig.4.8 together with
curves from of numerical methods. The result from ABAQUS model explained in the load
displacement graph.

49
Validation of ABAQUS result with Experimental result
80
70
60
50
Load

40 Experimental result
30 ABAQUS result
20
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

displacement

Figure 4.3 Experimental and numerical load/displacement curves.


The ABAQUS give a good estimate of failure load.
Table 4. 3 Peak load and mid deflection at peak load

ABAQUS 69 3.0cm
Experiment 68.35 2.9cm
It was, observed that ABAQUS result deviate from the experimental result by 0.94%. Therefore,
as indicated on table 4.3 and figure 4.8 the result obtained from the ABAQUS software was more
similar to the experimental one.

To study mesh sensitivity, calculation have been, made with two unalike sizes of elements. Fine
mesh contains of element with element length of 5mm, coarse mesh consists elements with
element length 40 mm. the beam modeled in ABAQUS involving of course, and fine mesh was,
shown in figure 4.9(a) and (b).

50
a)

b)
Figure 4.4 Illustration of element size in models to study mesh sensitivity a) fine mesh b) Coarse
mesh
The load versus displacement curve for fine and coarse mesh were, displayed on figure 4.10.
Small difference between the response of the fine and coarse mesh model were, observed. The
result from coarse mesh model demonstrate slightly better agreement with the measured
load/displacement curve of experimental. Hence, in this thesis the member was, modelled with
coarse mesh to evaluate the shear capacity precisely.

51
80
70
60
50
LOAD

40
ABAQUS fine mesh, L=5mm
30
ABAQUS coarse mesh, L=40mm
20 Experimental result
10
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

midspan-deflection

Figure 4.5 Load and displacement response for fine and coarse meshes in two program
4.2.3. Crack pattern Validation
The observed crack patterns from the experiment and the crack pattern obtained from coarse
meshed element was, shown in fig.4.11 and 4.12 respectively. From fig 4.11 secondary crack
was, developed under flexural shear force from experimental test specimen. Hence, Failure was,
governed by a flexural shear. In the ABAQUS model, shear crack between support and load
initiated, grows as a secondary crack to loading plate, and support somewhat similar to the
experimental one as seen fig. 4.12. This demonstrate that the crack pattern tracked by ABAQUS
software solves the gap of new concept rational theory.

52
Figure 4.6 Beam crack pattern under experimental test

b)
Figure 4.7 Crack pattern at peak load. a) Sketch of the observed crack pattern from the
experiment b) from ABAQUS

53
5. RESULT AND DESCUSION

Results are offered in terms of load-displacement curve, shear force-displacement, shear stress-
displacement and crack patterns for both finite element, experimental test, and new concept of
rational theory. Other results, such as shear stress versus shear displacement and crack patterns
of all parametric study were, presented through Appendix A and B. The numerical beam is
loaded by a concentrated load acting at reference point fixed to loading plate, similar as
experimental test specimen.

5.1. RATIONAL THEORY VERSUS ABAQUS

After validating the ABAQUS result with Experimental test, it is better to see if analyzing by
ABAQUS software fill the research gap of new concept of Rational Theory.

Even though new concept of Rational Theory tries to address drawback back of experimental test
there is a limitation of new concept of rational theory to investigate shear behavior of reinforced
concrete beam without transverse reinforcement. The effort of this theory was to minimize costs,
and time because of the experimental test requires much time, and not feasible where there is
economic constraints. According to new concept of Rational Theory analytical analysis the
simplified formula was, derived from experimental tested beam considering the crack opening
and crack height. However, since the new concept of rational theory simplify the crack patterns
of the member as straight-line perpendicular to longitudinal axis of the beam it was not possible
to obtain precise result. However, it was, observed from experimental test that the maximum
shear stress occurred at the neutral axis of the member and acts normal to inclined cracks, which
widen crack opening and result in reduction of shear resistance. In case of rational theory the
shear force was no longer at normal to the crack pattern and the crack opening was not widen as
it from actual (experimental) and results in poor investigation of shear behavior of RC beam.
Hence, in this thesis to some extent the above problem was, addressed with the help of ABAQUS
software. As stated in chapter four about 0.94% of the ABAQUS result was, deviated from
experimental result. This shows proper modeling of structural member using ABAQUS software
provides precise result over rational theory. Therefore, ABAQUS software was more applicable
than the new concept of rational theory.

54
Figure 30 and 31 illustrates simplified crack pattern observed from ABAQUS software and
rational theory respectively

Figure 5. 1 Crack pattern simulated from ABAQUS

Figure 5. 2 Crack pattern simplified according to rational theory


From the figure 5.1, the crack pattern observed from ABAQUS is more approach to the
experimental one. Hence, the shear behavior of the member was, investigated in good way using
this software. This shows weakness and strengthens of the member was known. This leads to
good design of the member. However, according to rational theory, the crack pattern shown on
figure 5.2 not tracked well and analysis of the model poorly approximated. Figure 5.3 shows
graph of shear-vertical shear displacement, which indicate that according to new concept of
rational theory higher shear resistance of the member was, expected. This shows that shear
capacity of the member was, overestimated which leads to unsafe design of the structural

55
members. In CDPM, U2, represent vertical shear displacement at the node while, U1, represent
horizontal shear displacement.

12

10
SHEAR FORCE(KN)

6
RATIONAL THEORY
4 ABAQUS

0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
VERTICAL SHEAR DISPLACEMENT(mm)

Figure 5. 3 Shear force-vertical shear displacement curve for Rational Theory vs ABAQUS

18

16

14

12
shear stress(KN)

10

8 ABAQUS RESULT
6 RATIONAL THEORY

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
vertical shear displacement(mm)

Figure 5. 4 Shear stress versus vertical shear displacement for both ABAQUS and Rational
theory

56
20
18
16
14
SHEAR STRESS(KN)

12
10
ABAQUS
8
Rational Theory
6
4
2
0
-0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Horizotal shear displacement(crack width)(mm)

Figure 5. 5 Shear stress vs horizontal shear displacement (crack width)


Load vs deflection curve response from ABAQUS and Experimental test

Figure 5.6 shows the load deflection curves for experimentally tested beam versus the ABAQUS.
The curve shows a very good agreement between the experimental and ABAQUS results.
Initially the two beam show the same linear behavior until reaching a load of 18KN. After that,
the two beams show approximately the same non-linear relationship until reaching 62KN for
both experiment and ABAQUS.
80

70

60
Load(KN)

50

40

30 Experimental result
ABAQUS result
20

10

0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

mid-span deflection(mm)

Figure 5. 6 Load-deflection curves for the experimental vs ABAQUS beam

57
5.2. Cracking patterns tracked using ABAQUS software

In concrete damaged plasticity model, cracks can be, graphically represented by the direction of
damaged tensile and maximum principal plastic strain, which determines the crack direction.
Therefore, the contour plots of tensile damage (DAMAGET) were, shown in figure 5.7, which
simulate crack initiation and propagation at critical section during loading.
As shown in figure 5.7 the cracking pattern tracked by ABAQUS software was somewhat
approach to experimental test. Crack initiated at the section of negative bending moment, at the
middle support, followed by crack propagating to support and loading plate, which result in the
development of a secondary crack.

Figure 5. 7 Predicted crack pattern from ABAQUS


Shear Stresses within the Model Elements

Shear stress along the ABAQUS beams were, shown in figure 5.8 as stress contours. The contour
shows shear stress at middle of shear span. As shown in figure 5.8 the stresses in red color
elements are about 2.8KN. As load increased, these elements started to crack and cannot sustain
shear stresses anymore. Therefore, stresses were, transferred to adjacent elements. At failure
loads, the secondary inclined cracks connect the support to loading plates.

58
Figure 5. 8 Shear stresses, S23, contours diagrams.

5.3. Effects of Parametric Under Study

The effect of each parameter was, demonstrated by comparing the shear stress and load-mid span
deflection response of each model to the reference beam. The crack pattern was, illustrated in
each beam. The following section provides an analytical review of on the result of this
parametric investigation.
5.3.1. Effects of Steel Reinforcement Ratio
The influence of steel reinforcement ratio, ρ on reinforced concrete beam without transverse
reinforcement based on critical shear displacement was, studied. To conduct this parametric
study, the size of steel rebar was, used as follows: i) 2∅16mm steel reinforcement (ρ = 0.737%);
ii) 2∅20mm steel reinforcement (ρ = 1.16%); iii) 2∅ 24 mm steel reinforcement (ρ=1.67%).
Every configuration was, inputted into steel material definition in ABAQUS Models, while
keeping other parametric constant.
It can be, observed from figure 5.9 that the influence of reinforcement ratio on the overall
capacity of reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement is great. Increasing the
size of bottom steel rebar from 16mm to 24mm has increase the flexural-shear capacity of
reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement. This type of response was,
anticipated since the shear strength of RC beam without transverse reinforcement affected by of
used tensile steel reinforcement. Increasing the steel reinforcement ratio to 1.67% by using larger
steel bars in tension region allowed to sustain higher load and increase the capacity by 4.45%.

59
Therefore, the larger diameter of the steel bar the higher capacity to withstand flexural-shear
capacity.
70000

60000

50000
LOAD(N)

40000

30000 ρ = 1.68%
ρ = 1.16%
20000 ρ = 0.74%
10000

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

Midspan-deflection(mm)

Figure 5. 9 Effects of reinforcement ratio for load versus mid span deflection (effects of
diameter)
5.3.2. Effects of Concrete Compressive Strength

The influence of this parameter was studied by changing the value of fc’ while maintaining all
other mechanical and physical properties constant. Four values were, utilized in defining the
compressive strength concrete in this parametric study: 20, 30, 50, and 70MPa. Load versus
deflection output of each model were, compared. It is evident from an analysis that the
compressive strength of concrete has a profound on the shear performance of reinforced concrete
beam without transverse reinforcement. The lowest response was observed in the model where
fc’ = 20MPa used. On the other hand greatest response was observed in the model where fc’ = 70
MPa used. This shows as compressive strength of concrete increases flexural-shear capacity of
the beam was increased.

60
load versus mid-span deflection
70000
60000
50000 C20-concrete-grade
LOAD(N)

40000 C35-concrete-grade
30000 C50-concrete-grade
C70-concrete-grade
20000
10000
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Mid-span deflection(mm)

Figure 5. 10 Load vs mid-span deflection curve (concrete compressive effects)


5.3.3. Effects of Beam Size

The effects of beam size with respect to depth of beam was, carefully studied with the depth of
(250mm, 300mm, and 350mm) within range of shear critical displacement. It was found that
flexural-shear strength of the beam become increased with decreasing shear span to effective
depth ratio. The beams with shear span to effective depth ratio, a/d = 2.55 shows higher shear
strength.

Increasing a/d values from 2.5 to 4 leads to decrease in flexural-shear strength of the beams.
Therefore, within a range of 2.5 to 6 increasing beam depth increases flexural-shear capacity of
reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement based on shear critical displacement.
This shows the larger beam depth can withstand the higher flexural-shear force.

effects of beam depth for RC without transverse


Reinforcement
80000
LOAD(KN)

60000 depth=350mm
40000 depth=300mm
20000 depth=250mm
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5

midspan deflection(mm)

Figure 5. 11 Load vs mid span-deflection (size effects)

61
5.4. Numerical result obtained from ABAQUS software

Table 5.1 shows the results for deflection, shear stress, and shear strength for different
percentages of steel, shear span-depth ratio, and concrete compressive strength.
Table 5. 1 Shear strength obtained for different beam specimens

Reinforcemen Cube
Sr.N t ratio ρ = strength Ult.Shear Ult.Sh. Deflection
o As/bd (%) a/d (MPa) (KN) stress (mm)
1 0.74 3.73 20 10.91 2.803 0.3976
2 0.74 3.73 30 11.8 3.193 0.427
3 0.74 3.73 50 13.08 3.433 0.3147
4 0.74 3.73 70 20.14 5.484 0.5485
5 0.74 2.55 25 12.29 2.768 0.268
6 0.74 3.03 25 10.13 2.935 0.3554
7 0.74 3.73 25 7.133 2.759 0.5244
8 1.68 3.73 25 13.53 3.277 0.3395
9 1.16 3.73 25 12.15 2.969 0.291
10 0.74 3.73 25 10.91 2.803 0.3976
Where, a/d is shear span to effective depth ratio

62
6. CONCLUSION AND RECCOMANDATION

6.1. CONCLUSSION
The study was carried out to fill the gap (drawback) of analytical model proposed by new
concept of Rational Theory.
based on the analysis, the following conclusions were drawn:
The study concludes that, the graph between load and deflection from experimental observation
were in well agreement with the value obtained from ABAQUS software.
The suggested finite element model can be, used to track the cracks origination and propagation
in RC beams. Accordingly, the shear behavior of the member was, well investigated.
According to New concept of Rational Theory, the crack patterns of the member under shear
load not well tracked and results in poor investigation on shear behavior RC members. This
shows that strengthens and weakness of the member was not appropriately determined.
Shear capacity of the member was, overestimated according to Rational Theory, but shear
capacity of member well evaluated from ABAQUS analysis. The present study concludes that,
ABAQUS software where more applicable to fill the gap missed in rational theory.
Increasing concrete compressive strength, reinforcement percentage, and effective depth
increases shear capacity of the beam. Therefore, the shear capacity of the member was affected
by those parameters.

63
6.2. RECCOMDATION

To carry out further investigation recommendation was, given to the following areas:

 Only the drawback of Rational Theory observed and solved with ABAQUS software.
Others like different codes and theories needed for future study.
 The longitudinal reinforcement in this study was, kept at 0.74, 1.16, and 1.68. Other steel
percentage could be, adopted for more detail investigations.
 Only uncrack behavior of reinforced concrete beam without transverse reinforcement is
studied. Cracked behavior should be, recommended for future studies.
 Singly reinforced concrete beam is studied doubly reinforced concrete beam need to
study.
 Only beam with shear span to effective depth, which ranges between 2.5 and 6, is
studied. Other intervals, such as between 0 and 1, 1 and 2.5, and above need to study.

64
References

ASCE-ACI Committee. (1998). Recent approach to shear design of structural concrete. journal
of structural Engineering, 1375-1417.

Brena et al. (2001). Use of carbon fiber reinforced polymers composites to increase the flexural
capacity of reinforced concrete beams. Austin, USA.

Carrasquillo et al. (1981). investigation on behavior and micro cracking of high strength concrete
subjected to short-term loading. ACI J.

de Saint-Venant and Jourawski. (1856). Classical beam theory.

Evans, R. H. & M. S. Marathe. (1968). Microcracking and stress-strain curve for concrete in
tension. 61-64.

Fenwick and Paulay. (1968). shear transfer mechanism of reinforced concrete beam without
transverse reinforcement. Struct. Eng.

Fenwick, R. J., & Paulay, T. (1968). Mechanisms of shear resistance of concrete beams. J.
Struct. Div., 2235-2350.

Hillerborg et al. (1976). Analysis of crack formation and crack growth in concrete by means of
fracture mechanics and finite elemet. Cem. Concr. Res., 773-781.

Hognestad, E. (1950). An experimental study of combined bending and axial load in reinforced
concrete members . Illinois.

Leonhardt and Walther. (1962). Shear test on single span reinforced concrete beam with and
without shear reinforcement. Berlin.

Lubliner et al. (1989). A plastic-damaged model for concrete. Int.J. Solid Struct., 299-326.

Malm, R. (2006). Shear cracks in concrete structures subjected to in plane stresses. stockholm.

Mang, H., and Meschke, G. (1992). Nonlinear finite element analysis of reinforced and
prestressed concrete structures . construction and building materials, 77-92.

65
Michael P. COLLINS Evan C. BENTZ Edward G. SHERWOOD Liping XIE. (2007). An
adequete theory for the shear strength of reinforced concrete beam. ACI Journals, 80-81.

Monteleone, A. (2008). Numerical Analysis of crack induced debonding mechanism in FRP


strengthedned RC beams. waterloo.

Muttoni, A., and Ruiz, M. F. . (2008). Shear Capacity of member without transverse
reinforcement as a function of critical shear crack width. ACI Struct., J., 163-172.

N SUBRAMANIAN. (2013). Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures. Maryland, USA.

Reineck, K. H. (1991). Ultimate shear force of reinforced concrete members without transverse
reinforcement derived from a mechanical model. ACI structural journal, 592-602.

Tamai, S. (19988). Average stress-strain relationship in post yield range of steel bar in concrete.
concrete library of JSCE, 117-129.

Tureyen, A. K., and Frosch, R. J. (2003). Concrete shear strength. ACI truct., J., 609-615.

Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P. (1986). Modefied compression field theory for reinforced
concrete elements subjected to shear. ACI journal.

Walraven. (1981). Experimental investigation on shear behavior reinforced concrete beams


without shear reinforcement. Struct. Eng.

Walraven et al. (2016). shear behavior of reinforced concrete beam without transverse
reinforcement based on shear critical displacement. ACI J.

Walraven, J. C & J. Stroband. (1999). The behavior of cracks in plain and reinforced concrete
subjected to shear. standefjord.

Yang, Y., and Uijl. (2011). Direct experimental test on shear behavior of reinforced concrete
beam without transverse reinforcement. Concr. Struct.

Yuguang, Yang. (2014). Shear behavior of Reinforced Concrete members Without Shear
Reinforcement. Netherland.

Zsutty, T. C. (1971). Shear strength prediction for separate categories of simple beam tests. ACI
J., 138-143.

66
ASCE-ACI Committee. (1998). Recent approach to shear design of structural concrete. journal
of structural Engineering, 1375-1417.

Brena et al. (2001). Use of carbon fiber reinforced polymers composites to increase the flexural
capacity of reinforced concrete beams. Austin, USA.

Carrasquillo et al. (1981). investigation on behavior and micro cracking of high strength concrete
subjected to short-term loading. ACI J.

de Saint-Venant and Jourawski. (1856). Classical beam theory.

Evans, R. H. & M. S. Marathe. (1968). Microcracking and stress-strain curve for concrete in
tension. 61-64.

Fenwick and Paulay. (1968). shear transfer mechanism of reinforced concrete beam without
transverse reinforcement. Struct. Eng.

Fenwick, R. J., & Paulay, T. (1968). Mechanisms of shear resistance of concrete beams. J.
Struct. Div., 2235-2350.

Hillerborg et al. (1976). Analysis of crack formation and crack growth in concrete by means of
fracture mechanics and finite elemet. Cem. Concr. Res., 773-781.

Hognestad, E. (1950). An experimental study of combined bending and axial load in reinforced
concrete members . Illinois.

Leonhardt and Walther. (1962). Shear test on single span reinforced concrete beam with and
without shear reinforcement. Berlin.

Lubliner et al. (1989). A plastic-damaged model for concrete. Int.J. Solid Struct., 299-326.

Malm, R. (2006). Shear cracks in concrete structures subjected to in plane stresses. stockholm.

Mang, H., and Meschke, G. (1992). Nonlinear finite element analysis of reinforced and
prestressed concrete structures . construction and building materials, 77-92.

67
Michael P. COLLINS Evan C. BENTZ Edward G. SHERWOOD Liping XIE. (2007). An
adequete theory for the shear strength of reinforced concrete beam. ACI Journals, 80-81.

Monteleone, A. (2008). Numerical Analysis of crack induced debonding mechanism in FRP


strengthedned RC beams. waterloo.

Muttoni, A., and Ruiz, M. F. . (2008). Shear Capacity of member without transverse
reinforcement as a function of critical shear crack width. ACI Struct., J., 163-172.

N SUBRAMANIAN. (2013). Design of Reinforced Concrete Structures. Maryland, USA.

Reineck, K. H. (1991). Ultimate shear force of reinforced concrete members without transverse
reinforcement derived from a mechanical model. ACI structural journal, 592-602.

Tamai, S. (19988). Average stress-strain relationship in post yield range of steel bar in concrete.
concrete library of JSCE, 117-129.

Tureyen, A. K., and Frosch, R. J. (2003). Concrete shear strength. ACI truct., J., 609-615.

Vecchio, F.J., and Collins, M.P. (1986). Modefied compression field theory for reinforced
concrete elements subjected to shear. ACI journal.

Walraven. (1981). Experimental investigation on shear behavior reinforced concrete beams


without shear reinforcement. Struct. Eng.

Walraven et al. (2016). shear behavior of reinforced concrete beam without transverse
reinforcement based on shear critical displacement. ACI J.

Walraven, J. C & J. Stroband. (1999). The behavior of cracks in plain and reinforced concrete
subjected to shear. standefjord.

Yang, Y., and Uijl. (2011). Direct experimental test on shear behavior of reinforced concrete
beam without transverse reinforcement. Concr. Struct.

Yuguang, Yang. (2014). Shear behavior of Reinforced Concrete members Without Shear
Reinforcement. Netherland.

Zsutty, T. C. (1971). Shear strength prediction for separate categories of simple beam tests. ACI
J., 138-143.

68
Appendix A

Mesh Analysis and crack patterns

This appendix covers the results obtained from the numerical study in chapter five. The type and
number of element, used in meshing the ABAQUS models, are presented in table A-1. The crack
patterns in reinforced concrete beam for different concrete grade, reinforcement ratio, and size
effects were, shown for coarse mesh (40x40) mm in figure A-1 to A-10.

Table A-1 type and number of element used in meshing the ABAQUS software

Geometric
model Mesh size Element type Element shape Number of element
order

(40x40)mm C3D8R Hexahedral linear


2260
T3D2 line linear 103
Load-
controlle (30x30)mm C3D8R Hexahedral linear
d beam 3465
T3D2 line linear 380

(25x25) C3D8R Hexahedral linear


5980
T3D2 line linear 432

69
Figure A-1 crack pattern for RC beam without transverse reinforcement ( ρ = 1.68%)

Figure A-3 crack pattern for RC beam without transverse reinforcement ( ρ =1.16%)

Figure A-4 crack pattern for RC beam without transverse reinforcement ( ρ=¿0.74%)

70
Figure A-5 crack pattern for C30-concrete grade

Figure A-6 crack pattern for C50-concrete grade

Figure A-7 crack pattern for C70-concrete grade

71
Figure A-8 crack pattern for Depth 250mm-beam

Figure A-9 crack pattern for depth-300mm-beam

Figure A-10 crack pattern for depth-350mm-beam

72
Appendix B

Parametric study with respect shear stress versus shear displacement.

This appendix presents some of the results of the parametric study performed in
chapter five. The graph through B-1 to B-3 shows the effects changing concrete
grades, reinforcement percentages, and shear span to effective depth ratio.

shear stress versus vertical shear displacement


4
3.5
shear stress

3
2.5 C70-concrete-grade
2 C50-concrete-grade
1.5 C35-concrete-grade
1
C20-concrete-grade
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

vertical shear displacement

73
shear stress versus horizontal shear displacement
4
3.5
shear stress

3
2.5 C70-concrete-grade
2 C50-concrete-grade
1.5 C35-concrete-grade
1
0.5 C20-concrete-grade
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8

horizontal shear displacement

Figure B-1 Shear stress versus shear displacement (effects of concrete compressive strength)

Shear stress versus vertical shear displacement


3.5
3
shear stress

2.5
2 250mm-beam-depth
1.5 300mm-beam-depth
1 350mm-beam-depth
0.5
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6

vertical shear displacement

shear stress versus horizontal shear displacement


3.5
3
2.5
shear stress

2 250mm-beam-depth
1.5 300mm-beam-depth
350mm-beam-depth
1
0.5
0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5

horizontal shear displacement

Figure B-2 shear stress versus shear displacement (effects of effective depth beams)

74
shear stress versus shear vertical displacement
3.5

2.5
shear stress

2 16mm-dia-bar
1.5 20mm-dia-bar
24mm-dia-bar
1

0.5

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0.35

vertical shear displacement

shear stress versus horizontal shear displacement


3.5
3
2.5
shear stress

2 16mm-dia-bar
1.5 20mm-dia-bar
24mm-dia-bar
1
0.5
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

horizontal shear displacement

Figure B-3 shear stress versus shear displacement (effects reinforcement ratio, ρ )

75
76

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