CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION TO PROJECT

A system designed to record and report on discrete activities within a process is called as
Tracking System. In the same procedure we have developed a methodology of vehicle
speed & direction system for robotics to control and achieve accurate direction speed for
a class of non-linear systems in the presence of disturbances and parameter variations by
using wireless communication technique.
While driving on highways, motorists should not exceed the maximum speed limit
permitted for their vehicle. However, accidents keep occurring due to speed violations
since the drivers tend to ignore their speedometers. This speed checker will come handy
for the highway traffic police as it will not only provide a digital display in accordance
with a vehicle’s speed but sound an alarm if the vehicle exceeds the permissible speed for
the highway. The system basically comprises two IR LED’s Transistor & receiver sensor
pairs, which are installed on the highway 100cm apart, with the transmitter and the
receiver of each pair on the opposite sides of the road. The system displays the time taken
by the vehicle in crossing this distance from one pair to the other from which the speed of
the vehicle can be calculated as follows:

Here,
Distance is the total distance between the pair of sensors.
Time is the interval between crossing the first sensor and second sensor.
Microcontroller 8051 is the heart of the system, which control all the function of the
circuit. It measures the speed and control the circuit through a programming flashed
inside 8051. IR sensor are used as a pair of eye that keep watching the speed of each
vehicle crossing the sensors. A seven segment display is used to display the total speed of
the vehicle (After calculation is done inside controller.).
1.2 BLOCK DIAGRAM

fig 1: Block Diagram

 CHAPTER 2
WORKING OF THE SYSTEM
2.1 WORKING

In this project we use IR sensors to detect the presence of a vehicle. According to this
project, 2 IR sensors are placed apart with a fixed known distance. Whenever IR rays are
interrupted by a vehicle during first sensor the count up timer is started. When the other
IR sensor senses the presence of vehicle, the count up timer is stopped. As the distance
and time the IR receiver receives the IR signals is noted by microcontroller and from that
we need to calculate speed. Here speed is calculated from the well-known formula of
speed which is distance/time. The Seven segment display is used to display the speed of
the vehicle. The microcontroller is used to monitor the all control operations needed for
the project.

2.1.1 Power Supply

The AT mega 328p microcontroller works on +5V DC. Now here we have 220V AC as
the input. So first of all, we need to step down the voltage using transformer. Here the
transformer will step down the 220V AC to 9V AC at 50Hz. To convert AC to DC, a
bridge rectifier is placed using 1N4007, a p-n diode. Two capacitor of 470µF & .01µF is
used as a filter. Now, this DC output is fed to a 7805 voltage regulator which will convert
the DC input into +5V DC.

Fig 2.1: Power supply

2.1.2 AT MEGA 328

. Pin diagram of Microcontroller AT MEGA 328P is shown below.

Fig 2.2: 328P Pin diagram

2.2 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

The main circuit diagram of the project is shown below.

Fig 2.3: Main circuit (a)

2.3 PCB LAYOUT

Fig 2.6: PCB Layout

 CHAPTER 3
COMPONENTS USED IN THE PROJECT

3.1 COMPONENT LIST

1. SWITCH
 PUSH-TO-ON Switch
2. DIODE
 1N4007 PN Diode
3. CAPACITORS
 1000µF 25V
 22pF

 100nF 50V

 10µF 40V

4. CRYSTAL

 11.0592MHz

5. TRANSFORMER

6. LCD

7. IR LED

8. LED

9. PRESET
 3.2 COMPONENT DESCRIPTIONS

3.2.1 INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

 AT MEGA 328

ATmega-328 is basically an Advanced Virtual RISC (AVR) micro-

controller. It supports the data up to eight (8) bits. ATmega-328 has
32KB internal builtin memory. This micro-controller has a lot of other
characteristics. You should also have a look at Introduction to
PIC16F877a (it’s a PIC Microcontroller) and then compare functions of
these two Microcontrollers. ATmega 328 has 1KB Electrically Erasable
Programmable Read Only Memory (EEPROM). This property shows if
the electric supply supplied to the micro-controller is removed, even
then it can store the data and can provide results after providing it with
the electric supply. Moreover, ATmega-328 has 2KB Static Random
Access Memory (SRAM). Other characteristics will be explained later.
ATmega 328 has several different features which make it the most
popular device in today’s market. These features consist of advanced
RISC architecture, good performance, low power consumption, real
timer counter having separate oscillator, 6 PWM pins,
programmable Serial USART, programming lock for software security,
throughput up to 20 MIPS etc

 Functions associated with the pins must be known in order to use the
device appropriately.
 ATmega-328 pins are divided into different ports which are given in detail
below.
VCC is a digital voltage supply.

AVCC is a supply voltage pin for analog to digital converter.

GND denotes Ground and it has a 0V.

Port A consists of the pins from PA0 to PA7. These pins serve as analog input to
analog to digital converters. If analog to digital converter is not used, port A acts
as an eight (8) bit bidirectional input/output port.

Port B consists of the pins from PB0 to PB7. This port is an 8 bit bidirectional

port having an internal pull-up resistor.

Port C consists of the pins from PC0 to PC7. The output buffers of port C has

symmetrical drive characteristics with source capability as well high sink.

Port D consists of the pins from PD0 to PD7. It is also an 8 bit input/output port

having an internal pull-up resistor.
 7805

The 78xx (also sometimes known as LM78xx) series of devices is a family of

self-contained fixed linear voltage regulator integrated circuits. The 78xx family is a very
popular choice for many electronic circuits which require a regulated power supply, due
to their ease of use and relative cheapness. When specifying individual ICs within this
family, the xx is replaced with a two-digit number, which indicates the output voltage the
particular device is designed to provide (for example, the 7805 has a 5 volt output, while
the 7812 produces 12 volts).

Figure 3.2: IC 7805

3.2.2 SWITCH
 PUSH-TO-ON

Push-to-on switch holds the circuit conducting while the switch is pressed. But
when the switch is released, the circuit stops conducting.
On the other hand, two way switches doesn’t need to pressed continue. It do not require
the continue effort to on the circuit. It has two states. When the switch is slides to left,
switch gives 1 and if it slides to right, the output is 0.

Figure 3.4: PUSH-TO-ON Switch

3.2.3 DIODE
 1N4007 PN DIODE

The diode used here is a p-n junction diode i.e. 1N4007. Its reverse
breakdown voltage is 1000V. This diode is used as the rectifier.

Figure 3.5: 1N4007

 3.2.4 CAPACITORS

In the project, two types of capacitors are used.

1. Electrolytic (47µF 50V, 10µF 40V, 470µF 25V)

An electrolytic capacitor (abbreviated e-cap) is a polarized capacitor whose anode or positive

plate is made of a metal that forms an insulating oxide layer through anodization. This oxide layer
acts as the dielectric of the capacitor. A solid, liquid, or gel electrolyte covers the surface of this
oxide layer, serving as the (cathode) or negative plate of the capacitor. Due to their very thin
dielectric oxide layer and enlarged anode surface, electrolytic capacitors have a much
higher capacitance-voltage (CV) product per unit volume than ceramic capacitors or film capacitors,
and so can have large capacitance values
 2. Ceramic Disc (33pF)

Electrolytic capacitors are polarized capacitors are made of oxide film on aluminum foils.
These are cheaper and easily available. The range of values typically varies from 1uF to
47000uF and large tolerance of 20%. The voltage ratings range up to 500V..

Figure 3.6: Electrolytic Capacitor

The non – polarized type ceramic capacitors which are also known as ‘Disc capacitors’
are widely used these days. These are available in millions of varieties of cost and
performance. The features of ceramic capacitor depend upon: Type of ceramic dielectric
used in the capacitor which varies in the temperature coefficient and Dielectric losses.

Figure 3.7: Ceramic Capacitor

3.2.5 RESISTORS
Resistor is a passive component used to control current in a circuit. Its resistance is given
by the ratio of voltage applied across its terminals to the current passing through it. Thus
a particular value of resistor, for fixed voltage, limits the current through it. They are
omnipresent in electronic circuits.

Figure 3.8: Resistor

The different value of resistances are used to limit the currents or get the desired voltage
drop according to the current-voltage rating of the device to be connected in the circuit.
For example, if an LED of rating 2.3V and 6mA is to be connected with a supply of 5V, a
voltage drop of 2.7V (5V-2.3V) and limiting current of 6mA is required. This can be
achieved by providing a resistor of 450 connected in series with the LED.
3.2.6 CRYSTAL

A quartz crystal resonator plays a vital role in electronics oscillator circuitry. Sometimes
mispronounced as crystal oscillator, it is rather a very important part of the feedback
network of the oscillator circuitry. Electronics oscillators are used in frequency control
application finding their usage in almost every industry ranging from small chips to
aerospace.

Figure 3.9: Crystal

A quartz crystal is the heart of such type of resonators. Their characteristics like high
quality factor (Q), stability, small size and low cost make them superior over other
resonators like LC circuit, turning forks, ceramic resonator etc.
The basic phenomenon behind working of a quartz crystal oscillator is the inverse piezo
electric effect i.e., when electric field is applied across certain materials they start
producing mechanical deformation.

3.2.7 TRANSFORMER

The transformer is a static electro-magnetic device that transforms one alternating voltage
(current) into another voltage (current). However, power remains the same during the
transformation. Transformers play a major role in the transmission and distribution of ac
power.
Principle

Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction. A transformer consists of

laminated magnetic core forming the magnetic frame. Primary and secondary coils are
wound upon the two cores of the magnetic frame, linked by the common magnetic flux.
When an alternating voltage is applied across the primary coil, current flows in the
primary coil producing magnetic flux in the transformer core, this flux induces voltage in
secondary coil.
Transformers are classified as: -
(a) Based on position of the windings with respect to core i.e.
1) Core type transformer
2) Shell type transformer
(b) Transformation ratio:
1) Step up transformer
2) Step down transformer
a) Core & shell types:

Figure 3.10: Step-Up Transformer.

Figure 3.11: Step-Down Transformer

Transformer is simplest electrical machine, which consists of windings on the laminated
magnetic core. There are two possibilities of putting up the windings on the core.
1) Winding encircle the core in the case of core type transformer

2) Cores encircle the windings on shell type transformer.

b) Step up and Step down: In these voltages transformation takes place according to
whether the primary is high voltage coil or a low voltage coil.
1) Lower to higher-> Step up
2) Higher to lower-> Step down

3.2.8 LCD

LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) screen is an electronic display module and find a wide
range of applications. A 16x2 LCD display is very basic module and is very commonly
used in various devices and circuits. These modules are preferred over seven segments
and other multi segment LEDs. A 16x2 LCD means it can display 16 characters per line
and there are 2 such lines. In this LCD each character is displayed in 5x7 pixel matrix.
This LCD has two registers, namely, Command and Data. The command register stores
the command instructions given to the LCD. A command is an instruction given to LCD
to do a predefined task like initializing it, clearing its screen, setting the cursor position,
controlling display etc. The data register stores the data to be displayed on the LCD.

Figure 3.12: LCD

 Figure 3.13: LCD Description

3.2.9 IR LED

Here the IR transmitter is nothing but the IR LED. It just looks like a normal LED but
transmits the IR signals. Since the IR rays are out of the visible range we cannot observe
the rays from the transmitter. These are infrared LEDs; the light output is not visible by
our eyes.

Fig 3.14: IR LED

3.2.10 LED

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator
lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting. Appearing as
practical electronic components in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but
modern versions are available across the visible, ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths,
with very high brightness. When a light-emitting diode is forward-biased (switched on),
electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in
the form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence and the color of the light

Figure3.15: LED
is determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor
3.2.11 PRESET

A preset is a three legged electronic component which can be made to offer varying
resistance in a circuit. The resistance is varied by adjusting the rotary control over it. The
adjustment can be done by using a small screw driver or a similar tool. The resistance
does not vary linearly but rather varies in exponential or logarithmic manner. Such
variable resistors are commonly used for adjusting sensitivity along with a sensor. The
variable resistance is obtained across the single terminal at front and one of the two other
terminals. The two legs at back offer fixed resistance which is divided by the front leg. So
whenever only the back terminals are used, a preset acts as a fixed resistor. Presets are
specified by their fixed value resistance.

Fig 3.16: Preset

3.3 COST ANALYSIS

Name Cost (Unit Price)

1. INTEGRATED CIRCUIT

AT MEGA328P 300/-

7805 5/-
2. SWITCH

PUSH-TO-ON Switch 3/-
3. DIODE

1N4007 PN Diode 3/-

4. CAPACITORS

1000µF 25V 5/

33pF 1/
5. RESISTORS
 8.2 KΩ 0.50/-
 SIP-Resistor 10KΩ 10/-
6. CRYSTAL

11.0592MHz 15/-
7. TRANSFORMER 60/-
8. LCD 280/-
9. IR LED 50/-
10. LED 2/-
11. PRESET
12 BUZZER 10/-
 CHAPTER 4
TESTING & PROBLEMS
4.1 TESTING PROCEDURE

First of all we do the continuity test to check whether there is any short circuit or not in
our PCB. We don’t apply the power supply to our circuit before testing, without power
supply testing is called COLD Testing. We test all the components used in our project. A
brief description is given below about testing procedure.
In electronics, a continuity test is the checking of an electric circuit to see if current flows
(that it is in fact a complete circuit). A continuity test is performed by placing a small
voltage (wired in series with an LED or noise-producing component such as a
piezoelectric speaker) across the chosen path. If electron flow is inhibited by broken
conductors, damaged components, or excessive resistance, the circuit is "open".

Figure 4.1: Continuity Testing.

This meter is very simple. When the probes are not touching, the display shows "1".
When you touch the tips together, the display changes to a three digit mode (it's
displaying resistance, which we will cover later) It also emits a beep. Set your meter to
the continuity/diode "bleep" test. Connect the red meter lead to the base of the transistor.
Connect the black meter lead to the emitter. A good NPN transistor will read a junction
drop voltage of between 0.45v and 0.9v.
4.2 TESTING FOR POWER SUPPLY

Every component was checked for short circuit through multimeter.

Power supply is given & the output of the various components is tested.
Output of the transformer -9 volts A.C Output of the rectifier – 9 volt
D.C
Output of the regulator – 5 Volt D.C
Output of the regulator with load - 4.80 Volt D.C

4.3 PROBLEM FACED IN THE PROJECT

While building the project, there were some problems faced:

1. Testing of electronic components or circuit is very interesting work. In my project we
don’t faced any serious problem. By testing we got a shorted path in our circuit on PCB
and there are 3-4 tracks which are broken during etching process. We joint these tracks
by tinning.
2. The first problem were soldering, it were not easy to solder the components on the
PCB, so the method suggested by the guide were, to apply the solder mask.
 CHAPTER 5
ADVANTAGES & APPLICATIONS
5.1 ADVANTAGES
 The circuit is also running on +5V which is easier to generate.
 They reduce the risk of accidents.

 It is easy to implement.

 It reduce the effort of many men.

5.2 DISADVANTAGES
 Sometimes the circuit got failure and causes various problems.

5.3 APPLICATION
 Bridge construction.

 Highways.

 Two lane road construction.

 Emergency response.

 Event Traffic control.

 CONCLUSION
The project “SPEED CHECKER FOR HIGHWAYS” has been successfully designed and
tested. It has been developed by integrating features of all the hardware components used.
Presence of every module has been reasoned out and placed carefully thus contributing to the
best working of the unit. Secondly, using highly advanced IC’s and with the help of growing
technology the project has been successfully implemented. Finally we conclude that “SPEED
CHECKER FOR HIGHWAYS” is an emerging field and there is a huge scope for research
and development. It can be further advanced by using a CCTV camera in the circuit.
Whenever any vehicle crosses speed limit, camera captures the image of number plate and
through transport database finds the address of the owner and sends fine.
 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. http://www.engineersgarage.com/

2. http://engineeringactivity.com/

3. http://www.pantechsolutions.net/

4. http://www.8051projects.net/

5. http://www.dnatechindia.com/