Numerical Structural Analysis

EBOOKS Numerical Structural Analysis SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURAL
O’HARA • RAMMING
FOR THE
ENGINEERING
Steven O’Hara and Carisa H. Ramming SYSTEMS COLLECTION
As structural engineers move further into the age of digital com- Mohammad Noori, Editor
LIBRARY putation and rely more heavily on computers to solve problems,
Create your own it remains paramount that they understand the basic mathemat-
Customized Content ics and engineering principles used to design and analyze build-
ing structures. The link between the basic concepts and appli-
Bundle—the more
cation to real world problems is one of the most challenging
Numerical
books you buy, learning endeavors that structural engineers face.
the greater your The primary purpose of Numerical Structural Analysis is to
discount! assist structural engineering students with developing the abil-
ity to solve complex structural analysis problems. This book will
Structural
cover numerical techniques to solve mathematical formulations,
THE CONTENT
which are necessary in developing the analysis procedures for
Numerical Structural Analysis

• Manufacturing structural engineering. Once the numerical formulations are un-
Engineering derstood, engineers can then develop structural analysis meth-
• Mechanical ods that use these techniques. This will be done primarily with
Analysis
& Chemical matrix structural stiffness procedures. Finally, advanced stiffness
Engineering topics will be developed and presented to solve unique struc-
• Materials Science tural problems, including member end releases, non-prismatic,
& Engineering shear, geometric, and torsional stiffness.
• Civil &
Steven O’Hara is a professor of architectural engineering and li-
Environmental
censed engineer at the Oklahoma State University School of Ar-
Engineering chitecture since 1988. Professor O’Hara is an affiliate professor
• Electrical of civil engineering and architecture in “Project Lead the Way,”
Engineering a nationwide program for high-school students. He trains the
high school teachers responsible for introducing engineering
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• Perpetual access for learning and coauthored the workbook for the curriculum, Civil
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• Unlimited with a bachelor of architectural engineering degree and dual
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For further information,
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ISBN: 978-1-60650-488-8
NUMERICAL
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
NUMERICAL
STRUCTURAL
ANALYSIS
STEVEN E. O’HARA
CARISA H. RAMMING
MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

Copyright © Momentum Press®, LLC, 2015.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

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of the publisher.
First published by Momentum Press®, LLC

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ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-488-8 (print)

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Abstract
As structural engineers move further into the age of digital computa-

tion and rely more heavily on computers to solve problems, it remains
paramount that they understand the basic mathematics and engineering
principles used to design and analyze building structures. The analysis of
complex structural systems involves the knowledge of science, technol-
ogy, engineering, and math to design and develop efficient and economi-
cal buildings and other structures. The link between the basic concepts and
application to real world problems is one of the most challenging learning
endeavors that structural engineers face. A thorough understanding of the
analysis procedures should lead to successful structures.
The primary purpose of this book is to develop a structural engineer-
ing student’s ability to solve complex structural analysis problems that
they may or may not have ever encountered before. The book will cover
and review numerical techniques to solve mathematical formulations.
These are the theoretical math and science principles learned as prerequi-
sites to engineering courses, but will be emphasized in numerical formula-
tion. A basic understanding of elementary structural analysis is important
and many methods will be reviewed. These formulations are necessary
in developing the analysis procedures for structural engineering. Once
the numerical formulations are understood, engineers can then develop
structural analysis methods that use these techniques. This will be done
primarily with matrix structural stiffness procedures. Both of these will
supplement both numerical and computer solutions. Finally, advanced
stiffness topics will be developed and presented to solve unique structural
problems. These include member end releases, nonprismatic, shear, geo-
metric, and torsional stiffness.
KEY WORDS
adjoint matrix, algebraic equations, area moment, beam deflection, car-
ry-over factor, castigliano’s theorems, cofactor matrix, column matrix,
v
vi • Abstract
complex conjugate pairs, complex roots, conjugate beam, conjugate pairs,

convergence, diagonal matrix, differentiation, distinct roots, distribution
factor, eigenvalues, elastic stiffness, enke roots, extrapolation, flexural
stiffness, geometric stiffness, homogeneous, identity matrix, integer, inte-
gration, interpolation, inverse, joint stiffness factor, linear algebraic equa-
tions, lower triangular matrix, matrix, matrix minor, member end release,
member relative stiffness factor, member stiffness factor, moment-dis-
tribution, non-homogeneous, non-prismatic members, partial pivoting,
pivot coefficient, pivot equation, polynomials, principal diagonal, roots,
rotation, rotational stiffness, row matrix, second-order stiffness, shear
stiffness, slope-deflection, sparse matrix, square matrix, stiffness matrix,
structural flexibility, structural stiffness, symmetric transformation, tor-
sional stiffness, transcendental equations, transformations, transmission,
transposed matrix, triangular matrix, upper triangular matrix, virtual
work, visual integration
Contents
List of Figures xi
List of Tables xv
Acknowledgments xix
1 Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations 1
1.1 Equations 1
1.2 Polynomials 2
1.3 Descartes’ Rule 3
1.4 Synthetic Division 7
1.5 Incremental Search Method 10
1.6 Refined Incremental Search Method 12
1.7 Bisection Method 13
1.8 Method of False Position or Linear Interpolation 15
1.9 Secant Method 17
1.10 Newton–Raphson Method or Newton’s Tangent 18
1.11 Newton’s Second Order Method 21
1.12 Graeffe’s Root Squaring Method 24
1.13 Bairstow’s Method 38
References 46
2 Solutions of Simultaneous Linear Algebraic Equations
Using Matrix Algebra 47
2.1 Simultaneous Equations 47
2.2 Matrices 48
2.3 Matrix Operations 52
2.4 Cramer’s Rule 56
2.5 Method of Adjoints or Cofactor Method 57
vii
viii • Contents
2.6 Gaussian Elimination Method 63

2.7 Gauss–Jordan Elimination Method 68
2.8 Improved Gauss–Jordan Elimination Method 72
2.9 Cholesky Decomposition Method 73
2.10 Error Equations 78
2.11 Matrix Inversion Method 80
2.12 Gauss–Seidel Iteration Method 86
2.13 Eigenvalues by Cramer’s Rule 87
2.14 Faddeev–Leverrier Method 90
2.15 Power Method or Iteration Method 91
References 95
3 Numerical Integration and Differentiation 97
3.1 Trapezoidal Rule 97
3.2 Romberg Integration 99
3.3 Simpson’s Rule 104
3.4 Gaussian Quadrature 109
3.5 Double Integration by Simpson’s
One-Third Rule 112
3.6 Double Integration by Gaussian Quadrature 114
3.7 Taylor Series Polynomial Expansion 116
3.8 Difference Operators by Taylor Series Expansion 118
3.9 Numeric Modeling with Difference Operators 123
3.10 Partial Differential Equation Difference Operators 136
3.11 Numeric Modeling with Partial Difference Operators 140
References 145
4 Matrix Structural Stiffness 147
4.1 Matrix Transformations and Coordinate Systems 147
4.2 Rotation Matrix 148
4.3 Transmission Matrix 153
4.4 Area Moment Method 155
4.5 Conjugate Beam Method 158
4.6 Virtual Work 161
4.7 Castigliano’s Theorems 165
4.8 Slope-Deflection Method 168
Contents • ix
4.9 Moment-Distribution Method 170

4.10 Elastic Member Stiffness, X-Z System 174
4.11 Elastic Member Stiffness, X-Y System 181
4.12 Elastic Member Stiffness, 3-D System 186
4.13 Global Joint Stiffness 187
References 204
5 Advanced Structural Stiffness 205
5.1 Member End Releases, X-Z System 205
5.2 Member End Releases, X-Y System 214
5.3 Member End Releases, 3-D System 217
5.4 Non-prismatic Members 229
5.5 Shear Stiffness, X-Z System 239
5.6 Shear Stiffness, X-Y System 243
5.7 Shear Stiffness, 3-D System 247
5.8 Geometric Stiffness, X-Y System 251
5.9 Geometric Stiffness, X-Z System 258
5.10 Geometric Stiffness, 3-D System 260
5.11 Geometric and Shear Stiffness 262
5.12 Torsion 265
5.13 Sub-structuring 266
References 268
About the Authors 271
Index 273
List of Figures
Figure 1.1. Incremental search method. 11

Figure 1.2. Refined incremental search method. 12
Figure 1.3. Bisection method. 14
Figure 1.4. Method of false position or linear interpolation. 16
Figure 1.5. Secant method. 18
Figure 1.6. Newton–Raphson method or Newton’s tangent. 19
Figure 1.9. Newton’s second order method. 21
Figure 1.10. Newton’s second order method. 23
Figure 1.11. Graeffe’s root squaring method. 27
Figure 3.1. Trapezoidal rule. 98
Figure 3.2. Romberg integration. 100
Figure 3.3. Simpson’s rule. 104
Figure 3.4. Example 3.10 Simple beam with difference operator. 124
Figure 3.7. Example 3.11 Fixed beam with difference operator. 129
Figure 3.8. Numeric modeling with difference operators. 132
Figure 3.9. Example 3.12 Column buckling with difference
operator. 134
Figure 3.10. Numeric modeling with partial difference operators. 140
Figure 3.11. Example 3.19 Plate bending. 141
xi
xii • List of Figures
Figure 4.1. Coordinate systems. 148

Example 4.1 Rotation, a.
Figure 4.2. 149
Figure 4.3. Example 4.2 Rotation, b. 150
Figure 4.4. Example 4.3 Rotation, g. 151
Figure 4.5. Transformation locations. 153
Figure 4.6. Orthogonal forces. 153
Figure 4.7. Transformation effects. 154
Figure 4.8. Example 4.5 Area moment. 156
Figure 4.12. Conjugate versus real supports. 159
Figure 4.13. Conjugate versus real beams. 159
Figure 4.14. Example 4.6 Conjugate beam. 160
Figure 4.15. Example 4.6 Conjugate beam. 161
Figure 4.16. Example 4.8 Virtual work. 162
Figure 4.17. Example 4.8 Virtual work. 162
Figure 4.18. Example 4.9 Visual integration. 163
Figure 4.21.
Example 4.10 Castigliano’s second theorem. 166
Figure 4.22. Example 4.10 Castigliano’s second theorem. 166
Figure 4.23. Example 4.11 Castigliano’s second theorem. 167
Figure 4.24. Example 4.12 Slope-deflection. 169
Figure 4.25. Example 4.13 Moment-distribution. 172
Figure 4.26. Elastic stiffness. 175
Figure 4.27. Example 4.15 qiy stiffness. 176
Figure 4.28. Example 4.15 qiy stiffness. 176
Figure 4.29. Example 4.16 Δiz stiffness. 178
Figure 4.30. Example 4.17 qiz stiffness. 181
Figure 4.31. Example 4.18 Δiy stiffness. 183
Figure 4.32. Example 4.18 Δiy stiffness. 184
Figure 4.33. Example 4.19 Global joint stiffness. 190
List of Figures • xiii

Figure 5.1. Example 5.1 ∆iz end release. 206
Figure 5.2. Example 5.2 qiy end release. 209
Figure 5.5. Example 5.3 Member stiffness. 218
Figure 5.6. Example 5.4 Non-prismatic member stiffness. 230
Figure 5.10. Example 5.8 Shear stiffness. 239
Figure 5.14. Example 5.12 Shear area. 249
Figure 5.15. Example 5.13 Shear area. 250
Figure 5.16. Geometric stiffness. 251
Figure 5.17. Example 5.14 Geometric stiffness. 252
List of Tables
Table 1.1. Synthetic division 7

Table 1.2. Example 1.5 Synthetic division 7
Table 1.10. Example 1.7 Incremental search method 11
Table 1.11. Example 1.8 Refined incremental search method 13
Table 1.12. Example 1.9 Bisection method 15
Table 1.13. Example 1.10 Method of false position 17
Table 1.14. Example 1.11 Secant method 18
Table 1.15. Example 1.12 Newton–Raphson method 21
Table 1.16. Example 1.13 Newton’s second order method 24
Table 1.17. Graeffe’s root squaring method 26
Table 1.18. Example 1.14 Graeffe’s root squaring method—real and
distinct roots 30
equal roots 34
complex roots 37
Table 1.21. Bairstow’s method 39
Table 2.1. Example 2.4 Cramer’s rule 58
xv
xvi • List of Tables
Table 2.2.
Example 2.5 Cofactor method 61
Table 2.3.
Example 2.6 Method of adjoints 62
Table 2.4. Example 2.7 Gaussian elimination 65
Table 2.5. Example 2.8 Gaussian elimination 67
Table 2.6. Example 2.10 Improved Gaussian–Jordan
elimination method 74
Table 2.7. Example 2.11 Cholesky decomposition method 77
Table 2.11. Example 2.12 Error equations 81
Table 2.14. Example 2.13 Matrix inversion method 84
Table 2.18. Example 2.14 Gauss–Seidel iteration method 88
Table 2.19. Example 2.16 Faddev–Leverrier method 92
Table 2.20. Example 2.17 Power method 94
Table 3.1. Example 3.1 Trapezoidal rule 98
Table 3.2. Example 3.1 Trapezoidal rule 99
Table 3.3. Example 3.2 Romberg integration 102
Table 3.7. Example 3.3 Simpson’s one-third rule 107
Table 3.8. Example 3.3 Simpson’s one-third rule 107
Table 3.9. Example 3.4 Simpson’s one-third and
three-eighths rules 108
Table 3.10. Example 3.4 Simpson’s one-third and
three-eighths rules 108
Table 3.11. Gaussian quadrature 110
Table 3.12. Example 3.5 Gaussian quadrature 110
List of Tables • xvii

Table 3.15. Example 3.6 Double integration by Simpson’s
one-third rule 113
Table 3.16. Example 3.7 Double integration by Gaussian
quadrature 115
Table 3.17. Example 3.19 Plate bending 143
Table 4.1. Example 4.13 Moment-distribution 173
Table 4.2. Example 4.14 Moment-distribution 174
Table 4.3. Example 4.20 Global joint stiffness 199
Table 5.1. Release codes—X-Z system 214
Table 5.2. Release codes—X-Y system 217
Table 5.3. Example 5.3 M
ember stiffness, member 1 220
Table 5.4. Example 5.3 Member stiffness, member 4 221
Table 5.8. Example 5.3 Member stiffness 225
Table 5.10
Example 5.3 Member stiffness 227
Table 5.16. Example 5.13 Shear area 251
Acknowledgments
Our sincere thanks go to Associate Professor Christopher M. Papadopoulos,

PhD, Department of Engineering Science and Materials University of
Puerto Rico, Mayagüez.
We would also like to thank the ARCH 6243 – Structures: Analy-
sis II, Spring 2014 class: Kendall Belcher, Conner Bowen, Harishma
Donthineni, Gaurang Malviya, Alejandro Marco Perea, Michael
Nachreiner, Sai Sankurubhuktha, Timothy Smith, Nuttapong Tanasap,
Ignatius Vasant, and Lawrence Wilson.
A special thanks to Nicholas Prather for his assistance with figures.
xix
CHAPTER 1
Roots of Algebraic
and Transcendental
Equations
In structural engineering, it is important to have a basic knowledge of how

computers and calculators solve equations for unknowns. Some equations
are solved simply by algebra while higher order equations will require
other methods to solve for the unknowns. In this chapter, methods of find-
ing roots to various equations are explored. The roots of an equation are
defined as values of x where the solution of an equation is true. The most
common roots are where the value of the function is zero. This would
indicate where a function crosses an axis. Roots are sometimes complex
roots where they contain both a real number and an imaginary unit.
1.1 EQUATIONS
Equations are generally grouped into two main categories, algebraic equa-
tions and transcendental equations. The first type, an algebraic equation,
is defined as an equation that involves only powers of x. The powers of x
can be any real number whether positive or negative. The following are
examples of algebraic equations:
8 x3 − 3x 2 + 5 x − 6 = 0
1
+2 x =0
x
x1.25 − 3p = 0
The second type is transcendental equations. These are non-algebraic

equations or functions that transcend, or cannot be expressed in terms of
2 • NUMERICAL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS
algebra. Examples of such are exponential functions, trigonometric func-

tions, and the inverses of each. The following are examples of transcen-
dental equations:
cos ( x ) + sin ( x ) = 0
e x + 15 = 0
Transcendental functions may have an infinite number of roots or may not
have any roots at all. For example, the function sin(x) = 0 has an infinite
number of roots x = ±kx and k = 0, 1, 2….
The solution of algebraic or transcendental equations is rarely carried
out from the beginning to end by one method. The roots of the equation
can generally be determined by one method with some small accuracy,
and then made more accurate by other methods. For the intent and pur-
pose of this text, only a handful of the available methods are discussed.
These methods include: Descartes’ Rule, Synthetic Division, Incremental
Search, Refined Incremental Search, Bisection, False Position, Secant,
Newton–Raphson, Newton’s Second Order, Graeffe’s Root Squaring, and
Bairstow’s methods. Some of these methods are used to solve specific
types of equations, while others can be used for both equation types.
1.2 POLYNOMIALS
A polynomial is defined as an algebraic equation involving only positive

integer (whole number) powers of x. Polynomials are generally expressed
in the following form:
a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + a3 x n − 3 + + an −1 x1 + an = 0
In most cases, the polynomial form is revised by dividing the entire equa-
tion by the coefficient of the highest power of a, a0, resulting in the fol-
lowing form:
x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + a3 x n − 3 + + an −1 x1 + an = 0
For these polynomials, the following apply:
• The order or degree of the polynomial is equal to the highest power

of x and the number of roots is directly equal to the degree or n,
where an is not equal to 0. For example, a sixth degree polynomial,
or a polynomial with n = 6 has six roots.
• The value of n must be a non-negative integer. In other words, it
must be a whole number that is equal to zero or a positive integer.
Roots of Algebraic and Transcendental Equations • 3
• The coefficients (a0, a1, a2 …, an-1, an) are real numbers.

• There will be at least one real root if n is an odd integer.
• It is possible that equal roots exist.
• When complex roots exist, they occur in conjugate pairs. For
example:
x = u ± vi = u ± v −1
1.3 DESCARTES’ RULE
Descartes’ rule is a method of determining the maximum number of pos-

itive and negative real roots of a polynomial. This method was published
by René Descartes in 1637 in his work La Géométrie (Descartes 1637).
This rule states that the number of positive real roots is equal to the num-
ber of sign changes of the coefficients or is less than this number by an
even integer. For positive roots, start with the sign of the coefficient of
the lowest (or highest) power and count the number of sign changes from
the lowest to the highest power (ignore powers that do not appear). The
number of sign changes proves to be the number of positive roots. Using
x = 1 in evaluating f(x) = 0 is the easiest way to look at the coefficients.
For negative roots, begin by transforming the polynomial to f(−x) = 0.
The signs of all the odd powers are reversed while the even powers remain
unchanged. Once again, the sign changes can be counted from either the
highest to lowest power, or vice versa. The number of negative real roots
is equal to the number of sign changes of the coefficients, or less than by
an even integer. Using x = –1 in evaluating f(x) = 0 is the easiest way to
look at the coefficients.
When considering either positive or negative roots, the statement
“less than by an even integer” is included. This statement accounts for
complex conjugate pairs that could exist. Complex conjugates change the
sign of the imaginary part of the complex number. Descartes’ rule is valid
as long as there are no zero coefficients. If zero coefficients exist, they are
ignored in the count. Also, one could find a root and divide it out to form a
new polynomial of degree “n – 1” and apply Descartes’ rule again.
Example 1.1 Descartes’ rule
Find the possible number of positive, negative, and complex roots for the
following polynomial:
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 = 0
Find possible positive roots for f(x) = 0:
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 = 0
1 2 3 = 3 sign changes
Since there are three sign changes, there is a maximum of three positive
roots. Three positive real roots exist or one positive real root plus two
imaginary roots.
Find possible negative roots by rewriting the function for f(−x) = 0:
( − x)3 − 6 ( − x)2 + 11( − x) − 6 = − x3 − 6 x 2 − 11x − 6 = 0

− x 3 − 6 x 2 − 11x − 6 = 0
Notice the signs of all the odd powers reverse while the signs of the even
powers remain unchanged. Count the number of sign changes, n. This
number is the maximum possible negative roots. Since there is no sign
change, zero negative roots exist.
Possible complex roots:

Complex roots appear in conjugate pairs. Therefore, either zero or two
complex roots exist. In this example the roots are x = 1, 2, 3.
x3 − 7 x 2 + 6 = 0
x3 − 7 x 2 + 6 = 0
1 2 = 2 sign changes
Since there are two sign changes, there is a maximum of two positive
roots. Two or zero positive real roots exist.
Find possible negative roots by rewriting the function for f(–x) = 0:
( − x )3 − 7 ( − x ) 2 + 6 = − x 3 − 7 x 2 + 6 = 0
− x3 − 7 x 2 + 6 = 0
0 1 = 1 sign change
Again, the signs of all the odd powers reverse while the signs of the even
powers remain unchanged. Count the number of sign changes, n. This
number is the maximum possible negative roots. Since there is one sign
change, one negative root exists.

complex roots exist. In this example, the roots are x = 1, 2, –3.
x3 − 3x 2 + 4 x − 6 = 0
x3 − 3x 2 + 4 x − 6 = 0
Since there are three sign changes, there is a maximum of three positive
roots. Three or one positive real roots exist.
( − x )3 − 3 ( − x ) 2 + 4 ( − x ) − 6 = − x 3 − 3 x 2 − 4 x − 6 = 0
− x3 − 3x 2 − 4 x − 6 = 0
Count the number of sign changes. Since there is no sign change, zero
negative roots exist.

complex roots exist. In this example the roots are x = 1, 1 + i, 1 – i. It
should be noted that the existence of complex conjugate pairs cannot be
readily known. Examples 1.1 and 1.3 had the same number of sign change
count, but the latter had a complex pair of roots.
x3 − x 2 + 2 x = 0
Find possible positive roots for f (x) = 0:
x3 − x 2 + 2 x = 0
Since there are two sign changes, there is a maximum of two positive
roots. Two or zero positive real roots exist.
( − x )3 − ( − x ) 2 + 2 ( − x ) = − x 3 − x 2 − 2 x = 0
− x3 − x 2 − 2 x = 0
Count the number of sign changes, n. Since there is no sign change, zero
negative roots exist.

complex roots exist. In this example, the roots are x = 0, 1 + i, 1 – i.
The existence of zero as a root could have been discovered by noticing
that there was not a constant term in the equation. Therefore, dividing the
equation by x yields the same as x = 0.
1.4 SYNTHETIC DIVISION
Synthetic division is taught in most algebra courses. The main outcome is

to divide a polynomial by a value, r. This is in fact the division of a poly-
nomial, f(x) = 0 by the linear equation x – r. The general polynomial can
be divided by x − r as follows:
f ( x ) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + a3 x n − 3 + + an −1 x1 + an = 0
Table 1.1. Synthetic division

r a0 a1 a2 ……. an-1 an
0 rb1 rb2 ……. rbn-1 rbn
b1 b2 b3 ……. bn R
The results, b, are the sum of the rows above (i.e., b1 = a0 + 0 or
bn = an–1 + rbn–1). If r is a root, then the remainder, R, will be zero. If r is not
a root, then the remainder, R, is the value of the polynomial for f(x) at x = r.
Furthermore, after the first division of a polynomial, divide again to
find the value of the first derivative equal to the remainder times one fac-
torial, R*1!. After the second division of a polynomial, divide again to
find the value of the second derivative equal to the remainder times two
factorial, R*2!. Continuing this process, and after the third division of a
polynomial, divide again to find the value of the third derivative equal to
the remainder times three factorial, R*3!. Basically, two synthetic divi-
sions yield the first derivative, three synthetic divisions yield the second
derivative, four synthetic divisions yield the third derivative, and so on.
Example 1.5 Synthetic division
Find f(1) or divide the following polynomial by x – 1.
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 = 0
Set up the equation as shown below by writing the divisor, r, and coeffi-
cient, a, in the first row.
Table 1.2. Example 1.5 Synthetic division

1 1 -6 11 -6
Add the columns by starting at the left. Multiply each result by r = 1 and
add this to the next column.

1 1 -6 11 -6
0 1 -5 6
1 -5 6 0
Since the remainder, R, is zero, f(r) = 0 and r = 1 is a root. The poly-
nomial can now be written as a linear equation, x – r or x – 1, and
the resulting reduced polynomial with coefficient of the resultants as
follows:
( )
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 = ( x − 1) x 2 − 5 x + 6 = 0
Use the quadratic equation to reduce the remaining polynomial as follows:
−b ± b 2 − 4ac − ( −5) ± ( −5) − 4 (1) 6 5 ± 1

2
x= = = = 2, 3
2a 2 (1) 2
If the remaining polynomial was divided by x – 2, r = 2 is a root as

follows:

2 1 -5 6
0 2 -6
1 -3 0
Since the remainder, R, is zero, f(2) = 0 and r = 2 is a root. The resulting
polynomial is x – 3, thus x = r is the third root. This can also be shown by
repeating division with x – 3.

3 1 -3
0 3
1 0
Since the remainder, R, is zero, f(3) = 0 and r = 3 is a root. The polynomial
is now written as:
( )
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 = ( x − 1) x 2 − 5 x + 6 = ( x − 1) ( x − 2) ( x − 3) = 0
The roots are x = 1, 2, 3.
Example 1.6 Synthetic division
Find f(–1), f ′(–1), and f ″(–1) or perform three divisions of the following
polynomial by x + 1:
x 3 − 6 x 2 + 11x − 6 = 0
Set up the equation as shown in the following by writing the divisor, r, and
coefficient, a, in the first row.

-1 1 -6 11 -6
Add the columns by starting at the left. Multiply each result by r = 1 and
add this to the next column.

-1 1 -6 11 -6
0 -1 7 -18
1 -7 18 -24
Since the remainder, R, is –24, f(–1) = –24, the polynomial evaluated at –1

is –24. Performing a check as follows:
f ( −1) = ( −1) − 6 ( −1) + 11( −1) − 6 = −24

3 2
Now divide the remaining polynomial again by –1 to find f ′(–1).


-1 1 -6 11 -6
0 -1 7 -18
-1 1 -7 18 -24
0 -1 8
1 -8 26
Since the remainder, R, is 26, f ′(–1)=R*1!=26. The first derivative of the

polynomial evaluated at –1 is 26. Performing a check as follows:
f ′ ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 12 x + 11 = 0
f ′ ( −1) = 3( −1) − 12 ( −1) + 11 = 26
2
Divide the remaining polynomial again by –1 to find f″′′(–1).

-1 1 -6 11 -6
0 -1 7 -18
-1 1 -7 18 -24
0 -1 8
-1 1 -8 26
0 -1
1 -9
Since the remainder, R, is –9, f ′′(–1)=R*2!= –9(1)( 2)= –18 and the
second derivative of the polynomial evaluated at –1 is –18. Performing a
check as follows:
f ′′ ( x ) = 6 x − 12 = 0
f ′′ ( −1) = 6 ( −1) − 12 = −18
1.5 INCREMENTAL SEARCH METHOD
The incremental search method is a simple and quick way to find the
approximate location of real roots to algebraic and transcendental
equations. A search is performed over a given range of values for x usually

denoted as minimum and maximum values, xmin and xmax. An increment on
x of Δx is used to determine the successive values of f(x). Each consecutive
pair of functions of x are compared and when their signs are different a
root of x has been bounded by the two values of x. Written in algorithmic
form, a sign change occurs between xi and xi+1 if f(xi)f(xi+1) ≤ 0. The sign
change generally indicates a root has been passed but could also indicate
a discontinuity in the function. This process is illustrated graphically in
Figure 1.1.
Example 1.7 Incremental search method
Determine the first approximate root of the following function starting at

xmin = 0 and using an increment Δx = 0.25:
x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0
Table 1.10. Example 1.7 Incremental search method

x 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1 1.25
f(x) -13.8240 -9.2934 -5.7190 -3.0071 -1.0640 0.2041
f(x)
f(x)
f(xi)
x xi xi+1 (x)
f(xi+1)
∆x ∆x
Figure 1.1. Incremental search method.

Since the sign of f(x) changed between x = 1 and x = 1.25, it is assumed
that a root was passed between those values. The actual root occurs at
x = 1.2. In this example, five digits of precision were used, but in most
cases it is a good rule to carry one more digit in the calculations than in the
desired accuracy of the answer.
Once the roots have been bounded by the incremental search method,
other methods can be utilized in finding more accurate roots: The follow-
ing sections will cover the refined incremental search, bisection, false
position, secant, Newton–Raphson, and Newton’s second order meth-
ods to determine more accurate roots of algebraic and transcendental
equations.
1.6 REFINED INCREMENTAL SEARCH METHOD
Closer approximations of the root may be obtained by the refined incre-

mental search method. This method is a variation of the incremental
search method. Once a root has been bounded by a search, the last value
of x preceding the sign change is used to perform another search using
a smaller increment such as Δx/10 as shown in Figure 1.2 until the sign
changes again.
This process can be repeated with smaller increments of x until the
desired accuracy of the root is obtained. Usually the accuracy on the
f(x)
∆x/10
f(x)
f(xi) f(xi+1)
x xi xi+1 (x)
∆x ∆x
Figure 1.2. Refined incremental search method.

function of x is represented by epsilon, e, where |f(x)| < e. Care must

be taken in the selection of the starting point and the increment so that
a root is not missed. This could happen if two roots occur within an
increment and the sign of the function does not change at the successive
values of x.
Example 1.8 Refined incremental search method
Refine the search of the function from Example 1.7 between 1.0 and 1.25
using an increment of Δx = 0.25/10 or 1/10th the original increment.
x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0
Table 1.11. Example 1.8 Refined incremental search method

x 1 1.025 1.05 1.075
f(x) -1.0640 -0.9084 -0.7594 -0.6170
x 1.1 1.125 1.15 1.175 1.2

f(x) -0.4810 -0.3514 -0.2281 -0.1110 0.0000
Since the sign of f(x) changed between x = 1.175 and x = 1.2, it is assumed
that a root was passed between those values. The actual root occurs at
x = 1.2.
1.7 BISECTION METHOD
After a sign change has occurred in a search method, another way to rap-
idly converge (become closer and closer to the same number) on a root is
the bisection method, also known as the half-interval method or the Bol-
zano method developed in 1817 by Bernard Bolzano. This method takes
the bounded increment between two points xi and xi+1 where f(xi)f(xi+1) ≤ 0
and divides it in two equal halves or “bisects” the increment. The two sub-
intervals have the first interval from xi to xi+ ½ and the second interval from
xi+ ½ to xi+1 as seen in Figure 1.3.
Next, the subinterval containing the root can be found by the follow-
ing algorithm:
f(xi)f(xi+ ½) < 0, first interval contains the root

f(xi)f(xi+ ½) > 0, second interval contains the root
f(xi)f(xi+ ½) = 0, xi+ ½ is the root
f(x)
f(x)
f(xi)
f(xi+1/2)
xi xi+1/2 xi+1 (x)
x
f(xi+1)
∆x ∆x
Figure 1.3. Bisection method.
The process is continued by bisecting the subinterval containing the root

and repeating the procedure until the desired accuracy is achieved. After
n bisections, the size of the original interval has been reduced by a factor
of 2n.
Example 1.9 Bisection method
using the bisection method to increase the accuracy. Use e = 0.01 that is
|f (x)| < e:
x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0
Begin by solving the equation for 1 and 1.25, which was done in
Example 1.7. The sign changes, so a root lies between the two. We also
know from the refined incremental search method the root should fall
between 1.175 and 1.2. Next, bisect the increment between 1 and 1.25,
which is a value of 1.125. Evaluate the function at that point and com-
pare the two subintervals for the sign changes. Also, check to see if
the desired accuracy on f (x) is achieved. This occurs between 1.125
and 1.25, so that interval is subdivided again at 1.1875. Continue the
bisections until the desired accuracy is achieved. Note in Table 1.12
this occurs at x = 1.1992 where f(x) = –0.0034. This is the last bisection
between 1.1953 and 1.2031.
Table 1.12. Example 1.9 Bisection method

1 2 3 4
x 1 1.25 1.125 1.1875
interval 1&2 2&3
f(x) -1.0640 0.2041 -0.3514 -0.0548
5 6 7
x 1.2188 1.2031 1.1953 1.1992
interval 2&4 4&5 4&6 6&7
f(x) 0.0793 0.0135 -0.0204 -0.0034
1.8 METHOD OF FALSE POSITION OR LINEAR

INTERPOLATION
Although the bisection method can be used to reach convergence, other

methods such as false position provide the same accuracy more rapidly.
The process is similar to the bisection method in that between xi and xi+1
where f(xi)f(xi+1) ≤ 0 a root exists. Refer to xi and xi+1 as x1 and x2, respec-
tively. A straight line connecting x1 and x2 intersects the x-axis at a new
value, say x3, which is closer to the root than either x1 or x2. Thus, by sim-
ilar triangles, the value of x3 can be found.
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) 0 − f ( x1 ) x2 − x1
= ∴ x3 = x1 − f ( x1 )
x2 − x1 x3 − x1 f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
This equation can also be rewritten as follows:
x1 f ( x2 ) − x2 f ( x1 )
x3 = (1.1)
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 )
The relationship between x1, x2, and x3 can be seen in Figure 1.4.
f(x1)f(x3) < 0, first interval contains the root

f(x1)f(x3) > 0, second interval contains the root
f(x1)f(x3) = 0, x3 is the root
f(x)
f(x1)
x2
x1 x3 (x)
f(x2)
Figure 1.4. Method of false position or linear interpolation.
If the first interval contains the root, the values for the next cycle for x1 and
x2 and the corresponding functions f(x1) and f(x2) are as follows:
x1 and f(x1) remain unchanged

x2= x3
f(x2)= f(x3)
If the second interval contains the root, then the values are used for x1 and
x2 and the corresponding functions f(x1) and f(x2) are as follows:
x2 and f(x2) remain unchanged

x1 = x3
f(x1) = f(x3)
The process is continued until the desired accuracy is obtained.
Example 1.10 Method of false position
using the false position method to increase the accuracy of the approxi-
mate root. For the accuracy test use ε = 0.01 that is |f(x)| < ε:
x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0

Using Equation 1.1 to solve for a closer point between x1 = 1 and x2 = 1.25.
x1 f ( x2 ) − x2 f ( x1 ) 1( 0.2041) − 1.25 ( −1.064)

x3 = = = 1.2098
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) 0.2041 − ( −1.064)
Repeat this process until the desired accuracy of the root is achieved as
shown in Table 1.13.
Table 1.13. Example 1.10 Method of false position

1 2 3 4
x 1 1.25 1.2098 1.2018
interval 1&2 1&3
f(x) -1.064 0.2041 0.0417 0.0080
1.9 SECANT METHOD
The secant method is similar to the false position method except that the
two most recent values of x (x2 and x3) and their corresponding function
values [f(x2) and f(x3)] are used to obtain a new approximation to the root
instead of checking values that bound the root. This eliminates the need to
check which subinterval contains the root. The variable renaming process
for iteration is as follows:
x1 = x2 and x2 = x3
f(x1) = f(x2) and f(x2) = f(x3)
In some instances interpolation occurs, this is when the new value is

between the previous two values. In others, extrapolation occurs, meaning
the new value is not between the previous two values. Interpolation was
shown in Figure 1.4 and extrapolation is shown in Figure 1.5.
Example 1.11 Secant method
using the secant method to increase the accuracy of the approximate root.
For the accuracy test use e = 0.01.
x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0

f(x)
f(x3)
x3
x1 x2
(x)
f(x1)
f(x2)
Figure 1.5. Secant method.
The process of finding the new value is the same as linear interpolation
using Equation 1.1 to solve for a closer point between x1 = 1 and x2 = 1.25.
x1 f ( x2 ) − x2 f ( x1 ) 1( 0.2041) − 1.25 ( −1.064)

x3 = = = 1.2098
f ( x2 ) − f ( x1 ) 0.2041 − ( −1.064)
The reassignment of the values simply uses the last two values and their
corresponding functions as shown in Table 1.14.
Table 1.14. Example 1.11 Secant method

1 2 3 4
x 1 1.25 1.2098 1.1994
1&2 2&3
f(x) -1.0640 0.2041 0.0417 -0.0025
This happens to be similar to the false position Example 1.10 as only inter-
polations occur, but with different sub-intervals.
1.10 NEWTON–RAPHSON METHOD OR
NEWTON’S TANGENT
The Newton–Raphson method uses more information about the function

to speed up convergence. It was originally developed by Issac Newton in
f(x)
f(x)
f(xn)
xn+1
(x)
xn
f′(xn)
Figure 1.6. Newton–Raphson method or Newton’s tangent.
1669 (Newton 1669). Once an approximate root xn has been found, not
only is the function, f(xn), used, but the slope of the function at that point,
f ′(xn), is also incorporated to converge to the root more rapidly. The slope
of the function is found from the first derivative of the function evaluated
at a point. This only requires the use of one value to be known. The slope
intersects the x-axis at a value xn+1 as shown in Figure 1.6 and the relation-
ship is given in Equation 1.2.
f ( xn ) f ( xn )
f ′ ( xn ) = ∴ xn+1 = xn − (1.2)
xn − xn+1 f ′ ( xn )
Repeat the process using a new value until convergence occurs. Conver-
gence may not occur in the following two cases:
• f ′′(xn), (curvature) changes sign near a root, shown in Figure 1.7.

• Initial approximation is not sufficiently close to the true root and
the slope at that point has a small value, shown in Figure 1.8.
Example 1.12 Newton–Raphson method
Refine the search from Example 1.7 with a starting value of 1.25 using
the Newton–Raphson method to increase the accuracy of the approximate
root. For the accuracy test use e = 0.01.
x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0

f(x)
xn
xn+3 xn+1 xn+2 (x)
f(x)
xn+4 xn+1 xn+3

(x)
xn xn+2
The derivative of the function must be obtained to find the slope at any
given value.
f ( x ) = x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824

f ′ ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 16.8 x + 20.16
Beginning with xn = 1.25, use Equation 1.2 to determine the next value.
f (1.25) = 1.253 − 8.4 (1.25) + 20.16 (1.25) − 13.824 = 0.2041

2
f ′ (1.25) = 3(1.25) 2 − 16.8 (1.25) + 20.16 = 3.8475

f ( xn ) 0.2041
xn +1 = xn − = 1.25 − = 1.1969
f ′ ( xn ) 3.8475
Repeat the process until the desired accuracy is obtained in Table 1.15.
Table 1.15. Example 1.12 Newton–Raphson method
x 1.25 1.1969 1.19999
f(x) 0.2041 -0.0132 -0.00004
f ′(x) 3.8475 4.3493 4.32010
1.11 NEWTON’S SECOND ORDER METHOD
Newton’s second order method is often a preferred method to determine

the value of a root due to its rapid convergence and extremely close
approximation. This method also includes the second derivative of the
function or the curvature to find the approximate root. The equation
f(x) = 0 is considered as the target for the root. Figure 1.9 shows the plot
of the actual function.
The Taylor series expansion was discovered by James Gregory and
introduced by Brook Taylor in 1715 (Taylor 1715). The following is a
Taylor series expansion of f (x) about x = xn:
f ′′ ( xn ) ( ∆ x ) f ′′′ ( xn ) ( ∆ x )
2 3
f ( xn +1 ) = f ( xn ) + f ′ ( xn ) ( ∆ x ) + + +…
2! 3!
For a means of determining a value of Δx that will make the Taylor series
expansion go to zero, the first three terms of the right hand side of the
equation are set equal to zero to obtain an approximate value.
f(x)
∆x
f(x)
xn+1
(x)
xn
Figure 1.9. Newton’s second order method.

 f ′′ ( xn ) ( ∆ x ) 
f ( xn ) + ( ∆ x )  f ′ ( xn ) + =0
 2 
The exact value of Δx cannot be determined from this equation since only
the first three terms of the infinite series were used in the calculation.
However, a close approximation of the root is a result. When using this
equation to calculate Δx, a quadratic must be solved yielding two possible
roots. In order to avoid this problem, Δx = -f (xn)/f ′ (xn) from Newton’s
tangent may be substituted into the bracketed term only.
 f ′′ ( xn ) f ( xn ) 
f ( xn ) + ( ∆ x )  f ′ ( xn ) − =0
 2 f ′ ( xn ) 
Solving for Δx we obtain the following:
 
 
f ( xn ) 
∆x = −
 f ′′ ( xn ) f ( xn ) 
 f ′ ( xn ) − 
 2 f ′ ( xn ) 
Observing Figure 1.9 we see that Δx = xn+1 - xn. Substituting into the pre-
vious equation, Equation 1.3 is obtained as follows:
 
 
f ( xn )
xn+1 = xn −   (1.3)
 f ′′ ( xn ) f ( xn ) 
 f ′ ( xn ) − 
 2 f ′ ( xn ) 
If the first derivative is small, the slope is close to zero near the value
and the next approximation may be inaccurate. Therefore, use the second
derivative term as follows:
f ′ ( xn ) = 0
 f ′′ ( xn ) ( ∆ x ) 
f ( xn ) + ( ∆ x )  =0
 2 
 f ′′ ( xn ) ( ∆ x )2 
− f ( xn ) = ( ∆ x )  
 2 
f ( xn )
∆ x2 + =0
f ′′ ( xn )
2
Solving by the quadratic equation, two roots are obtained:
f ( xn ) f ( xn )
− ( 0) ± 02 − 4 (1) 2 −
f ′′ ( xn ) f ′′ ( xn )
−b ± b 2 − 4ac 2 2
∆x = = =±
2a 2 (1) 2
f ( xn )
∆x = ± −
f ′′ ( xn )
2
With Δx = xn+1 - xn, Equation 1.4 is as follows:
f ( xn )
xn +1 = xn ± − (1.4)
f ′′ ( xn )
2
This process is a good tool for finding two roots that are near each other.
This will happen when the slope is close to zero near a root. Double roots
occur when the first derivative is zero, triple roots occur when the first
and second derivatives are zero, and so on. These are shown graphically
in Figure 1.10.
Example 1.13 Newton’s second order method
Refine the search from Example 1.7 with a starting value of 1.25 using the
Newton’s second order method to increase the accuracy of the approxi-
mate root. For the accuracy test use e = 0.01.
f(x) f(x) f(x)
(x) (x) (x)
Single root Double root Triple root
Figure 1.10. Newton’s second order method.

x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824 = 0
The first and second derivatives of the function must be obtained to find
the slope and curvature at any given value.
f ( x ) = x 3 − 8.4 x 2 + 20.16 x − 13.824

f ′ ( x ) = 3 x 2 − 16.8 x + 20.16
f ′′ ( x ) = 6 x − 16.8
Beginning with xn=1.25, use Equation 1.3 to determine the next value.
f (1.25) = 1.253 − 8.4 (1.25) + 20.16 (1.25) − 13.824 = 0.2041

2
f ′ (1.25) = 3(1.25) 2 − 16.8 (1.25) + 20.16 = 3.8475

f ′′ (1.25) = 6 (1.25) − 16.8 = −9.30
   
   
xn +1 = xn − 
f ( n)
x  = 1.25 −  0.2401 
 f ′′ ( xn ) f ( xn )   ( −9.3) 0.2041 
 f ′ ( xn ) −   3.8475 − 
 2 f ′ ( xn )   2 (3.8475) 
= 1.2001
Repeat the process until the desired accuracy is obtained in Table 1.16.
Table 1.16. Example 1.13 Newton’s second order method

x 1.25 1.200143 1.2
f(x) 0.2041 0.00062 0.000000
f ′(x) 3.8475 4.31863 4.320000
f ″(x) -9.3000 -9.59914 -9.600000
1.12 GRAEFFE’S ROOT SQUARING METHOD
Graeffe’s root squaring method is a root-finding method that was among

the most popular methods for finding roots of polynomials in the 19th
and 20th centuries. This method was developed independently by
Germinal Pierre Dandelin in 1826 and Karl Heinrich Gräffe in 1837.

The Graeffe’s root squaring method is especially effective if all roots
are real. The derivation of this method proceeds by multiplying a poly-
nomial f (x) by f (–x) using the following polynomial equations in fac-
tored form:
f ( x ) = ( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 ) ( x − a3 )…( x − an )
f ( − x ) = ( −1) ( x − a1 ) ( x − a2 ) ( x − a3 )…( x − an )
( )( )(
f ( x ) f ( − x ) = ( −1) x 2 − a12 x 2 − a22 x 2 − a32 … x 2 − an2
n
) ( )
For example, use a third degree polynomial with roots x1, x2, and x3 as
follows:
f ( x ) = 0 = x 3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3
A polynomial with roots −x1, −x2, and −x3 follows:
f ( − x ) = 0 = − x 3 + a1 x 2 − a2 x + a3
Multiplying the two equations together yields the following:
( )
f ( x ) f ( − x ) = 0 = − x 6 + a12 − 2a2 x 4 + − a22 + 2a1a3 x + a32 ( )
Letting y = −x2 this equation may be written as follows:
( ) (
0 = y 3 + a12 − 2a2 y 2 + a22 − 2a1a3 y + a32 )
This equation has roots of −x12, −x22, and −x32. If the procedure was
applied again, another polynomial would be derived with roots of −x14,
−x24, and −x34. If computed a third time, they would be of −x18, −x28, and
−x38. The pattern of the roots becomes clear with continuing cycles. The
general process of an nth degree polynomial would be in the following
forms:
( ) (
0 = y n + a12 − 2a2 y n −1 + a22 − 2a1a3 + 2a4 y n − 2 )
(
+ a32 − 2a2 a4 + 2a1a5 − 2a6 y n − 3 + + an2 )
Table 1.17. Graeffe’s root squaring method
m a0xn a1xn-1 a2xn-2 a3xn-3 ……. an-1x anx0 cycle
1 a0 a1 a2 a3 ……. an-1 an 1
2 2 2 2 2 2
a0
a1 a2 a3
……. an-1 an
-2a0a2 -2a1a3 -2a2a4 ……. ……. …….

+2a0a4 +2a1a5 ……. ……. …….
-2a0a6 ……. ……. …….
2 b0 b1 b2 b3 ……. bn-1 bn 2
b02 b12 b22 b32 ……. bn-12 bn2

-2b0b2 -2b1b3 -2b2b4 ……. ……. …….
+2b0b4 +2b1b5 ……. ……. …….
-2b0b6 ……. ……. …….
4 c0 c1 c2 c3 ……. cn-1 cn 3
r (c1/c0)1/m (c2/c1)1/m (c3/c2)1/m ……. (cn-1/cn-2)1/m (cn/cn-1)1/m
This can be written with the coefficients in a vertical format as follows:
 a32 
 a22   
 a  n −1 
2
 n − 2 −2a2 a4  n − 3
0 = yn +  1
 y +  −2 a a
1 3 y +  y
−2a2   +2a   +2a1a5 
 4 
 −2a6 
 a42 
 
 −2a3 a5 
+ +2a2 a6  y n − 4 + + an2
 −2a a 
 1 7
 + 2 a8 

A tabular solution may be set up considering the following general

polynomial:
f ( x) = a0 x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + a3 x n − 3 + + an −1 x1 + an = 0
Carefully inspect the coefficient of the polynomial for a pattern. The solu-
tion of the original polynomial can take three different forms. These are
shown in Figure 1.11.
• Real and distinct roots

• Real and equal roots
• Complex roots
f(x) f(x) f(x)
(x) (x) (x)
One real and One real and

Three real roots
one double root one imaginary root
Figure 1.11. Graeffe’s root squaring method.

1.12.1 REAL AND DISTINCT ROOTS
The first possible solution type will occur after many cycles of squaring
the polynomial; the coefficients of the derived polynomial are the squares
of the terms from the preceding cycle. This is known as the regular solu-
tion and yields real and distinct roots (not equal). The roots of the polyno-
mial or the derived polynomials can be determined from the factored form
of the polynomials. The Enke roots of a polynomial are the negatives of
the roots of the polynomial. If r is denoted as the Enke root designation,
then x1 = -r1, x2 = -r2 … xn = -rn. The third degree polynomial is shown
in factored form:
f ( x ) = 0 = x 3 + a1 x 2 + a2 x + a3
f ( x ) = 0 = ( x − x1 ) ( x − x2 ) ( x − x3 )
If the previous equation is multiplied out, the following is the result:
f ( x ) = 0 = x 3 − ( x1 + x2 + x3 ) x 2 + ( x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3 ) x − x1 x2 x3
Therefore, for the polynomial, the original coefficients are as follows:
a1 = − ( x1 + x2 + x3 )
a2 = x1 x2 + x1 x3 + x2 x3
a3 = − x1 x2 x3
The Enke roots of x1 = −r1, x2 = −r2, and x3 = −r3 are substituted in. The
sign has been lost so the Enke roots are used as the basis (x1 = −r1, x2 = −r2,
etc.), then the following is true:
a1 = r1 + r2 + r3
a2 = r1r2 + r1r3 + r2 r3
a3 = r1r2 r3
As the cycles (m) continue, the derived polynomial becomes the following:
f ( x ) = 0 = y 3 + b1 y 2 + b2 y + b3
The Enke root relationship is then as follows:
b1 = r1m + r2m + r3m

b2 = r1m r2m + r1m r3m + r2m r3m
b3 = r1m r2m r3m
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression, the following

occurs:
b1 ≅ r1m
b2 ≅ r1m r2m
b3 ≅ r1m r2m r3m
These become the following:

1
b1 ≅ r1m ∴ r1 ≅ b1 m
1
m m b b
m b  m
b2 ≅ r r ∴ r ≅ m2 ≅ 2 ∴ r2 =  2 
1 2 2
r1 b1  b1 
1
m m m b b
m b  m
b3 ≅ r r r ∴ r ≅ m 3 m ≅ 3 ∴ r3 =  3 
1 2 3 3
r1 r2 b2  b2 
The general expression for this regular solution is the following:
1
m b  b  m
r ≅ n ∴ rn =  n 
n
bn −1  bn −1 
The Enke roots only lack the proper sign and either positive or negative
may be correct, so a check is necessary.
Example 1.14
Graeffe’s root squaring method—real and distinct
roots.
Find the root of the following polynomial using Graeffe’s root squaring
method.
f ( x) = 0 = x 4 − 10 x 3 + 35 x 2 − 50 x + 24

distinct roots
m x4 a1x3 a2x2 a3x a4x0 cycle
1 1 -10 35 -50 24 1
1 100 1225 2500 576
-70 -1000 -1680
48
2 1 30 273 820 576 2
1 900 74529 672400 331776
-546 -49200 -314496
1152
4 1 354 26481 357904 331776 3
1 1.253E+05 7.012E+08 1.281E+11 1.101E+11
-5.296E+04 -2.534E+08 -1.757E+10
6.636E+05
8 1 7.235E+04 4.485E+08 1.105E+11 1.101E+11 4
1 5.235E+09 2.012E+17 1.222E+22 1.212E+22
-8.970E+08 -1.599E+16 -9.874E+19
2.202E+11
16 1 4.338E+09 1.852E+17 1.212E+22 1.212E+22 5
1 1.882E+19 3.429E+34 1.468E+44 1.468E+44
-3.703E+17 -1.051E+32 -4.487E+39
2.423E+22
32 1 1.845E+19 3.418E+34 1.468E+44 1.468E+44 6
1 3.404E+38 1.168E+69 2.155E+88 2.155E+88
-6.836E+34 -5.417E+63 -1.004E+79
2.936E+44
64 1 3.403E+38 1.168E+69 2.155E+88 2.155E+88 7
1 1.158E+77 1.365E+138 4.646E+176 4.646E+176
-2.337E+69 -1.467E+127 -5.037E+157
4.311E+88
128 1 1.158E+77 1.365E+138 4.646E+176 4.646E+176 8
r 4 3 2 1
Refer to Table 1.17 for the basic procedure for the root squaring. Table 1.18
shows the process for this polynomial.
To determine the proper sign of the roots from the Enke roots, a check
is required.
1 1
r1 ≅ b1 m = 1.158 (10) 
77 128
= ±4.000
1 1
b  m 1.365 (10)138  128
r2 =  2  = 77 
= ±3.000
b  1  1.158 (10) 
1 1
b  m  4.646 (10)176  128
r3 =  3  = 138 
= ±2.000
b  2  1.365 (10) 
1 1
b  m  4.646 (10)176  128
r4 =  4  = 176 
= ±1.000
b  3  4.646 (10) 
Substituting the Enke roots into the original equations yields x1 = 4.000,
x2 = 3.000, x3 = 2.000, and x4 = 1.000.
1.12.2 REAL AND EQUAL ROOTS
After many cycles of squaring the polynomial, the second possible solu-
tion type will occur when the coefficients of the derived polynomial are
the squares of the terms in the preceding cycle with the exception of one
term that is ½ the square of the term in the preceding cycle. This indicates
that two of the roots are equal, the one with the ½ squared term and the
next one to the right. Furthermore, if one term is 1/3 the square of the term
in the proceeding cycle, three of the roots are equal—the term with the
1
/3 squared term and the next two to the right. A similar relationship will
occur if four or more roots are equal. The roots (Enke roots) will have a
relationship similar to the following assuming r1 = r2 and considering only
the dominant terms in each expression:
b1 = r1m + r2m + r3m = r1m + r1m ∴ b1 ≅ 2r1m

b2 = r1m r2m + r1m r3m + r2m r3m = r1m r1m ∴ b2 ≅ r12 m
b3 = r1m r2m r3m = r1m r1m r3m ∴ b3 ≅ r12 m r3m

1
m b  m
b1 ≅ 2r ∴ r1 ≅  1 
1
 2
1
b2 ≅ r12 m ∴ r1 = (b2 ) 2m
= r2
1
2m m b 
m
m
b3 ≅ r r = b r ∴ r3 =  3 
1 3 2 3
b  2
After the multiple roots have been passed, the rest of the terms have the
regular solution relationship and will appear as follows:
1
m b  b  m
r ≅ n ∴ rn =  n 
n
bn −1  bn −1 
If the second term was ½ the square of the term in the previous cycle, then
the solution would appear as follows, assuming r2 = r3 and considering
only the dominant terms in each expression:
b1 = r1m + r2m + r3m = r1m ∴ b1 ≅ r1m

b2 = r1m r2m + r1m r3m + r2m r3m = r1m r2m + r1m r2m ∴ b2 ≅ 2r1m r2m
b3 = r1m r2m r3m = r1m r2m r2m ∴ b3 ≅ r1m r22 m

1
b1 ≅ r1m ∴ r1 ≅ (b1 ) m
1
m m b 
m
m
b2 ≅ 2r r = 2b r ∴ r2 =  2 
1 2 1 2 = r3
 2b1 
1
m 2m 2m b  2m
b3 ≅ r r
1 2 =br 1 2 ∴ r2 =  3  = r3
b  1
Similar to the previous case where r1 = r2, after the multiple roots have
been passed, the rest of the terms have the regular solution relationship
and will appear as follows:
1
m b  b  m
r ≅ n ∴ rn =  n 
n
bn −1  bn −1 
Note the pattern of the powers and the relationship for any other variations
of two roots may be found. Derive one more case for a triple root. If the
first term was 1/3 the square of the term in the previous cycle, it would indi-
cate a triple root or r1 = r2 = r3. If we consider only the dominant terms in
each expression, the following relationships occur:
b1 = r1m + r2m + r3m + r4m = r1m + r1m + r1m ∴ b1 ≅ 3r1m

b2 = r1m r2m + r1m r3m + r1m r4m + r2m r3m + r2m r4m + r3m r4m = r1m r1m
+ r1m r1m + r1m r1m ∴ b2 ≅ 3r12 m
b3 = r1m r2m r3m + r1m r2m r4m + r1m r3m r4m + r2m r3m r4m = r1m r1m r1m ∴ b3 ≅ r13m

1
b  m
b1 ≅ 3r1m ∴ r1 ≅  1 
 3
1
b  2m
b2 ≅ 3r12 m ∴ r1 =  2  = r2 = r3
 2
1
b3 ≅ r13m = b2 r3m ∴ r1 = (b3 ) 3m
= r2 = r3
After the multiple roots have been passed, the rest of the terms have the
regular solution relationship and will appear as follows:
1
m b  b  m
r ≅ n ∴ rn =  n 
n
bn −1  bn −1 
Just like with the regular solution for real and distinct roots, the Enke roots
only lack the proper sign and either + or – must be checked.
Example 1.15
Graeffe’s root squaring method—real and equal
roots
method.
f ( x) = 0 = x3 + 3x 2 − 4
Refer to Table 1.17 for the basic procedure for the root squaring. Table 1.19

equal roots
m x3 a1x2 a2x1 a3x0 cycle
1 1 3 0 -4 1
1 9 0 16
0 24
2 1 9 24 16 2
1 81 576 256
-48 -288
4 1 33 288 256 3
1 1089 82944 65536
-576 -16896
8 1 513 66048 65536 4
1 2.632E+05 4.362E+09 4.295E+09
-1.321E+05 -6.724E+07
16 1 1.311E+05 4.295E+09 4.295E+09 5
1 1.718E+10 1.845E+19 1.845E+19
-8.590E+09 -1.126E+15
32 1 8.590E+09 1.845E+19 1.845E+19 6
1 7.379E+19 3.403E+38 3.403E+38
-3.689E+19 -3.169E+29
64 1 3.689E+19 3.403E+38 3.403E+38 7
1 1.361E+39 1.158E+77 1.158E+77
-6.806E+38 -2.511E+58
128 1 6.806E+38 1.158E+77 1.158E+77 8
1 4.632E+77 1.341E+154 1.341E+154
-2.316E+77 -1.576E+116
256 1 2.316E+77 1.341E+154 1.341E+154 9
r 2 2 1
Notice that the first term in the table for cycle 9 is ½ the square of the term
in the previous cycles and the following solution applies:
1 1
b  m  2.316(10)77  256
r1 ≅  1  =  = ±2.000
 2  2 
1 1
r2 ≅ (b2 ) 2m
= 1.341(10)154  2 ( 256)
= ±2.000 = r1
1 1
b  m
1.341(10)154  256
r3 ≅  3  = 154 
= ±1.000
 b2  1.341(10) 
Substituting the Enke roots into the original equations yields x1=−2.000,
x2=−2.000, and x3 = 1.000.
1.12.3 REAL AND COMPLEX ROOTS
The third possible solution type will occur after many cycles of squaring
the polynomial; the coefficients of the derived polynomial are the squares
of the terms in the preceding cycle, except if one or more terms have a
sign fluctuation, then two of the roots are complex—the one with the sign
fluctuation term and the next one to the right constitutes the complex con-
jugate pair of roots. The roots (Enke roots) will have a relationship similar
to the following assuming r3 and r4 are the complex conjugate pair of roots
and considering only the dominant terms in each expression:
x3 = Reiq = ( cosq + isinq ) = u + iv

x4 = Re − iq = ( cosq − isinq ) = u − iv
The values i and R for the complex form in polar or Cartesian simple
form are:
i = −1 and R = u 2 + v 2
The form of the coefficients will become the following:
( )
b1 = r1m + r2m + R m eiq m + e − iq m
= r r + ( r Re q ) + ( r Re q ) + ( r Re q ) + ( r Re q )
m m i m −i m i m −i m
b2 1 2 1 1 2 2 + R2m
= ( r r Re q ) + ( r r Re q ) + ( r R ) + ( r R )
i m −i m 2 m 2 m
b3 1 2 1 2 1 2
b4 = (r r R )
1 2
2 m
These become the following using polar transformations:
b1 = r1m + r2m + 2 R m ( cos mq )

(
b2 = r1m r2m + 2 R m r1m + r2m + cos mq + R 2 m )
b3 = 2 ( r1r2 R ) cos mq + R
m 2m
(r
1
m
+ r2m )
(
b4 = r1r2 R )
2 m
If we consider only the dominant terms in each expression, the following

occurs:
1
b1 = r1m ∴ r1 = (b1 ) m
1
m m b 
m
m
b2 = r r = b r ∴ r2 =  2 
1 2 1 2
b  1
b3 = 2 ( r1r2 R ) cos mq
m
( )
m
b4 = r1r2 R 2
Dividing the second and fourth equations:

1
b4 b  2m
= R2m ∴ R ≅  4 
b2  b2 
Using the fact that R2 = u2 + v2 the following is used to find u and v:
a1 = − ( x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 )
a1 = − ( x1 + x2 + (u + vi ) + (u − vi ))
a1 = − ( x1 + x2 + 2u )
Use b1 and b2 to find r1 and r2, then x1 and x2. Use b4 and b2 to find R then
use a1 to find u and R to find v. The Enke roots, once again, only lack the
proper sign and either + or – may be correct.
Example 1.16 Graeffe’s root squaring method—real and

complex roots
method.
f ( x) = 0 = x 4 + x 3 − 6 x 2 − 14 x − 12
Refer to Table 1.17 for the basic procedure for root squaring. Table 1.20
The third term has a sign fluctuation thus the previously derived rela-
tionships apply and the following is the solution:

complex roots
m x4 a1x3 a2x2 a3x a3x0 cycle
1 1 1 -6 -14 -12 1
1 1 36 196 144
12 28 -144
-24
2 1 13 40 52 144 2
1 169 1600 2704 20736
-80 -1352 -11520
288
4 1 89 536 -8816 20736 3
1 7921 287296 77721856 429981696
-1072 1569248 -22228992
41472
8 1 6.849E+03 1.898E+06 5.549E+07 4.300E+08 4
1 4.691E+07 3.602E+12 3.079E+15 1.849E+17
-3.796E+06 -7.601E+11 -1.632E+15
8.600E+08
16 1 4.311E+07 2.843E+12 1.447E+15 1.849E+17 5
1 1.859E+15 8.084E+24 2.094E+30 3.418E+34
-5.686E+12 -1.248E+23 -1.051E+30
3.698E+17
32 1 1.853E+15 7.959E+24 1.043E+30 3.418E+34 6
1 3.434E+30 6.334E+49 1.088E+60 1.168E+69
-1.592E+25 -3.866E+45 -5.441E+59
6.836E+34
64 1 3.434E+30 6.334E+49 5.441E+59 1.168E+69 7
1 1.179E+61 4.012E+99 2.960E+119 1.365E+138
-1.267E+50 -3.736E+90 -1.480E+119
2.337E+69
128 1 1.179E+61 4.012E+99 1.480E+119 1.365E+138 8
r 3 2 1.421892602 1.40657599
( )
1 1
r1 = (b1 ) = 1.179 (10)
61 128
m
= ±3.000
1 1
b  m  4.012 (10)99  128
r2 =  2  = 61 
= ±2.000
b 
1  1.179 (10) 
Substituting the Enke roots into the original equations yields x1 = 3.000
and x2 = -2.000.
1 1
b  2m  1.3652 (10)138  256
R = 4 = 99 
= ±1.414 = ± 2
b  2  4.012 (10) 
Using the fact that R2 = u2 + v2, the following is used to find u and v:
1 = a1 = − ( x1 + x2 + 2u ) = − (3 − 2 + 2u ) ∴ u = −1
R = u 2 + v2 ∴ v = R2 − u 2 = 2 − 1 = 1
Thus results are x3 = -1 + i and x4 = -1 - i.
1.13 BAIRSTOW’S METHOD
Bairstow’s method was first published by Leonard Bairstow in 1920

(Bairstow 1920). If we divided a polynomial of nth degree by a quadratic
equation, the result will be a polynomial of n−2 degree plus some remain-
der. This remainder can be used to give a closer approximation of the root
quadratic equation. When the remainder is zero, the quadratic is a root
equation. Bairstow’s method involves using the remainders from double
synthetic division to approximate the error in an assumed quadratic root
equation of a polynomial. The derivation is omitted from this text, but
may be found in “Applied Numerical Methods for Digital Computations,”
by James, Smith and Wolford (1977). Look at the process of factoring a
polynomial into a quadratic equation times a polynomial of two degrees
less than the original polynomial as follows:
x n + a1 x n −1 + a2 x n − 2 + a3 x n − 3 + + an −1 x1 + an = 0
(x 2
)(
+ ux + v x n − 2 + b1 x n − 3 + b2 x n − 4 + + bn − 3 x1 + bn − 2 + remainder = 0 )
The derived polynomial follows with the terms in the brackets being the
remainder:
(x n−2
)
+ b1 x n − 3 + b2 x n − 4 + + bn − 3 x1 + bn − 2 + [bn −1 + bn ] = 0
Divide the resulting polynomial by the quadratic equation in order to

derive an equation that has something to do with the derivative of the
original equation. This will be a polynomial four degrees less than the
original polynomial. The following is the form of the second polynomial

with the terms in the brackets being the remainder:
(x n−4
)
+ c1 x n − 5 + c2 x n − 6 + + cn − 5 x1 + cn − 4 + [ cn − 3 + cn − 2 + cn −1 ] = 0
The solution may be set up in synthetic division form shown in Table 1.21:
Table 1.21. Bairstow’s method

-u a0 a1 a2 ……. an-3 an-2 an-1 an
0 -ub0 -ub1 -ubn-4 -ubn-3 -ubn-2 -ubn-1
-v 0 0 -vb0 ……. -vbn-5 -vbn-4 -vbn-3 -vbn-2
-u b0 b1 b2 ……. bn-3 bn-2 bn-1 bn
0 -uc0 -uc1 -ucn-4 -ucn-3 -ucn-2
-v 0 0 -vc0 ……. -vcn-5 -vcn-4 -vcn-3
c0 c1 c2 ……. cn-3 cn-2 cn-1
Using the preceding values, the approximations for the change in u and v
values denoted Δu and Δv are as follows:
bn cn − 2 cn −1 bn
bn −1 cn − 3 cn − 2 bn −1
∆u = and ∆v =
cn −1 cn − 2 cn −1 cn − 2
cn − 2 cn − 3 cn − 2 cn − 3
u2 = u + ∆u and v2 = v + ∆v
Continue the process until Δu and Δv are equal to zero. The two roots are
as follows by the quadratic equation:
−u ± u 2 − 4v
(x 2
+ ux + v ) with x1, 2 =
2
Example 1.17 Bairstow’s method
Find all the roots of the following polynomial using Bairstow’s method.
f ( x) = 0 = x 5 − 3 x 4 − 10 x 3 + 10 x 2 + 44 x + 48
Begin by assuming u = 1.5 and v = 1.5 to perform the synthetic division

Table 1.22. Example 1.17 Bairstow’s method

-1.5 1 -3 -10 10 44 48
-1.5 6.75 7.125 -35.813 -22.969
-1.5 -1.5 6.75 7.125 -35.813
-1.5 1 -4.5 -4.75 23.875 15.313 -10.781
-1.5 9 -4.125 -43.125
-1.5 -1.5 9 -4.125
1 -6 2.75 28.75 -31.938
−10.781 28.750
∆u =
15.313 2.750
=
( −10.781)( 2.750) − ( 28.750)(15.313)
−31.938 28.750 ( −31.935)( 2.750) − ( 28.750) ( 28.750)
28.750 2.750
−469.88
= = 0.5139
−914.39
−31.938 −10.781
∆v =
28.750 15.313
=
( −31.9938)(15.313) − ( −10.781)( 28.750)
−31.938 28.750 ( −31.935)( 2.750) − ( 28.750) ( 28.750)
28.750 2.750
−179.08
= = 0.1958
−914.39
u2 = u + ∆u = 1.5 + 0.5139 = 2.0139
v2 = v + ∆v = 1.5 + 0.1958 = 1.6958
Now, repeat the process using the revised values for u and v shown in
Table 1.23.

-2.0139 1 -3 -10 10 44 48
-2.014 10.097 3.219 -43.745 -5.972
-1.6958 -1.696 8.503 2.711 -36.837
-2.0139 1 -5.014 -1.599 21.722 2.965 5.191
-2.014 14.153 -21.868 -23.707
-1.6958 -1.696 11.918 -18.415
1 -7.028 10.859 11.772 -39.157
5.191 11.772
∆u =
2.965 10.859
=
(5.191) (10.859) − (11.772)( 2.965)
−39.157 11.772 ( −39.157)(10.859) − (11.772)(11.772)
11.772 10.859
21.45
= = −0.0381
−563.77
−39.157 5.191
∆v =
11.772 2.965
=
( −39.157)( 2.965) − (5.191)(11.772)
−39.157 11.772 ( −39.157)(10.859) − (11.772) (11.772)
11.772 10.859
−177.22
= = 0.3145
−563.77
u2 = u + ∆u = 2.0139 + −0.0381 = 1.9758

v2 = v + ∆v = 1.6958 + 0.3145 = 2.0102
Now, repeat the process using the revised values for u and v shown in
Table 1.24.

-1.9758 1 -3 -10 10 44 48
-1.976 9.831 4.305 -48.027 -0.698
-2.0102 -2.010 10.002 4.380 -48.863
-1.9758 1 -4.976 -2.179 24.308 0.353 -1.561
-1.976 13.735 -18.861 -38.373
-2.0102 -2.010 13.974 -19.189
1 -6.952 9.546 19.421 -57.208
−1.561 19.421
∆u =
0.353 9.546
=
( −1.561) (9.546) − (19.421)(0.353)
−57.208 19.421 ( −57.208)(9.546) − (19.421)(19.421)
19.421 9.546
−21.74
= = 0.0236
−923.27
−57.208 −1.561
∆v =
19.421 0.353
=
( −57.208)(0.353) − ( −1.561)(19.421)
−57.208 19.421 ( −57.208)(9.546) − (19.421) (19.421)
19.421 9.546
10.11
= = −0.0110
−923.27
u2 = u + ∆u = 1.9758 + 0.0236 = 1.999

v2 = v + ∆v = 2.0102 − 0.0110 = 1.999
It appears the values are u = 2 and v = 2. Repeat the process using the
revised values for u and v shown in Table 1.25.

-2 1 -3 -10 10 44 48
-2 10 4 -48 0
-2 -2 10 4 -48
1 -5 -2 24 0 0
Since the remainders of the first division bn−1 and bn are both zero, u =
2 and v = 2 are the coefficients of the root quadratic. Substitute into the
quadratic equation to find the roots.
−2 ± 22 − 4 ( 2)
(x 2
)
+ 2 x + 2 with x1, 2 =
2
= −1 ± −1 = −1 ± i
The first two roots are x1 = −1 + i and x2 = −1 − i. The remaining values

are the coefficients of the factored polynomial.
( )(
f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 2 x 3 − 5 x 2 − 2 x + 24 )
The remaining polynomial may be solved using the same method. This
time begin with u = 0 and v = 0 in Table 1.26.
0 1 -5 -2 24
0 0 0
0 0 0
0 1 -5 -2 24
0 0
0 0
1 -5 -2
24 −5
∆u =
−2 1
=
( 24)(1) − ( −5) ( −2) = 14 = −0.5185
−2 −5 ( −2)(1) − ( −5) ( −5) −27
−5 1
−2 24
5 −2 ( −2) ( −2) − ( 24)(5) 124
∆v = = = = −4.5626
−2 −5 ( −2)(1) − ( −5) ( −5) −27
−5 1
u2 = u + ∆u = 0 − 0.0236 = −0.5185
v2 = v + ∆v = 0 − 4.5626 = −4.5626
Repeat the process using the revised values for u and v shown in
Table 1.27.

0.5185 1 -5 -2 24
0.519 -2.324 0.139
4.5926 4.593 -20.582
0.5185 1 -4.481 0.269 3.558
0.519 -2.055
4.5926 4.593
1 -3.963 2.807
3.558 −3.963
∆u =
0.269 1
=
(3.558)(1) − ( −3.963) (0.269)
2.807 −3.963 ( 2.807)(1) − ( −3.963) ( −3.963)
−3.963 1
4.623
= = −0.3584
−12.900
2.807 3.558
∆v =
−3.963 0.269
=
( 2.807)(0.269) − (3.558) ( −3.963)
2.807 −3.963 ( 2.807)(1) − ( −3.963) ( −3.963)
−3.963 1
14.844
= = −1.1516
−12.9007
u2 = u + ∆u = −0.5185 − 0.3584 = −0.8769

v2 = v + ∆v = −4.5926 − 1.1516 = −5.7742
Table 1.28.

0.8769 1 -5 -2 24
0.877 -3.616 0.113
5.7442 5.744 -23.684
0.8769 1 -4.123 0.129 0.429
0.877 -2.847
5.7442 5.744
1 -3.246 3.026
0.429 −3.246
∆u =
0.129 1
=
(0.429)(1) − ( −3.246) (0.129)
3.026 −3.246 (3.026)(1) − ( −3.246) ( −3.246)
−3.246 1
0.848
= = −0.1129
−7.511
3.026 0.429
∆v =
−3.246 0.129
=
(3.026)(0.129) − (0.429) ( −3.246)
3.026 −3.246 (3.026)(1) − ( −3.246) ( −3.246)
−3.246 1
1.783
= = −0.2374
−7.511
u2 = u + ∆u = −0.8769 − 0.1129 = −0.9898

v2 = v + ∆v = −5.7442 − 0.2374 = −5.9816
Table 1.29.

0.9898 1 -5 -2 24
0.990 -3.969 0.012
5.9816 5.982 -23.987
0.9898 1 -4.010 0.012 0.025
0.990 -2.990
5.9816 5.982
1 -3.020 3.004
0.025 −3.020
∆u =
0.012 1
=
(0.025)(1) − ( −3.020) (0.012)
3.004 −3.020 (3.004)(1) − ( −3.020) ( −3.020)
−3.020 1
0.061
= = −0.0100
−6.116
3.004 0.025
∆v =
−3.020 0.012
=
(3.004)(0.012) − (0.025) ( −3.020)
3.004 −3.020 (3.004)(1) − ( −3.020) ( −3.020)
−3.020 1
0.111
= = −0.0181
−6.116
u2 = u + ∆u = −0.9898 − 0.0100 = −0.9998
v2 = v + ∆v = −5.9816 − 0.0181 = −5.9997
It appears the values are u = −1 and v = −6. Repeat the process using the
revised values for u and v as shown in Table 1.30.

1 1 -5 -2 24
1 -4 0
6 6 -24
1 -4 0 0
Since the remainders of the first division bn-1 and bn are both zero, u = −1
and v = −6 are the coefficients of the root quadratic. Substitute them into
the quadratic equation to find the roots.
1± ( −1)2 − 4 ( −6)
(x 2
)
− 1x − 6 with x1, 2 =
2
= 0.5 ± 2.5 = −2, 3
The first two roots are x3 = −2 and x4 = 3. The remaining values are the
coefficients of the factored polynomial.
( )( )
f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 2 x 2 − 1x − 6 ( x − 4)
The last root is x5 = 4, which is the value in the remaining polynomial of

degree one x − r = x − 4. The final factored form of the original quadratic
can be written and the five roots are x1 = −1+i, x2 = −1−i, x3 = −2, x4 = 3,
and x5 = 4.
( )
f ( x) = x 2 + 2 x + 2 ( x + 2) ( x − 3) ( x − 4)
REFERENCES
Bairstow, L. 1920. Applied Aerodynamics. London, England: Longmans, Green

and Co.
Descartes, R. 1637. Discours de la méthode pour bien conduire sa raison, et
chercher la vérité dans les sciences. Lieden, Netherlands.
James, M.L., G.M. Smith, and J.C. Wolford. 1977. Applied Numerical Methods
for Digital Computations. 2nd ed. Boston, Massachusetts: Addison-Wesley
Longman Publishing Co., Inc.
Newton, I. 1669. De analysi per aequationes numero terminorum infinitas,
London, England.
Taylor, B. 1715. Methodus Incrementorum Directa et Inversa. London, England.
CHAPTER 2
Solutions of Simultaneous
Linear Algebraic Equations
Using Matrix Algebra
Matrix algebra is commonly utilized in structural analysis as a method of

solving simultaneous equations. Each motion, translation or rotation, at
each discrete location in a structure is normally the desired variable. This
chapter explores matrix terminology, matrix algebra, and various methods
of linear algebra to determine solutions to simultaneous equations.
2.1 SIMULTANEOUS EQUATIONS
The solutions of simultaneous equations in structural analysis normally

involve hundreds and even thousands of unknown variables. These solu-
tions are generally linear algebraic equations. A typical linear algebraic
equation with n unknowns is as follows, where a is the coefficient, x is the
unknown, and C is the constant. In some cases, x, y, and z are used in lieu
of x1, x2, etc.
a1 x1 + a2 x2 + a3 x3 + … + an xn = C
Equation sets can be separated into two categories, homogeneous and

non-homogeneous. Homogeneous equation sets are those in which all the
Cs are zero and all other equation sets are known as non-homogeneous.
A unique solution to a non-homogeneous set exists only if the equations
are independent or non-singular (determinant is non-zero), and a non-trivial
solution set exists to a homogeneous set only if the equations are not inde-
pendent (determinant is zero). The determinant is further discussed in
Section 2.3. In comparison to a non-trivial solution, a trivial solution is

one where all the unknowns in the equations are equal to zero.
The typical set of n equations with n unknowns is as follows:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + … + a1n xn = C1

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + … + a2 n xn = C2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + … + a3n xn = C3

an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + an 3 x3 + … + ann xn = Cn
These equations can be written in matrix form, [A][x]=[C] as follows:
 a11 a12 a13 a1n   x1   C1 

a a22 a23 a2 n   x2  C2 
 21
 a31 a32 a33 a3n   x3  =  C3 
    
    
 an1 an 2 an 3 ann   xn  Cn 
2.2 MATRICES
A matrix can be defined as a rectangular array of symbols or numerical

quantities arranged in rows and columns. This array is enclosed in brack-
ets and if there are n rows and m columns, the general form of this matrix
is expressed by the following:
 a11 a12 a13 a1m 

a a22 a23 a2 m 
 21
[ ]  a31
A = a32 a33 a3m 
 
 
 an1 an 2 an 3 anm 
A matrix consisting of n rows and m columns is defined as a matrix of

order n × m. The relationship between the number of rows and the number
of columns is arbitrary in a general matrix. Many types of matrices exist,
such as row, column, diagonal, square, triangular, identity, and invert.
These are discussed in the following sub-sections.
SOLUTIONS OF SIMULTANEOUS LINEAR ALGEBRAIC EQUATIONS • 49
2.2.1 ROW AND COLUMN MATRICES
A row matrix is a matrix that reduces to a single row (n = 1).
[ A] = [ a11 a12 a13 a1m ]
Similar to a row matrix, a column matrix is a matrix that reduces to a

single column (m = 1).
 a11 
a 
 21 
[ A] =  a31 
 
 
 an1 
2.2.2 SQUARE MATRIX
A matrix in which the number of rows is equal to the number of columns

(n = m) is referred to as a square matrix.
 a11 a12 a13 a1n 

a a22 a23 a2 n 
 21
[ A] =  a31 a32 a33 a3n 
 
 
 an1 an 2 an 3 ann 
Square matrices are unique because they are the only matrix that has a
reciprocal or invert as described later in this section. Several types of
square matrices exist such as the diagonal matrix, the identity matrix, the
triangular matrix, and the invert matrix.
2.2.3 DIAGONAL MATRIX
A diagonal matrix is defined as a matrix where all elements outside of the

principal diagonal are equal to zero. The diagonal running from the upper
left corner of the array to the lower right corner is considered the principal
diagonal.
 a11 0 0 0 
0 a22 0 0 

[ A] =  0 0 a33 0 
 
 
 0 0 0 ann 
2.2.4 IDENTITY MATRIX
An identity matrix is a diagonal matrix where all of the elements along the
principal diagonal are equal to one and is denoted [I ].
1 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 

[ I ] = 0 0 1 0
 
 
0 0 0 1 
2.2.5 TRIANGULAR MATRIX
When all of the elements on one side of the principal diagonal are zero,
this matrix is a triangular matrix. There are two types of triangular
matrices, upper and lower. An upper triangular matrix, [U ], is when all of
the elements below the principal diagonal are zero, and a lower triangular
matrix, [L], occurs when all of the elements above the principal diagonal
are zero.
 a11 a12 a13 a1n 

0 a22 a23 a2 n 

[U ] =  0 0 a33 a3n 
 
 
 0 0 0 ann 
 a11 0 0 0 
a a22 0 0 
 21
[ L ] =  a31 a32 a33 0 
 
 
 an1 an 2 an 3 ann 
2.2.6 INVERTED MATRIX
Only square matrices where the determinant is not equal to zero (|A| ≠ 0)
can have an inverse or reciprocal. These matrices are called non-singular,
which implies that reciprocals of rectangular matrices do exist. The inverse
of a matrix is defined as follows:
[ I ] = [ A][ A]−1
2.2.7 MATRIX MINOR
The matrix minor, [Aij], is found by omitting the ith row and the jth column
of a matrix and writing the remaining terms in a matrix of one size smaller
in rows and columns. It is used in the computation of the determinant. For
example, the minor, [A22] is shown in the following. Note that i = 2 and j = 2:
 a11 a12 a13 a1m 

a a a13 a1m 
a22 a23 a2 m   11
 21 a a33 a3m 
[ A22 ] =  a31 a32 a33 a3m  =  31
 
 
  
a an 3 anm 

 an1 an 2 an 3 anm   n1
2.2.8 TRANSPOSED MATRIX
The transposed matrix is found by writing the aij elements of a matrix as

the aji elements of the matrix, [A]T.
 a11 a12 a13 a1m 

a a22 a23 a2 m 
 21
[ ]  a31
A = a32 a33 a3m 
 
 
 an1 an 2 an 3 anm 
 a11 a21 a31 an1 
a a22 a32 an 2 
 12
[ A] T
=  a13 a23 a33 an 3 
 
 
 a1m a2 m a3m amn 
2.3 MATRIX OPERATIONS
2.3.1 MATRIX ADDITION AND SUBTRACTION
Matrices of the same size can easily be added or subtracted. Addition is

achieved by adding the terms with the same row and column position.
For example, if matrix [A] and [B] were to be added to obtain matrix [C ],
the following equations would be valid:
[ A ] + [ B ] = [C ]
a11 + b11 = c11
a12 + b12 = c12

aij + bij = cij
Matrix subtraction follows the same form as addition where the matrices
are of the same size.
[ A ] − [ B ] = [C ]
a11 − b11 = c11
a12 − b12 = c12

aij − bij = cij
Example 2.1 Matrix addition and subtraction
Add matrix [A] and [B] and then subtract matrix [B] from [A].
2 4 6 1 2 4 
[ A] = 7 9 3
 and [ B ] = 6 5 2

 6 5 1   4 3 0 
Addition:
 2 4 6  1 2 4   3 6 10 
[ A] + [ B ] = 7 9 3 + 6 5 2 = 13 14 5 
 6 5 1   4 3 0  100 8 1 
Subtraction:
 2 4 6  1 2 4  1 2 2 
[ ] [ ] 7 9 3 − 6 5 2 = 1 4 1 
A − B =
 6 5 1   4 3 0   2 2 1 
2.3.2 SCALAR MULTIPLICATION
Scalar multiplication consists of multiplying a matrix by a scalar.

When this occurs, every entry is multiplied by that scalar as seen in the
following:
 a11 a12 a13 a1m   ca11 ca12 ca13 ca1m 

a
 21 a22 a23 a2 m  ca21 ca22 ca23 ca2 m 
c [ A] = c  a31 a32 a33 a3m  =  ca31 ca32 ca33 ca3m 
   
   
 an1 an 2 an 3 anm   can1 can 2 can 3 canm 
2.3.3 MATRIX MULTIPLICATION
Matrix multiplication proves a little more complicated than scalar

multiplication. In order for two matrices to be multiplied, the number
of columns in the first matrix must equal the number of rows in the
second matrix. The resulting product consists of the same number of
rows as the first matrix and the same number of columns as the second
matrix.
[ A]n × m [ B ]m × o = [C ]n × o
Each term of the product matrix (row i and column j) is obtained by

multiplying each term in row i of the first matrix by the term in row j of
the second matrix and then summing these products.
cij = ai1 b1 j + ai 2 b2 j + … + ain bnj

Example 2.2 Matrix multiplication
Multiply matrix [A] and [B] to get [C ].
2 4
3 2  1 4 2 3 2 4
[ A] =  and [ B] =  
1 0 2 3 2 4 1 1
 
3 4
The product of a 4 × 2 matrix multiplied with a 2 × 6 matrix is a 4 × 6

matrix.
[ A]4 × 2 [ B ]2 × 6 = [C ]4 × 6
2 4 10 20 12 22 8 12 
3 2  1 4 2 3 2 4   7 18 10 17 8 14 
[ A][ B ] = 1 0   2 3 2 4 1 1 
= [ C ] = 
1 4 2 3 2 4

   
3 4 11 24 14 25 10 16 
The first two elements are computed as follows:
c11 = 2 (1) + 4 ( 2) = 2 + 8 = 10
c12 = 2 ( 4) + 4 (3) = 8 + 12 = 20
2.3.4 MATRIX DETERMINANTS
A determinant is only defined for square matrices and can be easily

achieved through expansion by minors of a row or a column when dealing
with small matrices. A row expansion is as follows:
A = a11 A11 − a12 A12 + … (−1)1+ j a1 j A1 j + … (−1) n +1 a1n A1n

a11 a12 a1n a22 a23 a2 n a21 a23 a2 n
a21 a22 a2 n a32 a33 a3n a31 a33 a3n
= a11 − a12

an1 an 2 anm an 2 an 3 anm an1 an 3 anm
a21 a22 a2, n −1
a31 a32 a3, n −1
+ … + (−1)1+ j a1 j A1 j + … (−1) n +1 a1n

an1 an 2 an , n −1
If |A| is the determinant of the matrix [A], then the following equations are
valid when row k and column k are expanded:
n n
A = ∑ (−1) k + j akj Akj and A = ∑ (−1)i + k aik Aik
j =1 i =1
The basket weave method may be used for a three-by-three determinant

only. Take the sum of the products of the three down-right diagonals minus
the sum of the product of the three up-right diagonals shown as follows:
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12

a21 a22 a23 = a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12
a21 a22 a23 = a21 a22 a23 a21 a22
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a31 a32
(a11a22 a33 + a12 a23 a31 + a13 a21a32 ) − (a13 a22 a31 + a11a23 a32 + a12 a21a33 )
Also, a determinant may be found by the product of the diagonal of any

triangular matrix.
Example 2.3 Matrix determinants
Find the determinant of the following matrix, [A], by expansion of minors

and by the basket weave method.
3 4 6
[ A] = 1 2 3
 2 1 2 
Expansion of row 1 yields:
2 3 1 3 1 2
A =3 −4 +6
1 2 2 2 2 1
A = 3 ( 4 − 3) − 4 ( 2 − 6) + 6 (1 − 4)
A = 3 + 16 − 18 = 1
Basket weave method yields:
3 4 6 3 4 6 3 4
A= 1 2 3 = 1 2 3 1 2
2 1 2 2 1 2 2 1
A = 3 ( 2)( 2) + 4 (3)( 2) + 6 (1)(1)  −  4 (1)( 2) + 3 (3)(1) + 6 ( 2)( 2) 
A = 42 − 41 = 1
2.4 CRAMER’S RULE
Two common methods to solve simultaneous equations exist. One is the

elimination of unknowns by elementary row operations and the second
involves the use of determinates. One of the methods involving determi-
nates is known as Cramer’s rule. This method was published in 1750 by
Gabriel Cramer (1750). The procedure for Cramer’s rule in the solution to
n linear equations with n unknowns is as follows:
A1 A2 A3 An
x1 = , x2 = , x3 = , …, xn =
A A A A
c1 a12 a13 a1n a11 c1 a13 a1n

c2 a22 a23 a2 n a21 c2 a23 a2 n
A1 = c3 a32 a33 a3n , A2 = a31 c3 a33 a3n ,

cn an 2 an 3 ann an1 cn an 3 ann
a11 a12 c1 a1n a11 a12 a13 c1

a21 a22 c2 a2 n a21 a22 a23 c2
A3 = a31 a32 c3 a3n , …, An = a31 a32 a33 c3

an1 an 2 cn ann an1 an 2 an 3 cn
As you might see, |A1| is the original coefficient matrix, [A], with col-
umn one replaced with the constant column matrix, [c]. The solution to
n simultaneous equations by Cramer’s rule requires (n−1)*(n+1)! multi-
plications. In other words, the solution of ten simultaneous equations by
determinants would require (9)*(11!) =359,251,200 multiplications.
Example 2.4 Cramer’s rule
Find the solution set to the following non-homogeneous linear algebraic

equations using Cramer’s rule.
2 x1 + 8 x2 + 2 x3 = 14
x1 + 6 x2 − x3 = 13
2 x1 − x2 + 2 x3 = 5
2 8 2
A = 1 6 −1 = −36
2 −1 2
14 8 2
A1 = 13 6 −1 = −180
5 −1 2
2 14 2
A2 = 1 13 −1 = −36
2 5 2
2 8 14
A3 = 1 6 13 = 72
2 −1 5
A1 −180
x1 = = =5
A −36
A2 −36
x2 = = =1
A −36
A3 72
x3 = = = −2
A −36
The determinants are shown by row expansion in Table 2.1.
2.5 METHOD OF ADJOINTS OR COFACTOR

METHOD
The solution to a set of linear algebraic equations can be achieved by using

the invert of a matrix. The cofactor and adjoint matrices are very helpful
in finding this invert by utilizing determinants.The cofactor matrix is one
where the elements of the matrix are cofactors. Each term in the cofactor
Table 2.1. Example 2.4 Cramer’s rule

2 8 2
A = 1 6 -1
2 -1 2
A = 2 6 -1 - 8 1 -1 + 2 1 6
-1 2 2 2 2 -1
A = 22 - 32 + -26 = -36
14 8 2
A1 = 13 6 -1
5 -1 2
A1 = 14 6 -1 - 8 13 -1 + 2 13 6
-1 2 5 2 5 -1
A1 = 154 - 248 + -86 = -180
2 14 2
A2 = 1 13 -1
2 5 2
A2 = 2 13 -1 - 14 1 -1 + 2 1 13
5 2 2 2 2 5
A2 = 62 - 56 + -42 = -36
2 8 14
A3 = 1 6 13
2 -1 5
A3 = 2 6 13 - 8 1 13 + 14 1 6
-1 5 2 5 2 -1
A3 = 86 - -168 + -182 = 72
of a matrix, Cij, is given in the following equation where |Aij| is the deter-
minant of the minor as defined in Section 2.2.
Cij = ( −1)
i+ j
Aij
Therefore, given the matrix [A], the cofactor matrix is shown as follows.
The matrix of cofactors should not be confused with the constant matrix
of the original linear algebraic equation, although they have the same vari-
able, [C ]:
 a11 a12 a13 a1m 

a a22 a23 a2 m 
 21
[ ]  a31
A = a32 a33 a3m 
 
 
 an1 an 2 an 3 anm 
 C11 C12 C13 C1m 

C C2 m 
 21 C22 C23
[C ] = [ A]cofactor = C31 C32 C33 C3m 
 
 
Cn1 Cn 2 Cn 3 Cnm 
Once the cofactor matrix is known, the invert can be easily calculated:
 A  −1
=
[ C]
T
The solutions to the simultaneous equations are now found from matrix
multiplication.
[ A][ x] = [C ] Or [ A−1 ][C ] = [ x]
Similar to the cofactor method, the method of adjoints, Adj[A], is another

common way to solve for the invert of a matrix. This method is as follows:
Adj [ A]
 A−1  =
A
The adjoint matrix, Adj[A], is simply the transpose of the cofactor matrix.
This can be expressed in a few ways.
Adj[ A] = [C ]T = [ Acofactor ]T Or ci j = (−1)( i + j ) [ Aj i ]
T
 c11 c12 c13 c1m   c11 c21 c31 cn1 
c c22 
c23 c2 m  c c22 c32 cn 2 
 21  12
Adj [ A] =  c31 c32 c33 c3m  =  c13 c23 c33 cn 3 
   
   
 cn1 cn 2 
cn 3 cnm  c1m c2 m c3m cmn 
It is noted that the subscripts of the adjoint matrix are the reverse of the
cofactor matrix. The main difference is that the transpose is performed
during the operation of taking the adjoint, while in the cofactor method is
done at the end.
Example 2.5 Cofactor method
Find the solution set to the following nonhomogeneous linear algebraic

equations using the cofactor method.
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 10
8 x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 26
− x1 + x2 − x3 + x4 = 2
3 x1 + 2 x2 + 1x3 + 0 x4 = 10
[C ]
T
And Cij = ( −1)

i+ j
 A  =
−1
Aij
A
The determinants are shown by row expansion for the 4 × 4 matrix and by
the basket weave for all the 3 × 3 matrices in Table 2.2.
The last step in Table 2.2 is to multiply the invert of A, [A]−1, times the
constant vector, [C ], to get the final solution vector, [x].
Example 2.6 Method of adjoints
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using the adjoint
method. Use the basket weave method for determinants.
Table 2.2. Example 2.5 Cofactor method
1 1 1 1 10
A = 8 4 2 1 C = 26
-1 1 -1 1 2
3 2 1 0 10
4 2 1 8 2 1 8 4 1 8 4 2
A = 1 1 -1 1 - 1 -1 -1 1 + 1 -1 1 1 - 1 -1 1 -1
2 1 0 3 1 0 3 2 0 3 2 1
A = 3 + 0 + -9 + -6 A = -12
4 2 1 1+1 8 2 1 1+2 8 4 1 8 4 2
(-1) (-1) (-1)1+3 (-1)1+4
c11= 1 -1 1 c12= -1 -1 1 c13= -1 1 1 c14= -1 1 -1
2 1 0 3 1 0 3 2 0 3 2 1
c11 = 3 c12 = 0 c13 = -9 c14 = -6
1 1 1 2+1 1 1 1 2+2 1 1 1 1 1 1
(-1) (-1) (-1)2+3 (-1)2+4
c21= 1 -1 1 c22= -1 -1 1 c23= -1 1 1 c24= -1 1 -1
2 1 0 3 1 0 3 2 0 3 2 1
c21 = -4 c22 = 4 c23 = 4 c24 = -4
1 1 1 3+1 1 1 1 3+2 1 1 1 1 1 1
(-1) (-1) (-1)3+3 (-1)3+4
c31= 4 2 1 c32= 8 2 1 c33= 8 4 1 c34= 8 4 2
2 1 0 3 1 0 3 2 0 3 2 1
c31 = 1 c32 = -4 c33 = 5 c34 = -2
1 1 1 (-1)4+1 1 1 1 (-1)4+2 1 1 1 (-1)4+3 1 1 1 (-1)4+4
c41= 4 2 1 c42= 8 2 1 c43= 8 4 1 c44= 8 4 2
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 –1 1 –1
c41 = 6 c42 = -12 c43 = -6 c44 = 12
3 0 -9 -6 3 -4 1 6
C = -4 4 4 -4 CT = 0 4 -4 -12
1 -4 5 -2 -9 4 5 -6
6 -12 -6 12 -6 -4 -2 12
-0.2500 0.3333 -0.0833 -0.5000 1
A-1 = 0.0000 -0.3333 0.3333 1.0000 x = 2

0.7500 -0.3333 -0.4167 0.5000 3
0.5000 0.3333 0.1667 –1.0000 4
Table 2.3. Example 2.6 Method of adjoints
1 1 1 1 10
A = 8 4 2 1 C = 26
-1 1 -1 1 2
0 0 0 1 4
4 2 1 8 2 1 8 4 1 8 4 2
A = 1 1 -1 1 - 1 -1 -1 1 + 1 -1 1 1 - 1 -1 1 -1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
A = -6 + 6 + 12 + 0 A = 12
4 2 1 (-1)1+1 8 2 1 (-1)1+2 8 4 1 (-1)1+3 8 4 2 (-1)1+4
c11= 1 -1 1 c21= -1 -1 1 c31= -1 1 1 c41= -1 1 -1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
c11 = -6 c21 = 6 c31 = 12 c41 = 0
1 1 1 (-1)2+1 1 1 1 (-1)2+2 1 1 1 (-1)2+3 1 1 1 (-1)2+3
c12= 1 -1 1 c22= -1 -1 1 c32= -1 1 1 c42= -1 1 -1
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
c12 = 2 c22 = 0 c32 = -2 c42 = 0
1 1 1 (-1)3+1 1 1 1 (-1)3+2 1 1 1 (-1)3+3 1 1 1 (-1)3+4

c13= 4 2 1 c23= 8 2 1 c33= 8 4 1 c43= 8 4 2
0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0 0
c13 = -2 c23 = 6 c33 = -4 c43 = 0
1 1 1 (-1)4+1 1 1 1 (-1)4+2 1 1 1 (-1)4+3 1 1 1 (-1)4+4
c14= 4 2 1 c24= 8 2 1 c34= 8 4 1 c44= 8 4 2
1 -1 1 -1 -1 1 -1 1 1 -1 1 -1
c14 = 6 c24 = -12 c34 = -6 c44 = 12
-6 2 -2 6
c = 6 0 6 -12
12 -2 -4 -6
0 0 0 12
-0.5000 0.1667 -0.1667 0.5000 1

A-1 = 0.5000 0.0000 0.5000 –1.0000 x = 2
1.0000 -0.1667 -0.3333 -0.5000 3
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 4
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 10
8 x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 26
− x1 + x2 − x3 + x4 = 2
0 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3 + x4 = 4
−1
[A ] =
[C ]T and ci j = (−1)i + j Aji
A
The determinants are shown by row expansion for the 4 × 4 matrix and by
the basket weave for all the 3 × 3 matrices in Table 2.3.
The last step in Table 2.3 is to multiply the invert of A, [A]−1, by the
constant vector, [C ], to get the final solution vector, [x].
2.6 GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION METHOD
This method is named for Carl Friedrich Gauss who developed it in 1670
(Newton 1707). It was referenced by the Chinese as early as 179 (Anon
179). Gaussian elimination is a method for solving matrix equations by
composing an augmented matrix, [A|C ], and then utilizing elementary
row operations to reduce this matrix into upper triangular form, [U|D].
The elementary row operations used to reduce the matrix into upper trian-
gular form consist of multiplying an equation by a scalar, or adding two
equations to form another equation. The equation used to eliminate terms
in other equations is referred to as the pivot equation. The coefficient of
the pivot equation that lies in the column of terms to be eliminated is
called the pivot coefficient or pivot element.
If this coefficient of the pivot element is zero, the pivot row must be
exchanged with another row. This exchange is called partial pivoting. If the
row with the largest element in the pivot column is exchanged to the pivot
row, accuracy is increased. Partial pivoting is when the rows are interchanged
and full pivoting is when both the rows and columns are reordered to place
a particular element in the diagonal position prior to a particular operation.
Whenever partial pivoting is utilized, the determinant changes sign with
each pivot unless done before reduction starts. However, the value of the
determinant of the matrix is not affected by elementary row operations.
Once the matrix is reduced to an equivalent upper triangular matrix,
the solutions are found by solving equations by back substitution. The fol-
lowing is the reduction procedure in algorithmic form:
akjk−1 k + 1 ≤ j ≤ m 
aijk = aijk −1 − (a )
k −1
ik where  
 k +1 ≤ i ≤ n 
k −1
akk
With the following variables:

ak−1 original elements
ak new elements
i row (n)
j column (m)
k pivotal row number
The following is the back substitution procedure in algorithmic form:
anm
xn =
ann
aim − ∑ j = i +1aij x j
n
xi = where i = n − 1, n − 2, …,1
aii
Example 2.7 Gaussian elimination method
Find the solution set to the following nonhomogeneous linear algebraic

equations using Gaussian elimination.
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 10
8 x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 26
− x1 + x2 − x3 + x4 = 2
0 x1 + 0 x2 + 0 x3 + x4 = 4
The reduction process is shown in Table 2.4. The numbers to the right of
each row outside the augmented matrix, [A|C ], are the reduction multipli-
ers. The pivot row is multiplied by these numbers to reduce the rows below
the pivot row. As an example, the first row is multiplied by −8 and added
to the second row, producing a zero in the first column of the second row.
Then, the first row is multiplied by 1 and added to the third row, producing a
zero in the first column of the third row. Last, the first row is multiplied by 0
and added to the last row, producing a zero in the first column of the last
row. The result is the reduction of all the values below the pivot element in
the first column to zero. The second column is then reduced to zeros below
the pivot element, and lastly the third column is reduced to zeros below the
pivot element. The solution vector, [x], is also shown.
These values for x are solved after the final reduction. From row four,
the following equation can be written:
1x4 = 4 ∴ x4 = 4
Table 2.4. Example 2.7 Gaussian elimination

1 1 1 1 10
A|C = 8 4 2 1 26
−1 1 −1 1 2
0 0 0 1 4
1 1 1 1 10
A|C = 0 −4 −6 −7 −54 −8
0 2 0 2 12 1
0 0 0 1 4 0
1 1 1 1 10
A|C = 0 −4 −6 −7 −54
0 0 −3 −1.5 −15 0.5
0 0 0 1 4 0
1 1 1 1 10
A|C = 0 −4 −6 −7 −54
0 0 −3 −1.5 −15
0 0 0 1 4 0
x = 1
2
3
4
From row three, the following equation is valid:
−3 x3 − 1.5 x4 = −15
Substituting x4 = 4 into this equation yields:
−3 x3 − 1.5 ( 4) = −15 ∴ −3 x3 = −9 ∴ x3 = 3
Row two produces the following equation:
−4 x2 − 6 x3 − 7 x4 = −54
Substituting x3 = 3 and x4 = 4 into this equation yields:
−4 x2 − 6 (3) − 7 ( 4) = −54 ∴ −4 x2 = −8 ∴ x2 = 2
And, from row one the following equation:
1x1 + 1x2 + 1x3 + 1x4 = 10
Substituting x2 = 2, x3 = 3, and x4 = 4 into this equation yields:
1x1 + 1( 2) + 1(3) + 1( 4) = 10 ∴ x1 = 1
It should be noted that the product the diagonal values of any triangular
matrix is the determinant. In this case, the determinant is |A| = (1)(−4)(−3)
(1) = 12.
Example 2.8 Gaussian elimination method
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using Gaussian

elimination and back substitution using partial pivoting. Include a deter-
minant check for uniqueness.
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 = 10
8 x1 + 4 x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 26
− x1 + x2 − x3 + x4 = 2
3 x1 + 2 x2 + 1x3 + 0 x4 = 10
The reduction process is shown in Table 2.5. Again, the numbers to the
right of each row outside the augmented matrix, [A|C], are the reduction
multipliers. Also noted is the partial pivoting. Note that the second row
has the largest number in the first column. Therefore, that row is swapped
with the first row, placing the largest element in the pivot element posi-
tion. Reduction is then performed on the first column. After reduction of
the first column, the largest number in the second column is in the third
row. That row is swapped with the second row, placing the largest number
in the pivot position. Reduction is then performed on the second column.
The third column does not require partial pivoting, since the largest num-
ber in the third column is already in the pivot position.
Since two partial pivots were performed, the product of the diagonal
must be multiplied by (−1)2 to achieve the correct sign on the determinant,
|A| = (8)(1.5)(1)(−1) (−1)2 = −12. Back substitution is performed to deter-
mine the solution vector, [x], which is shown in Table 2.5.
Table 2.5. Example 2.8 Gaussian elimination
1 1 1 1 10
A = 8 4 2 1 26
−1 1 −1 1 2
3 2 1 0 10
8 4 2 1 26 Swap
A = 1 1 1 1 10 Pivot
−1 1 −1 1 2
3 2 1 0 10
8 4 2 1 26
A = 0 0.5 0.75 0.88 6.75 −0.125
0 1.5 −0.8 1.13 5.25 0.125
0 0.5 0.25 −0.4 0.25 −0.375
8 4 2 1 26
A = 0 1.5 −0.8 1.13 5.25 Swap
0 0.5 0.75 0.88 6.75 Pivot
0 0.5 0.25 −0.4 0.25
8 4 2 1 26
A = 0 1.5 −0.8 1.13 5.25
0 0 1 0.5 5 −0.333
0 0 0.5 −0.8 −1.5 −0.333
A = 8 4 2 1 26
0 1.5 −0.8 1.13 5.25
0 0 1 0.5 5
0 0 0 −4 −4 −0.500
1
x = 2 A = −12 * (−1)2
3
4
2.7 GAUSS–JORDAN ELIMINATION METHOD
The Gauss–Jordan elimination method is a variation of the Gaussian

elimination method in which an unknown is eliminated from all equa-
tions except the pivot during the elimination process. This method was
described by Wilhelm Jordan in 1887 (Clasen 1888). When an unknown is
eliminated, it is eliminated from equations preceding the pivot equation as
well as those following the pivot equation. The result is a diagonal matrix
and eliminates the need for back substitution. In fact, if the pivot elements
are changed to “ones” by dividing each row by the pivot element, the last
column will contain the solution.
The disadvantage to the Gauss–Jordan elimination method is that two
matrices are required for elimination, however, they do get smaller as the
process continues. The previous pivot is moved to the bottom, with a new
pivot on top. The Gauss–Jordan process is shown in Example 2.9.
Example 2.9 Gauss–Jordan elimination method
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using Gauss–

Jordan elimination.
2 x1 − 2 x2 + 5 x3 = 13 (2.1a)
2 x1 + 3 x2 + 4 x3 = 20 (2.1b)
3 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 10 (2.1c)
The first step is to divide the first equation of the set by the coefficient of
the first unknown in that equation, 2. Equation 2.2a is then multiplied by
the corresponding coefficient of that unknown of Equations 2.1b and 2.1c
to give the following:
5 13
x1 − x2 + x3 = (2.2a)
2 2
2 x1 − 2 x2 + 5 x3 = 13 (2.2b)
15 39
3 x1 − 3 x2 + x3 = (2.2c)
2 2
Next, Equation 2.2b is subtracted from 2.1b and becomes 2.3a. E

quation
2.2c is subtracted from 2.1c and becomes 2.3b. Equation 2.2a now
becomes 2.3c, thereby moving to the bottom.
5 x2 − x3 = 7 (2.3a)
9 19
2 x2 − x3 = − (2.3b)
2 2
5 13
x1 − x2 + x3 = (2.3c)
2 2
Now, Equation 2.3a is divided by the first unknown in that equation, 5,

and the new Equation 2.4a is multiplied by the corresponding coefficient
of that unknown from the two other equations (2.3b and 2.3c) to yield
Equations 2.4b and 2.4c.
1 7
x2 − x3 = (2.4a)
5 5
2 14
2 x2 − x3 = (2.4b)
5 5
1 7
− x2 + x3 = − (2.4c)
5 5
Just as the previous cycle, Equation 2.4b is subtracted from 2.3b and
becomes 2.5a. Equation 2.4c is subtracted from 2.3c and becomes 2.5b.
Equation 2.4a now becomes 2.5c.
41 123
− x3 = − (2.5a)
10 10
23 79
x1 + x3 = (2.5b)
10 10
1 7
x2 − x3 = (2.5c)
5 5
Equation 2.5a is divided by the first unknown in that equation, −41/10

and the new Equation 2.6a is multiplied by the corresponding coefficient
of that unknown from the two other equations (2.5b and 2.5c) to yield
Equations 2.6b and 2.6c.
x3 = 3 (2.6a)
23 69
x3 =
10 10 (2.6b)
1 3
− x3 = −
5 5 (2.6c)
Equation 2.6b is subtracted from 2.5b and becomes 2.7a. Equation 2.6c is
subtracted from 2.5c and becomes 2.7b. Equation 2.6a now becomes 2.7c.
All the unknowns are found with the following solution:
x1 = 1 (2.7a)
x2 = 2 (2.7b)
x3 = 3 (2.7c)
The same result may be obtained by working with just the coefficients
and constants of the equations. Given the same equations, the following
augmented matrix is valid:
2 x1 − 2 x2 + 5 x3 = 13
2 x1 + 3 x2 + 4 x3 = 20
3 x1 − x2 + 3 x3 = 10
 2 −2 5 13 
[ A] =  2 3 4 20
 3 −11 3 10 
An augmented matrix, [B], is established from the following algorithm:
1< i ≤ n 
a1 j ai1  
bi −1, j −1 = aij − where 1 < j ≤ m 
a11  a ≠0 
 11 
Also, the final row of the new matrix is found by:

a1 j 1 < j ≤ m 
bn , j −1 = where  
a11  a11 ≠ 0 
where,
a elements in old matrix A
b elements in new matrix B
i row number in old matrix A (n)
j column number of old matrix A (m)
For example,
a1, 2 a2,1 −2 ( 2)
b2, 2 = a2, 2 − = 3− =5
a11 2
From these equations, column 1 is reduced.
 
 5 −1 7 
 
9 19
[ B ] =  2 − 2 − 
2
 5 13 
 −1 
 2 2 
Following the process again to reduce column 2:
 41 123 
 − 10 − 10 
 
 23 79 
[C ] =  10 10 
 
 −1 7 
 5 5 
Finally, one more cycle reduces column 3 and obtains the solution:
1 
[ ]  2
D =
 3 
It is known that applying these equations to a number of simultaneous

equations, n, will produce the same number of matrices, n, to achieve the
solution.
2.8 IMPROVED GAUSS–JORDAN ELIMINATION

METHOD
In comparison to the Gauss–Jordan elimination method, the improved

Gauss–Jordan elimination method uses the same space for both the
A and B arrays. This is beneficial if the amount of space available on
the computer is limited. The algorithm for this improved method is as
follows:
 akj 
 akj′ = 
 akk 
aij′ = aij − aik akj′  k = 1, 2, 3 … n except i ≠ k
 1≤ i ≤ n 
 
 k + 1 ≤ j ≤ n + 1
where,
a′ original elements
a new elements
i row (n)
j column (m)
k pivotal row number
In other words, normalize the matrix then utilize partial pivoting to reduce
the matrix. However, there is no need to reduce the elements under the
pivot. Reducing up and down is easier without a need to reorder the rows.
This is how Example 2.10 is performed.
Example 2.10 Improved Gauss–Jordan elimination method
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using improved

Gaussian–Jordan elimination. Include a determinant check for
uniqueness.
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 8
16 x1 + 8 x2 + 4 x3 + 2 x4 + 1x5 = 44
x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 + x5 = 2
81x1 − 27 x2 + 9 x3 − 3 x4 + x5 = 44
16 x1 − 8 x2 + 4 x3 − 2 x4 + x5 = 8
1 1 1 1 1 8
 
16 8 4 2 1 44 
 A C  =  1 −1 1 −1 1 2
 
81 −27 9 −3 1 44 
16 −8 4 −2 1 8 

From partial pivoting, the first row can be swapped with the fourth row to
form the following matrix:
81 −27 9 −3 1 44 
 
16 8 4 2 1 44 
 A C  =  1 −1 1 −1 1 2 
 
1 1 1 1 1 8
16 −8 4 −2 1 8 

Now elimination may be performed as shown in Table 2.6. Note that for
each column reduction, elements are reduced to zero below and above
the pivot position. Once it reduces to a diagonal matrix, the solution is
found by dividing each row by the pivot element. The determinant is
found as |A| = (81)(13.3333)(1)(1.3333) (−2) = −2880.
2.9 CHOLESKY DECOMPOSITION METHOD
Cholesky decomposition is also known as Crout’s method or matrix

factorization. This method was discovered by André-Louis Cholesky
(Commandant Benoit 1924). Cholesky decomposition changes the orig-
inal augmented equation to an equivalent upper and lower triangular set.
If a set of three simultaneous equations exist, they can be represented as
follows:
 a11 a12 a13   x1   c1 

a a22 a23   x2  =  c2 
 21
 a31 a32 a33   x3   c3 
If [A] represents the coefficient matrix, [x] represents the column matrix of
the unknowns, and [C ] represents the column matrix of the constants, the
previous can be expressed as the following equation:
Table 2.6. Example 2.10 Improved Gaussian–Jordan elimination

method
81 -27 9 -3 1 44
16 8 4 2 1 44
A = 1 -1 1 -1 1 2
1 1 1 1 1 8
16 -8 4 -2 1 8
81 -27 9 -3 1 44
0 13.3333 2.2222 2.5926 0.8025 35.3086 -0.1975
A = 0 -0.6667 0.8889 -0.9630 0.9877 1.4568 -0.0123
0 1.3333 0.8889 1.0370 0.9877 7.4568 -0.0123
0 -2.6667 2.2222 -1.4074 0.8025 -0.6914 -0.1975
81 0 13.5 2.25 2.625 115.5 2.0250

0 13.3333 2.2222 2.5926 0.8025 35.3086
A = 0 0 1 -0.8333 1.0278 3.2222 0.0500
0 0 0.6667 0.7778 0.9074 3.9259 -0.1000
0 0 2.6667 -0.8889 0.9630 6.3704 0.2000
81 0 0 13.5 -11.25 72 -13.5000

0 13.3333 0 4.4444 -1.4815 28.1481 -2.2222
A = 0 0 1 -0.8333 1.0278 3.2222
0 0 0 1.3333 0.2222 1.7778 -0.6667
0 0 0 1.3333 -1.7778 -2.2222 -2.6667
81 0 0 0 -13.5 54 -10.1250
0 13.3333 0 0 -2.2222 22.2222 -3.3333
A = 0 0 1 0 1.1667 4.3333 0.6250
0 0 0 1.33333 0.2222 1.7778
0 0 0 0 -2 -4 -1.0000
81 0 0 0 0 81 -6.7500
0 13.3333 0 0 0 26.6667 -1.1111
A = 0 0 1 0 0 2 0.5833
0 0 0 1.33333 0 1.33333 0.1111
0 0 0 0 -2 -4
1
2
x = 2 A = -2880.00
1
2
[ A][ x ] = [C ] or [ A][ x ] − [C ] = 0
If the original system of equations is reduced into an equivalent system in

upper triangular form, the following is true:
1 u12 u13   x1   d1 
0 1
 u23   x2  =  d 2 
0 0 1   x3   d3 
[U ][ x ] − [ D ] = 0
Also, a lower triangular matrix exists, such that, when the first set is
pre-multiplied by [L], the result is the second set as follows:
 l11 0 0
l 0 
 21 l22
l31 l32 l33 
[ L ]([U ][ x ] − [ D ]) = [ A][ x ] − [C ]
[ L ][U ] = [ A] and [ L ][ D ] = [C ]
In matrix form, it looks as follows:
 l11 0 0  1 u12 u13 d1   a11 a12 a13 c1 

l 0  0 1 d 2  =  a21 c2 
 21 l22 u23 a22 a23
l31 l32 l33  0 0 1 d3   a31 a32 a33 c3 
The order of the solution process is as follows with each producing an

equation involving only one unknown:
1. Obtain column 1 of [L] by multiplying each row of [L] by column 1

of [U ] to get column 1 of [A]. That is, use a11, a21, a31 to get l11,
l21, l31.
2. Obtain row 1 of [U ] by multiplying row 1 of [L] times each column
of [U ] to get row 1 of [A], excluding column 1 of [U ]. That is, use
a12, a13, c1 to get u12, u13, d1.
3. Obtain column 2 of [L] by multiplying each row of [L] times column

2 of [U ] to get column 2 of [A], excluding row 1 of [L], That is, use
a22, a32 to get l22, l32.
of [U ] to get row 2 of [A], excluding columns 1 and 2 of [U ]. That
is, use a23, c2 to get u23, d2.
5. Obtain column 3 of [L] by multiplying each row of [L] times col-
umn 3 of [U ] to get column 3 of [A], excluding row 1 and 2 of [L].
That is, use a33 to get l33.
of [U ] to get row 3 of [A], excluding columns 1, 2, and 3 of [U ].
That is, use c3 to get d3.
All of these arithmetic operations can be done with an algorithm as

follows:
i = 1, 2, 3, … , n 
li1 = ai1 For  
 j =1 
a1 j  j = 2, 3, 4, … , n + 1
u1 j = For  
a11  i =1 
j −1
 j = 2, 3, 4, … , n 
 
li , j = aij − ∑lik ukj For  i = j , j + 1, j + 2, … , n 
k =1 ( for each value of j ) 
 
 i = 2, 3, 4, … , n 
aij − ∑ k =1lik ukj
i −1
 
ui , j = For  j = i, i + 1, i + 2, … , n + 1
lii  ( for each value of i ) 
 
xn = un , n +1
n
xi = ui , n +1 − ∑u
j = i +1
ij xj For {i = n − 1, n − 2, n − 3, … , 1}
An improved Cholesky decomposition scheme can also be used with only

one matrix in the process as follows:
a1 j
a1 j = For { j = 2, 3, 4, … , n + 1}
a11
j −1
 j = 2, 3, 4, … , n 
 
ai , j = aij − ∑aik akj For  i = j , j + 1, j + 2, … , n 
k =1 ( for each value of j ) 
 
 i = 2, 3, 4, … , n 
aij − ∑ k =1aik akj
i −1
 
ai , j = For  j = i, i + 1, i + 2, … , n + 1
aii  ( for each value of i ) 
 
Example 2.11 Cholesky decomposition method
Find the solution set to the following non-homogeneous linear algebraic

equations using Cholesky decomposition.
x1 + x2 + x3 + x4 + x5 = 8
16 x1 + 8 x2 + 4 x3 + 2 x4 + 1x5 = 44
x1 − x2 + x3 − x4 + x5 = 2
81x1 − 27 x2 + 9 x3 − 3 x4 + x5 = 44
16 x1 − 8 x2 + 4 x3 − 2 x4 + x5 = 8
 l11 0 0  1 u12 u13 d1   a11 a12 a13 c1 

l 0  0 1 d 2  =  a21 c2 
 21 l22 u23 a22 a23
l31 l32 l33  0 0 1 d3   a31 a32 a33 c3 
The matrix in augmented form is shown in Table 2.7.
Table 2.7. Example 2.11 Cholesky decomposition

method
1 1 1 1 1 8
16 8 4 2 1 44
A = 1 -1 1 -1 1 2
81 -27 9 -3 1 44
16 -8 4 -2 1 8
The reduced lower triangular matrix is shown in Table 2.8.
Table 2.8. Example 2.11 Cholesky decomposition method

1 0 0 0 0
16 -8 0 0 0
L = 1 -2 3 0 0
81 -108 90 60 0
16 -24 24 12 -2
The upper triangular matrix is found at the same time and is shown in
Table 2.9.

1 1 1 1 1 8
0 1 1.5 1.75 1.875 10.5
U|D = 0 0 1 0.5 1.25 5
0 0 0 1 0.167 1.333
0 0 0 0 1 2
Finally, the solution is calculated from the [U|D] matrix using back substi-
tution and shown in Table 2.10.
1
2
x = 2
1
2
2.10 ERROR EQUATIONS
Error equations are intended to increase the accuracy in which the roots
of simultaneous equations are determined by reducing the error due to
rounding off. Consider the set of equations as follows:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + … + a1n xn = C1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + … + a2 n xn = C2
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + … + a3n xn = C3

an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + an 3 x3 + … + ann xn = Cn
If the approximate roots x′1, x′2, x′3…, x′n have been obtained by elimina-
tion, upon substitution into the equations the constants C′1, C′2, C′3…, C′n
are found as follows:
a11 x1′ + a12 x2′ + a13 x3′ + …+ a1n xn′ = C1′
a21 x1′ + a22 x2′ + a23 x3′ + …+ a2 n xn′ = C2′
a31 x1′ + a32 x2′ + a33 x3′ + …+ a3n xn′ = C3′

an1 x1′ + an 2 x2′ + an 3 x3′ + …+ ann xn′ = Cn′
If ∆x1, ∆x2, ∆x3 …, ∆xn are the corrections that must be added to the
approximate root to obtain the exact root values x1, x2, x3,…, xn, the
following is utilized:
x1 = x1′ + ∆x1
x2 = x2′ + ∆x2
x3 = x3′ + ∆x3

xn = xn′ + ∆xn
If we substitute these expressions for the exact root, we obtain the following:
a11 ( x1′ + ∆ x1 ) + a12 ( x2′ + ∆ x2 ) + a13 ( x3′ + ∆ x3 ) + … + a1n ( xn′ + ∆ xn ) = C1
a21 ( x1′ + ∆x1 ) + a22 ( x2′ + ∆x2 ) + a23 ( x3′ + ∆x3 ) + … + a2 n ( xn′ + ∆xn ) = C2
a31 ( x1′ + ∆x1 ) + a32 ( x2′ + ∆x2 ) + a33 ( x3′ + ∆x3 ) + … + a3n ( xn′ + ∆xn ) = C3

an1 ( x1′ + ∆x1 ) + an 2 ( x2′ + ∆x2 ) + an 3 ( x3′ + ∆x3 ) + … + ann ( xn′ + ∆xn ) = Cn
If these equations are subtracted from the approximate equations, the

following is obtained:
a11 ∆ x1 + a12 ∆ x2 + a13 ∆ x3 + … + a1n ∆ xn = C1 − C1′ = e1

a21 ∆ x1 + a22 ∆ x2 + a23 ∆ x3 + … + a2 n ∆ xn = C2 − C2′ = e2
a31 ∆ x1 + a32 ∆ x2 + a33 ∆ x3 + … + a3n ∆ xn = C3 − C3′ = e3

an1 ∆ x1 + an 2 ∆ x2 + an 3 ∆ x3 + … + ann ∆ xn = Cn − Cn′ = e
This shows that the corrections, ∆x′s, can be obtained by replacing the
constant vector of the solution with the difference of the constant vectors,
(C–C′s)’s, and applying reduction to find the error. These are then added
to the approximate solution and the process is repeated until accuracy is
achieved.
Example 2.12 Error equations
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using any

Gauss–Jordan elimination, but only carry two decimals of accuracy
(i.e., x.xx) then apply error equations to increase accuracy.
2.11x1 + 2.11x2 − 3.04 x3 + 1.11x4 = 1.65

−0.02 x1 + 1.23 x2 + 2.22 x3 + 1.02 x4 = 13.18
0.14 x1 − 0.06 x2 + 1.21x3 − 1.08 x4 = −0.67
1.32 x1 + 0.20 x2 + 0.000 x3 + 3.90 x4 = 17.32
The process of three complete cycles is shown in Tables 2.11–2.13.
2.11 MATRIX INVERSION METHOD
The solution to a set of linear equations can be achieved by using any reduc-
tion technique on the coefficient matrix augmented with the identity matrix.
 a11 a12 a13 a1n 1 0 0 0

a a22 a23 a2 n 0 1 0 0 
 21
[ A | I ] =  a31 a32 a33 a3n 0 0 1 0
 
 
 an1 an 2 an 3 ann 0 0 0 1 
From here, the coefficient matrix is reduced until the identity matrix is
on the left and the original identity on the right becomes the invert of A.
Table 2.11. Example 2.12 Error equations

2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 1.65
A|C = -0.02 1.23 2.22 1.02 13.18
0.14 -0.06 1.21 -1.08 -0.67
1.32 0.20 0.00 3.90 17.32
2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 1.65

A|C = 0.00 1.25 2.19 1.03 13.20
0.00 -0.20 1.41 -1.15 -0.78
0.00 -1.12 1.90 3.21 16.29
2.11 0.00 -6.74 -0.63 -20.63

A|C = 0.00 1.25 2.19 1.03 13.20
0.00 0.00 1.76 -0.99 1.33
0.00 0.00 3.86 4.13 28.12
2.11 0.00 0.00 -4.42 -15.54

A|C = 0.00 1.25 0.00 2.26 11.55
0.00 0.00 1.76 -0.99 1.33
0.00 0.00 0.00 6.30 25.20
2.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 2.14

A|C = 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 2.51
0.00 0.00 1.76 0.00 5.29
0.00 0.00 0.00 6.30 25.20
1.01 1.66
x = 2.01 C1 = 13.21
3.01 -0.66
4.00 17.34
-0.01
e1 = -0.03
-0.01
-0.02

2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 -0.01
A|C = -0.02 1.23 2.22 1.02 -0.03
0.14 -0.06 1.21 -1.08 -0.01
1.32 0.20 0.00 3.90 -0.02
2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 -0.01

A|C = 0.00 1.25 2.19 1.03 -0.03
0.00 -0.20 1.41 -1.15 -0.01
0.00 -1.12 1.90 3.21 -0.01
2.11 0.00 -6.74 -0.63 0.04

A|C = 0.00 1.25 2.19 1.03 -0.03
0.00 0.00 1.76 -0.99 -0.01
0.00 0.00 3.86 4.13 -0.04
2.11 0.00 0.00 -4.42 0.00

A|C = 0.00 1.25 0.00 2.26 -0.02
0.00 0.00 1.76 -0.99 -0.01
0.00 0.00 0.00 6.30 -0.02
2.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.01

A|C = 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 -0.01
0.00 0.00 1.76 0.00 -0.01
0.00 0.00 0.00 6.30 -0.02
0.00 1.01
x = -0.01 Dx1 = 2.00
-0.01 3.00
0.00 4.00
1.67 -0.02
C2 = 13.18 e2 = 0.00
-0.67 0.00
17.33 -0.01

2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 -0.02
A|C = -0.02 1.23 2.22 1.02 0.00
0.14 -0.06 1.21 -1.08 0.00
1.32 0.20 0.00 3.90 -0.01
2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 -0.02

A|C = 0.00 1.25 2.19 1.03 0.00
0.00 -0.20 1.41 -1.15 0.00
0.00 -1.12 1.90 3.21 0.00
2.11 0.00 -6.74 -0.63 -0.02

A|C = 0.00 1.25 2.19 1.03 0.00
0.00 0.00 1.76 -0.99 0.00
0.00 0.00 3.86 4.13 0.00
2.11 0.00 0.00 -4.42 -0.02

A|C = 0.00 1.25 0.00 2.26 0.00
0.00 0.00 1.76 -0.99 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 6.30 0.00
2.11 0.00 0.00 0.00 -0.02

A|C = 0.00 1.25 0.00 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 1.76 0.00 0.00
0.00 0.00 0.00 6.30 0.00
–0.01 1.00
x = 0.00 Dx2 = 2.00
0.00 3.00
0.00 4.00
1.67 0.00
C3 = 13.18 e3 = 0.00
-0.67 0.00
17.32 0.00
1 0 0 0 a11−1 a12−1 a13−1 a1−n1 

 
0 1 0 0 a2−11 −1 −1
a22 a23 a2−n1 
 I | A  = 0
−1
0 1 0 a31−1 −1
a32 −1
a33 a3−n1 
 
 
0 0 0 1 an−11 an−21 an−31 −1 
ann
 
If partial pivoting is used during the reduction, the columns in the

invert must be swapped back in reverse order as the rows were swapped
during reduction. The constant vector must also be reordered in the
same way.
Example 2.13 Matrix inversion
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using inversion-

in-place (improved Gauss–Jordan). Include partial pivoting during the
reduction.
2.11x1 + 2.11x2 − 3.04 x3 + 1.11x4 = 1.65

−0.02 x1 + 1.23 x2 + 2.22 x3 + 1.02 x4 = 13.18
0.14 x1 − 0.06 x2 + 1.21x3 − 1.08 x4 = −0.67
1.32 x1 + 0.20 x2 + 0.000 x3 + 3.90 x4 = 17.32
The matrix is shown in Table 2.14 in augmented form and Gauss–Jordan

elimination is performed for the first two columns.
Table 2.14. Example 2.13 Matrix inversion method

2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 1.65
A|C = -0.02 1.23 2.22 1.02 13.18
0.14 -0.06 1.21 -1.08 -0.67
1.32 0.20 0.00 3.90 17.32
2.11 2.11 -3.04 1.11 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

A|I = -0.02 1.23 2.22 1.02 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00
0.14 -0.06 1.21 -1.08 0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00
1.32 0.20 0.00 3.90 0.00 0.00 0.00 1.00
(Continued)
Table 2.14. (Continued)
2.110 2.110 -3.040 1.110 1.000 0.000 0.000 0.000
A|I = 0.000 1.250 2.191 1.031 0.009 1.000 0.000 0.000
0.000 -0.200 1.412 -1.154 -0.066 0.000 1.000 0.000
0.000 -1.120 1.902 3.206 -0.626 0.000 0.000 1.000
2.1100 0.0000 -6.7387 -0.6295 0.9840 -1.6880 0.0000 0.0000

A|I = 0.0000 1.2500 2.1912 1.0305 0.0095 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000 1.7623 -0.9888 -0.0648 0.1600 1.0000 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000 3.8651 4.1289 -0.6171 0.8960 0.0000 1.0000
Note that partial pivoting should be performed and row three is now
swapped with row four. Columns 3 and 4 are then eliminated as shown in
Table 2.15.

2.1100 0.0000 -6.7387 -0.6295 0.9840 -1.6880 0.0000 0.0000
A|I = 0.0000 1.2500 2.1912 1.0305 0.0095 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000
0.0000 0.0000 3.8651 4.1289 -0.6171 0.8960 0.0000 1.0000
0.0000 0.0000 1.7623 -0.9888 -0.0648 0.1600 1.0000 0.0000
2.1100 0.0000 0.0000 6.5692 -0.0919 -0.1258 0.0000 1.7435

A|I = 0.0000 1.2500 0.0000 -1.3102 0.3593 0.4920 0.0000 -0.5669
0.0000 0.0000 3.8651 4.1289 -0.6171 0.8960 0.0000 1.0000
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -2.8714 0.2165 -0.2485 1.0000 -0.4560
2.1100 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.4035 -0.6944 2.2878 0.7003

A|I = 0.0000 1.2500 0.0000 0.0000 0.2605 0.6055 -0.4563 -0.3589
0.0000 0.0000 3.8651 0.0000 -0.3057 0.5386 1.4380 0.3444
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 -2.8714 0.2165 -0.2485 1.0000 -0.4560
Now the third and fourth columns are swapped back for the inverse
matrix shown in Table 2.16.

1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.1912 -0.3291 1.0843 0.3319
I|A-1 = 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 0.0000 0.2084 0.4844 -0.3651 -0.2871
0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 0.0000 -0.0791 0.1394 0.3720 0.0891
0.0000 0.0000 0.0000 1.0000 -0.0754 0.0866 -0.3483 0.1588
(Continued)
0.1912 -0.3291 0.3319 1.0843
A -1
= 0.2084 0.4844 -0.2871 -0.3651
-0.0791 0.1394 0.0891 0.3720
-0.0754 0.0866 0.1588 -0.3483
Now the third and fourth rows are swapped in coefficient matrix and
the solution is found as [x]=[A]-1[C] in Table 2.17:

1.65 1.65 1
C = 13.18 C = 13.18 x = 2
-0.67 17.32 3
17.32 -0.67 4
2.12 GAUSS–SEIDEL ITERATION METHOD
Some methods such as the Gaussian elimination are not appropriate

when a sparse matrix exists. A matrix normally can be considered sparse
if approximately two-thirds or more of the entries in a matrix are zero.
The Gauss–Seidel iteration method was developed for such systems. The
method is named for Carl Friedrich Gauss and Philipp Ludwig von Seidel
(Gauss 1903). This method is an iteration method in which the last cal-
culated values are used to determine a more accurate solution. Typically,
all unknown x values are assumed to be zero to begin the iteration. This
method mainly works best with a diagonal system in which the largest
values lie on the diagonal. The elastic stiffness matrix used to analyze
structures is a typical example of a diagonal system and will be presented
in Chapter 4. A diagonal system is sufficient, but not necessary to provide
convergence. During the process, each row is used to find a better approx-
imation of the variable corresponding to the row using all other variables
as known.
Example 2.14 Gauss–Seidel lteration method
Determine the solution to the following set of equations using the

Gauss–Seidel iteration method with e = 0.01 and assume x1 = x2 = x3
= x4 = 0.
10 x1 + x2 + 2 x3 + x4 = 50
2 x1 + 10 x2 + x3 + 2 x4 = 63
x1 + 2 x2 + 10 x3 + x4 = 67
2 x1 + x2 + x3 + 10 x4 = 75
Note that this is a diagonal system with 10’s on the diagonal and all other
coefficients are much less. Begin the iteration by setting x1 = x2 = x3 = x4 = 0
and solving for each of the unknowns using the corresponding equation in
a top down order.
10 x1 + 0 + 2 ( 0) + 0 = 50 ∴ x1 = 5.000
2 (5.000) + 10 x2 + 0 + 2 ( 0) = 63 ∴ x2 = 5.300
5.000 + 2 (5.300) + 10 x3 + 0 = 67 ∴ x3 = 5.140
2 (5.000) + 5.300 + 5.140 + 10 x4 = 75 ∴ x4 = 5.456
After completing the first cycle, start with the first equation using the new
values and find a closer approximation for each unknown. Also, check the
difference between the new values and the previous values to determine if
the desired accuracy is achieved.
10 x1 + 5.300 + 2 ( 5.140 ) + 5.456 = 50 ∴ x1 = 2.896 and ∆ x1 = −2.104

2 ( 2.896 ) + 10 x2 + 5.140 + 2 ( 5.456 ) = 63 ∴ x2 = 4.116 and ∆ x2 = −1.184
2.896 + 2 ( 4.116 ) + 10 x3 + 5.456 = 67 ∴ x3 = 5.042 and ∆ x3 = −0.098
2 ( 2.896 ) + 4.116 + 5.042 + 10 x4 = 75 ∴ x4 = 6.005 and ∆ x4 = 0.549
None of the values of Dx are less than e = 0.01, so the process is repeated.
Table 2.18 shows the entire process to convergence. The process can be
stopped when each value has changed less than e or when a cycle results
in each value changing less than e.
2.13 EIGENVALUES BY CRAMER’S RULE
A homogeneous equation is one where all the constants on the right-hand

side of the equal sign are zero. The typical set of n homogeneous equations
with n unknown solution sets is as follows:
a11 x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + … + a1n xn = 0

a21 x1 + a22 x2 + a23 x3 + … + a2 n xn = 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + a33 x3 + … + a3n xn = 0

an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + an 3 x3 + … + ann xn = 0
This can be written in matrix form, [A][x]=[0], as follows:
Table 2.18. Example 2.14 Gauss–Seidel iteration method

x1= 5.000 ∆x1= 5.000
x2= 5.300 ∆x2= 5.300
x3= 5.140 ∆x3= 5.140
x4= 5.456 ∆x4= 5.456
x1= 2.896 ∆x1= -2.104

x2= 4.116 ∆x2= -1.184
x3= 5.042 ∆x3= -0.098
x4= 6.005 ∆x4= 0.549
x1= 2.980 ∆x1= 0.083

x2= 3.999 ∆x2= -0.117
x3= 5.002 ∆x3= -0.040
x4= 6.004 ∆x4= -0.001 <epsilon
x1= 2.999 ∆x1= 0.020

x2= 3.999 ∆x2= 0.000 <epsilon
x3= 5.000 ∆x3= -0.002 <epsilon
x4= 6.000 ∆x4= -0.004 <epsilon
x1= 3.000 ∆x1= 0.001 <epsilon

x2= 4.000 ∆x2= 0.001 <epsilon
x3= 5.000 ∆x3= 0.000 <epsilon
x4= 6.000 ∆x4= 0.000 <epsilon
 a11 a12 a13 a1n   x1  0 

a
 21 a22 a23 a2 n   x2  0 
 
 a31 a32 a33 a3n   x3  = 0 
    
    0
 an1 an 2 an 3 ann   xn  0 
Let us consider the solution of eigenvalue problems. For any square

matrix, [A], the determinant equation |A−lI|=0 is a polynomial equation of
degree n unknowns in the variable l. In other words, there are exactly n
roots that satisfy this equation. These roots are known as eigenvalues of A.
( a11 − l ) x1 + a12 x2 + a13 x3 + … + a1n xn = 0

a21 x1 + ( a22 − l ) x2 + a23 x3 + … + a2 n xn = 0
a31 x1 + a32 x2 + ( a33 − l ) x3 + … + a3n xn = 0

an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + an 3 x3 + … + ( ann − l ) xn = 0
Converting these equations into matrix form, [A−lI][x]=0:
( a11 − l ) a12 a13 a1n   x1  0 

 
 a21 (a22 − l ) a23 a2 n   x2  0 
 a31

a32 (a33 − l ) a3n   x3  = 0 
   
    0 
 a
 n1 an 2 an 3 (ann − l )  xn  0
The non-trivial solution exists if the determinant of the coefficient

matrix is zero. We use this so that Cramer’s rule can be used to find the
eigenvalues. Example 2.15 shows the process of determining the eigen-
values by Cramer’s rule.
Example 2.15 Eigenvalues by Cramer’s rule
Determine the eigenvalues for the following set of equations using

Cramer’s rule.
0 x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 0
−10 x1 − 1x2 + 2 x3 = 0
−2 x1 + 4 x2 + 7 x3 = 0
(0 − l ) 2 3
−10 ( −1 − l ) 2 =0
−2 4 (7 − l )
Solve the determinant by the basket weave method.
(0 − l ) 2 3 (0 − l ) 2
−10 ( −1 − l ) 2 −10 ( −1 − l )
−2 4 (7 − l ) −2 4
( 0 − l ) ( −1 − l ) ( 7 − l )  + ( 2)( 2) ( −2)  + (3) ( −10)( 4) 

− (3) ( −1 − l ) ( −2)  − ( 0 − l )( 2)( 4)  − ( 2) ( −10) ( 7 − l ) 
l − 6l 2 + 11l − 6 = 0
3
The solution to the cubic equation can be found by many of the methods
from Chapter 1 and represent the eigenvalues l = 1, 2, and 3.
2.14 FADDEEV–LEVERRIER METHOD
The Faddeev–Leverrier method is a polynomial method used to find the

eigenvalues. The method is named for Dmitrii Konstantinovich Faddeev
and published by Urbain Jean Joseph Le Verrier in 1840 (Le Verrier
1839). From linear algebra, the trace of a matrix is the sum of the diag-
onal terms. The process for determining the characteristic polynomial is
as follows:
( −1)n (ln − p1ln −1 − p2 ln − 2 − p3 ln −3 − … − pn ) = 0

[ B1 ] = [ A] p1 = tr [ B1 ]
1
[ B ] = [ A]([ B ] − p [ I ])
2 1 1 p2 =
2
tr [ B2 ]
1
[ B ] = [ A]([ B ] − p [ I ])
3 2 2 p3 = tr [ B3 ]
3

1
[ B ] = [ A]([ B ] − p [ I ])
k k −1 k −1 pk =
k
tr [ Bk ]

1
[ B ] = [ A]([ B ] − p [ I ])
n n −1 n −1 pn =
n
tr [ Bn ]
Example 2.16 shows the process of determining the characteristic polyno-

mial and the eigenvalues by the Faddeev–Leverrier method.
Example 2.16 Faddeev–Leverrier method
Determine the eigenvalues for the following set of equations using the
Faddeev–Leverrier method.
x1 + 2 x2 + 3 x3 = 0
−10 x1 + 0 x2 + 2 x3 = 0
−2 x1 + 4 x2 + 8 x3 = 0
The matrix operations are shown in Table 2.19.

The characteristic polynomial is found from the trace values.
( −1)3 (l 3 − 9l 2 − ( −26) l − 24) = 0

− l 3 + 9l 2 − 26l + 24 = 0
The solution to the cubic equation can be found by many of the methods
from Chapter 1 and represent the eigenvalues l = 2, 3, and 4.
2.15 POWER METHOD OR ITERATION METHOD
The power method is an iterative method used when only the smallest or
largest eigenvalues and eigenvectors are desired. It may also be used to
find intermediate eigenvalues and eigenvectors using a sweeping tech-
nique. The sweeping technique can be found in “Applied Numerical
Methods for Digital Computations,” By M.L. James, G.M. Smith, and
J.C. Wolford. The largest eigenvalue is found by iterating on the equation
[A][x]= l[x].
The steps of procedure are as follows:
1. Assume values for the components of the eigenvector [x]=1.

2. Multiply the coefficient matrix times the vector [A][x].
3. Normalize the right hand side of the equation as follows l[x]:
Table 2.19. Example 2.16 Faddev–Leverrier method

[B1]=[A] = 1 2 3 1 2 3
−10 0 2 −10 0 2
−2 4 8 −2 4 8
[B2]=([A]([B1]−p1I) p1=tr[B1] = 9
1 2 3 * 1 2 3 − 9
−10 0 2 −10 0 2 9
−2 4 8 −2 4 8 9
1 2 3 * −8 2 3 = −34 −4 4
−10 0 2 −10 −9 2 76 −12 −32
−2 4 8 −2 4 −1 −40 −8 −6
[B3]=([A]([B2]−p2I) p2=(1/2)tr[B2] = −26
1 2 3 * −34 −4 4 − −26
−10 0 2 76 −12 −32 −26
−2 4 8 −40 −8 −6 −26
1 2 3 * −8 −4 4 = 24 0 0
−10 0 2 76 14 −32 0 24 0
−2 4 8 −40 −8 20 0 0 24
p3=(1/3)tr[B3] = 24
a. Divide all the x’s by first x value.

b. Divide all the x’s by the largest x.
c. Normalize to a unit length.
4. Use the components of the normalized vector as improved values
of x.
5. Repeat steps 2 through 4 until the previous values differ from the
new values by less than some small value (e).
The smallest eigenvalue is found by iterating on the equation [A−1][x]=

l−1[x] in the same manner as the largest value. A common structural prob-
lem is the modal node analysis of a multi-story frame. The general steps
are as follows:
[K][x] − λ[M ][x] = 0
The value l = w2, where w is the frequency of the building. The equation
can be rewritten as follows:
1
[ B ][ M ][ x ] = l [ x ]
The values of the matrices are [K] for stiffness, [M] for mass, and [B] for
flexibility.
Example 2.17 Power method
Determine the first mode shape (lowest eigenvector) for the following set
of equations using the power method with e = 0.001 and assuming [x] =
[1] as an initial value. The [B] and [M] matrices are for a four-story single
mass structural model.
10−6 103
1 / 12 1 / 12 1 / 12 1 / 12  6 0 0 0 0
1 / 12 11 / 60 11 / 60 11 / 60  0 5 0 0  0 
   = 
1 / 12 11 / 60 37 / 120 37 / 120  0 0 4 0 0 
     
1 / 12 11 / 60 37 / 120 57 / 120  0 0 0 3 0 
The [B] and [M] matrices can be combined by matrix multiplication.
0.000500 0.000417 0.000333 0.000250   0 

0.000500 0.000917 0.000733 0.0000550   0 
 =
 0.000500 0.000917 0.001233 0.000925  0 
   
 0.000500 0.000917 0.001233 0.001425  0 
The iteration process and the final solution are shown in Table 2.20. The
x vector was normalized to the top value.
Table 2.20. Example 2.17 Power method

0.0005 0.0004167 0.0003333 0.00025 * 1
0.0005 0.0009167 0.0007333 0.00055 1
0.0005 0.0009167 0.0012333 0.000925 1
0.0005 0.0009167 0.0012333 0.001425 1
1 1
0.0015 = 1 0.0015
0.0027 1.8
0.003575 2.3833333
0.004075 2.7166667
2 2
0.002724 = 1 0.0027236 emax= 0.5733384
0.005392 1.9797042
0.007602 2.79128
0.008961 3.2900051
3 3
0.003078 = 1 0.0030778 emax= 0.103831
0.006171 2.0050559
0.008801 2.8593634
0.010446 3.3938361
4 4
0.003137 = 1 0.003137 emax = 0.0172777
0.006301 2.0087357
0.009004 2.8701807
0.010701 3.4111138
5 5
0.003146 = 1 0.0031465 emax = 0.002883
0.006322 2.0093106
0.009037 2.8719442
0.010742 3.4139968
6 6
0.003148 = 1 0.003148 emax = 0.000484
0.006326 2.0094044 e = 0.001
0.009042 2.87223733 l1= 317.6593
0.010749 3.4144812
REFERENCES
Anon 179. The Nine Chapters on the Mathematical Art. China.

Clasen, B.I. 1888. Sur une nouvelle method de resolution de equations lineaires et
sul l’application de cette method au calcil des determinates. 3rd ed. Brussels,
Belgium.
Commandant Benoit. 1924. Note sur une méthode de résolution des équations
normales provenant de l’application de la méthode des moindres carrés à
un système d’équations linéaires en nombre inférieur à celui des inconnues,
Bulletin Géodésique. Heidelberg, Germany.
Cramer, G. 1750. Introduction à l’analyse des lignes courbes algébriques. Geneva,
Switzerland.
Gauss, C.F. 1903. Werke 9, Göttingen, Germany.
Le Verrier, U. 1839. Thesis on the secular variations of the orbits of the planets.
Paris, France: Academy of Sciences.
Newton, I. 1707. Arithmetica Universalis. London, England.
CHAPTER 3
Numerical Integration and

Differentiation
The integration of a continuous function is used to find the area under the
function and to evaluate integral relationships of functions. Differentia-
tion evaluates the rate of change of one variable with respect to another.
Examples of structural engineering problems involving integration and
differentiation include geometrical properties of centroids of areas and
volumes; moment of inertia; relationships between load, shear, moment,
rotation, and deflection of beams using the equation of the elastic curve;
and other strain energy relationships of structures involving shear, torsion,
and axial forces. Many methods exist to solve such types of problems with
varying levels of exactness. These and other problems will be covered in
the following chapters.
3.1 TRAPEZOIDAL RULE
Consider a function f(x) graphed between points a and b along the x-axis
as shown in Figure 3.1. One approximation of the area under the curve is
to apply the trapezoidal rule by dividing the area into n strips of width Dx.
Then, approximate the area of each strip as a trapezoid.
Calling the ordinates f(xi) = yi (i = 1, 2, 3,…, n, n+1), the areas of each
strip are as follows:
 y + y2   y + y3   y + y4 
A1 = ∆ x  1 , A = ∆x 2 , A = ∆x 3 , … An
 2  2  2  3  2 
 y + y n +1 
= ∆x n 
 2
b
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx = A1 + A2 + A3 + + An
a
b
∆x
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx =
2
( y1 + 2 y2 + 2 y3 + + 2 yn + yn +1 )
a
∆x  n

A= y + 2y + y
y=f(x)
y4 yn–1
y3 yn
y2 yn+1
y1
A1 A2 A3 An–1 An
x
x=a xi x=b
 y + y2   y + y3   y + y4 
A1 = ∆ x  1 , A2 = ∆ x  2 , A3 = ∆ x  3  , … An
 2 ∆x  ∆x ∆x 2  
∆x ∆x 2
Figure 3.1.  y + yn +1rule.

= ∆Trapezoidal
x n  
2
b
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx = A1 + A2 + A3 + + An
a
b
∆x
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx =
2
( y1 + 2 y2 + 2 y3 + + 2 yn + yn +1 )
a
∆x  n

A=
2  y1 + ∑
i=2
2 yi + yn +1 

Example 3.1 Trapezoidal rule
Determine the area under the curve from 0 to p for y=sin(x) using the
trapezoidal rule with 2 and 4 strips.
∆x  n

A=
2  y1 + ∑
i=2
2 yi + yn +1 

Two strips are shown in Table 3.1:
Table 3.1. Example 3.1 Trapezoidal rule

x 0 p/2 p
x 0 1.5708 3.1416
y=sin(x) 0 1 1.23E-16
p p
A=
4
( 0 + 2 (1) + 0) = = 1.5708
2
Numerical Integration and Differentiation • 99
Four strips are shown in Table 3.2:
Table 3.2. Example 3.1 Trapezoidal rule

x 0 p/4 p/2 3p/4 p
x 0 0.7854 1.5708 2.3562 3.1416
y=sin(x) 0 0.7071 1 0.7071 1.23E-16
p
A=
8
(0 + 2 (0.7071) + 2 (1) + 2 (0.7071) + 0) = p8 ( 4.8284) = 1.8961
The exact solution may be found by the integral:
∫sin ( x) dx = −cos ( x) | = − cos ( p ) − cos ( 0)  = 1 + 1 = 2

p
0
0
3.2 ROMBERG INTEGRATION
A more accurate integral can be obtained using Romberg’s method

(Romberg 1955). If a function can be defined as a continuous mathe
matical expression having continuous derivative f′(x) and f″(x), the
error of the trapezoidal rule is shown in Figure 3.2 and can be found
as follows:
Expanding yi+1 in a Taylor series about xi and letting Dx=h as
follows:
yi′′h 2 yi′′′h3
yi +1 = yi + yi′ h + + + Higher order terms
2! 3!
The change in y between points i and i+1 is equal to the area under the
y′ curve between those two points, therefore the exact area in the strip is
as follows:
yi +1 − yi = yi′h + + + Higher order terms
2! 3!
f ′h 2 f ′′h3
yi +1 − yi = f i h + i + i + Higher order terms (3.1)
2! 3!
y′ = f(x)
fi fi+1
x
∆x
yi+1
yi+1 – yi
yi
x
xi xi+1
Figure 3.2. Romberg integration.
The Taylor series for fi+1 expanded about xi is as follows:
f ′′ h 2
f i +1 = f i + f i ′ h + i + Higher order terms
2!
f i ′′ h 2
f i ′h = f i +1 − f i − − Higher order terms (3.2)
2!
Substituting Equation 3.2 into Equation 3.1, the following can be derived:
 f ′′ h 2 
 f i +1 − f i − i − Higher order terms  h
 2! 
yi +1 − yi = f i h + 
2!
f i ′′ h3
+ + Higher order terms
3!
yi +1 − yi = exact area =
( fi + fi +1 ) h − f i ′′ h3
+ Higher order terms (3.3)
2 12
The first term on the right side in Equation 3.3 is the area or the trapezoid
and the rest is the error as follows:
f i ′′ h3
ET = − + Higher order terms
12
The exact integral, I, can be derived using this error relation from two sep-
arate approximate integrals. The derivation is omitted from this text, but
may be found in “Applied Numerical Methods for Digital Computations,”
by James, Smith, and Wolford (1977). The improved integral is based on
two approximate integrals with a strip where h2 < h1 as follows:
I − I  I −I
I ≅ I h 2 +  h12 h22  h22 = I h 2 + h1 2h 2
 h2 − h1   h1  − 1
 h2 
2
h1
Ih2   −
 h2  I h1
I≅ 2
 h1  − 1
 h2 
If the second integration uses a strip one-half that of the first with h1/h2=2,
the equation becomes the following:
I h 2 ( 2) − I h1
2
I≅
( 2) 2 − 1
This is a defined as a first-order extrapolation. If two first-order extrapo-

lations are performed, then their results can be combined into a second-
order relationship with the following:
I h 2 ( 2) − I h1
4
I≅
( 2) 4 − 1
The general nth order extrapolation would take the following form with n
being the order of extrapolation:
I h 2 4n − I h1
I≅
4n − 1
Example 3.2 Romberg integration
Determine the third-order extrapolation for the area under the curve from
0 to 1 for y=10x using Romberg integration along with the trapezoidal rule.
∆x  n

A=  y1 + ∑ 2 yi + yn +1 
2  i=2 
The trapezoidal integration for one strip is as follows in Table 3.3:
Table 3.3. Example 3.2 Romberg integration

x 0 1.000
y 1.0000 10.0000
1
A= (1 + 10) = 5.5
2
Two strips are shown in Table 3.4:

x 0 0.500 1.000
y 1.0000 3.1623 10.0000
1
A=
4
(1 + 2 (3.1623) + 10) = 4.33114

x 0 0.250 0.500 0.750 1.000
y 1.0000 1.7783 3.1623 5.6234 10.0000
1
A=
8
(1 + 2 (1.7783) + 2 (3.1623) + 2 (5.6234) + 10) = 4.01599
Eight strips are shown in Table 3.6:

x 0 0.125 0.250 0.375 0.500 0.625 0.750 0.875 1.000
y 1.0000 1.3335 1.7783 2.3714 3.1623 4.2170 5.6234 7.4989 10.0000
1
A=
16
(1 + 2 (1.3335) + 2 (1.7783) + 2 ( 2.3724) + 2 (3.1623)
+ 2 ( 4.2170) + 2 (5.6234) + 2 ( 7.4989) + 10) = 3.93560
From Romberg integration,

I h 2 4n − I h1
I≅
4n − 1
First order:
4.33114 ( 4) − 5.5
1
I≅ = 3.941518
( 4)1 − 1
4.01599 ( 4) − 4.33114
1
I≅ = 3.910944
( 4)1 − 1
3.93560 ( 4) − 4.01599
1
I≅ = 3.908798
( 4)1 − 1
Second order:
3.910944 ( 4) − 3.941518
2
I≅ = 3.9089055
( 4) 2 − 1
3.908798 ( 4) − 3.910943
2
I≅ = 3.9808648
( 4) 2 − 1
Third order:
3.9086548 ( 4) − 3.9089055
3
I≅ = 3.98086509
( 4 )3 − 1
5.5 4.33114 4.01599 3.9560
3.941518 3.910944 3.908798
3.9089055 3.6086548
3.98086509
The exact solution may be found from the following integral:
1
10 x 1
∫10
x
dx = |0 = 4.342944819 − 0.434294482 = 3.9808650337
0
ln 10
3.3 SIMPSON’S RULE
More accurate integration can be achieved by Simpson’s rules credited

to Simpson (1750). Consider a function f(x) graphed between x=–Dx and
x=Dx as shown in Figure 3.3. An approximation of the area under the
curve between these two points would be to pass a parabola through the
points and zero (three points). The general second-degree parabola con-
necting the three points is as follows:
y = f ( x ) = ax 2 + bx + c
∆x ∆xx
 ax 3 bx 2 
A= ∫(
− ∆x
)
ax 2 + bx + c dx = 
 3
+
2
+ cx 
 − ∆x
2
a ( ∆ x ) + 2c ( ∆ x )
3
A= (3.4)
3
The constants a, b, and c are found using the three points (–Dx, yi), (0, yi+1),
and (Dx, yi+2) as follows:
y=f(x)
(xi+1, yi+1)
(xi, yi) (xi+2, yi+2)
y=ax2+bx+c
∆x ∆x
Figure 3.3. Simpson’s rule.

yi = a ( − ∆ x ) + b ( − ∆ x ) + c
2
yi +1 = c
yi + 2 = f ( x) = a (∆x) 2 + b(∆x) + c
Solving the three equations with three unknowns we obtain the following:
yi − 2 yi +1 + yi + 2
a=
2 ( ∆ x)
2
− yi + yi + 2
b=
2 ( ∆x )
c = yi +1
Substituting the expressions for a and c into Equation 3.4, the following
is achieved:
∆x
A=
3
( yi + 4 yi +1 + yi + 2 )
If we apply this to n even numbered strips, the following occurs:
∆x
A=
3
( y1 + 4 y2 + y3 )
∆x
A=
3
( y3 + 4 y4 + y5 )
∆x
A=
3
( y5 + 4 y6 + y7 )
∆x
A=
3
( yn −1 + 4yn + yn +1 )
In general form, this is the following:
∆x  n n −1

A=  y1 + 4 ∑ yi + 2 ∑ yi + yn +1 
3  i = 2, 4,6 i = 3, 5 , 7 
If we performed the error truncation to obtain Romberg’s integration, the

following occurs:
I h 2 16n − I h1
I≅
16n − 1
Similarly, Simpson’s three-eighths rule can be derived using three strips

and a third-degree parabola. The following is the solution:
y = f ( x ) = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
3 ∆x 3 ∆x
2
 ax 4 bx 3 cx 2  2
∫ ( )
3 2
A= ax + bx + cx + d dx =  + + + dx 
−3 ∆x  4 3 2  −3∆x
2 2
9
b ( ∆ x ) + 3d ( ∆ x )
3
A= (3.5)
4
The constants a, b, c, and d are found using the four points (–3Dx/2, yi),
(–Dx/2, yi+1), (Dx/2, yi+2), and (3Dx/2, yi+3) as follows:
3 2
 −3∆ x   −3∆ x   −3∆ x 
yi = a   + b  + c +d
 2   2   2 
3 2
 −∆ x   −∆ x   −∆ x 
yi +1 = a  + b + c +d
 2   2   2 
3 2
 ∆ x  ∆ x  ∆ x
yi + 2 = a   + b   + c   + d
 2   2   2 
3 2
 3∆ x   3∆ x   3∆ x 
yi + 3 = a + b + c +d
 2   2   2 
Solve the four equations with four unknowns and then substitute these
back into Equation 3.5 to achieve the following:
3∆ x
A=
8
( yi + 3 yi +1 + 3 yi + 2 + yi + 3 )
The general form with n strips is as follows:
3∆ x  n −1, n n−2

A=
8   y1 + 3 ∑
i = 2 , 3, 5 , 6
yi + 2 ∑
i = 4, 7
yi + yn +1 

For an odd number of strips, both the one-third and three-eighths rules
must be used. The three-eighths rule is used to obtain the area contained
in three strips under the curve and then the one-third rule is used for the
remaining n–3 strips.
Example 3.3. Simpson’s one-third rule
Determine the area under the curve from –p/2 to p/2 for y = x2cos(x) using
Simpson’s one-third rule with four and eight strips.
∆x  n n −1

A=
3  y1 + 4 ∑
i = 2, 4,6
yi + 2 ∑
i = 3, 5 , 7
yi + yn +1 

Table 3.7. Example 3.3 Simpson’s one-third rule

-p/2 -p/4 0 p/4 p/2
x -1.57080 -0.78540 0.00000 0.78540 1.57080
y 0.00000 0.43618 0.00000 0.43618 0.00000
p p
A=
12
( 0 + 4 ( 0.43618) + 2 ( 0) + 4 ( 0.43618) + 0) = (3.48944)
12
= 0.913533
Eight strips are shown in Table 3.8:
Table 3.8. Example 3.3 Simpson’s one-third rule

-p/2 -3p/8 -p/4 -p/8 0 p/8 p/4 3p/8 p/2
x -1.57080 -1.17810 -0.78540 -0.39270 0.00000 0.39270 0.78540 1.17810 1.57080
y 0.00000 0.53113 0.43618 0.14247 0.00000 0.14247 0.43618 0.53113 0.00000
p
A=
24
(0 + 4 (0.53113) + 2 (0.43618) + 4 (0.14247) + 2 (0) + 4 (0.14247)
p
+ 2 ( 0.43618) + 4 ( 0.53113) + 0) = (7.13352) = 0.933776
24
Perform Romberg extrapolation with these two integrations to get a more

exact solution as follows:
I h 2 16n − I h1 ( 0.933776)161 − 0.913533

I≅ = = 0.935126
16n − 1 161 − 1

p
2 p
∫ x cos ( x) dx = 2xcos ( x) + ( x )
− 2 sin ( x )  −p
2 2 2
−p 2
2
= ( 0 + 0.4674011003) − ( 0 − 0.4674011003) = 0.9348022005
Example 3.4. Simpson’s one-third and three-eighths rules
Determine the area under the curve from 0 to p/2 for y = sin3x+cos3x using
Simpson’s three-eighths and one-third rules (in that order) with five strips.
Simpson’s three-eighths rule is set up in Table 3.9:
3∆ x
A=
8
( yi + 3 yi +1 + 3 yi + 2 + yi + 3 )
Table 3.9. Example 3.4 Simpson’s one-third and three-eighths rules

0 p/10 p/5 3p/10 2p/5 p/2
x 0.00000 0.31416 0.62832 0.94248 1.25664 1.57080
y 1.00000 0.88975 0.73258 0.73258 0.88975 1.00000
3p 3p
A=
80
(1 + 3 ( 0.88975) + 3 ( 0.73258) + 0.73258) =
80
(6.59957) = 0.777494
Simpson’s one-third rule is set up in Table 3.10:

∆x
A=
3
( yi + 4 yi +1 + yi + 2 )
Table 3.10. Example 3.4 Simpson’s one-third and three-eighths rules
0 p/10 p/5 3p/10 2p/5 p/2
0.00000 0.31416 0.62832 0.94248 1.25664 1.57080
1.00000 0.88975 0.73258 0.73258 0.88975 1.00000
p p
A=
30
( 0.73258 + 4 ( 0.88975) + 1) = (5.29158) = 0.554133
30
Adding the two together for a total area:
A = 0.777494 + 0.554133 = 1.331627


p p
2 2
∫ ( sin x + cos x ) dx = ∫ ( sin )

2 n −1
2 2
x + cos 2 n −1 x dx
0 0
2 ( 4) 6 …( 2n) 2 ( 4) 6 …( 2n) 2 2 4
= + = + =
3 (5) 7 …( 2n + 1) 3 (5) 7 …( 2n + 1) 3 3 3
3.4 GAUSSIAN QUADRATURE
The main difference of Gaussian quadrature from the previous methods

is that the interval to be integrated is not divided into strips. Instead, a
central point is used to determine the best places to evaluate the function.
The Gauss points indicate how far from the central point to go and then
each point is weighted. The derivation of this method is not included
here, but can be found in many advanced mathematics textbooks. The
method is named for Carl Friedrich Gauss (1801). The following is a gen-
eral equation that shows the process for n Gauss points for integration:
b n
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx = s ∑ f ( s1 ± sxi ) wi
a i =1
b−a
s=
2
b+a
s1 =
2
The number of points used should closely match the degree of the equation
to integrate. Table 3.11 shows some of the Gaussian quadrature points, xi,
and their weights, wi.
Example 3.5. Gaussian quadrature
Determine the area under the curve from 1 to 10 for y = log10x using
Gaussian quadrature with 2, 3, and 4 points.
b n
A = ∫ f ( x ) dx = s ∑ f ( s1 ± sxi ) wi
a i =1
b − a 10 − 1
s= = = 4.5
2 2
b + a 10 + 1
s1 = = = 5.5
2 2
Table 3.11. Gaussian quadrature

xi wi
One point 0 2
Two points -0.577350269 1
0.577350269 1
Three points -0.774596669 0.555555556
0 0.888888889
0.774596669 0.555555556
Four points -0.861136312 0.347854845
-0.339981044 0.652145155
0.339981044 0.652145155
0.861136312 0.347854845
Five points -0.906179846 0.236926885
-0.538469310 0.478628670
0 0.568888889
0.538469310 0.478628670
0.906179846 0.236926885
Six points -0.932469514 0.171324492
-0.661209386 0.360761573
-0.238619186 0.467913935
0.238619186 0.467913935
0.661209386 0.360761573
0.932469514 0.171324492
Two points are shown in Table 3.12:

Table 3.12. Example 3.5 Gaussian quadrature
xi -0.577350269
2-points 0.577350269
wi 1
1
s1+sxi 2.90192379
8.098076211
f(s1+sxi) 0.462686003
0.90838186
f(s1+sxi)wi 0.462686003
0.90838186
S 1.371067862
S*s 6.169805381
Three points are shown in Table 3.13:

xi -0.774596669
3-point 0
0.774596669
wi 0.555555556
0.888888889
0.555555556
s1+sxi 2.01431499
5.5
8.985685011
f(s1+sxi) 0.304127385
0.740362689
0.953551191
f(s1+sxi)wi 0.168959658
0.658100169
0.529750662
S 1.356810489
S*s 6.105647198
Four points are shown in Table 3.14:

xi -0.861136312
4-points -0.339981044
0.339981044
0.861136312
wi 0.347854845
0.652145155
0.652145155
0.347854845
s1+sxi 1.624886596
3.970085302
7.029914698
9.375113404
f(s1+sxi) 0.210823056
0.598799838
0.846950055
0.97197653
f(s1+sxi)wi 0.073335822
0.390504413
0.552334375
0.338106745
S 1.354281355
S*s 6.094266097

10
∫log ( x) dx = [ xlogx − xloge]

10
1
= 5.65706 + 0.43429 = 6.09135
1
3.5 DOUBLE INTEGRATION BY SIMPSON’S

ONE-THIRD RULE
When using double integration by Simpson’s one-third rule, weighting

is applied in both directions and is then multiplied by the spacing in both
directions. The following is a general weighting array for four strips:
1 4 2 4 1
4 16 8 16 4
2 8 4 8 2
4 16 8 16 4
1 4 2 4 1
For two strips, the weighting array is the following:

1 4 1
4 16 4
1 4 1
Any even set of strips will follow the same pattern and this could also
be done using any other type of integration. Using the trapezoidal rule
would be less accurate, but could do any number of strips and Simpson’s
three-eighths rule would require a multiple of three strips in each direc-
tion. The summation of the weighting array multiplied by f(x,y) is used in
the following equation to obtain the volume.
hxhy
9
∑ = ∫ ∫ f ( x, y ) = V
The terms hx and hy are the spacing in the x and y directions, respectively.
Example 3.6 Double integration by Simpson’s rule
Determine the volume under the hyperbolic paraboloid from x = 0 to 8 and
y = 0 to 8 for 0 = 16z – xy using Simpson’s one-third rule with four strips
in each direction.
x = 0 to 8 Dx = 2 = hx and

y = 0 to 8 Dy = 2 = hy
hxhy
9
∑ = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) = V
Weighting operator:
1 4 2 4 1
4 16 8 16 4
2 8 4 8 2
4 16 8 16 4
1 4 2 4 1
Solving for z:
xy
z=
16
Table 3.15 shows the set up and summation as follows:

hxhy
9
∑ = ∫∫ f ( x, y ) = V
2 ( 2)
144 = 64 = V
9
Table 3.15. Example 3.6 Double integration by Simpson’s

one-third rule
x y weight f(x,y) weight*f(x,y)
0 0 1 0 0
0 2 4 0 0
0 4 2 0 0
0 6 4 0 0
0 8 1 0 0
2 0 4 0 0
2 2 16 0.25 4
2 4 8 0.5 4
2 6 16 0.75 12
(Continued)
x y weight f(x,y) weight*f(x,y)
2 8 4 1 4
4 0 2 0 0
4 2 8 0.5 4
4 4 4 1 4
4 6 8 1.5 12
4 8 2 2 4
6 0 4 0 0
6 2 16 0.75 12
6 4 8 1.5 12
6 6 16 2.25 36
6 8 4 3 12
8 0 1 0 0
8 2 4 1 4
8 4 2 2 4
8 6 4 3 12
8 8 1 4 4
S 144
3.6 DOUBLE INTEGRATION BY GAUSSIAN

QUADRATURE
Double integration by Gaussian quadrature is very similar to the single

integration process. In this case, the Gauss equation is applied in both
directions and then multiplied by the weighting factors.
bx , by n
V = ∫∫
ax , bx
i =1
( )
f ( x, y ) dxdy = sx s y ∑ f sx1 ± sx xi , s y1 ± sx yi wxi wyi
bx − ax b + ax
sx = and sx1 = x
2 2
by − a y by + a y
sy = and s y1 =
2 2
The number of points used should closely match the degree of the equa-
tion to integrate. The same Gauss points and weights from Section 3.4 are
used in each direction.
Example 3.7 Double integration by Gaussian quadrature
Determine the volume under the hemisphere from x = −4 to 4 and y = −4
to 4 for 64 = x2+y2+z2 using Gaussian quadrature with three points in each
direction.
Solving for z and the points:
z = 64 − x 2 − y 2
bx − ax 4 − ( −4)
sx = = =4
2 2
b + ax 4 + ( −4)
sx1 = x = =0
2 2
by − a y 4 − ( −4)
sy = = =4
2 2
by + a y 4 + ( −4)
s y1 = = =0
2 2
Table 3.16 shows the set up and summation as follows with xi, yi given
values and wx, wy corresponding weights when using three points:
Table 3.16. Example 3.7 Double integration by Gaussian quadrature

x = y =
xi yi sx1 + sxxi sy1 + svyi wx wy f(x,y) wx*wy*f(x,y)
-0.774597 -0.774597 -3.098387 -3.098387 0.555556 0.555556 6.69328 2.065827
-0.774597 0 -3.098387 0 0.555556 0.888889 7.375636 3.642289
-0.774597 0.774597 -3.098387 3.098387 0.555556 0.555556 6.69328 2.065827
0 -0.774597 0 -3.098387 0.888889 0.555556 7.375636 3.642289
0 0 0 0 0.888889 0.888889 8 6.320988
0 0.774597 0 3.098387 0.888889 0.555556 7.375636 3.642289
0.774597 -0.774597 3.098387 -3.098387 0.555556 0.555556 6.69328 2.065827
0.774597 0 3.098387 0 0.555556 0.888889 7.375636 3.642289
0.774597 0.774597 3.098387 3.098387 0.555556 0.555556 6.69328 2.065827
S 29.153453
V = sx s y ∑ = 4 ( 4) 29.153 = 466.45
3.7 TAYLOR SERIES POLYNOMIAL EXPANSION
The differentiation of a continuous function is used to find slopes, cur-

vatures, and values for a function but can also be used to find other
relationships of functions. Often in structural engineering, there is a
need to find differential relationships. One simple way to easily evalu-
ate transcendental equations is to use polynomial expansion developed
for the Taylor series. This is often referred to as the power series. The
general Taylor series polynomial expansion of a function is as follows:
y = f ( x ) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + b3 x 3 + + bn x n
Successive derivatives of the function evaluated at zero can yield the coef-
ficients, b.
f ( 0) = b0
f ′ ( 0) = 1b1
f ′′ ( 0) = 1( 2) b2
f ′′′ ( 0) = 1( 2) 3b3 = 3!b3

f i
(0) = 1( 2) 3…(i)bi = i !bi

f n
(0) = 1( 2) 3…(n)bn = n !bn
By taking successive derivatives of the function then evaluating them,

the coefficients of the polynomial may be found. This is how most digi-
tal equipment like computers and calculators find values for transcendental
equations.
Example 3.8 Taylor series polynomial expansion
Expand y=sin(x) into a polynomial using Taylor series including up to the

ninth degree term. Check by calculating sin45°.
y = sin ( x ) = b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + b3 x 3 + + b9 x 9
Evaluate the successive derivatives as follows:
f ( 0) = b0 = sin ( 0) = 0 ∴ b0 = 0
f ′ ( 0) = 1b1 = cos ( 0) = 1∴ b1 = 1
f ′′ ( 0) = 2b2 = − sinn ( 0) = 0 ∴ b2 = 0
1
f ′′′ ( 0) = 3!b3 = −cos ( 0) = −1∴ b3 = −
3!
f ′′′′ ( 0) = 4 !b4 = sin ( 0) = 0 ∴ b4 = 0
1
f ′′′′′ ( 0) = 5!b5 = cos ( 0) = 1∴ b5 =
5!
f ′′′′′′ ( 0) = 6 !b6 = − sin ( 0) = 0 ∴ b6 = 0
1
f ′′′′′′′ ( 0) = 7 !b7 = − cos ( 0) = −1∴ b7 = −
7!
f ′′′′′′′′ ( 0) = 8!b8 = sin ( 0) = 0 ∴ b8 = 0
1
f ′′′′′′′′′ ( 0) = 9 !b9 = cos ( 0) = 1∴ b9 =
9!
The polynomial can then be written with the coefficients.
1 3 1 5 1 7 1 9
y = sin ( x ) = x − x + x − x + x
3! 5! 7! 9!
The value of sin45°=sin(p/4) can be evaluated to check the accuracy of

the approximation.
( ) 1
( )1
( )
1 p 7 1 p 9
( ) ( )
3 5
y = sin p 4 = p 4 − p 4 + p 4 − +
3! 5! 7! 4 9! 4
y = 0.7853981634 − 0.0808455122 + 0.0024903946 − 0.0000365762
+ 0.0000003134
y = 0.7071067829
The exact solution to the same accuracy is y=0.7071067812.
Example 3.9. Taylor series polynomial expansion
Expand y = e−–x into a polynomial using Taylor series including up to the

fifth degree term. Check by calculating e−–1.
y = e − x = b0 + b1 x + b2 x 2 + b3 x 3 + + b5 x 5
Evaluate the successive derivatives as follows:
f ( 0) = b0 = e −0 = 1∴ b0 = 1
f ′ (0) = b1 = −e −0 = −1∴ b1 = −1
1
f ′′ (0) = 2b2 = e −0 = 1∴ b2 =
2
1
f ′′′ (0) = 3!b3 = −e −0 = −1∴ b3 = −
3!
1
f ′′′′ (0) = 4!b4 = e −0 = 1∴ b4 =
4!
1
f ′′′′′ (0) = 5!b5 = −e −0 = −1∴ b5 = −
5!
The polynomial can then be written with the coefficients.
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
y = e− x = 1 − x + x − x + x − x
2! 3! 4! 5!
The value of the e–1 can be evaluated to check the accuracy of the
approximation.
1 2 1 3 1 4 1 5
y = e− x = 1 − 1 + (1) − (1) + (1) − (1)
2! 3! 4! 5!
y = 1 − 1 + 0.5 − 0.166667 + 0.041667 − 0.008333
y = 0.366667
The exact solution to the same accuracy is y = 0.367879. If the polynomial

was calculated up to the x9 term, the value would be y = 0.3678791 versus
the exact value of y = 0.3678794.
3.8 DIFFERENCE OPERATORS BY TAYLOR

SERIES EXPANSION
The numerical differential equation relationships can be found using the

Taylor series expansion. Expanding the Taylor series for a function y=f(x)
at x=(xi+h) gives the following equation:
y ( xi + h ) = yi + yi′ h + + + (3.6)
2! 3!
Next, expanding the Taylor series for a function y=f(x) at x=(xi–h) gives
the following equation:
yi′′' h 2 yi′′′h3
y ( xi − h ) = yi − yi′ h + − + (3.7)
2! 3!
If Equation 3.7 is subtracted from Equation 3.6, a first derivative relation-

ship is as follows:
y ( xi + h ) − y ( xi − h )  yi′′′h 2 
yi′ = −− +  (3.8)
2h  6 
This may be written as follows with successive values of y and the higher
order terms omitted:
yi +1 − yi −1
yi′ =
2h
This equation is known as the central-difference approximation of y′i at xi

with errors, order of h2. If Equation 3.7 is added to Equation 3.6, a second
derivative relationship is as follows:
y ( xi + h ) − 2 yi + y ( xi − h )  yi′′′′h 2 
yi′′= 2
− +  (3.9)
h  12 
This may be written as follows with successive values of y and the higher
order terms omitted:
yi +1 − 2 yi + yi −1
yi′′=
h2
This equation is known as the central-difference approximation of yi″ at xi

with errors, order of h2. Next, expanding the Taylor series for a function
y=f(x) at x=(xi+2h) gives the following equation:
yi′′ ( 2h) y ′′′( 2h) yi′′′′( 2h)

2 3 4
y ( xi + 2h ) = yi + yi′ 2h + + i + + (3.10)
2! 3! 4!
Finally, expanding the Taylor series for a function y=f(x) at x=(xi−2h)

gives the following equation:
yi′′ ( 2h) y ′′′( 2h) y ′′′′( 2h)

2 3 4
y ( xi − 2h ) = yi − yi′2h + − i + i (3.11)
2! 3! 4!
If Equation 3.11 is subtracted from Equation 3.10 and the equation for the
first derivative is substituted into the result, a third derivative relationship
is as follows, with an order of error h2:
yi + 2 − 2 yi +1 + 2 yi −1 − yi − 2
yi′′′=
2h 3
If Equation 3.11 is added to Equation 3.10 and the equation for the second
derivative is substituted into the result, a fourth derivative relationship is
as follows with an order of error h2:
yi + 2 − 4 yi +1 + 6 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi ′′′′ =
h4
These are the central difference expressions with error order h2. Higher
order expressions can be derived if we include more terms in each expan-
sion. Forward difference expressions can be derived by using Taylor series
expansion of x = (xi+h), x=(xi+2h), x=(xi+3h), and so forth. Backward
difference expressions may also be derived by Taylor series expansion of
x=(xi–h), x=(xi–2h), x=(xi–3h), and so forth. The following are the cen-
tral, forward, and backward difference expressions of varying error order.
These were compiled from “Applied Numerical Methods for Digital Com-
putations,” by James, Smith, and Wolford (1977). They can also be written
in a reverse graphical form that is sometimes used and compiled from
“Numerical Methods in Engineering,” by Salvadori and Baron (1961).
Central difference expressions with error order h2:
yi +1 − yi −1
yi′ =
2h
yi +1 − 2 yi + yi −1
yi′′=
h2
y − 2 yi +1 + 2 yi −1 − yi − 2
yi′′′ = i + 2
2h 3
y − 4 yi +1 + 6 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi′′′′= i + 2
h4
i − 2 i −1 i i +1 i + 2
2hD −1 0 1
h2 D 2 1 −2 1
2h3 D 3 −1 2 0 −2 1
h4 D 4 1 −4 6 −4 1
Central difference expressions with error order h4:
− yi + 2 + 8 yi +1 − 8 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi ′ =
12h
− y + 16 yi +1 − 30 yi + 16 yi −1 − yi − 2
yi ′′ = i + 2
12h 2
− y + 8 yi + 2 − 13 yi +1 + 13 yi −1 − 8 yi − 2 + yi − 3
yi ′′′ = i + 3
8h 3
− y + 12 yi + 2 − 39 yi +1 + 56 yi − 39 yi −1 + 12 yi − 2 − yi − 3
yi ′′ ′′ = i + 3
6h 4
i − 3 i − 2 i −1 i i +1 i + 2 i + 3
12hD 1 −8 0 8 −1
12h 2 D 2 −1 16 −30 16 −1
8h3 D 3 1 −8 13 0 −13 8 −1
6h 4 D 4 −1 12 −39 56 −39 12 −1
Forward difference expressions with error order h:
yi +1 − yi
yi ′ =
h
y − 2 yi +1 + yi
yi ′′ = i + 2
h2
y − 3 yi + 2 + 3 yi +1 − yi
yi ′′′ = i + 3
h3
y − 4 yi + 3 + 6 yi + 2 − 4 yi +1 + yi
yi ′′′′ = i + 4
h4
i i +1 i + 2 i + 3 i + 4
hD −1 1
h2 D 2 1 −2 1
h3 D 3 −1 3 −3 1
h4 D 4 1 −4 6 −4 1
Forward difference expressions with error order h2:
− yi + 2 + 4 yi +1 − 3 yi
yi′ =
2h
− yi + 3 + 4 yi + 2 − 5 yi +1 + 2 yi
yi′′ =
h2
−3 yi + 4 + 14 yi + 3 − 24 yi + 2 + 18 yi +1 − 5 yi
yi′′′ =
2h 3
−2 yi + 5 + 11 yi + 4 − 24 yi + 3 + 26 yi + 2 − 14 yi +1 + 3 yi
yi′′′′=
h4
i i +1 i + 2 i + 3 i + 4 i + 5
2hD −3 4 −1
h2 D 2 2 −5 4 −1
2h 3 D 3 −5 18 −24 14 −3
h4 D 4 3 −14 26 −24 11 −2
Backward difference expressions with error order h:
yi − yi −1
yi′ =
h
yi − 2 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi′′ =
h2
y − 3 yi −1 + 3 yi − 2 − yi − 3
yi′′′ = i
h3
y − 4 yi −1 + 6 yi − 2 − 4 yi − 3 + yi − 4
yi′′′′= i
h4
i − 4 i − 3 i − 2 i −1 i
hD −1 1
h2 D 2 1 −2 1
h3 D 3 −1 3 −3 1
h4 D 4 1 −4 6 −4 1
Backward difference expressions with error order h2:
3 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi′ =
2h
2 yi − 5 yi −1 + 4 yi − 2 − yi − 3
yi′′ =
h2
5 y − 18 yi −1 + 24 yi − 2 − 14 yi − 3 + 3 yi − 4
yi′′′ = i
2h 3
3 y − 14 yi −1 + 26 yi − 2 − 24 yi − 3 + 11 yi − 4 − 2 yi − 5
yi′′′′= i
h4
3 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi′ =
2h
yi − 5 yi −1 + 4Integration
2Numerical yi − 2 − yi − 3 and Differentiation • 123
yi′′ =
h2
5 y − 18 yi −1 + 24 yi − 2 − 14 yi − 3 + 3 yi − 4
yi′′′ = i
2h 3
3 y − 14 yi −1 + 26 yi − 2 − 24 yi − 3 + 11 yi − 4 − 2 yi − 5
yi′′′′= i
h4
i − 5 i − 4 i − 3 i − 2 i −1 i
2hD 1 −4 3
h2 D 2 −1 4 −5 2
2h 3 D 3 3 −14 24 −18 5
h4 D 4 −2 11 −24 26 −14 3
3.9 NUMERIC MODELING WITH DIFFERENCE

OPERATORS
The difference operators, sometimes referred to as finite difference operators,

can be used to solve many structural engineering problems involving differ-
ential equation relationships. One common relationship is that of the equa-
tion of the elastic curve. The equation of the elastic curve relates the deflected
shape of a beam to the rotation, moment, shear, and load on the beam. This is
a typical strength of materials topic and the following are the basic relation-
ships based on the deflection equation in y and θ, M, V, and q:
yi ′ = q
M
yi′′ = −
EI
V
yi′′′ = −
EI
q
yi′′′′= −
EI
Example 3.10 Simple beam with difference operator
Calculate the shear, moment, rotation, and deflection for a 25 foot long,
simply supported beam with a uniformly distributed load of 4 k/ft using
central difference operator of order of error h2 at 1/6th points. The beam has
E = 40,000 ksi (modulus of elasticity) and I = 1000 in4 (moment of inertia).
To solve the problem, a sketch of the beam and the assumed deflected
shape is created. To use central difference operators, the model must go
beyond the boundaries of the physical beam. The deflected shape must
also be modeled beyond those boundaries with some confidence. If the

general equation is continuous at the boundaries, then this type of model
is appropriate. If not, then the model should end at the boundaries and for-
ward or central difference operators must be used. Figure 3.4 shows the
beam and the assumed deflections at 1/6th points of the beam. By symme-
try of the model, only four specific values of the deflection are unknown.
Z
4 k/ft
X
A B
25′-0″
–Y3 –Y2 –Y1 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 –Y1 –Y2 –Y3
Figure 3.4. Example 3.10 Simple beam with difference operator.
The central-difference expressions with error of order h2 will be used

to solve for the values. Since the load is known, we will use the fourth
derivative relationship between load and deflection.
q y − 4 yi +1 + 6 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi′′′′= − = i+2
EI h4
EI
q = − 4 ( yi + 2 − 4 yi +1 + 6 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2 )
h
Placing the central difference operator on y0, the first equation can be writ-
ten from Figure 3.5:
–Y3 –Y2 –Y1 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 –Y1 –Y2 –Y3
0 1 –4 6 –4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
EI EI
4 ((
q0 = − − y2 ) − 4 ( − y1 ) + 6 y0 − 4 y1 + y2 ) = − 4 (6 y0 )
h h
For the second equation, the central difference operator is placed on y1 and
is shown in Figure 3.6.
0 0 1 –4 6 –4 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
EI
q1 = −
h4
((− y1 ) − 4 y0 + 6 y1 − 4 y2 + y3 ) = − EI
h4
(−4 y0 + 5 y1 − 4 y2 + y3 )
The third and fourth equations can be written by placing the central differ-
ence operator on y2 and y3.
EI EI
4 ( 0
q2 = − y − 4 y1 + 6 y2 − 4 y3 + y2 ) = − 4 ( y0 − 4 y1 + 7 y2 − 4 y3 )
h h
EI EI
q3 = − 4 ( y1 − 4 y2 + 6 y3 − 4 y2 + y1 ) = − 4 ( 2 y1 − 8 y2 + 6 y3 )
h h
These four equations constitute a non-homogeneous linear algebraic set

and can be written in matrix form.
 6 0 0 0   y0   q0 
 −4 5 −4 1   y   q 
EI  1 =  1
− 4 
h  1 −4 7 −4   y2   q2 
    
 0 2 −8 6   y3   q3 
From the conditions of the beam, two simplifications can be made. First,
the load is uniform and all the values of q are the same. Second, the deflec-
tion at point 0 is known to be zero, so the first row and column can be
eliminated since they correspond to those values.
 5 −4 1   y1   q 
EI 
− −4 7 −4   y2  =  q 
h4 
 2 −8 6   y3   q 
This can be solved by many of the methods presented in Chapter 2. The

method of cofactors is used here, since the solution is small enough to
solve determinants directly.
 2.50 4.00 2.25 1  y1 

qh 4 
4.00 7.00 4.00  1 =  y2 
EI 
 4.50 8.00 4.75 1  y3 
When the value of h = L/6 is substituted in and the matrix multiplication

is performed, the following is a general solution for a simply supported
beam with a uniformly distributed load:
 8.75   y1 
qL4 
15.00  =  y2 
1296 EI 
17.25   y3 
The particular solution for q=4 k/ft, L=25 ft, E=40,000 ksi, and I=1000 in4
is then obtained. The exact solution at the center is y3= 0.87891 inches,
which is a 2.22% error.
 0.44573  y1 
0.78125 inches =  y 
   2
0.89855  y3 
Once the deflections are found, the other three desired values, q, M, and
V, can each be found from the corresponding central difference operators
using the same order of error. The procedure is the same as the operator
is laid upon each of the values that are unknown then the corresponding
equation may be written. The relationship for rotation is as follows:
yi +1 − yi −1
yi′ = q =
2h
 0 2 0 0   y0  q 0 
 −1 0 1 0   y  q 
1   1 =  1
2h  0 −1 0 1   y2  q 2 
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  q 3 
 0 2 0 0   y0  q 0 
    
3  −1 0 1 0   y1  q1 
=
L  0 −1 0 1   y2  q 2 
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  q 3 
 2 y1  q 0 
   
3  − y0 + y 2   q 1 
=
L  − y1 + y3  q 2 
   
 0  q 3 
0.00912  q0 
 0.00781 q 
  radians =  1 
 0.00443 q2 
   
 0.0000   q3 
The exact solution at the end is q0=0.00936 radians, which is a 2.51% error,
while the value in the center is exact. The relationship for moment is as follows:
M y − 2 yi − yi −1
yi′′ = − = i +1
EI h2
 −2 0 0 0   y0   M 0 
    
EI 1 −2 1 0   y1   M 1 
− 2  =
h  0 1 −2 1   y2   M 2 
    
 0 0 2 −2   y3   M 3 
 −2 0 0 0   y0   M 0 
    
36 EI 1 −2 1 0   y1   M 1 
− 2  =
L  0 1 −2 1   y2   M 2 
    
 0 0 2 −2   y3   M 3 
 −2 y0  M 0 
y − 2y + y  M 
36 EI 0
− 2 
2
= 
1 1
L  y1 − 2 y 2 + y3
  M 2

   
 2 y2 − 2 y3   M 3 
 0.00  M 0 
 2083.4  M 
  kip-inches =  1 
 3333.3  M 2 
   
3750.0  M3 
The exact solution at the center is M3=3750 k-in which is exact, while the
values at the ends is also exact. The relationship for shear is as follows:
V y − 2 yi +1 + 2 yi −1 − yi − 2
yi′′′ = −= i+2
EI 2h 3
 0 −4 2 0   y0  V0 
    
EI 2 1 −2 1   y1  V1 
− 3 =
2h  −1 2 1 −2   y2  V2 
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
 0 −4 2 0   y0  V0 
    
108 EI  2 1 −2 1   y1  V1 
− =
L3  −1 2 1 −2   y2  V2 
    
V
V y − 2 yi +1 + 2 yi −1 − yi − 2
yi′′′ = −= i+2
EI 2h3
 0 −4 2 0   y0  V0 
    
EI 2 1 −2 1   y1  V1 
− 3 =
1 −2   y2  V2 
h  −1 2 ANALYSIS
128 • NUMERICAL 2STRUCTURAL
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
 0 −4 2 0   y0  V0 
    
108 EI  2 1 −2 1   y1  V1 
− =
L  −1 2 1 −2   y2  V2 
3
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
 −4 y1 + 2 y2  V0 
 2 y + y − 2 y + y  V 
108 EI  0 3 
= 
1 2 1
−
L3  − y0 + 2 y1 + y2 − 2 y3  V2 
   
 0  V3 
35.27  V0 
34.92  V 
  kips =  1 
19.90  V2 
   
 0  V3 
The exact solution at the end is V0 = 50.00 k, which is a 16.67% error,
while the value in the center is exact. The large error at the end is due to
the fact that the shear drops there, which creates a discontinuity in the
equation. Using more segments would reduce the error, but it would still
be more inaccurate than the other values.
The next example is similar to the previous one, but is included to
show differences in modeling and accuracy. It also uses the higher order
(smaller error) of error equations for more accuracy.
Example 3.11 Fixed beam with difference operator
Calculate the shear, moment, rotation, and deflection for a 30 ft long fixed
end beam with a uniformly distributed load of 5 k/ft using central differ-
ence operator of order of error h4 at 1/6th points. The beam has E = 29,000
ksi and I = 1000 in4.
The primary difference in the simply supported beam in Example 3.10
and the fixed end beam in this example is the model of the deflected curve
beyond the boundary as shown in Figure 3.7.
The solution to this example is very similar to Example 3.10 and only
the setup and solutions are presented. The central difference expressions
with error of order h4 will be used to solve for the values. Since the load
is known, we will use the fourth derivative relationship between load and
deflection.
5 k/ft
X
A B
30′-0″
Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3
Figure 3.7. Example 3.11 Fixed beam with difference operator.
q − y + 12 yi + 2 − 39 yi +1 + 56 yi − 39 yi −1 + 12 yi − 2 − yi − 3
yi′′′′= − = i+3
EI 6h 4
EI
q=−
6h 4
(− yi + 3 + 12 yi + 2 − 39 yi +1 + 56 yi − 39 yi −1 + 12 yi − 2 − yi −3 )
Placing the central difference operator on all four unknown points in the
model, the linear non-homogeneous solution set can be obtained and
solved.
 56 −78 24 −2   y0   q0 
    
EI −39 68 −41 12   y1   q1 
− 4 =
6h  12 −41 68 −39   y2   q2 
    
 −2 24 −78 56   y3   q3 
 68 −41 12   y1   q 
EI 
− 4  −41 68 −39   y2  =  q 
6h
 24 −78 56   y3   q 
 766 1360 783  1  y1 
6qh 4  1   
13603520 2160  1 = y2
EI  15120    
1566 4320 2943 1  y3 
 2909   y1 
q L4  7040  =  y 
3265920 EI    2
8829   y3 
0.2150   y1 
0.5202  inches =  y 
   2
0.6524   y3 
The exact solution at the center is y3=0.6284 inches, which is a 3.81%

error. This is more error than the deflection found in Example 3.10,
even though a more accurate operator was used. This is due to the
fact that this physical model has more variation in deflection than
that of the simply supported beam. The relationship for rotation is as
follows:
− yi + 2 + 8 yi +1 − 8 yi −1 + yi − 2
yi′ = q =
12h
 0 0 0 0   y0  q 0 
 −8 1 8 −1  y  q 
1   1 =  1
12h  1 −8 −1 8   y2  q 2 
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  q 3 
 0 0 0 0   y0  q 0 
    
1  −8 1 8 −1  y1  q1 
=
2 L  1 −8 −1 8   y2  q 2 
    
 0 0 0 0   y3  q 3 
 0  q 0 
 −8 y + y + 8 y − y  q 
1  3
= 
0 1 2 1
2 L  y0 − 8 y1 − y2 + 8 y3  q 2 
   
 0  q 3 
0.0000  q 0 
0.0052  q 
  radians =  1 
 0.0041 q 2 
   
0.0000  q 3 
The solution at the end is q0=0.00000 radians, which is exact, while

the value in the center is also exact. The relationship for moment is as
follows:
M − yi + 2 + 16 yi +1 − 30 yi + 16 yi −1 − yi − 2
yi′′ = − =
EI 12h 2
 −30 32 −2 0   y0   M 0 
EI 
 16 −31 16 −1   y1   M 1 
− =
12h 2  −1 16 −31 16   y2   M 2 
    
 0 −2 32 −30   y3   M 3 
M − yi + 2Integration
Numerical + 16 yi +1 − 30 and
yi + 16 yi −1 − yi − 2
Differentiation • 131
yi′′ = − =
EI 12h 2
 −30 32 −2 0   y0   M 0 
EI 
 16 −31 16 −1   y1   M 1 
− =
12h 2  −1 16 −31 16   y2   M 2 
    
 0 −2 32 −30   y3   M 3 
 −30 32 −2 0   y0   M 0 
3EI
 16 −31 16 −1   y1   M 1 
− 2  =
L  −1 16 −31 16   y2   M 2 
    
 0 −2 32 −30   y3   M 3 
 −30 y0 + 32 y1 − 2 y2   M 0 
   
3EI 16 y0 − 31y1 + 16 y2 − y3   M 1 
− 2  =
L  − y0 + 16 y1 − 31y2 + 16 y3   M 2 
   
 −2 y1 + 32 y2 − 30 y3   M 3 
 −3920  M 0 
 −676  M 
  kip-inches =  1 
 1510  M 2 
   
 2252  M3 
The exact solution at the end is M0=−4500 k-in, which is a 12.89% error,
while the value in the center is 2250 k-in, which is a 0.11% error. The large
error at the end is due to the fact that the moment drops there, which cre-
ates a discontinuity in the equation. Using more segments would reduce
the error, but it would still be more inaccurate than the other values. The
relationship for shear is as follows:
V − y + 8 yi + 2 − 13 yi +1 + 13 yi −1 − 8 yi − 2 + yi − 3
yi′′′ = −= i+3
EI 8h3
0 0 0 0   y0  V0 
13 −8 −13 8   y  V 
EI  1 =  1
− 3
8h  −8 13 8 −13  y2  V2 
    
0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
0 0 0 0   y0  V0 
13 −8 −13 8   y  V 
27 EI  1 =  1
− 3 
L  −8 13 8 −13  y2  V2 
    
0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
 0  V0 
 13 y − 8 y − 13 y + 8 y  V 
27 EI
− 3  3 
= 
0 1 2 1
L  −8 y0 + 13 y1 + 8 y2 − 13 y3  V2 
   
 0  V3 
8h  −8 13 8 −13  y2  V2 
    
0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
0 0 0 0   y0  V0 
13 −8 −13 8   y  V 
27 EI  1 =  1
− 3 
L  −8 13 8 −13  y2  V2 
132 • NUMERICAL STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS   
 
0 0 0 0   y3  V3 
 0  V0 
 13 y − 8 y − 13 y + 8 y  V 
27 EI
− 3  3 
= 
0 1 2 1
L  −8 y0 + 13 y1 + 8 y2 − 13 y3  V2 
   
 0  V3 
 0  V0 
 07  V
V0 
54.76  i =  V1 
2 0 kips = V21 
 25.60  V2 
 0  V3 
 0  V3 
The exact solution at the end is V0=75.00 k, which is a huge error, while
the value in the center is exact. The large error at the end is due to the fact
that the shear and moment drop dramatically at that point, which creates a
discontinuity in the equation.
The final example of using difference operators to solve differential equa-

tions is the critical buckling load of a column. The critical buckling load
of a pinned end column is sometimes included in strength of materials, but
will be derived here. The derivations start with the differential equation of
the elastic curve similar to a beam. The deflected column under the critical
load is shown in Figure 3.8.
d2y M
= y ′′ = −
dx 2 EI
At any point x along the column, there is a deflection y that will produce an
eccentric moment in the column equal to Pcry. This is used in the equation
of the elastic curve as follows:
Pcr y Pcr
X
A B
X
L
Figure 3.8. Numeric modeling with difference operators.

d2y P
2
= − cr y
dx EI
Pcr
y ′′ + y=0
EI
This is a second-order, linear, ordinary differential equation with the fol-

lowing general solution.
y = Acos ( kx ) + Bsin ( kx )
Pcr
where k =
EI
The constants A and B can be evaluated using the boundary condition. At

x=0, y=0, the equation becomes:
0 = Acos ( k 0) + Bsin ( k 0)
This equation yields A=0 and at x=L, y=0, the equation becomes:
0 = Bsin ( kL)
This condition is true when Bsin(kL)=0, which can only be true for three
conditions as follows:
B = 0 No deflection
kL = 0 No load
kL = p, 2p, 3p, …, = np where n = 1, 2, 3, …
Therefore, the following can be found and is the critical buckling load:
Pcr
kL = L = np
EI
Pcr 2
L = n 2p 2
EI
n 2p 2 EI
Pcr =
L2
The lowest buckling mode corresponds to a value of n = 1, which is the

case of single curvature shown. The other (higher) modes can also be
found with the other values of n.
p 2 EI
Pcr =
L2
The critical bucking load is sometimes written as a critical buckling stress

as follows:
Pcr p 2 EI p 2 EIr 2 p 2E
Fcr = = = =
A AL2 IL2
( )
L2 2
r
This is known as the Euler buckling stress and was derived by Leonhard
Euler in 1757.
Example 3.12 Column buckling with difference operator
Calculate the critical buckling load, Pcr, for a 25 foot long fixed end col-
umn using central difference operator of order of error h2 at 1/6th points.
The column has E = 29,000 ksi and I = 1000 in4.
This problem has the same model as Example 3.11 except an axial
load is applied instead of a uniform lateral load and is shown in Figure 3.9.
The central difference expressions with error of order h2 will be used
to solve for the values. Since the load is known, we will use the fourth
derivative relationship between load and deflection. This can be found
P
X
A B
25′-0″
Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3 Y2 Y1 Y0 Y1 Y2 Y3
Figure 3.9. Example 3.12 Column buckling with difference operator.

by taking two derivatives from previously used deflection and moment

differential equations.
Pcr
y ′′ + y=0
EI
Pcr
y ′′′′ + y ′′ = 0
EI
yi + 2 − 4 yi +1 + 6 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2 y − 2 yi + yi −1
y ′′′′ + Qy ′′ = 0 = + Q i +1
h4 h2
1 Q
0 = 4 ( yi + 2 − 4 yi +1 + 6 yi − 4 yi −1 + yi − 2 ) + 2 ( yi +1 − 2 yi + yi −1 )
h h
The solution process is similar to Example 3.10 and 3.11 except that the
two operators are placed on the model at the location of the unknown
deflections. The value at point 0 of y0 is zero and can be eliminated from
the solutions. This becomes a homogeneous linear algebraic solution set.
  7 −4 1   −2 1 0   y1  0 
 1296  −4 7 −4  + 36 Q  1 −2 1   y  = 0 
 L4   L2    2   
  2 −8 6   0 2 −2   y3  0 
 252 144 36 
 L2 − 2Q − L2 + Q L2 
   y1  0 
 − 144 + Q 252 − 2Q − 144 + Q   y  = 0 
 L2 L2 L2  2  
   y3  0 
 72 −
288
+ 2Q
216
− 2Q 
 L2 L2 L2 
A non-trivial solution to a homogeneous linear algebraic set exists if the

determinant of the coefficient matrix is zero. Therefore, we can find Q by
setting the determinant of the coefficient matrix equal to zero. This will be
done using the basket weave method for a 3×3 matrix.
 252   252   216   144   144   72 

0 =  2 − 2Q  2 − 2Q  2 − 2Q +  − 2 + Q  − 2 + Q  2 
 L  L  L   L  L  L 
 36   144   288   36   252   72 
+  2   − 2 + Q  − 2 + 2Q −  2   2 − 2Q  2 
L  L  L  L  L  L 
 144   144   216 
−  − 2 + Q  − 2 + Q  2 − 2Q
 L  L  L 
 252   144   288 
−  2 − 2Q  − 2 + Q  − 2 + 2Q
 L  L  L 
252 54432 36Q 41472 576Q
 252   252   216   144   144   72 
0 =  2 − 2Q  2 − 2Q  2 − 2Q +  − 2 + Q  − 2 + Q  2 
 L  L  L   L  L  L 
 36   144 STRUCTURAL
136 • NUMERICAL   36   252
  288 ANALYSIS   72 
+  2   − 2 + Q  − 2 + 2Q −  2   2 − 2Q  2 
L  L  L  L  L  L 
 144   144   216 
−  − 2 + Q  − 2 + Q  2 − 2Q
 L  L  L 
 252   144   288 
−  2 − 2Q  − 2 + Q  − 2 + 2Q
 L  L  L 
252
 252 54432 36QQ
54432 936 Q Q 2 2
41472576576
41472
4Q42Q−2 − 4 4 − − 2 2− 2Q
0 =  22 −−22QQ 4 4 −− 2 2 + + − 2Q 
 L  LL LL L L L L  
Multiplying the values for like terms yields the following:
 144  504Q 10386 72Q 

0 =  − 2 − Q  −31104 + 2 − 2Q 2 + − 2 
 L  L L4 L 
 36   41472 576Q 18144 144Q 
+ 2 − 2 + 2Q 2 − − 2 
 L   L4 L L4 L 
Multiplying all the values and combining like terms:
1119744 49248 576

0= − Q + 2 Q 2 − 2Q 3
L6 L4 L
The solution to these cubic equations yields the following general value
of Q:
Pcr
Q= = 0.0004
EI
Substituting in the particular values for the column of E and I gives

Pcr=11,600 kips. The exact values using the Euler buckling equation with an
effective length factor of k=0.5 for a fixed end column is Pcr=12,721 kips.
This central difference solution has an error of 8.8%.
3.10 PARTIAL DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

DIFFERENCE OPERATORS
More advanced structural analysis problems may require the solution of

partial differential equations. One example is the bending of a plate under
uniform lateral load. “Theory of Plates and Shells” by Timoshenko and
Woinowsky-Krieger (1959) contains an exact solution to general plates.
The differential relationship for plate bending uses partial differential
equations. Their difference operators can be derived from the basic dif-
ference operators using two basic principles. If you add two differential
equations you simply add the location of the operator at i, known as the
pivot point. To take the product of two differential equations, you must
multiply the value of the operator at i of one differential to each of the
terms in the other differential. Partial differentials also require both
the x and y direction, so they will be written horizontally and vertically.
The following are six examples of creating partial difference operators for
the equation used to solve plate bending. The partial differential equation
is listed first in each of the six examples followed by the basic operators
that represent the equation.
Example 3.13 Partial difference operator
d 4z d 4z d 4z  1
+ 2 + = (1 −4 6 −4 1)
dx 4 dx 2 dy 2 dy 4  h 4 
  1 
  −4 
  1 
1 1    1  
+ 2 *  2 (1 −2 1) * 2 −2  +  4  6 
h h   h  −4 
  1     
  1  
 
  1 
  −4 
  1 −2 1 
 
1 1  

=  4 (1 −4 6 −4 1)  + 2 *  4  −2 4 −2  +  1  6 
h  h     h4  −4 
  1 −2 1     
  1  
 
 1 
 2 −8 2 
1  
= 4  1 −8 20 −8 1
h  
 2 −8 2 
 1 
 1 
 2 −8 2 
q d 4z d 4z d 4z 1  
= 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 = 4  1 −8 20 −8 1 (3.12)
D dx dx dy dy h  
 2 −8 2 
 1 
The value D is the flexural rigidity of the plate and is equal to the following:
Et 3
D=
(
12 1 − n 2 )
The value of Poisson’s ratio, u, relates the elastic modulus to the shear
modulus and is given as the following from strength of materials:
E
G=
2 (1 + n )
  n   n 
d 2z d 2z  1  1    1 
+ n = (1 −2 1)  2    2 
+ −2n = 1 −2 ( ) 
1 + n 1
dx 2 dy 2  h 2  h h
  n    n 
 n 
d 2 z d 2z  1 
M x = − D  2 + n 2  = 2 1 −2 (1 + n ) 1 (3.13)
 dx dy  h  
 n 
  1   1 
d 2z d 2z  1  1  −2  = 1  n
n 2 + 2 =  2 (n −2n n ) +  2 −2 (1 + n ) n 
dx dy h  h    h2  
  1    1 
 1 
d 2 z d 2 z  1
M y = − D  2 + 2  = 2 n −2 (1 + n ) n  (3.14)
 dx dy  h  
 1 
  1   −1 0 1 
d 2z  1   1   1 
= ( −1 0 1) *   0   = 2  0 0 0 
dxdy  2h   2h 4h
  −1   1 0 −1
 −1 0 1 
 d 2z  1  
M xy = D (1 − n )  = 2 0 0 0 (3.15)
 dxdy  4h  1 0 −1
 
 1 0 −1
 d 2z  1  
M yx = − D (1 − n )   = 2  0 0 0  (3.16)
 dxdy  4 h
 −1 0 1 
  1 
d 3z d 3z  1  1   1  
+ = ( −1 2 0 −2 1) +  ( −1 0 1) *  2  −2 
dx3 dxdy 2  2h3   2h  h
  1  
  −1 0 1  
 1   1  
=  3 ( −1 2 0 −2 1)  +  3 2 0 −2 
 2h   2h  
  −1 0 1  
 −1 0 1 
1 
= 3 −1 4 0 −4 1
2h  
 −1 0 1 
 −1 0 1 
d 3 z d 3z  1   (3.17)
Qx = − D  3 + 2 
= −1 4 0 −4 1
 dx dxdy  2 h 3
 
 −1 0 1 
  1 
  −2 
  1  
d z d z 1
3 3
 1  1  
+ 3 =  2 (1 −2 1)  *   0   +  3  0  
  2h     2h   
2
dx dy dy h
  −1    2 
  −1 
 
  1   1 
    
  1 −2 1    −2 1 −4 1 
 1   1   1  
  
 2h 3  0 0 0   +  2h 3  0   = 2h 3  0 0 0 
  −1 2 −1    2  −1 4 −1
   
  −1   −1 
 
 1 
 1 −4 1 
 d 3z d 3z  1  
Qy = − D  2 + 3  = 3  0 0 0  (3.18)
 dx dy dy  2h  −1 4 −1
 
 −1 
3.11 NUMERIC MODELING WITH PARTIAL

DIFFERENCE OPERATORS
The differential equation and the difference operators from Section 3.10
are used in the following example to solve for plate bending. The forces
on a middle surface plate are shown in Figure 3.10.
Example 3.19 Plate bending
Calculate the shear, moment, rotation, and deflection for a 1 inch thick,
20 inch square, fixed end steel plate with a uniformly distributed load
of 100 psi using central difference operator of order of error h2 at 1/10th
points. The plate has E = 29,000 ksi and u = 0.25.
dx
dy
δMy
My + δy dy Mx + δMx
δx dx
δMyx
Myx + dy δMxy
δy Mxy + dx
δx
δQy δQx
Qy + δy dy Qx + dx
δx
Figure 3.10. Numeric modeling with partial difference operators.

The plate will be divided into 10 segments in the horizontal and vertical
directions. Since the plate is square with a uniform load and fixed on all
edges, it has horizontal and vertical symmetry. It is also symmetric about
both diagonals of the plate. The symmetry will result in only 21 unique points
on the plate for the 121 possible locations. This is shown in Figure 3.11.
The difference operator for Equation 3.12 is repeated here and can be
shown in graphical form in Figure 3.12.
 1 
 2 −8 2 
q d 4z d 4z d 4z 1  
= 4 + 2 2 2 + 4 = 4  1 −8 20 −8 1
D dx dx dy dy h  
 2 −8 2 
 1 
The operator is laid upon each of the 21 unique points on the plate result-
ing in 21 equations involving the deflections. Figure 3.13 shows the oper-
ator laid upon point 1.
The result will be a non-homogenous set of 21 equations involving
the unknown deflections. Since the plate is fixed at the boundaries, the
13 9 4 9 13 16 17 18 17 16
14 10 5 10 14 17 19 20 19 17
15 11 6 11 15 18 20 21 20 18
14 10 5 10 14 17 19 20 19 17
13 9 4 9 13 16 17 18 17 16
12 8 3 8 12 13 14 15 14 13
8 7 2 7 8 9 10 11 10 9
3 2 1 2 3 4 5 6 5 4
8 7 2 7 8 9 10 11 10 9
12 8 3 8 12 13 14 15 14 13
Figure 3.11. Example 3.19 Plate bending.

2 -8 2
1 -8 20 -8 1
2 -8 2
deflections at points 1 through 6 are zero and may be eliminated. The

matrix equation is shown in Table 3.17.
The solution can be found using one of the methods from Chapter 2
on non-homogeneous linear algebraic equations. The deflections are
All of the other values can be found once the deflections are known.
Table 3.19 shows the matrix equation for finding Mx and Table 3.20 shows
the solution to Mx and the normal stress.
 n 
d 2 z d 2z  1 
M x = − D  2 + n 2  = 2 1 −2 (1 + n ) 1
 dx dy  h  
 n 
15 11 6 11 15 18 20 21
14 10 5 10 14 17 19 20
13 9 4 9 13 16 17 18
12 8 31 8 12 13 14 15
8 72 28 72 8 9 10 11
31 28 10 28 31 4 5 6
72 28 72 8 9 10 11
12 8 31 8 12 13 14 15

Table 3.17. Example 3.19 Plate bending

22 -16 2 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 z7 = q7
h4
-8 23 -8 1 0 -8 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 z8 q8 * D
1 -8 21 -8 1 2 -8 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 z9 q9
0 1 -8 22 -8 0 2 -8 2 0 1 0 0 0 0 z10 q10
0 0 2 -16 21 0 0 4 -8 0 0 1 0 0 0 z11 q11
2 -16 4 0 0 20 -16 2 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 z12 q12
0 3 -8 2 0 -8 22 -8 1 -8 3 0 0 0 0 z13 q13
0 0 2 -8 2 1 -8 21 -8 2 -8 2 1 0 0 z14 q14
0 0 0 4 -8 0 2 -16 20 0 4 -8 0 1 0 z15 q15
0 0 2 0 0 2 -16 4 0 20 -16 2 2 0 0 z16 q16
0 0 0 1 0 0 3 -8 2 -8 23 -8 -8 3 0 z17 q17
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 4 -8 2 -16 20 4 -8 1 z18 q18
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 2 -16 4 22 -16 2 z19 q19
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 6 -8 -16 25 -8 z20 q20
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 8 -32 20 z21 q21

z7 = 0.000291121 inches
z8 0.000749271
z9 0.001156404
z10 0.001421248
z11 0.001511939
z12 0.001945784
z13 0.003037557
z14 0.003762980
z15 0.004014203
z16 0.004780224
z17 0.005951021
z18 0.006358843
z19 0.007429735
z20 0.007946380
z21 0.008501580
-2.5 2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z1 * D
− 2
1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z2
h
0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z3
0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z4
0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z5
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 -2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z6
0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 -2.5 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z7
0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z8
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z9
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z10
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.0 -2.5 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z11
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 -2.5 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z12
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z13
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z14
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 2.0 -2.5 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 z15
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 0.0 -2.5 1.3 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 z16
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 1.0 -2.5 1.0 0.3 0.0 0.0 z17
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 0.0 2.0 -2.5 0.0 0.3 0.0 z18
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 1.3 0.0 -2.5 1.3 0.0 z19
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.3 2.0 -2.5 0.3 z20
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 2.5 -2.5 z21
=

Mx = 0.000000000 k-in s = 0.00000 ksi
x
-0.093805542 -0.56283
-0.241431854 -1.44859
-0.372619154 -2.23571
-0.457957773 -2.74775
-0.487180224 -2.92308
-0.134551926 -0.80731
-0.039177480 -0.23506
-0.025067632 -0.15041
-0.036067778 -0.21641
-0.042662612 -0.25598
0.084373209 0.50624
0.258403727 1.55042
0.330357218 1.98214
0.349192954 2.09516
0.460673396 2.76404
0.605975261 3.63585
0.647615145 3.88569
0.774999710 4.65000
0.832219502 4.99332
0.894489044 5.36693
REFERENCES
Gauss, C.F. 1801. Disquisitiones Arithmeticae. Lipsia, Germany.

Romberg, W. 1955. Vereinfachte numerische Integration. Trondheim, Norway:
Det Kongelige Norske Videnskabers Selskab Forhandlinger.
Salvadori, M., and M. Baron. 1961. Numerical Methods in Engineering. 2nd ed.
Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Simpson, T. 1750. Doctrine and Application of Fluxions. London, England.
Timoshenko, S., and S. Woinowsky-Krieger. 1959. Theory of Plates and Shells.
2nd ed. New York, New York: McGraw-Hill.
CHAPTER 4
Matrix Structural
Stiffness
Building structures are made up of columns, beams, girders, joists, slabs,

walls, shells, and many other components that act together to resist the
loads placed on them. These members can be at various orientations, but
they must be represented in a common mathematical form. The structural
stiffness method is used to represent members, loads, support constraints,
and other components of a building structure in a consistent manner. This
chapter will focus on linearly elastic members subjected to axial, bending,
shear, and torsional forces.
4.1 MATRIX TRANSFORMATIONS AND

COORDINATE SYSTEMS
When using the structural stiffness method, the global Cartesian right-
hand coordinate system will be used to organize the system. This sys-
tem was developed in 1637 by René Descartes (Descartes 1637). We will
denote these three orthogonal axes as X, Y, and Z. You could represent
these as your thumb, fore finger, and middle finger on your right hand.
Individual members may not be at the same orientation as the global sys-
tem. All members have their own local system represented by x, y, and z.
This coordinate system is also a Cartesian right-hand system with the
x axis running along the member length. Both of these systems are shown
in Figure 4.1.
This chapter provides techniques to reference causes and effects by
coordinate systems and how to manipulate these coordinate systems.
These manipulations allow changes from one system to another and are
called transformations. The two basic transformations that are done in
z Y
Figure 4.1. Coordinate systems.
the following sections are transmission and rotations. Transmission is

moving effects from one point to another. Rotations are used to re-orient
axes about a specific point. These techniques will be used in determining
the stiffness of a member (local) and developing the global (joint) stiff-
ness solution.
4.2 ROTATION MATRIX
Rotation can take place about any of the three global axes. The following
three examples derive the rotation transformations. The alpha, a, rotation
is a rotation about the global Z axis from the global system to the local
system. Rotation about the Y axis is a beta, b, rotation and rotation about
the X axis is a gamma, g, rotation.
Example 4.1 Rotation matrix, a
Derive the alpha, a, rotation matrix.

The following variables are represented in Figure 4.2 and are used to
develop a. The location of z remains unchanged since rotation is occurring
about that axis.
a = rotation about global Z axis from the global to the local system
(x0, y0) = global coordinate location
(xl, yl) = local coordinate location
Matrix Structural Stiffness • 149
y Y
x
y0
xl
d yl α
c x0 X
b
Figure 4.2. Example 4.1 Rotation, a.
a = x0 cosa
b = y0 sina
c = y0 cosa
d = x0 sina
xl = a + b = x0 cosa + y0 sina
yl = c − d = y0 cosa − x0 sina
zl = z 0
The equations for x, y, and z can be represented in matrix form as follows:
 cosa sina 0   xo   xl 
 − sina
 cosa 0   yo  =  yl  (4.1)
 0 0 1   zo   zl 
Example 4.2 Rotation matrix, b
Derive the beta, b, rotation matrix.

develop b. The location of y remains unchanged since rotation is occurring
about that axis.
b = rotation about global Y axis from the global to the local system
(x0, z0) = global coordinate location
(xl, zl) = local coordinate location
a = x0 cos b
b = z0 sin b
c = z0 cos b
d = x0 sin b
xl = a − b = x0 cos b − z0 sin b
zl = c + d = z0 cos b + x0 sin b
yl = y0
z d
zl c
z0
X x0 β
xl
x b
a = x0 cos b
a
b = z0 sin b
c = z cos b
Figure 4.3. Example 4.2 Rotation,
0 b.
d = x0 sin b
xl = a − b = x0 cos b − z0 sin b
zl = c + d = z0 cos b + x0 sin b
yl = y0
cosβ 0 − sinβ   xo   xl 
 0
 1 0   yo  =  yl  (4.2)
 sinβ 0 cosβ   zo   zl 
Example 4.3 Rotation matrix, g
Derive the gamma, g, rotation matrix.

develop g. The location of x remains unchanged since rotation is occurring
about that axis.
g = rotation about global X axis from the global to the local system
(y0, z0) = global coordinate location
(yl, zl) = local coordinate location
a = y0 cosg
b = z0 sing
c = z0 cosg
d = y0 sing
yl = a + b = y0 cosg + z0 sing
zl = c − d = z0 cosg − y0 sing
xl = x0
Z
z
z0 y
yl
d zl γ
c y0
Y
b
a = y0 cosg a
b = z0 sing
= z0 cosgg.
Figure 4.4. Example 4.3cRotation,
d = y0 sing
yl = a + b = y0 cosg + z0 sing
zl = c − d = z0 cosg − y0 sing
xl = x0
1 0 0   xo   xl 
0 cosg
 sing   yo  =  yl  (4.3)
0 − sing cosg   zo   zl 
The rotation matrix from the global to the local system, [R0l], is found
from these rotations about the global Z, Y, and X axes, in that order. The
order of the matrix multiplication goes from right to left. Alpha is first
multiplied by beta and the resultant is multiplied by gamma.
[ R ] = [g ][ b ][a ]
0l
Substituting Equations 4.1 through 4.3 for [g], [b], and [a], respectively,
results in the following:
1 0 0  cos b 0 − sin b   cosa sina 0 

[ R0l ] = 0 cosg sing   0 1 0  − sina cosa 0

0 − sing cosg   sin b 0 cos b   0 0 1 
1 0 0  cosacos b sinacos b − sin b 

0 cosg sing   − sina 0 
[ 0l ] 
R =  cosa
0 − sing cosg   cosa sin b sina sin b cos b 
 cosacos b sinacos b − sin b 

[ R0l ] = cosasin b sing − sinacosg sinasin bsing + cosacosg cos b sing 

cosa sin b cosg + sina sing sina sin b cosg − cosa sing cos b cosg 
0 − sing cosg   sin b 0 cos b   0 0 1 
1 0 0  cosacos b sinacos b − sin b 

[ R0l ] = 0 cosg sing   − sina
 cosa 0 
152 • NUMERICAL cosg   cosa sin
0 − sing STRUCTURAL b sina sin b
ANALYSIS cos b 
 cosacos b sinacos b − sin b 

[ R0l ] = cosasin b sing − sinacosg sinasin bsing + cosacosg cos b sing 

cosa sin b cosg + sina sing sina sin b cosg − cosa sing cos b cosg 
Rotation about the axes from the local to the global system is simply a
reverse operation. It can be shown that the resulting rotation matrices for
this transformation are the transpose of the rotations from the global axis
to the local axis. This is known as a symmetric transformation. The fol-
lowing relationships show those basic expressions:
cosa − sina 0 
[al 0 ] = [a0l ] =  sina cosa 0
T
 0 0 1 
 cos b 0 sin b 
[ l 0 ] [ 0l ]  0 1 0 
b = b
T
=
 − sin b 0 cos b 
1 0 0 
[g ] = [g ] = 0 cosg − sing 

T
l0 0l
0 sing cosg 
The rotation matrix from local to global system, [Rl0], can be found from
the individual rotations or directly from [R0l].
[ Rl 0 ] = [ R0l ] = [a ] [ b ] [g ]
T T T T
cosa − sina 0   cosb 0 sinb  1 0 0 

[ Rl 0 ] =  sina cosa 0   0 1 0  0 cosg − sing 
 0 0 1   − sinb 0 cosb  0 sing cosg 
cosa cosb cosa sinb sing − sina cosg cosa sinb cosg + sina sing 
[ Rl 0 ] =  sina cosb sina sinb sing + cosa cosg sina sinb cosg − cosa sing 
 − sinb cosb sing cosb cosg 
T
 cosa cosb sina cosb − sinb 
[ Rl 0 ] = [ R0l ] =  cosa sinb sing − sina cosg cosb sing 
T
sina sinb sing + cosa cosg
cosa sinb cosg + sina sing sina sinb cosg − cosa sing cosb cosg 
These rotation transformations will be used later to relate the local mem-
ber stiffness to the global member stiffness.
4.3 TRANSMISSION MATRIX
In addition to knowing the local components of global forces, the effect a

force applied to one end of a member has on the other end is important. It
is often necessary to state the effect at one point in a structural system due
to a cause known to exist at some other point in the system. This is where
the transmission transformation is used. In Figure 4.5, the cause of a force
at point 2 is transmitted to the effect at point 1. This is achieved by using
an equivalent static force at 1. In the study of rigid body equilibrium, this
is stated as SF1= SF2.
The six orthogonal forces at a point are shown in Figure 4.6. These
are the forces and moments in each direction X, Y, and Z. The moments
are represented with double arrowheads.
The static equivalent force system is found where the moment arm
distances (x2 − x1), ( y2 − y1), and (z2 − z1) are measured from the effect point,
1, to the cause point, 2.
Z
Y
2 . (x2,y2,z2)
1 . (x1,y1,z1)
X
Figure 4.5. Transformation locations.
MZ
MY
PZ PY
1
PX MX
Figure 4.6. Orthogonal forces.

ΣFx1 = ΣFx 2 ∴ Px1 = Px 2

ΣFy1 = ΣFy 2 ∴ Py1 = Py 2
ΣFz1 = ΣFz 2 ∴ Pz1 = Pz 2
ΣM x1 = ΣM x 2 ∴ M x1 = M x 2 − Py 2 ( z2 − z1 ) + Pz 2 ( y2 − y1 )
ΣM y1 = ΣM y 2 ∴ M y1 = M y 2 + Px 2 ( z2 − z1 ) − Pz 2 ( x2 − x1 )
ΣM z1 = ΣM z 2 ∴ M z1 = M z 2 − Px 2 ( y2 − y1 ) + Py 2 ( x2 − x1 )
We can simplify the moment arm distances as x, y, and z. The concept of

transmitting cause to effect may be denoted in matrix form as [T]:
1 0 0 0 0 0   Px 2   Px1 
0
 1 0 0 0 0   Py 2   Py1 
0 0 1 0 0 0   Pz 2   Pz1 
  =  (4.4)
 0 −z y 1 0 0   M x 2   M x1 
 z 0 −x 0 1 0   M y 2   M y1 
    
 − y x 0 0 0 1   M z 2   M z1 

Example 4.4 Transmission matrix
Determine the transmission matrix for the coplanar XY system from the
origin end, i, to other end, j.
The cause end is i as shown in Figure 4.7 and the effect end is j at the
right end a distance L away.
i = cause j = effect
X
Figure 4.7. Transformation effects.

The distance x is measured from the cause location to the effect

location.
( )
x = ( xc − xe ) = xi − x j = − L
This can be substituted into Equation 4.4 and the unneeded distances and
forces are removed to get a 3×3 matrix involving only Px, Py, and Mz.
1 0 0 0 0 0   Px 2   Px1 
0 1 0 0 0 0   P   P 
   y 2   y1 
0 0 1 0 0 0   Pz 2   Pz1 
  = 
0 0 0 1 0 0   M x 2   M x1 
0 0 L 0 1 0   M y 2   M y1 
    
0 − L 0 0 0 1   M z 2   M z1 
1 0 0   Pxi   Pxj 
0 1 0  P  =  P 
   yi   yj 
0 − L 1   M zi   M zj 
The axial force in the member, Px, is a direct transmission, whereas the
shear, Py, and bending, Mz, forces are linked. The transmission for just the
shear and bending will be used later in the chapter and can be written as
follows:
 1 0   Pyi   Pyj 
− L 1  M  =  M  (4.5)
   zi   zj 
A similar transmission matrix can be derived for shear and bending in the
XZ system.
 1 0   Pzi   Pzj 
 L 1 M  = M  (4.6)
   yi   yj 
4.4 AREA MOMENT METHOD
Area moment and the next five sections are review topics on structural
analysis. These topics will be used to derive many of the equations and
relationships for stiffness methods of analysis. The area moment method

of analysis is based on the basic equation of beam bending, f = M/EI,
and consists of two theorems. The theorems were developed by Christian
Otto Mohr in 1874 (Timoshenko 1953). The first theorem of area moment
states the change in slope between two points on the elastic curve, 1 and 2,
is equal to the area of the M/EI diagram between the points 1 and 2.
2
M
∆q12 = ∫ dx
1
EI
The second theorem of area moment states that the tangential deviation
of a point, 1, from a tangent to the elastic curve at point 2 (the tangent)
is equal to the moment of the area of the M/EI diagram between points
1 and 2, taken about point 1 (the point). Note that the moment of the area
is the area times a distance, x̄1, from point 1.
2
M
t12 = ∫ x1dx
1
EI
Example 4.5 Area moment
Find the reactions on the following propped end, uniformly loaded beam
shown in Figure 4.8 using the area moment method.
X
A B
L
Figure 4.8. Example 4.5 Area moment.
A free-body diagram of the beam is drawn in Figure 4.9.
MB
RA
RB

Moment divided by EI, M/EI, diagrams are drawn by parts. Moment

diagrams by parts assume each force is acting about point B as if it was the
only force. The vertical reaction on the left, RA, is used as the redundant
force. The method of superposition will be used to solve for the assumed
redundant, RA. The reactions at the fixed-end on the right can be written in
terms of the load, w, as follows from equilibrium on Figure 4.9 (ignoring RA):
 L wL2
ΣM B = 0 = wL   − M B ∴ M B =
 2 2
ΣFy = 0 = − wL + RB ∴ RB = wL
The M/EI diagram and the deflected shape for the uniformly distributed
load, w, is shown in Figure 4.10.
w
wL2
tAB 2
wL
wL2
3L/4 2EI
The reactions at the fixed-end on the right can be written in terms of the
vertical reaction, RA, as follows from equilibrium on Figure 4.9 (ignoring
the distributed load):
ΣM B = 0 = − R A L − M B ∴ M B = − R A L
ΣFy = 0 = RA + RB ∴ RB = − RA
The M/EI diagram and the deflected shape for the vertical reaction, RA, is
shown in Figure 4.11.
tAB
RAL
RA RA
2L/3 RA L
EI

Since point A is pinned, we know that the deflection at point A, DA, is

equal to zero. We can superimpose Figures 4.10 and 4.11. Applying the sec-
ond area moment theorem, the following can be written. It should be noted
that the tangent to the deflected shape is at B and therefore the point is at A:
B
M
∆ A = 0 = t AB = ∫ x dx = ΣAx1
A
EI A
 1 wL2   3L   1 RA L   2 L  3wL
0 = − L    +  L    ∴ RA =
 3 2 EI  4 2 EI 3 8
From statics on the original free-body diagram in Figure 4.9, the other

reactions at B can be found.
5wL
ΣFy = 0 = RA + RB − wL ∴ RB =
8
wL2 wL2
ΣM B = 0 = − R A L − M B + ∴MB =
2 8
4.5 CONJUGATE BEAM METHOD
The conjugate beam method is based on the equation of beam bending

f = M/EI. The method was developed by Heinrich Müller-Breslau in 1865
(Müller-Breslau 1875). A conjugate beam can be summarized as an imag-
inary beam equal in length to the real beam. In the imaginary beam, the
shear at the conjugate support is equal to the slope of the real support.
Also, the moment at the conjugate support is equal to that of the deflection
at the real support. The conjugate beam is loaded with the M/EI diagram
from the real beam. A summary of the more common support conditions
is shown in Figure 4.12.
Take the pinned condition for example. In the real beam, the rotation is
unknown (exist) and deflection is equal to zero. Therefore, in the conjugate
beam, the shear is unknown (exist) and the moment is equal, thus creating
a pinned connection. This condition does not change from the real beam to
the conjugate beam. However, this is not true for all cases. For example,
if the real beam is fixed, the rotation is zero and the deflection is zero. The
result is zero moment and shear in the conjugate that yields a free end.
Example 4.6 Conjugate beam
Draw the conjugate beam for each of the real beams in Figure 4.13.
REAL CONJUGATE
Pin Pin
Roller Roller
Fixed Free
Free Fixed
Internal pin Hinge
Internal roller Hinge
Hinge Internal roller
Figure 4.12. Conjugate versus real supports.
REAL CONJUGATE
Figure 4.13. Conjugate versus real beams.
Example 4.7 Conjugate beam
Find the slope and deflection at the free end of the cantilever beam in
Figure 4.14 by the conjugate beam method.
A free-body diagram of the real beam is drawn with the reactions at
the fixed-end found from static equilibrium. The conjugate beam is drawn
observing that the shear in the conjugate beam equals the rotations in the
real beam and the moment in the conjugate equals the deflection in the
real beam. Therefore, the fixed-end of the real beam becomes free in the
conjugate beam and the free end in the real beam becomes fixed in the
conjugate beam. The conjugate beam is loaded with the M/EI diagram of
the real beam. This is a triangular moment diagram due to the applied load
P divided by EI. The last beam in Figure 4.14 is a free-body diagram of the
conjugate beam with the area of the M/EI diagram equated to a point load
located at the centroid of the diagram. Static equilibrium can then be per-
formed on the conjugate beam to find shear and moment at point B, which
represents rotation and deflection in the real beam shown in Figure 4.15.
A B
L/2 L/2
P
M=PL/2 L/2 L/2
L/2 L/2
A′ B′
PL
2EI
L/6 5L/6 MB′
PL2 VB′
8EI
Figure 4.14. Example 4.6 Conjugate beam.
PL2 PL2
ΣFy = 0 = − − VB ∴ VB = −
8 EI 8 EI
PL2
qB = −
8 EI
PL2 5 L 5 PL3
ΣM B = 0 = + MB ∴MB = −
8 EI 6 48 EI
3
5 PL
∆B = −
48 EI
∆B
θB
Figure 4.15. Example 4.6 Conjugate beam.
4.6 VIRTUAL WORK
Similar to the conjugate beam method, the virtual work method can be
used to obtain the displacement and slope at a specific point on a struc-
ture. The method was formulated by Gottfried Leibniz in 1695 (Leibniz
1695). Virtual work is based on internal strain energy from the member
and external work done by the forces. There are two ways to apply the
virtual work method. The first is to apply a virtual (unit) displacement
to find a real force. The second is to apply a virtual (unit) force to find a
real displacement. The force and the displacement in either case are in the
same direction. The basic equation to find a real displacement based on a
virtual force is as follows:
L
mM
q or ∆ = ∫ dx (4.7)
0
EI
The value of M is the moment equation due to the real loads on the struc-
ture. The value of m is the moment equation of the virtual load. Rotation or
deflection may be found depending on whether a virtual moment or force
is applied at the point under consideration.
Example 4.8 Virtual work
Determine the vertical deflection at the free end of the uniformly loaded,
cantilever beam in Figure 4.16 using the virtual work method.
A free-body diagram is drawn of the right-hand side of the beam to
determine the internal moment in the beam. The uniformly distributed
load is represented as a point load equal to the area under the load and
located at the centroid of the area.
From static equilibrium, we can determine the internal moment at any
point x measured from the right end of the beam.
wx 2
M=−
2
A B
L
wx
x/2
2
M= - wx
2
V x
Figure 4.16. Example 4.8 Virtual work.
A virtual force is applied at the point and in the direction that the deflec-
tion is desired. This is shown in Figure 4.17 along with a free-body dia-
gram of the right-hand side of the beam. In this case, the internal moment
is represented as m.
A B
L
1 kN
A B
x
L
m= -1x 1 kN
V
x
Figure 4.17. Example 4.8 Virtual work.
From static equilibrium, we can determine the internal moment at any

point x measured from the right end of the beam.
m = −1x
The values of M and m can be substituted into Equation 4.7 to determine

the deflection at point B at the free end of the cantilever.
 wx 2 
L (
−1x )  −
L
mM  2  L
wx3 wL4
∆B = ∫ dx = ∫ dx = ∫ dx =
0
EI 0
EI 0
2 EI 8 EI
4.6.1 VISUAL INTEGRATION
The virtual work method can also be done using the moment diagrams of
the real and virtual loads. This is known as visual integration. The moment
diagrams for the real (Q) and virtual (q) loads are constructed. The integral
is equal to the area of the M/EI diagram multiplied by the value of the m
diagram taken at the centroid of the M/EI diagram.
Example 4.9 Visual Integration
Determine the deflection at C in inches for the simply supported beam

shown in Figure 4.18 using the virtual work method and visual integra-
tion. Use E = 2000 ksi and I = 2000 in4.
8k
40 k-ft
A C B
8ft 16ft
Figure 4.18. Example 4.9 Visual integration.
Solve for the reactions due to the applied loads. The free-body dia-
gram is shown in Figure 4.19.
ΣM B = 0 = 8k (16 ft ) − Ay ( 24 ft ) + 40k − ft ∴ Ay = 7 k
ΣFy = 0 = Ay + By − 8k ∴ By = 1k
The shear and moment diagrams are constructed in Figure 4.19. The

moment diagram is broken into unique areas that will be continuous over
the area of the virtual moment diagrams shown in Figure 4.20.
Apply a virtual force dQ = 1 at point C as shown in Figure 4.20. Solve
for the reactions similar to the real loads. Draw the shear and moment
diagram locating the centroid of the real moment diagrams on the virtual
moment diagram.
8k
40 k-ft
C
7k 8ft 16ft 1k
V(k)
-1
2(8ft)/3
2(16ft)/3
56 16ft/2
40
M(k-ft)
δQ=1
C
2 1
3 8ft 16ft 3
16
3
3.556 3.556
2.667
m(k-ft)
2
ΣM B = 0 = 1k (16 ft ) − Ay ( 24 ft ) ∴ Ay = k
3
1
ΣFy = 0 = Ay + By − 1k ∴ By = k
3
The values of M and m can be substituted into Equation 4.7 to determine

the deflection at point C. The integral is the product of the area M/EI dia-
gram and the value of the m diagram at the centroid of the M/EI diagram.
L
mM
dQ∆ C = ∫ dx
0
EI
1 1 
1  (8 ft ) 56k -ft (3.556k -ft ) + (16 ft )16k -ft (3.556k -ft ) 
1k ∆ C = 2 2
EI  
 + (16 ft ) 40k -ft ( 2.667k -ft ) 
2 3
2958k -ft
1k ∆ C =
EI
∆C =
2958k -ft 3
=
(
2958 1728in3 /ft 3 ) = 1.278in
EI (
2000k /in 2 2000in 4 )
4.7 CASTIGLIANO’S THEOREMS
In 1879 Alberto Castigliano published his two theorems on elastic struc-

tures that are known as Castigliano’s Theorems (Castigliano 1879). The
first theorem states that the first partial derivative of strain energy with
respect to a particular deflection component is equal to the force applied at
the point and in the direction corresponding to that deflection component.
This may be written in mathematical terms as shown in Equation 4.8. The
second theorem is used more often in statically indeterminate structural
analysis and states that the first partial derivative of strain energy with
respect to a particular force is equal to the displacement of the point of
application of that force in the direction of its line of action. This is shown
in Equation 4.9. The equations are written in terms for flexural energy,
M/EI, of a particular rotation, qA, and moment, MA, relationship and in
terms of a particular deflection, DA, and force, PA, relationship. They can
be written for any elastic force and deformation relationship.
L L
∂M dx ∂M dx
M A = ∫M and PA = ∫M (4.8)
0
∂qA EI 0
∂ ∆ A EI
L L
∂M dx ∂M dx
q A = ∫M and ∆ A = ∫M (4.9)
0
∂M A EI 0
∂PA EI
Example 4.10 Castigliano’s second theorem
Determine the deflection of the beam in Figure 4.21 at point B using

Castigliano’s second theorem.
Since the deflection at point B is desired, a force P will be placed at B.
This will be the particular force in the direction of the desired deflection.
A B
L
P
w
A x B
L
Figure 4.21. Example 4.10 Castigliano’s second theorem.
A free-body diagram of the right-hand portion of the beam is shown in

Figure 4.22. The moment equation is found from equilibrium on the free-
body. Also, the partial derivative of the moment equation is taken with
respect to the particular force P. These are substituted into Equation 4.9
to find the deflection at point B.
wx P
x/2
V
x
x wx 2
ΣM B = 0 = − M − wx − Px ∴ M = − − Px
2 2
∂M
= −x
∂P
L L L
∂M dx  wx 2  dx  wx 3  dx
∆ B = ∫M = ∫− − Px ( − x ) = ∫ + Px 2 
0
∂P EI 0  2  EI 0  2  EI
wL4 PL3
∆B = +
8 EI 3EI
Since P is a fictitious applied load placed on the beam only to find the
deflection, it can be removed and the deflection at B becomes the following:
wL4
∆B =
8 EI
Example 4.11 Castigliano’s second theorem
Find the reactions for the propped end beam loaded as shown in Figure 4.23.
Since this is a statically indeterminate beam, a redundant force will
be applied at point A. The force will be represented as P but is actually the
real vertical reaction on the left end RA. The last drawing in Figure 4.23 is
a free-body diagram of a left-hand section of the beam to find the moment
equation by equilibrium.
w
Z
X
A B
L
w
2
wL -PL
6
P wL -P
2
wx
L
P M
x V
A free-body diagram for the total beam is drawn in Figure 4.23 with

reactions at the fixed end written in terms of the redundant force P. These
reactions are found by equilibrium.
1 L
ΣM B = 0 = − M B − PL + wL
2 3
wL2
MB = − PL (4.10)
6
1
ΣFy = 0 = RB + P − wL
2
wL
ΣRB = −P (4.11)
2
The partial derivative of the moment equation is taken with respect to

the particular force P. These are substituted into Equation 4.9 to find the
force P, which is the reaction at point A. Note the deflection at point A is
set to zero in Castigliano’s equation.
1 wx x wx 3
ΣM = 0 = − M − Px + x ∴M = − Px
2 L 3 6L
∂M
= −x
∂P
L L L
∂M dx  wx 3  dx  wx 4  dx
∆ A = 0 = ∫M = ∫ − Px ( − x ) = ∫− + Px 2 
0
∂P EI 0  6 L  EI 0  6 L  EI
wL5 PL3
0=− +
30 L 3
wL
P = RA =
10
This result can be substituted back into Equations 4.10 and 4.11 to find the
reactions at A.
2 wL
RB =
5
wL2
MB =
15
4.8 SLOPE-DEFLECTION METHOD
The slope-deflection method is a stiffness method that includes flexural or

bending stiffness. It was introduced in 1915 by George A. Maney (Maney
1915). In slope-deflection, moments at the end of a member are expressed
in terms of the rotations at the ends and the fixed-end moments due to the
loads. Once the expressions for the moments at the member ends are writ-
ten, the joint moments are equated to zero and the unknown moments are
found from the system of equations. The basic slope-deflection equations
are shown in Equations 4.12 and 4.13. These are for the i end and j end of
a member, respectively.
4 EI 2 EI 6 EI
M i = FEM ij + fi + fj − b (4.12)
L L L
2 EI 4 EI 6 EI
M j = FEM ji + fi + fj − b (4.13)
L L L
In these two equations, f is the rotation at the joint and b is the lateral
translation between the ends divided by the length of the member. It will
be seen later that the values 4EI/L, 2EI/L, and 6EI/L are flexural stiffness
terms. The FEM terms are the fixed-end moments due to the loads on the
member. A special case may be used if one end of the member is pinned.
Equation 4.14 is for the i end of a member when the j end is pinned.
FEM ji 3EI
M i = FEM ij +
2
+
L
(fi − b ) (4.14)
Example 4.12 Slope-deflection
Determine the moments at the ends of the members of the continuous

beam in Figure 4.24 using the slope-deflection equations.
Z 8 kips
1.2 kips/ft
8 kips X
A B C
20ft 5ft 5ft
Figure 4.24. Example 4.12 Slope-deflection.
The fixed-end moments due to the loads on each span are computed
and can be found in most elementary structural analysis textbooks.
1.2k /ft ( 20 ft )
2
wL2
FEM AB = − =− = −40k − ft
12 12
wL2 1.2k /ft ( 20 ft )
2
FEM BA = = = 40k − ft
12 12
8 (5 ft ) (5 ft )
2
Pb 2 a
FEM BC = − =− = −10k − ft
L2
(10 ft )2
Pa 2b 8 (5 ft ) (5 ft )
2
FEM CB = 2 = = 10k − ft
L (10 ft )2
The slope-deflection equations are applied to each span. In this case,

the normal equations (4.12 and 4.13) are used for span AB and a special
case (4.14) is used for span BC since support C is a roller. It should
be noted that there are no rotations at support A and therefore fA = 0.
Also, since there is no translational movement between the ends,
b is zero.
4 EI 2 EI 2 EI EI
M AB = FEM AB + fA + f B = −40 + f B = −40 + f B
L L 20 10
2 EI 4 EI 4 EI EI
M BA = FEM BA + fA + f B = 40 + f B = 40 + f B
L L 20 5
FEM CB 3EI 10 3EI 3EI
M BC = FEM BC − + f B = −100 − + f B = −15 + fB
2 L 2 10 10
Equilibrium equations are written at each joint that has a real rotation. In
this case, that is only joint B.
EI 3EI
M BA + M BC = 0 = 40 + f B − 15 + fB
5 10
50
fB = − fB
EI
Substituting the value of fB back into the moment equation will result in
the final member-end moments.
EI  50 
M AB = −40 +  −  = −45k − ft
10  EI 
EI  50 
M BA = 40 +  −  = 30k − ft
5  EI 
3EI  50 
M BC = −15 +  −  = −30k − ft
10  EI 
4.9 MOMENT-DISTRIBUTION METHOD
The moment-distribution method is an iteration process that uses the

same basic assumptions and equations as the slope-deflection method.
Moment-distribution was developed by Hardy Cross in 1930 (Cross
1930). The difference between the two is that at each joint the fixed-end
moments are first summed and distributed to each member in proportion to
their flexural stiffness (stiffness factor). Then, the member-end moments

are carried over to their far ends by the carryover factor. The process is
repeated and continues until the amount of moment being distributed
becomes significantly small.
Many factors are used with the moment-distribution method. The first
is the member stiffness factor and is the amount of moment required to
rotate the end of a beam 1 radian. This is actually the definition of stiff-
ness, force due to unit motion. The far end of the beam that is rotating is
fixed. We will derive this expression in the next section on elastic member
stiffness.
4 EI
K=
L
The joint stiffness factor is the sum of all the member stiffness factors for
the members connected at a joint.
K T = ΣK
The distribution factor for each member-end at a joint is the member stiff-
ness factor divided by the joint stiffness factor.
K K
DF = =
KT ΣK
If a member is connected to a support and not to other members, the dis-

tribution factor is dependent on the support type. If the support is fixed
against rotation, then DF=1. If the support is free to rotate, then DF=0.
The member relative stiffness factor is used when a continuous beam
or frame is made from the same material when calculating the distribution
factor. This can be used in place of the member stiffness factor for calcu-
lation of the other factors.
I
KR =
L
The final factor is the carry-over factor, which represents the fraction of a
moment that is carried over from one end of a member to the other. If the
member is prismatic, then the ratio of the far end moment to the near end
moment of a member is one-half (½).
Finally, if a member is connected to a support, but is free to rotate at

the support, a modified member stiffness factor can be used. In this mod-
ified method, the support joint is moment balanced then carried over and
no further calculations are performed at that joint.
3K
K′ =
4
Example 4.13 Moment-distribution method
Determine the moments in the beam shown in Figure 4.25 by the

moment-distribution method.
The modulus of elasticity, E, and moment of inertia, I, are constant
for the beam.
Since E and I are constant, the member relative stiffness factor can be
used and we can use a unit value for I.
I AB 1
K AB = = = 0.05
LAB 20
I BC 1
K BC = = = 0.10
LBC 10
At fixed support A, the distribution factor for member AB is 0 and at the

roller support C, the distribution factor for member BC is 1. For the inter-
nal roller, the distribution factor for each member must be calculated.
K AB 0.05
DFAB = = = 0.333
K AB + K BC 0.05 + 0.10
K BC 0.1
DFBC = = = 0.667
K AB + K BC 0.05 + 0.10
Z 8 kips
1.2 kips/ft
8 kips X
A B C
20ft 5ft 5ft
Figure 4.25. Example 4.13 Moment-distribution.

The fixed-end moments are calculated for each member load.
2
wL2 1.2k /ft ( 20 ft )
FEM AB =− =− = −40k − ft
12 12
2
wL2 1.2k /ft ( 20 ft )
FEM BA = = = 40k − ft
12 12
2
Pb 2 a 8 (5 ft ) (5 ft )
FEM BC = − 2
=− = −10k − ft
L (10 ft )2
2
Pa 2 b 8 (5 ft ) (5 ft )
FEM CB = 2 = = 10k − ft
L (10 ft )2
The moment-distribution is shown in Table 4.1. In the first line, the fixed-

end moments are recorded. In the second line, the distribution factor is
multiplied times the negative sum of the fixed-end moments. This is a dis-
tribution. In each subsequent one-half, the end moment is carried over the
opposite end of the members. This is a carry-over. Then, the unbalanced
moments at the joint are distributed again and carried over again.
Table 4.1. Example 4.13 Moment-distribution

0.00 0.333 0.667 1.00 Distribution Factor
-40.00 40.00 -10.00 10.00 Fixed-end Moment
0.00 -10.00 -20.00 -10.00 Distribution 1
-5.00 0.00 -5.00 -10.00 Carry-over 1
0.00 1.67 3.33 10.00 Distribution 2
0.83 0.00 5.00 1.67 Carry-over 2
0.00 -1.67 -3.33 -1.67 Distribution 3
-0.83 0.00 -0.83 -1.67 Carry-over 3
0.00 0.28 0.56 1.67 Distribution 4
0.14 0.00 0.83 0.28 Carry-over 4
0.00 -0.28 -0.56 -0.28 Distribution 5
0.14 0.00 -0.14 -0.28 Carry-over 5
0.00 0.05 0.09 0.28 Distribution 6
0.02 0.00 0.14 0.05 Carry-over 6
0.00 -0.05 -0.09 -0.05 Distribution 7
-0.02 0.00 -0.02 -0.05 Carry-over 7
-45.00 30.00 -30.02 -0.05 Final Moments
Example 4.14 Moment-distribution
Determine the moments in the beam shown in Figure 4.25 by the modified

moment-distribution method.
There are two primary differences when using this method. First, use
a modified member stiffness factor for member BC.
3K BC 3 ( 0.1)
K BC
′ = = = 0.075
4 4
The modified factor must be used to recalculate the distribution factors.
K AB 0.05
DFAB = = = 0.40
K AB + K BC 0.05 + 0.75
K BC 0.075
DFBC = = = 0.60
K AB + K BC 0.05 + 0.075
Second, the fixed-end moment at the pinned support is balanced then car-
ried over to the far end before the moment-distribution process begins.
The process is shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2. Example 4.14 Moment-distribution

0.00 0.400 0.600 1.00 Distribution Factor
-40.00 40.00 -10.00 10.00 Fixed-end Moment
-5.00 -10.00 Balance @ C
0.00 -10.00 -15.00 Distribution 1
-5.00 0.00 0.00 Carry-over 1
-45.00 30.00 -30.00 0.00 Final Moments
4.10 ELASTIC MEMBER STIFFNESS, X-Z SYSTEM
The stiffness method for analyzing building structures is widely used by

engineers and commercial computer structural analysis programs. The
method was developed 1934 and 1938 by Arthur Collar (Lewis et al.
1939). The basic definition of stiffness is the force due to a unit deforma-
tion. Flexibility is the reciprocal or inverse of stiffness and is defined as
the deformation due to a unit force. Either of these principles can be used
to find the behavior of structural members due to motion and loads. In this
section, the elastic member stiffness for a linear element will be derived.
L ∆L
Figure 4.26. Elastic stiffness.
The fixed-end forces on a member can also be found by similar methods.

When discussing the flexibility and stiffness of a member, an elastic spring
that is axially loaded can be considered. This is equivalent to the axial
properties of a linear element used in structures. Figure 4.26 shows an
elastic spring in an un-deformed and deformed position.
The displacement of the spring is directly proportional to the applied
axial load. This is the basic flexibility equation and is written as follows:
∆ = fP
In this equation, f is the flexibility of the spring and P is the applied axial
load in the direction of the length of the spring. This can also be written in
terms of stiffness using a displacement of 1 unit.
P = K∆
This equation is the general equation for stiffness. P represents all the
known forces, D represents the unknown rotations and deflections, and K
is the stiffness matrix for a member or structure. The entire system of a
structure can be modeled into a set of simultaneous equations written in
the following form and will be expanded in the next section and chapter:
[ K ][∆ ] = [ P ]
The derivation of elastic member stiffness in the X-Z system will be
derived in the two following examples using the conjugate beam method
and area moment method.
Example 4.15 qiy stiffness
Derive the qiy stiffness using the conjugate beam method for a linear
member.
A free-body diagram is shown in Figure 4.27 with an imposed rota-
tion of 1 unit on the i-end of the member. The moments are assumed in the
Piz Pjz
Mjy
Miy
θiy
Miy
EIy
PizL
EIy
Figure 4.27. Example 4.15 qiy stiffness.
positive y direction using the right-hand rule and the Cartesian right-hand
coordinate system. The forces are shown consistent with the deformation.
The moment diagram divided by EI is shown for the reaction forces on the
i-end of the member.
The conjugate beam can be constructed for the two basic assump-
tions. The shear in the conjugate is equal to the slope of the real beam, and
the moment of the conjugate is equal to the deflection of the real beam.
Viconj = qireal = qiy

M iconj = ∆ ireal = 0
Since moment in the conjugate does not exist but shear does, the conjugate
beam is pinned on the i-end.
V jconj = q jreal = 0
M jconj = ∆ jreal = 0
Since both the shear and moment in the conjugate do not exist, the conju-
gate beam is free on the j-end. The resulting conjugate beam is shown in
Figure 4.28.
Figure 4.28. Example 4.15 qiy stiffness.
The conjugate beam method can be applied to find the reactions at the
i-end of the conjugate beam, which are equal to deformations at the i-end
of the real beam. The load from Figure 4.27 is applied to the conjugate
beam in Figure 4.28.
M iy L Piz L2
Viconj = qireal = ∆qij = 0 − qiy = − +
EI y 2 EI y
 M iy L  L  Piz L2  2 L
M iconj = ∆ ireal = 0 = −   + 
 EI y  2  2 EI y  3
Solving the second equation for Piz in terms of Miy and then substituting
into the first equation, the stiffness value can be found.
3M iy
Piz =
2L
M iy L 3M iy L M iy L
−qiy = − + =−
EI y 4 EI y 4 EI y
4 EI y
M iy = qiy (4.15)
L
6 EI y
Piz = qiy
L2
It should be noted that the force Piz was actually shown as negative in the
original free-body diagram so it does have a negative value for stiffness.
6 EI y
Piz = − qiy (4.16)
L2
Example 4.16 Diz stiffness
Derive the Diz stiffness using the area moment method for a linear member.
A free-body diagram is shown in Figure 4.29 with an imposed deflec-
negative y direction using the right-hand rule and the Cartesian right-hand
Since both ends of the beam are fixed for rotation, the change in rota-
tion from the i-end to the j-end is zero. This is the area under the M/EI
diagram between those points.
M iy L Piz L2
∆qij = 0 = q j − qi = − +
EI y 2 EI y
2M iy
Piz =
L
Piz
Pjz
∆iz Mjy
Miy
Miy
EIy
PizL
EIy
Figure 4.29. Example 4.16 Δiz stiffness.
The tangential deviation of a point at the i-end from a tangent to the curve
on the j-end is the implied deflection. This is equal to the moment of the
area of the M/EI diagram about the point at the i-end.
j
M  M iy L  L  Piz L2  2 L
tij = ∆ iz =
∫
i
EI
xi dx = −   + 
 EI y  2  2 EI y  3
Substituting the first equation for Piz into the Diz equation results in one
of the stiffness terms. The second term is found by substituting the first
stiffness term back into the Piz equation. Note that Miy was assumed as
negative in the free-body diagram, so the sign must be switched.
M iy L2
∆ iz =
6 EI y
6 EI y
M iy = − ∆ iz (4.17)
L2
12 EI y
Piz = ∆ iz (4.18)
L3
The four terms given in Equations 4.15 through 4.18 are the flexural stiff-
ness terms for the forces at the i-end due to motions at the i-end. This is
denoted as stiffness matrix [Kii] in Equation 4.19. The stiffness equation
and matrix form of this are as follows:
[ K ][ d ] = [ F ]
ii i i
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 − 2  ∆
 L
3
L   iz   Piz 
 = 
 6 EI y 4 EI y   qiy   M iy 
− 2 
 L L 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 3
− 2 
[ K ][ d ] = [ F ]
ii i i
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 − 2  ∆
 L
3
L   iz   Piz 
 = 
 6 EI y 4 EI y   qiy   M iy 
 − 
 L2 L 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 3
− 2 
[ Kii ] =  6LEI 4 EIL  (4.19)
 y y 
− 2 
 L L 
The transmission matrix derived in Section 4.3 for the X-Z system can be
used to find the forces at the j-end.
 1 0
[T ] =  L 1 

From statics equilibrium, the forces at the i-end transmitted to the j-end
plus the forces at the j-end are equal to zero. The forces at the j-end due to
motions at the i-end are denoted as stiffness matrix [Kji].
[T ][ Kii ] +  K ji  = 0
 K ji  = − [T ][ K ii ]
 12 EI y 6 EI y   12 EI y 6 EI y 
 − 2   − 
 1 0 3
L   −1 0   L3 L2 
 K ji  = −    L = 
 L 1   6 EI y 4 EI y   − L −1  6 EI y 4 EI y 
− 2  − 2 
 L L   L L 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
− 3 
 K ji  =  L L2 
(4.20)
 6 EI y 2EI y 
− 2 
 L L 
For a prismatic member, it can be shown that the stiffness matrix is sym-
metric about the main diagonal. This results in stiffness [Kij] being equal
to the transpose of [Kji], where the forces at the j-end due to motions at the
i-end are denoted as stiffness matrix [Kji].
T
 12 EI y 6 EI y   12 EI y 6 EI y 
 − 3 2  − 3 − 
T
 L L  L L2 
 K ij  =  K ji  = =
 6 EI y 2 EI y   6 EI y 2 EI y 
− 2   
 L L   L2 L 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
− 3 − 2 
 K ij  =  L L 
(4.21)
 6 EI y 2 EI y 
 
 L2 L 
motions at the j-end are denoted as stiffness matrix [Kjj].
[T ]  Kij  +  K jj  = 0
 K jj  = − [T ]  K ij 
 12 EI y 6 EI y   12 EI y 6 EI y 
− 3 − − 3 −
 1 0  L 2 
L   −1 0   L L2 

 K jj  = −  
 6 EI =
 L 1  y 2 EI y   − L −1  6 EI y 2 EI y 
   
 L2 L   L2 L 
12 EI y 6 EI y 
 3 
 K jj  =  L L2 
(4.22)
 6 EI y 4 EI y 
 2 
 L L 
Adding the axial stiffness terms that are derived in most strength of mate-
rials textbooks, the entire coplanar X-Z frame stiffness matrix can be
found.
Ax E
Pix = ∆ ix
L
AE
Pjx = − x ∆ ix
L
Ax E
Pix = − ∆ jx
L
AE
Pjx = x ∆ jx
L
 Ax E Ax E 
 L 0 0 − 0 0 
L
 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 0 3
− 2
0 − − 2  ∆   P 
L L L3 L ix  ixix 
   ∆   
 6 EI y 4 EI y 6 EI y 2 EI y   iz   Piziz 
 0 − 0
L2 L L2 L   qiy   Miyiy 
    ==  
 − Ax E Ax E   ∆ jx   Pjxjx 
0 0 0 0  
 L L   ∆ jz   Pjz 
     jz 
 0 12 EI y 6 EI y 12 EI y 6 EI y   q jy   M jy 
− 0    jy 
 L 3
L 2
L3 L2 
 
 0 6 EI y 2 EI y 6 EI y 4 EI y 
− 0
 L2 L L2 L 
(4.23)
4.11 ELASTIC MEMBER STIFFNESS, X-Y SYSTEM
The X-Y coplanar coordinate system differs from the X-Z system in a few
ways. The derivation of elastic member stiffness in the X-Y system will
be derived in the two following examples using the area moment method
and conjugate beam method.
Example 4.17 qiz stiffness
Derive the qiz stiffness using the area moment method for a linear member.
A free-body diagram is shown in Figure 4.30 with an imposed rota-
positive z direction using the right-hand rule and the Cartesian right-hand
Piy Pjy
Mjz
Miz θiz
Miz
EIz
PiyL
EIz
Figure 4.30. Example 4.17 qiz stiffness.

Since both ends of the beam are fixed for translation, the tangential
deviation of a point at the i-end from a tangent to the curve on the j-end is
zero. This is equal to the moment of the area of the M/EI diagram about
the point at the i-end.
 M L  L  Piy L  2 L
j 2
M
tij = 0 = ∫ xi dx = −  iz  +  
i
EI  EI z  2  2 EI z  3
3M i z
Piy =
2L
The change in rotation from the i-end to the j-end is equal to the negative
of the implied rotation. This is the area under the M/EI diagram between
those points.
2
M iz L Piy L
∆qij = 0 − qiz = −qiz = − +
EI z 2 EI z
Substituting the first equation for Piy into the qiz equation results in one of
the stiffness terms. The second term is found by substitution of the first
stiffness term back into the Piy equation.
M iz L
−qiz = −
4 EI z
4 EI z
M iz = qiz (4.24)
L
6 EI
Piy = 2 z qiz (4.25)
L
Example 4.18 Diy stiffness
Derive the Diy stiffness using the conjugate beam method for a linear
member.
A free-body diagram is shown in Figure 4.31 with an imposed deflec-
tion of one unit on the i-end of the member. The moments are assumed
in the positive z direction using the right-hand rule and the Cartesian
right-hand coordinate system. The forces are shown consistent with the
deformation. The moment diagram divided by EI is shown for the reaction
forces on the i-end of the member.
Piy
Pjy
∆iy Mjz
Miz
Miz
EIz
PiyL
EIz
Figure 4.31. Example 4.18 Δiy stiffness.
The conjugate beam can be constructed for the two basic assump-
tions. The shear in the conjugate is equal to the slope of the real beam, and
the moment of the conjugate is equal to the deflection of the real beam.
Viconj = qireal = 0
M iconj = ∆ ireal = ∆ iy
Since moment in the conjugate exists but shear is zero, the conjugate beam
is slotted in the y direction on the i-end. This is a connection that is free to
move vertically, but restrained from rotation.
V jconj = q jreal = 0
M jconj = ∆ jreal = 0
Since both the shear and the moment in the conjugate do not exist, the con-
jugate beam is free on the j-end. The resulting conjugate beam is shown
in Figure 4.32.
The conjugate beam method can be applied to find the reactions at the
i-end of the conjugate beam, which are equal to deformations at the i-end
of the real beam. The load from Figure 4.31 is applied to the conjugate
beam in Figure 4.32.
2
M iz L Piy L
Viconj = qireal = 0 = − +
EI z 2 EI z
 M L  L  Piy L  2 L
2
M iconj = ∆ ireal = ∆ iy = −  iz  +  
 EI z  2  2 EI z  3
Figure 4.32. Example 4.18 Δiy stiffness.
Solving the first equation for Piy in terms of Miz and then substituting into
the second equation, the stiffness value can be found.
2 M iz
Piy =
L
M L2
∆ iy = iz
6 EI z
6 EI z
M iz = ∆ iy (4.26)
L2
This can be substituted back into the equation for Piy to obtain the last
stiffness value.
12 EI z
Piy = ∆ iy (4.27)
L3
The four terms given in Equations 4.24 through 4.27 are the flexural stiff-
ness terms for the forces at the i-end due to motions at the i-end. This is
denoted as stiffness matrix [Kii] in Equation 4.28. The stiffness equation
and matrix form of this are as follows:
[ K ][ d ] = [ F ]
ii i i
12 EI z 6 EI z 
 L3 L2   ∆ iy   Piy 
  =
 6 EI z 4 EI z   θiz   M iz 
 L2 L 
12 EI z 6 EI z 
 L3 L2 
[ Kii ] =  6 EI 
4 EI z 
(4.28)
 z
 L2 L 
The transmission matrix derived in Section 4.3 for the X-Y system can be
used to find the forces at the j-end.
1 0
[T ] =  − L 1 

motions at the i-end are denoted as stiffness matrix [Kji].
[T ][ Kii ] +  K ji  = 0
 K ji  = − [T ][ K ii ]
12 EI z 6 EI z  12 EI z 6 EI z 
 1 0   L3 L2 
 −1 0   L3 L2 
 K ji  = −    =   
 − L 1   6 EI z 4 EI z   L −1  6 EI z 4 EI z 
 L2 L   L2 L 
 12 EI z 6 EI 
 − L3 − 2z
L
 K ji  =   (4.29)
 6 EI z 2 EI z 
 L2 L 
For a prismatic member it can be shown that the stiffness matrix is sym-
metrical about the main diagonal. This results in stiffness [Kij] being equal
to the transpose of [Kji], where the forces at the j-end due to motions at the
i-end are denoted as stiffness matrix [Kji].
T
 12 EI z 6 EI z   12 EI z 6 EI z 
T  − L3 −
L2   − L3 L2 
 K ij  =  K ji  =   = 
 6 EI z 2 EI z   − 6 EI z 2 EI z 
 L2 L   L2 L 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 
− 3 
 K ij  =  L L2 
(4.30)
 6 EI y 2 EI y 
− 2 
 L L 
motions at the j-end are denoted as stiffness matrix [Kjj].
[T ]  Kij  +  K jj  = 0
 K jj  = − [T ]  K ij 
 12 EI y 6 EI y   12 EI y 6 EI y 
− 3 − 3
 1 0  L 2 
L   −1 0   L L2 

 K jj  = −    = 
 − L 1   6 EI y 2 EI y   L −1  6 EI y 2 EI y 
− 2  − 2 
 L L   L L 
 12 EI z 6 EI z 
−
[T ]  Kij  +  K jj  = 0
 K jj  = − [T ]  K ij 
 12 EI y 6 EI y   12 EI y 6 EI y 
− 3 − 3
 1 0  L 2 
L   −1 0   L L2 

 K jj  = −    =
 − L 1  6 EI y 2 EI y   L −1  6 EI y 2 EI y 
− 2  − 2 
 L L   L L 
 12 EI z 6 EI 
 L3 − 2z
 K jj  =  L
 (4.31)
 − 6 EI z 4 EI z 
 L2 L 
If we add the axial stiffness terms that were shown in the previous section,
the entire coplanar X-Y frame stiffness matrix can be found.
 Ax E Ax E 
 L 0 0 − 0 0 
L
 
 0 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI z 
 0 − ∆   P 
L3 L2 L3 L2   ix   ixix 
  ∆ iy
2 EI z     Piyiy 
 
 0 6 EI z 4 EI z 6 EI
0 − 2z
 L2 L L L   qiz   Miziz
 AE Ax E   ∆  == P 
− x 0 0 0 0   jx   jxjx 
 L L   ∆ jy   Pjyjy 
    
12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI z   q jz   Mjz 
 0 − − 0 − 2     jz
 L3 L2 L3 L 
 6 EI z 2 EI z 6 EI 4 EI z 
 0 0 − 2z 
 L2 L L L 
(4.32)
4.12 ELASTIC MEMBER STIFFNESS, 3-D SYSTEM
By combining Equations 4.23 and 4.32 and adding the torsional stiffness
terms that are derived in most strength of materials textbooks, we can
construct the elastic member stiffness in the three-dimensional (3-D) sys-
tem Cartesian coordinate system. This will include axial and torsional
stiffness, as well as bending about each orthogonal axes of the member
cross-section.
I xG
M ix = qix
L
IG
M jx = − x qix
L
I xG
M ix = − qix
L
IG
M jx = x qix
I x G Structural Stiffness • 187
Matrix
M ix = qix
L
IG
M jx = − x qix
L
I xG
M ix = − qix
L
IG
M jx = x qix
L
 Ax E AE 
 L 0 0 0 0 0 − x 0 0 0 0 0 
L
 
 0 12 EI z 0 0 0
6 EI z 12 EI
0 − 3 z 0 0 0
6 EI z 
 L3
L2
L L 
2
 
 0 12 E I y 6 EI y 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 0 3
0 2
0 0 0 − 3
0 − 2
0  ∆
L L L L
   ix   Pix 
I xG I xG    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0   ∆ iy   Piy 
 L L 
 6 EI y 4 EI y 6 EI y 2 EI y   ∆ iz   Piz 
   
 0 0 − 2 0 0 0 0 0 0   qix   M ix 
 L L L2
L 
 
 q   M 
 0 6 EI z 4 EI z 6 EI 2 EI z   iy   iy 
0 0 0 0 − 2z 0 0 0 q
 L2
L L L   iz  =  M iz 
 AE Ax E   ∆ jx   Pjx 
− x 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0     
 L L  ∆ jy Pjy 
   
 12 EI 6 EI 12 EI z 6 EI  ∆ P
 0 − 3 z 0 0 0 − 2z 0 0 0 0 − 2 z   jz   jz 
 L L L 3
L 
 q jx   M jx 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 12 EI y 6 EI y    
 0 0 − 3 0 0 0 0 0 0  jy  q   M jy 
  q jz   M jz 
  
2 3 2
 L L L L
 I xG I xG    
 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 L L 
 6 EI y 2 EI y 6 EI y 4 EI y 
 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 L2 L L2 L 
 6 EI z 2 EI z 6 EI z 4 EI z 
 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 
 L2 L L2 L 
(4.33)
4.13 GLOBAL JOINT STIFFNESS
The solution of structures using the global joint stiffness method requires
that each component be in the same Cartesian coordinate system. The
main components of the system are the members, loads, and supports. The
main results desired from the solution are the joint deformations, member
forces, and support reactions. The global or joint system is the primary
way to organize all the components. The supports and some of the loads
will be expressed in this system directly. Some of the loads will have to
be transformed into this system. The basic process to set up and solve the
structure using this stiffness is summarized as follows:
1. Find the local member stiffness, [Km], using Equation 4.33 (4.23
or 4.32 for 2-D systems). Rotate the local member stiffness to the
global joint stiffness system, [Kg]. This is shown in Equation 4.34.
 K g  = [ R ] [ K m ][ R ]
T
(4.34)
2. Assemble all of the members into the global joint stiffness matrix.
This is done by using joint labeling to order the matrix.
3. Determine the global joint loading, [Pg], from all direct loads on
joints, [P & Mg], and loads on members. The member loads are
applied as the opposite of the fixed-end forces and moments,
[FEPMm]. These must be rotated from the local system to the global
system, [R]T.
 Pg  =  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]
T
(4.35)
4. Solve the general stiffness equation for global displacements, [Dg].

The rows and columns of the matrices corresponding to the defor-
mations restrained by the supports are removed prior to solving the
system of equations.
 K g   ∆ g  =  Pg  (4.36)
5. Determine the reactions at the support, [Pg], from the global defor-
mations. Any fixed-end forces must be subtracted from the results.
Only the forces at the supports due to the free deformations need
to be found.
 Pg  =  K g   ∆ g  + [ FEPM m ][ R ]
T
(4.37)
6. Solve for the local member forces and moments, [P & Mm], for each
member separately from the global joint deformations. The global
joint deformations must be rotated into the member system, [R].
The fixed-end forces and moments must be added back to get the
final member end forces.
[ P & M ] = [ K ][ R ]  ∆
m m g
 + [ FEPM m ]
(4.38)
The general set-up for the stiffness method of analysis represents a sys-
tem of linear equations, where the displacement vector is the unknown.
Except for those designated as supports, there are six unknown joint dis-
placement components for each joint in the structure in a 3-D structure.
Each displacement released at a support is still an unknown displacement
component to the system. There is an equation for each degree of freedom
of the structure. Each non-related component at a support has a displace-
ment that is set identically equal to zero, and as far as the system of equa-
tions is concerned, this particular equation may be omitted, along with
any coefficient in the other equations which corresponds to the dropped
displacement.
Sometimes the system solution is handled in six by six blocks of
coefficients or six rows of equations at a time, where each block repre-
senting the accumulated stiffness for a joint in the case of the diagonal,
or the carry-over effects from other joints in the case of off-diagonals.
In this case, unless the support joint is fully restrained, its correspond-
ing row of six by six blocks is maintained intact and a number of suf-
ficient sizes to simulate “infinite stiffness” in the restrained direction
are added to the diagonal of the diagonal block in the master stiffness
matrix.
The building of the global joint stiffness matrix consists of various
stages of operations. First, the member stiffness matrix is defined in its
own system, giving due consideration to member end releases, for each
member in the structure. This will be discussed in Chapter 5. The member
stiffness matrix can be considered as four separate six by six blocks. These
represent the forces at the ends due to the motions at the end and were
discussed in Sections 4.10 and 4.11.
 K ii K ij 
[K ] = K
m
K jj 
 ji
The four separate components of the global member stiffness should be

placed in the global joint stiffness matrix. The diagonal terms will be added
to other terms representing the stiffness of other members connected to
that joint. The off-diagonal terms will simply be placed in their appropri-
ate position. The transformation of the local member system to the global
joint system was shown in Equation 4.34 and is derived as follows starting
with the local stiffness equation:
[ K ][ ∆ ] = [ P ]
m m m
This equation represents the force in the local system due to deformations
in the local system. To go from local to global we multiply by the rotation
transpose, [R]T, on both sides of the equation.
[ K m ][ R ] [ ∆ m ] = [ R ] [ Pm ]
T T
The right side of the equation now represents the forces in the global sys-
tem, [Pg]. The left side represents the force in the global system due to
local deformations. The equation needs to be written in terms of the global
deformation, [Dg]. From Section 4.3, the local deformation is the global
deformation multiplied by the rotation matrix, [R].
[ R ]T [ K m ][ R ]  ∆ g  =  Pg 
Example 4.19 Global joint stiffness
Determine the global joint deformations, support reactions, and local

member forces for the pin-connected bracing structure loaded as shown
in Figure 4.33.
The area of each member, Ax, is 10 in2 and the modulus of elasticity,
E, is 10,000 ksi. Note that the structure is in the XZ coordinate system.
Since this is a pin connected structure loaded only at the joint, it will
act as a true truss with only axial forces in the members. The stiffness
model will be simplified to only include the axial stiffness components,
AE/L. Furthermore, rotation at the joints will be excluded since there is no
rotational stiffness imparted by the members. Rotation could be included
8k 8k
12k 9k
15'-0"
20'-0"
Figure 4.33. Example 4.19 Global joint stiffness.

Z
3
4 5
7 5
1 2
2
4 6 X
1 3
if it is desired to find the rotation of the member ends, but this can easily
be found from the final deformed position of the structure.
A numbering system must be assigned to the joint and members for
easy bookkeeping. Figure 4.34 shows a numbering system for the five
joints and the seven members of the structure. The member numbers are
circled for clarity.
The member stiffness for each member is first found from Equation 4.34
(step 1).
 K g  = [ R ] [ K m ][ R ]
T
 K g  = [ b ] [ K m ][ b ]
T
Expand the general local member stiffness to include just the x and z
forces and motions. Also note that rotation transformation of members
will be about the y-axis or b.
 AE AE 
0 − 0
 cos b sin b 0 0  L L
 − sin b cos b  
0 0   0 0 0 0
 K g  = 
 0 0 cos b sin b   AE AE 
  − 0 0
 0 0 − sin b cos b   L L 
 0 0 0 0 
 cos b sin b 0 0 
 − sin b cos b 0 0 
×
 0 0 cos b sin b 
 
 0 0 − sin b cos b 
To simplify the process, we can multiply the expanded global stiffness

equation and factor out the axial stiffness term.
 cos 2 b − sin b cos b cos 2 b sin b cos b 

 
AE  − sin b cos b sin 2 b sin b cos b − sin 2 b 
 K g  =
L  cos 2 b sin b cos b cos 2 b − sin b cos b 
 
 sin b cos b − sin 2 b − sin b cos b sin 2 b 
Members 1 and 2 have the same orientation. Selecting the bottom

end as the i-end, the rotation is -90° or 270°. The axial stiffness is
555.6 k/in.
0 0 0 0 
0 555.6 0 −555.6   K11 K14   K 33 K 35 
[ K14 ] = [ K35 ] = 0 0 0
=
0   K 41
=
K 44   K 53 K 55 
 
0 −555.6 0 555.6 
Member 3 does not need rotations since it is already in the global system
orientation. The global stiffness will be the same as the member stiffness.
Selecting the left end as the i-end, the rotation is 0°. The axial stiffness is
416.7 k/in.
 416.7 0 −416.7 0
 0 0 0 0   K 44 K 45 
[ 45 ] −416.7
K =
0 416.7
=
0   K 54 K 55 
 
 0 0 0 0
Members 4 and 5 have the same orientation. Selecting the bottom-left end
as the i-end, the rotation is -36.87° or 323.13°. Instead of using angles, in
this case it is easier to use trigonometry directly. The cosine is 0.8 and the
sine is -0.6. The axial stiffness is 666.7 k/in.
 426.7 320.0 −426.7 −320.0 

 320.0 240.0 −320.0 −240.0   K K12 
[ K12 ] = [ K 25 ] = −426.7 −320.0 426.7 320.0  =  K11 K 22 
 21
 
 −320.0 −240.0 320.0 240.0 
 K 22 K 25 
=
 K 52 K 55 
Members 6 and 7 have the same orientation. Selecting the top-left end as
the i-end, the rotation is 36.87° or -323.13°. Instead of using angles, in
this case it is easier to use trigonometry directly. The cosine is 0.8 and the
sine is 0.6. The axial stiffness is 666.7 k/in.
 426.7 −320.0 −426.7 320.0 

 −320.0 240.0 320.0 −240.0 
K K 23 
[ K 23 ] = [ K 42 ] = −426.7 320.0 426.7 −320.0 =  K 22 K 33 
 32
 
 320 .0 −240 .0 −320 .0 240 .0 
 K 44 K 42 
=
 K 24 K 22 
The global joint stiffness matrix can be assembled using each of the mem-
ber’s contributions (step 2).
 K11 K12 0 K14 0 

K K 22 K 23 K 24 K 25 
 21
 K g  =  0 K 32 K 33 0 K 35 
 
 K 41 K 42 0 K 44 K 45 
 0 K 52 K 53 K 54 K 55 
 427 320 −427 −320 0 0 0 0 0 0 

 320 796 −320 −240 0 0 0 −566 0 0 

 −427 −320 1707 0 −427 320 −427 320 −427 −320 
 
 −320 −240 0 960 320 −240 320 −240 −320 −240 
 0 0 −427 320 427 −320 0 0 0 0 
 K g  =  
 0 0 320 −240 −320 796 0 0 0 −566 
 0 0 −427 320 0 0 843 −320 −417 0 
 
 0 −566 320 −240 0 0 −320 796 0 0 
 
 0 0 −427 −320 0 0 −417 0 843 320 
 0 0 −320 −240 0 −566 0 0 320 795 
The global joint loading can be determined from Equation 4.35 directly
since all of the applied loads are at the joints and in the global system
(step 3). Note that there are no loads applied directly to the members, so
there are no fixed-end forces and moments. The load matrix is in units of
kips (k).
 P1x   0 
P   
 1y   0 
 P2 x   0 
   
 P2 y   0 
 P3 x   0 
 Pg  =  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]
T
= = 
 P3 y   0 
 P  12 
 4x   
 P4 y   −8
   
 P5 x   9 
 P6 y   −8
Using any of the methods for solving non-homogenous linear algebraic

equations, the global deformations can be found from the global stiffness
Equation 4.36 (step 4). The rows and columns corresponding to the sup-
port constraint degrees of freedom must be deleted prior to the solution.
This would be both x and y at joints 1 and 3. The solution for the deforma-
tions will be in inches.
−1
 ∆ g  =  K g   Pg 
−1
 ∆ 2 x  1707 0 −427 320 −427 −320   0   0.0246 
∆  
 2y   0 960 320 −240 −320 −240   0   −0.0057 
 ∆ 4 x   −427 320 843 −320 −4117 0  12   0.0595 
 =   = 
∆
 4y   320 −240 − 320 796 0 0   −8  0.0022 
 ∆ 5 x   −427 −320 −417 0 843 320   9   0.0602 
       
 ∆ 6 y   −320 −240 0 0 320 795   −8  −0.0261
The reactions at the support can be found using the solution of the global
deformation with Equation 4.37 (step 5). Only the terms in the rows cor-
responding to the restrained degrees of freedom and in the columns of
the unrestrained degrees of freedom need to be included. Since there are
no applied loads on the members, the fixed-end forces and moments are
omitted. In addition, there are no applied loads at the support locations so
the global applied forces and moments are omitted. The reaction forces
are in kips (k).
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g  −  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]T
 0.0246 
 −427 −320 0 0 0 0   −0.0057 
 −320 −240 0 −566 0 0   0.0595 
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g  =  −427 320 0 0 0 
0   0.0022 

  
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g  −  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]T
 0.0246 
 −427 −320 0 0 0 0   −0.0057 
 −320 −240 0 −566 0 0   0.0595 
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g  =  −427 320 0 0 0

0   0.0022 

 
 320 −240 0 0 0 −566  0.0602 
 
 −0.0261
 8.67 
 −7.75
= 
12.33 
 
 23.75 
The final step is finding the member forces for each of the members using
Equation 4.35 (step 6). Since there are no applied forces on the mem-
bers, the fixed-end forces and moments can be omitted. Note that the local
member stiffness matrix is used here and not the global matrix. The mem-
ber force will be in kips. If the i-end is positive, the member is in compres-
sion and if it is negative the member is in tension.
[ P & M ] = [ K ][ R ]  ∆
m m g
 + [ FEPM m ]
[ P & M ] = [ K ][ b ]  ∆
m m g

For member 1, the deformations at joints 1 and 4 are used.
 555.6 0 0 0  0 1 0 0   0   −1.24 
 0
 −555.6 0 0   −1 0 0 0   0   0 
=
 −555.6 0 555.6 0  0 0 0 1   0.0595   1.24 
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 −1 0  0.0022   0 
 555.6 0 0 0  0 1 0 0   0   14.5 
 0 −555. 6 0 0   −1 0 0 0   0   0 
 =
 −555.6 0 555.6 0  0 0 0 1   0.0602   −14.5
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 −1 0   −0.0261  0 
 416.7 0 −416.7 0  1 0 0 0   0.0595   −0.3326 

 0 0 0 0  0 1 0 0   0.0022   0 
 =
 −416.7 0 416.7 0  0 0 1 0  0.0602   0.326 
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 0 1   −0.0261  0 
 666.7 0 −666.7 0   0.8 0.6 0 0   0   −10.8

 0 0 0  
0   −0.6 0.8 0 0   0   0 
 =
 −666.7 0 666.7 0  0 0 0.8 0.6   0.0246   10.8 
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 −0.6 0.8   −0.0057   0 
 666.7 0 −666.7 0   0.8 0.6 0 0   0.0246   −10.8

 0 0 0  
0   −0.6 0.8 0 0   −0.0057   0 
 =
 −666.7 0 666.7 0  0 0 0.8 0.6   0.0602   10.8 
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 −0.6 0.8   −0.0261  0 
 666.7 0 −666.7 0   0.8 0.6 0 0   0.0246  15.4 

 0 0 0  
0   −0.6 0.8 0 0   −0.0057   0 
 =
 −666.7 0 666.7 0  0 0 0.8 0.6   0  15.4 
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 −0.6 0.8   0   0 
 666.7 0 −666.7 0   0.8 0.6 0 0   0.0595  15.4 

 0 0 0  
0   −0.6 0.8 0 0   0.0024   0 
 =
 −666.7 0 666.7 0  0 0 0.8 0.6   0.0246  15.4 
     
 0 0 0 0  0 0 −0.6 0.8   −0.0057   0 
Example 4.20 Global joint stiffness

member forces for the rigidly connected frame structure loaded as shown
in Figure 4.35.
The area of each member, Ax, is 10 in2, the moment of inertia, Iz, is
1000 in4, and the modulus of elasticity, E, is 10,000 ksi. Note the structure
is in the XY coordinate system and the numbering system is similar to
Example 4.19.
Y
3 k/ft
18k
2 2 3
16'-0" 1 3
1 4 X
24'-0"
The member stiffness for each member is first found from

Equation 4.34 (step 1).
 K g  = [ R ] [ K m ][ R ]
T
 K g  = [a ] [ K m ][a ]
T
Using the local member stiffness for the XY system from Section 4.11
which has translation in x and y direction and rotation about the z direc-
tion, the rotation transformation of members will be about the z-axis or a.
cosα − sinα 0 0 0 0
 sinα cosα 0 0 0 0 

 0 0 1 0 0 0
[a ]T =
0 cosα − sinα

 0 0 0
 0 0 0 sinα cosα 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 
 AE AE 
 L 0 0 − 0 0 
L
 
 0 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI z 
0 −
 L3 L2 L3 L2 
 
 0 6 EI z 4 EI z 6 EI 2 EI z 
0 − 2z
 L2 L L L 
[ K m ] =  AE AE 
− 0 0 0 0 
 L L 
 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI z 
 0 − − 0 − 2 
 L3 L2 L3 L 
 6 EI z 2 EI z 6 EI 4 EI z 
 0 0 − 2z 
 L2 L L L 
 cosa sina 0 0 0 0
 − sina cosa 0 0 0 0 

 0 0 1 0 0 0
[a ] =  0 0 0 cosa sina 0


 0 0 0 − sina cosa 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 
Members 1 and 3 have the same orientation. Selecting the bottom end as
the i-end, the rotation is 90°. Table 4.3 contains the local member stiffness
matrix, the rotation matrices, a and aT, and the global member stiffness
matrix.
 K11 K12   K 44 K 43 
[K ] = [K ] = K
12 43 =
K 22   K 34 K 33 
 21
Member 2 is already in the global system and does not need rotation.
Selecting the left end as the i-end, the rotation is 0°. Table 4.4 contains
the local member stiffness matrix, the rotation matrices, a and aT, and the
global member stiffness matrix.
 K 22 K 23 
[K ] = K
23
K 33 
 32
Table 4.3. Example 4.20 Global joint stiffness

KL
1510.4 0 0 -1510.4 0 0
0 49.17 4720 0 -49.17 4720
0 4720 604166.67 0 -4720 302083.33
-1510.4 0 0 1510.4 0 0
0 -49.17 -4720 0 49.17 -4720
0 4720 302083.33 0 -4720 604166.67
a
0 1 0 0 0 0
-1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 -1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
0 -1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 -1 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
49.2 0 -4720 -49.2 0 -4720
0 1510 0 0 -1510 0
-4720 0 604166.67 4720 0 302083.33

-49.2 0 4720 49.2 0 4720
0 -1510 0 0 1510 0
-4720 0 302083.33 4720 0 604166.67
The global joint stiffness matrix can be assembled using each of the member’s
contributions (step 2). Table 4.5 contains the global joint stiffness matrix.
The global joint loading is determined from Equation 4.35. In this
case, member 2 is loaded with a uniformly distributed load. The fixed-end
forces and moments due to the load must be calculated. Normally, the
fixed-end forces and moments are rotated into the global system before
they are placed in the global joint loading, but in this case, the member is
already in the global system and no rotation is necessary (step 3). The load
matrix is in units of kips and inches (k-in).

KL
1006.9 0 0 -1006.9 0 0
0 14.57 2098 0 -14.57 2098
0 2098 402777.78 0 -2098 201388.89
-1006.9 0 0 1006.9 0 0
0 -14.57 -2098 0 14.57 -2098
0 2098 201388.89 0 -2098 402777.78
a
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
1006.9 0 0 -1006.9 0 0
0 15 2098 0 -15 2098
0 2098 402777.78 0 -2098 201388.89

-1006.9 0 0 1006.9 0 0
0 -15 -2098 0 15 -2098
0 2098 201388.89 0 -2098 402777.78
 K11 K12 0 0 
K K 22 K 23 0 
 K g  =  21
 0 K 32 K 33 K 34 
 
 0 0 K 43 K 44 
wL 0.25k /in ( 288in)

FEP23 = = = 36k
2 2
wL2 0.25k /in ( 288in)
2
FEM 23 = = = 1728k − in
12 12
wL 0.25k /in ( 288in)
FEP32 = = = 36k
2 2
0.25k /in ( 288in)
2
wL2
FEM 32 = − =− = −1728k − in
12 12
The 18 k lateral load is placed directly on joint 2 in the y direction.
 P1x   0 
P   0 
 1y   
 M 1z   0 
   
 P2 x   18 
 P2 y   −36 
   
 Pg  =  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]
T  M 2 z   −1728
= =
P   0 
 3x   
 P3 y   −36 
   
 M 3 z   1728 
 P4 x   0 
   
 P4 y   0 
M   0 
 4z   
The global deformations can be found from the global stiffness Equa-
tion 4.36 (step 4). The rows and columns corresponding to the support
constraint degrees of freedom must be deleted prior to the solution. This
would be all three motions at 1 and 4. The resulting matrix is just joints 2
and 3. This is shown in Table 4.6 along with the reduced load. The solution
for the deformations will be in inches and radians.
 ∆ 2 x   0.3040 
∆   
 2 y   −0.0207 
−1  q   −0.0034 
 ∆ g  =  K g   Pg  =  2 z  =  
 ∆ 3 x   0.2852 
 ∆ 3 y   −0.0270 
   
 q 3 z   0.0010 

KG P-FEPM
1056 0 4720 -1007 0 0 18
0 1525 2098 0 -15 2098 -36
4720 2098 1006944 0 -2098 201389 -1728
-1007 0 0 1056 0 4720 0
0 -15 -2098 0 1525 -2098 -36
0 2098 201389 4720 -2098 1006944 1728
The reactions at the supports can be found using the solution of the global
responding to the restrained degrees of freedom and in the columns of the
unrestrained degrees of freedom need to be included. Table 4.7 shows the
appropriate stiffness terms and deformations needed to find the reactions.
Since there were no fixed-end forces and moments at the support joints,
the solution is complete. The reaction forces are in kips and inches (k-in).
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g  −  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]T
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g 

KG2 DG P
-49 0 -4720 0 0 0 0.3040 0.92
0 -1510 0 0 0 0 -0.0207 31.22
4720 0 302083 0 0 0 -0.0034 419.18
0 0 0 -49 0 -4720 0.2852 -18.92
0 0 0 0 -1510 0 -0.0270 40.78
0 0 0 4720 0 302083 0.0010 1659.74
Equation 4.35 (step 6). The member force will be in kips and inches.
The local member stiffness matrix and the rotation matrix were shown
in step 1 and are omitted here. The sign convention for the X-Y system
applies when interpreting the final-end forces and moments.
[ P & M ] = [ K ][ R ]  ∆
m m g
 + [ FEPM m ]
[ P & M ] = [ K ][a ]  ∆
m m g

For member 1, the deformations at joints 1 and 2 are used. Table 4.8 con-
tains the final member-end forces in the local system along with global
deformations used to find those end forces.

DG PL
0 Dx1 31.22 kips
0 Dy1 -0.92 kips
0 θz1 419.18 kip-in
0.3040 Dx2 -31.22 kips
-0.0207 Dy2 0.92 kips
-0.0034 θz2 -596.37 kip-in
For member 2, the deformations at joints 2 and 3 are used. Table 4.9 con-
tains the final member-end forces in the local system along with global

DG PL
0.3040 Dx2 18.92 kips
-0.0207 Dy2 -4.78 kips
-0.0034 qz2 -1131.63 kip-in
0.2852 Dx3 -18.92 kips
-0.0270 Dy3 4.78 kips
0.0010 qz3 -245.46 kip-in
For member 3, the deformations at joints 4 and 3 are used. Table 4.10

contains the final member-end forces in the local system along with global

DG PL
0 Dx4 40.78 kips
0 Dy4 18.92 kips
0 qz4 1659.74 kip-in
0.2852 Dx3 -40.78 kips
-0.0270 Dy3 -18.92 kips
0.0010 qz3 1973.46 kip-in
REFERENCES
Castigliano, A. 1879. Theorie de l’Equilibre des Systemes Elastiques et ses Appli-

cations. Turin, Italy.
Cross, H. 1930. “Analysis of Continuous Frames by Distributing Fixed-End
Moments.” Proceedings of the American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE),
Cleveland, Ohio.
Leibniz, G. 1695. Specimen Dynamicum.
Lewis, D.C.; Review: Frazer, R.A., Duncan, W.J., and Collar, A.R. 1939. Elemen-
tary Matrices and some Applications to Dynamics and Differential Equations.
New York, New York: Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society 45.
Maney, G.A. 1915. Studies in Engineering. Minneapolis, Minnesota: University
of Minnesota
Müller-Breslau, H. 1875. Elementary Handbook of Strength of Materials.
Timoshenko, S.P. 1953. History of Strength of Materials. New York, New York:
McGraw-Hill.
CHAPTER 5
Advanced Structural
Stiffness
In this chapter, concepts learned in previous chapters are expanded and

applied to advanced structural stiffness. This method is applied in comput-
ers to solve complex structures that are statically determinate or statically
indeterminate. Matrices will be utilized to determine internal member
forces and displacements within a structure. Small pieces of the struc-
ture are analyzed and then compiled into a larger matrix in order to view
the structure as a whole. This procedure is the basis for finite element
analyses.
5.1 MEMBER END RELEASES, X-Z SYSTEM
Joint stiffness is expressed in the master matrix for a structure, but two
situations exist that may cause them to vary. First, a joint that is being uti-
lized as a support may be released. For example, the support becomes slot-
ted or pinned. When looking at a joint release, the joint is fully designed as
a support before the release. This creates the reaction components. A sup-
port release is in the global system and is handled in the reduction of the
joint stiffness matrix. Second, a member can be physically released from a
joint for one or more of the six possible end displacements. When a mem-
ber release occurs, the member is released in some direction and the stiff-
ness contribution that member was making to the joint changes or goes to
zero. When a member is released in the local system, this release changes
the member stiffness matrix. Some of these released stiffness matrices will
be derived in the following examples. The order of the motions and forces
on the member’s end are given by the deflections and rotations at the i-end
followed by the deflections and rotations at the j-end. The following is a
full list of stiffness values simplified from Equation 4.33:
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1, 7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ ix   PPixix 

 0
 k2, 2 0 0 0 k2, 6 0 k 2 ,8 0 0 0 k2,12   ∆ iy   PPiyiy 
 
 0 0 k3 , 3 0 k3 , 5 0 0 0 k3, 9 0 k3,11 0   ∆ iz   PPiziz 
     
 0 0 0 k4, 4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   qix   Mixix 
 0 0 k5 , 3 0 k5 , 5 0 0 0 k5 , 9 0 k5,11 0   qiy   Miyiy 
     
 0 k6 , 2 0 0 0 k6 , 6 0 k6 ,8 0 0 0 k6,12   qiz   Miziz 
=
=
k 0 0 0 0 0 k7 , 7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx   PPjxjx 
 7 ,1     
 0 k8, 2 0 0 0 k8, 6 0 k8,8 0 0 0 k8,12   ∆ jy   PPjyjy 
     
 0 0 k9 , 3 0 k9 , 5 0 0 0 k9 , 9 0 k9,11 0   ∆ jz   PPjzjz 
 0 0 0 k10, 4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   q jx   M jxjx 
     
 0 0 k11,3 0 k11,5 0 0 0 k11,9 0 k11,11 0   q jy   M jyjy 
 0
 k12, 2 0 0 0 k12, 6 0 k12,8 0 0 0 k12,12   q jz   M jzjz 
(5.1)
Example 5.1 ∆iz end release
Derive the local member stiffness for a Diz member end release using the
conjugate beam method.
A free-body diagram of the released beam is shown in Figure 5.1.
Since the beam is allowed to move at the i-end in the z direction, the
reaction Piz is equal to zero. The loaded conjugate beam is also shown in
Figure 5.1. Note that the shear in the conjugate beam is equal to the rota-
tion in the real beam and the moment in the conjugate beam is equal to the
deflection in the real beam.
Miy Miy
Piz=0 Pjz
θiy
Miy Miy
EIy EIy
∆iz=0 ∆iz=0
θiy θiy=0
Figure 5.1. Example 5.1 ∆iz end release.
If a motion Diz is imposed, there is no resistance and therefore no

forces. The resulting forces are the stiffness values due to the motion. The
following are forces and stiffness due to Diz:
Advanced Structural Stiffness • 207
Piz = M iy = Pjz = M jy = 0
k3,3 = k5,3 = k9,3 = k11,3 = 0
If a motion Djz is imposed, there is no resistance and therefore no forces.

The resulting forces are the stiffness values due to the motion. The follow-
ing are forces and stiffness due to Djz:
k3,9 = k5,9 = k9,9 = k11,9 = 0
If a motion qiy is imposed, there is resistance and therefore forces. The

resulting forces are derived using conjugate beam.
M iy L
ΣFz = qiy − =0
EI y
EI y
M iy = qiy
L
EI y
k5 , 5 = qiy
L
From statics on the real beam:
ΣM y = M iy + M jy = 0
EI y
M jy = − M iy = − qiy
L
EI y
k11,5 = − qiy
L
Piz = Pjz = 0
k3 , 5 = k9 , 5 = 0
From symmetry of the stiffness matrix, the following terms can be

found:
k5,11 = k11,5
EI y
k5,11 = − q jy
L
From statics on the real beam considering qjy:

EI y
M iy = − M jy = q jy
L
EI y
k11,11 = q jy
L
Piz = Pjz = 0
k3,11 = k9,11 = 0
The resulting stiffness matrix is shown in Equation 5.2 with only the
affected terms replaced with the new values.
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1, 7 0 0 0 0 0 
 0 k2, 2 0 0 0 k2, 6 0 k 2 ,8 0 0 0 k2,12   ∆ ix   Pix 
   P 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ iy   iy 
 
 0 0 0 k4, 4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   ∆ iz   Piz 
   
 EI y EI y   qix   M ix 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0   M 
 L L   qiy   iy 
 0 k6 , 2 0 0 0 k6 , 6 0 k6 ,8 0 0 0 k6,12   qiz   M iz 
  =
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 , 7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx  P 
   jx 
 0 k8, 2 0 0 0 k8, 6 0 k8,8 0 0 0 k8,12   ∆ jy   Pjy 
    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
 
 0 0 0 k10, 4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   q jx   M jx 
   
 EI y EI y   q jy   M jy 
 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0   M 
 L L   q jz   jz 
 0 k12, 2 0 0 0 k12, 6 0 k12,8 0 0 0 k12,12 

(5.2)
Example 5.2 qiy end release
Derive the local member stiffness for a qiy member end release using the
conjugate beam method.
A free-body diagram of the released beam is shown in Figure 5.2.
Since the beam is allowed to rotate at the i-end in the y direction, the
reaction Miy is equal to zero. The loaded conjugate beam is also shown in
Figure 5.2. Note that the shear in the conjugate beam is equal to the rota-
tion in the real beam and the moment in the conjugate beam is equal to the
deflection in the real beam.
If a motion Diz is imposed, there is resistance and therefore forces. The
resulting forces are derived using conjugate beam.
Miy=0
Mjy
∆iz
Piz Pjz
PizL
EIy
∆iz ∆jz=0
θiy θjy=0
Figure 5.2. Example 5.2 qiy end release.
Piz L L 2 L
ΣM jy = − ∆ iz + =0
EI y 2 3
3EI y
Piz = ∆ iz
L3
3EI y
k3 , 3 = ∆ iz
L3
ΣM jy = Piz L + M jy = 0
3EI y
M jy = − Piz L = − ∆ iz
L2
3EI y
k11,3 = − ∆ iz
L2
ΣFz = Piz + Pjz = 0
3EI y
Pjz = − Piz = − ∆ iz
L3
3EI y
k9 , 3 = − ∆ iz
L3
M iy = 0
k5 , 3 = 0
If a motion Djz is imposed, there is resistance and therefore forces. The

free-body diagram of the deflected shape is shown in Figure 5.3. The
conjugate beam will be the same as shown in Figure 5.2. The resulting
forces are derived using conjugate beam. Note that the direction of Piz in
Figure 5.3 will be the opposite of that in Figure 5.2, so all the values will
be the opposite of those from Diz.
Mjy
Miy=0
∆jz
Piz Pjz
3EI y
Piz = − ∆ jz
L3
3EI y
k3 , 9 = − ∆ jz
L3
3EI y
M jy = − Piz L = ∆ jz
L2
3EI y
k11,9 = ∆ jz
L2
3EI y
Pjz = − Piz = ∆ jz
L3
3EI y
k9 , 9 = ∆ jz
L3
If a motion qiy is imposed, there is no resistance and therefore no forces.

The resulting forces are the stiffness values due to the motion. The follow-
ing are forces and stiffness due to Diz:
k3,5 = k5,5 = k9,5 = k11,5 = 0
If a motion qjy is imposed, there is resistance and therefore forces. The

free-body diagram of the deflected shape is shown in Figure 5.4. The
Miy=0 Mjy
θjy
Piz Pjz
Mjy
EIy
∆iz=0 ∆jz=0
θiy θjy
conjugate beam is also shown in Figure 5.4. The resulting forces are

derived using conjugate beam.
M jy L 2 L
ΣM iy = q jy L − =0
EI y 2 3
3EI y
M jy = q jy
L
3EI y
k11,11 = q jy
L
ΣM jy = Piz L + M jy = 0
M jy 3EI y
Piz = − =− q jy
L L2
3EI y
k3,11 = − q jy
L2
ΣFz = Piz + Pjz = 0
3EI y
Pjz = − Piz = q jy
L2
3EI y
k9,11 = q jy
L2
M iy = 0
k5,11 = 0
The resulting stiffness matrix is shown in Equation 5.3 with only the
affected terms replaced with the new values.
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0 
0
 k 2 ,2 0 0 0 k2,6 0 k2,8 0 0 0 k2,12 
 3EI y 3EI y −3EI y  ∆   P 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0   ix   ix 
 L3 L3 L2   ∆iy   Piy 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   ∆iz   Piz 
    
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   q ix   M ix 
0 k 6 ,2 0 0 0 k6,6 0 k6,8 0 0 0 k6,12   q iy   M iy 
 
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0   q iz  =  M iz 
   
0
 k8,2 0 0 0 k8,6 0 k8,8 0 0 0 k8,12   ∆ jx   Pjx 
 3EI y 3EI y 3EI y   ∆ jy   Pjy 
0 0 − 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
 L L3 L2  q  M 
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   jx   jx 
   q jy   M jy 
 3EI y 3EI y 3EI y    
0 0 − 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   q jz   M jz 
L L2 L
 
 0 k12,2 0 0 0 k12,6 0 k12,8 0 0 0 k12,12 
(5.3)
The member stiffness for releasing Djz and qjy can be derived in a sim-
ilar manner to Diz and qiy. The resulting stiffness matrices are shown in
Equations 5.4 and 5.5 with only the affected terms replaced with the new
values.
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0 
0
 k 2 ,2 0 0 0 k2,6 0 k2,8 0 0 0 k2,12   ∆ ix   Pix 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ iy   Piy 
 ∆ 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0  iz P 
   iz 
 EI y EI y  q
 ix   M ix 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0   
 L L   qiy  M 
0   iy 
k 6 ,2 0 0 0 k6,6 0 k6,8 0 0 0 k6,12  qiz   M iz 
  =
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx   Pjx 
0   
 k8,2 0 0 0 k8,6 0 k8,8 0 0 0 k8,12   ∆ jy   Pjy 
   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
  
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0  q jx M 
   jx 
 EI y EI y   q jy   M 
0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0     jy 
 L L   q jz   M jz 
0
 k12,2 0 0 0 k12,6 0 k12,8 0 0 0 k12,12 
(5.4)
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0 
0 k 2 ,2 0 0 0 k2,6 0 k2,8 0 0 0 k2,12 
  ∆ ix   Pix 
 3EI y 3EI y 3EI y  ∆   P 
0 0 0 − 2 0 0 0 − 0 0 0   iy   iy 
 L3 L L3   ∆ iz   Piz 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0     
   q ix   M ix 
 3EI y 3EI y 3EI y 
− 2 q  M 
0 0
L
0
L
0 0 0
L2
0 0 0 
 iy   iy 
   q iz   M iz 
0 k 6 ,2 0 0 0 k6,6 0 k6,8 0 0 0 k6,12 
∆  =  P 
k 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0   jx   jx 
 7 ,1   ∆ jy   Pjy 
0 k8,2 0 0 0 k8,66 0 k8,8 0 0 0 k8,12     
   ∆ jz   Pjz 
0 3EI y 3EI y 3EI y
0 − 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  q  M 
 L L2 L3   jx   jx 
   q jy   M jy 
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0 
q  M 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   jz   jz 
 
 0 k12,2 0 0 0 k12,6 0 k12,8 0 0 0 k12,12 
(5.5)
When more than one of the four degrees of freedom is released on a flex-
ural member, two conditions may exist. The first is that the member will
provide no joint stiffness. This occurs when both deflection and rotation
at either end are released, when rotation is released at both ends, or when
deflection is released at one end and rotation is released at the other end.
The stiffness matrix for this condition is shown in Equation 5.6. The
resulting beam is either a cantilever beam, a pinned-pinned beam, or a
pinned-slotted beam.
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1, 7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ ix   Pix 

 0
 k2, 2 0 0 0 k2, 6 0 k 2 ,8 0 0 0 k2,12   ∆ iy   Piy 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ iz   Piz 
    
 0 0 0 k4, 4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   qix   M ix 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   qiy   M iy 
    
 0 k6 , 2 0 0 0 k6 , 6 0 k6 ,8 0 0 0 k6,12   qiz   M iz 
=
k 0 0 0 0 0 k7 , 7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx   Pjx 
 7 ,1    
 0 k8, 2 0 0 0 k8, 6 0 k8,8 0 0 0 k8,12   ∆ jy   Pjy 
    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
 0 0 0 k10, 4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   q jx   M jx 
    
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   q jy   M jy 
 0
 k12, 2 0 0 0 k12, 6 0 k12,8 0 0 0 k12,12   q jz   M jz 
(5.6)
The second condition is an unstable beam. This occurs when both ends

are released for deflection or more than two of the four degrees of free-
dom are released. Table 5.1 summarizes all the flexural stiffness con-
ditions for the X-Z system. In this table, 1 indicates that the degree of
freedom is released and 0 indicates that the degree of freedom is not
released.
Table 5.1. Release codes—X-Z system

Diz qiy Djz qjy Equation
0 0 0 0 4.33
1 0 0 0 5.2
0 1 0 0 5.3
0 0 1 0 5.4
0 0 0 1 5.5
1 1 0 0 5.6
1 0 1 0 Unstable
1 0 0 1 5.6
0 1 1 0 5.6
0 1 0 1 5.6
0 0 1 1 5.6
0 1 1 1 Unstable
1 0 1 1 Unstable
1 1 0 1 Unstable
1 1 1 0 Unstable
1 1 1 1 Unstable
5.2 MEMBER END RELEASES, X-Y SYSTEM
The X-Y member stiffness can be derived in a similar manner to the X-Z
system. In general, only the sign of the moments will change. The result-
ing stiffness matrices for releasing Diz, qiy, Djz, and qjy are shown in Equa-
tions 5.7 through 5.10 with only the affected terms replaced with the new
values. Equation 5.11 contains the stiffness matrix used when the member
has no stiffness contribution in the case of the cantilever beam, a pinned-
pinned beam, or a pinned-slotted beam.
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ ix   Pix 
    
0 0 k3,3 0 k3,5 0 0 0 k3,9 0 k3,11 0   ∆ iy   Piy 
 ∆   P 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   iz   iz 
0 0 k5,3 0 k5,5 0 0 0 k5,9 0 k5,11 0   qix   M ix 
    
 EI z − EI z   qiy   M iy 
0 0 0 0 0
L
0 0 0 0 0  q
L  iz   iz  M
  =  
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx   Pjx 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0  ∆ jy   Pjy 
    
0 0 k9,3 0 k9,5 0 0 0 k9,9 0 k9,11 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
   q  M 
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0  jx
   jx 
0 0 k11,3 0 k11,5 0 0 0 k11,9 0 k11,11 0   q jy   M jy 
    
0 EI z EI z   q jz   M jz 
0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0
 L L  
(5.7)
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0 

0 3 EI 3EI z 3EI z   ∆ ix   Pix 
z
0 0 0 0 0 − 3 0 0 0
 L3 L L2  ∆   P 
0 0 k3,3 0 k3,5 0 0 0 k3,9 0 k3,11 0   iy   iy 
   ∆ iz   Piz 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0     
   q ix   M ix 
 0 0 k5,3 0 k5,5 0 0 0 k5,9 0 k5,11 0  q  M 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   iy   iy 
   q iz   M iz 
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0  ∆  =  P 
 3EI 3EI z 3EI   jx   jx 
 0 − 3z 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 2z  ∆ jy   Pjy 
 L L3 L     
0 0 k9,3 0 k9,5 0 0 0 k9,9 0 k9,11 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
  q  M 
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   jx   jx 
 q jy   M jy 
0 0 k11,3 0 k11,5 0 0 0 k11,9 0 k11,11 0  q  M 

 3EI z 3EI 3EI z   jz   jz 
0 0 0 0 0 0 − 2z 0 0 0 
 L2 L L 
(5.8)
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ ix   Pix 
  
0 0 k3,3 0 k3,5 0 0 0 k3,9 0 k3,11 0   ∆ iy   Piy 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   ∆ iz   Piz 
 
0 0 k5,3 0 k5,5 0 0 0 k5,9 0 k5,11 0   qix   M ix 
q  
 EI z − EI z   iy   M iy 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0  q M
 L L   iz  =  iz 
 
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx   Pjx 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jy   Pjy 
0
 0 k9,3 0 k9,5 0 0 0 k9,9 0 k9,11 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
   
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   q jx   M jx 
0 0 k11,3 0 k11,5 0 0 0 k11,9 0 k11,11 0   q jy   M jy 
    
 EI EI z   q jz   M jz 
 0 0 0 0 0 − z 0 0 0 0 0
L L 
(5.9)
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0
 3EI z 3EI z 3EI z 
0 0 0 0 0 − 3 0 0 0 0   ∆ ix   Pix 
 L3 L2 L   ∆ iy   Piy 
0 0 k3,3 0 k3,5 0 0 0 k3,9 0 k3,11 0    
0   ∆ iz   Piz 
0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0 q  M 
  ix ix
0 0 k5,3 0 k5,5 0 0 0 k5,9 0 k5,11 0  q   M 
   iy
  iy

3EI z 3EI z 3EI
0 0 0 0 0 − 2z 0 0 0 0   q iz   M iz 
 L2 L L   ∆ jx  =  Pjx 
 k7 ,1 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0 ∆   P 
   jy   jy 
 0 − EI3 z
3
0 0 0
3EI
− 2z 0
3EI z
0 0 0 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
 L L L3  q  M 
0 0 k9,3 0 k9,5 0 0 0 k9,9 0 k9,11 0   jx   jx 
  q  M 
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   jy   jy 
0 0 k11,3 0 k11,5 0 0 0 k11,9 0 k11,11 0   q jz   M jz 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 

(5.10)
 k1,1 0 0 0 0 0 k1,7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ ix   Pix 

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ iy   Piy 
   
0 0 k3,3 0 k3,5 0 0 0 k3,9 0 k3,11 0   ∆ iz   Piz 
0 0 0 k 4 ,4 0 0 0 0 0 k4,10 0 0   qix   M ix 
    
0 0 k5,3 0 k5,5 0 0 0 k5,9 0 k5,11 0   qiy   M iy 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   qiz   M iz 
 =
k 0 0 0 0 0 k7 ,7 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx   Pjx 
 7 ,1 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jy   Pjy 
0 0 k9,3 0 k9,5 0 0 0 k9,9 0 k9,11 0   ∆ jz   Pjz 
    
0 0 0 k10,4 0 0 0 0 0 k10,10 0 0   q jx   M jx 
0 0 k11,3 0 k11,5 0 0 0 k11,9 0 k11,11 0   q jy   M jy 
    
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   q jz   M jz 
(5.11)
Table 5.2. Release codes—X-Y system

Djy qiz Djy qjz Equation
0 0 0 0 4.33
1 0 0 0 5.1
0 1 0 0 5.2
0 0 1 0 5.3
0 0 0 1 5.4
1 1 0 0 5.5
1 0 1 0 Unstable
1 0 0 1 5.5
0 1 1 0 5.5
0 1 0 1 5.5
0 0 1 1 5.5
0 1 1 1 Unstable
1 0 1 1 Unstable
1 1 0 1 Unstable
1 1 1 0 Unstable
1 1 1 1 Unstable
Table 5.2 summarizes all the flexural stiffness conditions for the X-Y sys-
tem. In this table, 1 indicates that the degree of freedom is released and 0
indicates that the degree of freedom is not released.
5.3 MEMBER END RELEASES, 3-D SYSTEM
When member releases occur in both coplanar systems, X-Z and X-Y, the
member stiffness matrix should be created by combining the appropriate
conditions from each system. The process for creating the global joint stiff-
ness is the same as outlined in Section 4.13 with four modifications. First,
the released member stiffness matrix should be used for the appropriate
members in step one. Second, if a released member has a member load the
fixed-end forces and moments must be modified. These modified forces
and moments can be found in most structural analysis textbooks. Third, the
released member stiffness matrix should be used to solve for the local mem-
ber forces in step six. Lastly, the modified fixed-end forces and moments
must be added to the local member end forces and moments in step six. The
following example uses a released member to model a structure.
Example 5.3 Member stiffness

member forces for the pin-connected bracing structure loaded as shown
in Figure 5.5.
The area of each member, Ax, is 20 in2, the moment of inertia, Iz, is
1,000 in4, and the modulus of elasticity, E, is 10,000 ksi. Note the structure
is in the X-Y coordinated system and the numbering system is shown.
1.5 k/ft
Hinge
4 4 2 1 1
8 ft 3 2
Y
X 5 5
3
8 ft 12 ft 12 ft
Figure 5.5. Example 5.3 Member stiffness.
The member stiffness for each member is first found from Equation 4.34
(step 1). Member 2 will have a released stiffness matrix and will be cre-
ated last. Selecting member 2 instead of member 1 will result in not having
to use modified fixed-end forces and moments.
 K g  = [ R ] [ K m ][ R ]
T
 K g  = [a ] [ K m ][a ]
T
Using the local member stiffness for the X-Y system from Section 4.11,
which has translation in the x and y directions and rotation about the z direc-
tion, the rotation transformation of members will be about the z-axis or a.
 cosα -sinα 0 0 0 0
 sinα cosα 0 0 0 0 

 0 0 1 0 0 0
[a ]T =
0 cosα -sinα

 0 0 0
 0 0 0 sinα cosα 0
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 
 AE AE 
 0 0 − 0 0 
L L
 
 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI z 
0 0 −
 L3 L2 L3 L2 
 
 6 EI z 4 EI z 6 EI 2 EI z 
0 0 − 2z
 2

cosα -sinα 0 0 0 0
 sinα cosα 0 0 0 0 

 0 0 1 0 0 0
[a ]T =
0 cosα -sinα 0 

 0 0
 0 0 α 0
sinα cosStructural
0 Advanced
  Stiffness • 219
 0 0 0 0 0 1 
 AE AE 
 L 0 0 − 0 0 
L
 
 0 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI 6 EI z 
0 − 3 z
 L3 L2 L L2 
 
 0 6 EI 4 EI 6 EI 2 EI z 
z z
0 − 2z
 L2 L L L 
[ K m ] =  AE AE 
− 0 0 0 0 
 L L 
 12 EI 6 EI 12 EI z 6 EI z 
 0 − 3 z − 2z 0 − 2 
 L L L3 L 
 6 EI z 2 EI z 6 EI 4 EI z 
 0 0 − 2z 
 L2 L L L 
 cosα sinα 0 0 0 0
 − sinα cosα 0 0 0 0 

 0 0 1 0 0 0
[a ] =  0 0 0 cosα sinα 0 


 0 0 0 − sinα cosα 0 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 1 
Members 1, 4, and 5 are already in the global system and do not need
rotation. Selecting the left end as the i-end, the rotation is 0°. Tables 5.3
through 5.5 contain the local member stiffness matrices, the rotations
matrices, a and aT, and the global member stiffness matrices.
 K 22 K 21 
[K ] =  K
21
K11 
 12
 K 44 K 42 
[K ] = K
42
K 22 
 24
 K 55 K 53 
[K ] = K
53
K 33 
 35
Member 3 is vertical and selecting the bottom end as the i-end, the rotation
is 90°. Table 5.6 contains the local member stiffness matrix, the rotations
matrices, a and aT, and the global member stiffness matrix.
 K 33 K 32 
[K ] = K
32
K 22 
 23
Table 5.3. Example 5.3 M
ember stiffness, member 1
KL
1388.9 0.0 0.0 -1388.9 0.0 0.0
0.0 40.2 2893.5 0.0 -40.2 2893.5
0.0 2893.5 277777.8 0.0 -2893.5 138888.9
-1388.9 0.0 0.0 1388.9 0.0 0.0

0.0 -40.2 -2893.5 0.0 40.2 -2893.5
0.0 2893.5 138888.9 0.0 -2893.5 277777.8
a
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
1388.9 0.0 0.0 -1388.9 0.0 0.0
0.0 40.2 2893.5 0.0 -40.2 2893.5
0.0 2893.5 277777.8 0.0 -2893.5 138888.9
-1388.9 0.0 0.0 1388.9 0.0 0.0

0.0 -40.2 -2893.5 0.0 40.2 -2893.5
0.0 2893.5 138888.9 0.0 -2893.5 277777.8
For member 2, we will release the i-end at joint 1 for rotation. Selecting
the i-end at joint 1 the rotation is 213.7°. Table 5.7 contains the local mem-
ber stiffness matrix, the rotation matrices, a and aT, and the global mem-
ber stiffness matrix. The general released stiffness matrix is also shown.
 K11 K13 
[K ] = K
13
K 33 
 31
Table 5.4. Example 5.3 Member stiffness, member 4

KL
833.3 0.0 0.0 -833.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 8.7 1041.7 0.0 -8.7 1041.7
0.0 1041.7 166666.7 0.0 -1041.7 83333.3
-833.3 0.0 0.0 833.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 -8.7 -1041.7 0.0 8.7 -1041.7
0.0 1041.7 83333.3 0.0 -1041.7 166666.7
a
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
833.3 0.0 0.0 -833.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 8.7 1041.7 0.0 -8.7 1041.7
0.0 1041.7 166666.7 0.0 -1041.7 83333.3
-833.3 0.0 0.0 833.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 -8.7 -1041.7 0.0 8.7 -1041.7
0.0 1041.7 83333.3 0.0 -1041.7 166666.7
 AE AE 
 L 0 0 − 0 0 
L
 
 0 3EI z 3EI z 3EI z 
0 0 −
 L3 L3 L2 
 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 
[ K m ] = − AE 0 0
AE
0 0 


 L L 
 3EI z 3EI z 3EI z 
 0 − 0 0 − 2 
 L3 L3 L 
 3EI z 3EI 3EI z 
 0 0 0 − 2z
L2 L L 

KL
1388.9 0.0 0.0 -1388.9 0.0 0.0
0.0 40.2 2893.5 0.0 -40.2 2893.5
0.0 2893.5 277778 0.0 -2893.5 138888.9
-1388.9 0.0 0.0 1388.9 0.0 0.0
0.0 -40.2 -2893.5 0.0 40.2 -2893.5
0.0 2893.5 138888.9 0.0 -2893.5 277778
a
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 1 0 0
0 0 0 0 1 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
1388.9 0.0 0.0 -1388.9 0.0 0.0
0.0 40.2 2893.5 0.0 -40.2 2893.5
0.0 2893.5 277778 0.0 -2893.5 138888.9
-1388.9 0.0 0.0 1388.9 0.0 0.0
0.0 -40.2 -2893.5 0.0 40.2 -2893.5
0.0 2893.5 138888.9 0.0 -2893.5 277778
The global joint stiffness matrix can be assembled using each of the mem-
ber’s contributions (step 2). Table 5.8 contains the global joint stiffness
matrix.
 K11 K12 K13 0 0 

K K 22 K 23 K 24 0 
 21
 K g  =  K 31 K 32 K 33 0 K 35 
 
 0 K 42 0 K 44 0 
 0 0 K 53 0 K 55 

KL
2083.3 0.0 0.0 -2083.3 0.0 0.0
0.0 135.6 6510.4 0.0 -135.6 6510.4
0.0 6510.4 416666.7 0.0 -6510.4 208333.3
-2083.3 0.0 0.0 2083.3 0.0 0.0

0.0 -135.6 -6510.4 0.0 135.6 -6510.4
0.0 6510.4 208333.3 0.0 -6510.4 416666.7
a
6.12574E-17 1 0 0 0 0
-1 6.12574E-17 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 6.12574E-17 1 0
0 0 0 -1 6.12574E-17 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
6.12574E-17 -1 0 0 0 0
1 6.12574E-17 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 6.12574E-17 -1 0
0 0 0 1 6.12574E-17 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
135.6 0.0 -6510.4 -135.6 0.0 -6510.4
0.0 2083.3 0.0 0.0 -2083.3 0.0
-6510.4 0.0 416666.7 6510.4 0.0 208333.3
-135.6 0.0 6510.4 135.6 0.0 6510.4

0.0 -2083.3 0.0 0.0 2083.3 0.0
-6510.4 0.0 208333.3 6510.4 0.0 416666.7
The global joint loading is determined from Equation 4.35. In this case,
members 1 and 4 are loaded with a uniformly distributed load. The fixed-
end forces and moments due to the load must be calculated. Normally, the
fixed-end forces and moments are rotated into the global system before
they are placed in the global joint loading, but in this case the member is
already in the global system and no rotation is necessary (step 3). The load
matrix is in units of kips and inches (k-in).

KL
1155.6 0.0 0.0 -1155.6 0.0 0.0
0.0 5.8 0.0 0.0 -5.8 1001.6
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
-1155.6 0.0 0.0 1155.6 0.0 0.0
0.0 -5.8 0.0 0.0 5.8 -1001.6
0.0 1001.6 0.0 0.0 -1001.6 173343.8
a
-0.832050294 -0.554700196 0 0 0 0
0.554700196 -0.832050294 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 -0.832050294 -0.554700196 0
0 0 0 0.554700196 -0.832050294 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
aT
-0.832050294 0.554700196 0 0 0 0
-0.554700196 -0.832050294 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 -0.832050294 0.554700196 0
0 0 0 -0.554700196 -0.832050294 0
0 0 0 0 0 1
KG
801.8 530.7 0.0 -801.8 -530.7 555.6
530.7 359.6 0.0 -530.7 -359.6 -833.4
0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0
-801.8 -530.7 0.0 801.8 530.7 -555.6
-530.7 -359.6 0.0 530.7 359.6 833.4
555.6 -833.4 0.0 -555.6 833.4 173343.8
wL 0.125k/in ( 240in )
FEP42 = = = 15k
2 2
wL2 0.125k/in ( 240in )
2
FEM 42 = = = 600k-in
12 12
wL 0.125k/in ( 240in )
FEP24 = = = 15k
2 2
0.125k/in ( 240in )
2
wL2
FEM 24 = − =− = −600k-in
12 12
wL 0.125k/in (144in )
FEP21 = = = 9k
2 2
wL2 0.125k/in (144in )
2
FEM 21 = = = 216k-in
12 12
wL 0.125k/in (144in )
FEP12 = = = 9k
2 2
0.125k/in (144in )
2
wL2
Table 5.8. Example 5.3 Member stiffness

KG
2191 531 0 -1389 0 0 -802 -531 556
531 400 -2894 0 -40 -2894 -531 -360 -833
0 -2894 277778 0 2894 138889 0 0 0
-1389 0 0 2358wL
0 6510 136 ( 240
0.125-k/in ) -833 0 0
0 in6510
FEP42 = = = 15k
0 -40 2894 0 2 1852 0 2 -2083 0
2132 0 -9 -1042
0.125k/in ( 240in )
2
0 -2894 138889 6510 1852 2861111 -6510 0 208333 0 1042 83333
wL
0 FEM 42 = 0 = 2326 531 = 600k-in
-802 -531 -136 12 -6510 12 -7066 -1389 0 0
wL 0.125k/in ( 240in )
-531 -360 0 0 -2083 0 531 2483 -2060 0 -40 -2894
556 -833 0 FEP
6510
24 = 0 =208333 -7066 -2060 =
867788 15k 0 2894 138889
2 2
-833 0 0 833 0 0
0.125k/in ( 240in )0 9 1042
2 2
wL1042
FEM
0
24 =-−9 =− = −600k-in
0 -1042 12 83333 12 0 1042 166667
-1389 ( 0
wL 0.125k/in 144in )0 1389 0 0
FEP21 = = = 9k
2 0 2 -40 2894 0 40 2894
( )
2
wL 2
0.125k/in 144in
0 -2894 138889 0 2894 277778
FEM 21 = = = 216k-in
12 12
wL 0.125k/in (144in )
FEP12 = = = 9k
2 2
0.125k/in (144in )
2
wL2
FEM12 = − =− = −216k-in
12 12
 P1x   0 
P   9 
 1y   
 M 1z   −216 
   
 P2 x   0 
 P2 y   24 
   
 M 2 z   −384 
P   0 
 3x   
 Pg  =  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]
T
=  P3 y  =  0 
   
 M 3z   0 
 P4 x   0 
   
 P4 y   15 
 M   600 
 4z   
 P5 x   0 
P   0 
 5y   
 M 5 z   0 
The global deformations can be found from the global stiffness Equa-
tion 4.36 (step 4). The rows and columns corresponding to the support
constraint degrees of freedom must be deleted prior to the solution. This
would be all three motions at 4 and the X and Z motions at joint 5. The
resulting matrix is shown in Table 5.9 along with the reduced load. The
solution for the deformations will be in inches and radians.
 ∆1x   0.07505 
 ∆   −2.45212 
 1y   
 q1z   0.00004 
   
 ∆ 2 x   0.06168 
−1  ∆   −2.25618 
 ∆ g  =  K g   Pg  =  2 y  =  
 q 2 z   −0.00261
 ∆   −0.03701
 3x   
 ∆ 3 y   −2.25254 
   
 q 3 z   −0.00449 
 q 5 z   −0.02122 
The reactions at the supports can be found using the solution of the global
responding to the restrained degrees of freedom and in the columns of the
unrestrained degrees of freedom need to be included. Table 5.10 shows the
appropriate stiffness terms and deformations needed to find the reactions.
Since there are fixed-end forces and moments at support joint 4, they must

KG -FEPM
2191 531 0 -1389 0 0 -802 -531 556 0 0
531 400 -2894 0 -40 -2894 -531 -360 -833 0 -9
0 -2894 277778 0 2894 138889 0 0 0 0 216
-1389 0 0 2358 0 6510 -136 0 6510 0 0

0 -40 2894 0 2132 1852 0 -2083 0 0 -24
0 -2894 138889 6510 1852 861111 -6510 0 208333 0 384
-802 -531 0 -136 0 -6510 2326 531 -7066 0 0
-531 -360 0 0 -2083 0 531 2483 -2060 -2894 0

556 -833 0 6510 0 208333 -7066 -2060 867788 138889 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -2894 138889 277778 0
Table 5.10 Example 5.3 Member stiffness

0 0 0 -833 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.0750 -51.4 0 -51.4
0 0 0 0 -9 1042 0 0 0 0 -2.4521 16.9 15 31.9
0 0 0 0 -1042 83333 0 0 0 0 0.0000 2132.9 600 2732.9
0 0 0 0 0 0 -1389 0 0 0 0.0617 51.4 0 51.4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 -40 2894 2894 -2.2562 16.1 0 16.1
-0.0026
-0.0370
-2.2525
-0.0045
-0.0212
be added back to get the final reactions. The reaction forces are in kips and
inches (k-in).
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g  −  P & M g  − [ FEPM m ][ R ]T
[ P ] =  K g   ∆ g 
Equation 4.35 (step 6). The member force will be in kips and inches.
The local member stiffness matrix and the rotation matrix were shown
in step 1 and are omitted here. The sign convention for the X-Y system
applies when interpreting the final end forces and moments.
[ P & M ] = [ K ][ R ] ∆
m m g
 + [ FEPM m ]
[ P & M ] = [ K ][a ] ∆

m m g

For member 1, the deformations at joints 2 and 1 are used. Since this
member had a load, the fixed-end forces and moments must be added to
the results. Table 5.11 contains the final member end forces in the local
system along with global deformations used to find those end forces.
contains the final member end forces in the local system along with global

DG PL Final P
0.06 Dx2 -18.56 -18.56 kips
-2.26 Dy2 0.45 9.45 kips
0.00 qz2 -151.73 64.27 kip-in
0.08 Dx1 18.56 18.56 kips
-2.45 Dy1 -0.45 8.55 kips
0.00 qz1 216.00 0.00 kip-in

DG PL Final P
0.08 Dx1 20.19 20.19 kips
-2.45 Dy1 -3.18 -3.18 kips
0.00 qz1 0.00 0.00 kip-in
-0.04 Dx3 -20.19 -20.19 kips
-2.25 Dy3 3.18 3.18 kips
0.00 qz3 -550.21 -550.21 kip-in

DG PL Final P
-0.04 Dx3 7.58 7.58 kips
-2.25 Dy3 -32.84 -32.84 kips
0.00 qz3 -1772.68 -1772.68 kip-in
0.06 Dx2 -7.58 -7.58 kips
-2.26 Dy2 32.84 32.84 kips
0.00 qz2 -1379.89 -1379.89 kip-in
For member 4, the deformations at joints 4 and 2 are used. Since this
member had a load, the fixed-end forces and moments must be added to
the results. Table 5.14 contains the final member end forces in the local
system along with global deformations used to find those end forces.
Releases can also occur for the axial and torsional components of the
member stiffness. If either end of the member is released for Dx or qx, then
all the corresponding stiffness components are zero. If both ends of the

DG PL Final P
0.00 Dx4 -51.40 -51.40 kips
0.00 Dy4 16.87 31.87 kips
0.00 qz4 2132.90 2732.90 kip-in
0.06 Dx2 51.40 51.40 kips
-2.26 Dy2 -16.87 -1.87 kips
0.00 qz2 1915.62 1315.62 kip-in

DG PL Final P
0.00 Dx5 51.40 51.40 kips

0.00 Dy5 16.13 16.13 kips
-0.02 qz5 0.00 0.00 kip-in
-0.04 Dx3 -51.40 -51.40 kips
-2.25 Dy3 -16.13 -16.13 kips
0.00 qz3 2322.89 2322.89 kip-in
member are released, then the member is unstable. The axial components
of the member stiffness matrix are k1,1, k1,7, k7,1, and k7,7. The torsional
components of the member stiffness matrix are k4,4, k4,10, k10,4, and k10,10.
5.4 NON-PRISMATIC MEMBERS
Non-prismatic members have cross-sectional properties that vary along

the length of the member. The stiffness of these members can be handled
in two ways. First, the member could be divided into prismatic sections
and modeled with several different members of constant cross-section.
Second, the member can be modeled with stiffness derived from the math-
ematical model of the cross-sectional variation. The following derivation
is for the stiffness of a non-prismatic member in the X-Z system.
Example 5.4 Non-prismatic member stiffness
Derive the local member stiffness in the X-Z system for a non-prismatic
cross-section using Castigliano’s theorems.
Figure 5.6 shows the beam with an applied deflection and an applied
rotation at the i-end. These can be used simultaneously to derive the stiff-
ness of the member.
∆iz
Miy
Piz
Miy
θiy
Piz
Figure 5.6. Example 5.4 Non-prismatic member stiffness.
The internal moment, Mx, at any point, x, can be found from statics
and the partial derivatives of that moment can be found with respect to the
applied force and moment at the i-end.
M x = − Piz x − M iy
dM x
= −x
d Piz
dM x
= −1
d M iy
Castigliano’s second theorem states that the first partial derivative of strain
energy with respect to a particular force is equal to the displacement of the
point of application of that force in the direction of its line of action. This
can be applied for both Diz and qiy.
d M x dx dx dx
∆ iz = ∫M x
d Piz EI y ∫ iz EI y ∫ iy EI y
= P x2 + M x
d M x dx dx dx
qiy = ∫M x = ∫Piz x + ∫M iy
d M iy EI y EI y EI y
Since the cross-sectional properties vary, the moment of inertia, Iy, var-
ies. Let the values S1, S2, and S3 be used and substituted into the previous
two equations. These values can be pre-derived for the cross-sectional
variation.
dx
S1 = ∫
EI y
dx
S2 = ∫ x
EI y
dx
S3 = ∫ x 2
EI y
∆ iz = Piz S3 + M iy S 2
qiy = Piz S2 + M iy S1
dx
S1 = ∫
EI y
dx
∫x EI y Structural Stiffness • 231
S2 =Advanced
dx
S3 = ∫ x 2
EI y
∆ iz = Piz S3 + M iy S 2
qiy = Piz S 2 + M iy S1
Written in matrix form this is the flexibility matrix:
 ∆ iz   S3 S 2   Piz 
q  =   
 iy   S 2 S1   M iy 
[d i ] = [ f ii ][ Fi ]
We can solve this matrix equation for the forces Piz and Miy by the cofactor
method. Substituting the determinant of the flexibility matrix, D = S3S1−
S22, to simplify the equation. This is the stiffness form of the equation.
 Piz  1  S1 − S 2   ∆ iz 
M  =   
 iy  D  − S 2 S3   q iy 
[ Fi ] = [ K ii ][d i ]
We can use the transmission matrix Equation 4.6 to find the forces at
the j-end of the member, where the values of x are cause minus effect or
x = xi−xj = 0−L = −L.
 1 0  1 0
[T ] =  = 
− x 1  L 1
 K ji  = − [T ][ K ii ]
 −1 0   S1 − S 2  1  − S1 S2  1
 K ji  =   =
S3  D  S 2 − S1 L S 2 L − S3  D
 − L −1  − S 2

 Pjz  1  − S1 S 2   ∆ iz 
M  =   
 jy  D  S 2 − S1 L S 2 L − S3   θiy 
 Fj  =  K ji  [d i ]
The carry-over factor (COF) used in the moment distribution method can
be found by observing the ratio of the moment at the j-end to the moment
at the i-end.
1
M jy( S 2 − S1 L ) ∆ iz + ( S 2 L − S3 ) θiy 
COFi → j = = D
M iy 1
 − S2 ∆ iz + S3θiy 
D
When only the rotational deformation is considered, the following is the

COF:
S 2 L − S3
COFi → j =
S3
The distribution factor (DF) used in the moment distribution method is the
ratio of the rotational stiffness of a member to the sum of the rotational
stiffness of all members at the joint. The rotational stiffness is the moment
at a joint due to the rotation at a joint. This is the term Kii for rotation and
moment only.
S3
K Miy, q iy =
D
The DF for a member at a joint can be written as follows:
S3
−
DF = D
S
∑ D3
We could find the deflection and rotation at the j-end using the same
method. Alternatively, since the stiffness matrix is symmetric we can find
the forces at the i-end due to motions at the j-end directly.
T
T 1  − S1 S2  1  − S1 S2 − S1L 
 Kij  =  K ji  =   = S
    D  S2 − S1L S2 L − S3  D 2 S2 L − S3 
 Piz  1  − S1 S2 − S1L   ∆ jz 
M  =   
 iy  D  S2 S2 L − S3   θ jy 
Fi  =  Kij  d i 
We can use the transmission matrix equation again to find the forces at the
j-end of the member.
 K jj  = − [T ]  K ij 
   
 −1 0   − S1 S2 − S1L  1  S1 S1L − S2  1
 K jj  =   = 
 
 − L −1  S2 S2 L − S3  D  S1L − S2 2
S1L − 2 S2 L + S3  D
 P jz  1  S1 S1L − S2   ∆ jz 
 =  2  
 M jy  D  S1L − S2 S1L − 2 S2 L + S3  q jy 
    
 Fj  =  K jj  d j 
The COF from the j-end to the i-end is as follows considering the defor-
mations at the j-end:
1
M iy  S2 ∆ jz + ( S2 L − S3 ) q jy 
 D
COF j → i = =
M jy
 1 2 jz 1 (
( S L − S ) ∆ + S L2 − 2 S L + S q  1
2 3 jy
D )
When only the rotational deformation is considered the following is the
COF:
S 2 L − S3
COF j → i = 2
S1L − 2 S2 L + S3
The DF is a ratio of the rotational stiffness of a member to the sum of the

rotational stiffness of all members at the joint.
Rotational stiffness, the stiffness due to rotation at point A:
S1 L2 − 2 S 2 L + S3
Kq B =
D
The DF for a member at a joint can be written as follows:
S1L2 − 2 S2 L + S33
−
DF = D
S1L2 − 2S2 L + S3
∑ D
The axial stiffness terms can be derived directly from strength of materi-
als. The axial stiffness is the inverse of the flexibility, which can be written
as follows. The torsional stiffness would look the same as the axial stiff-
ness with GIx substituted for EAx:
dx
f = ∫ EA x
The coplanar X-Z nonprismatic stiffness matrix is shown in Equation 5.12.

The X-Y system will have the same values with the sign of the moments
due to deflection reversed.
 1 1 
 f 0 0 − 0 0 
f
 
 S1 S2 S1 S 2 − S1L 
 0 − 0 − 
 D D D D 
 S S3 S2 S 2 L − S3 
 0 − 2 0 
D D D D
[ Km ] =  1 1

− 0 0 0 0 
 f f 
 
 0 S1 S2 S1 S1L − S 2 
 − 0 
D D D D
 2

 0 S 2 − S1L S 2 L − S3 S1L − S2 S1L − 2 S2 L + S3 
 0 
D D D D
(5.12)
FIXED-END MOMENTS
The fixed-end forces and moments must be derived for a non-prismatic

member. The changes in stiffness along the length of the member will
change how the forces and moments are distributed by the member.
The following examples derive two of the most common member
loads.
Derive the fixed-end forces and moments due to a uniformly dis-

tributed load in the X-Z system for a non-prismatic cross-section using
Castigliano’s theorems.
W
FEMiy FEMjy
FEPiz FEPjz
L
The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure 5.7. The pro-

cedure for Castigliano’s second theorem used in Example 5.4 will be
repeated here.
applied force and moment at the i-end.
wx 2
Mx = − FEPiz x − FEM iy
2
dM x
= −x
d FEPiz
dM x
= −1
d FEM iy
d M x dx dx dx wx3 dx
∆ iz = 0 = ∫M x = ∫FEPiz x 2 + ∫FEM iy x −∫
d FEPiz EI y EI y EI y 2 EI y
d M x dx dx dx wx 2 dx
qiy = 0 = ∫M x = ∫FEPiz x + ∫FEM iy −∫
d FEM iy EI y EI y EI y 2 EI y
Observing that there is a new term that varies with x, we will substitute S4
as follows:
dx
S 4 = ∫x 3
EI y
w
0 = FEPiz S3 + FEM iy S 2 − S4
2
w
0 = FEPiz S 2 + FEM iy S1 − S3
2
 S3 S 2   FEPiz   S 4  w
 S S   FEM  =  S  2
 2 1 iy   3
 FEPiz  1  S1 − S2   S4  w w  S1S 4 − S 2 S3 
 FEM  =  =
 iy  D  − S2 S3   S3  2 2 D  S32 − S 2 S 4 
  
Apply equilibrium on Figure 5.7 to find the j-end forces and moments.
FEPjz = wL − FEPiz
wL2
FEM jy = − FEPiz L − FEM iy
2
Derive the fixed-end forces and moments due to a concentrated load in

the X-Z system for a non-prismatic cross-section using Castigliano’s
theorems.
The free-body diagram of the beam is shown in Figure 5.8. The pro-
cedure used in Example 5.5 will be repeated here.
FEMiy P FEMjy
a b
FEPiz FEPjz
L
applied force and moment at the i-end. In this case, two moment equations
must be written. The first is Mx1, with x from the i-end to the point load
(0 ≤ x ≤ a) and the second is Mx2, from the point load to the j-end (a ≤ x ≤ L).
M x1 = − FEPiz x − FEM iy
M x 2 = − P ( x − a ) − FEPiz x − FEM iy
The partial derivatives are the same for either of the two moment equations.
dM x
= −x
d FEPiz
dM x
= −1
d FEM iy
L
d M x dx dx dx dx
∆ iz = 0 = ∫M x = ∫FEPiz x 2 + ∫FEM iy x − ∫Px ( x − a )
d FEPiz EI y EI y EI y a EI y
L
d M x dx dx dx dx
qiy = 0 = ∫M x = ∫FEPiz x + ∫FEM iy − ∫P ( x − a )
d FEM iy EI y EI y EI y a EI y
Observing that there are two new terms that vary with x, we will substitute
S5 and S6 as follows:
dx
S5 = ∫ ( x − a )
EI y
dx
S6 = ∫ ( x 2 − ax )
EI y
0 = FEPiz S3 + FEM iy S 2 − PS6
0 = FEPiz S 2 + FEM iy S1 − PS5
 S3 S 2   FEPiz   S6 
 S S   FEM  =  S  P
 2 1 iy   5
 FEEPiz  1  S1 − S 2   S6  P  S S − S 2 S5 
 FEM  =     P=  1 6
 iy  D  − S 2 S3   S5  D  S3 S5 − S 2 S6 
Apply equilibrium on Figure 5.8 to find the j-end forces and moments.

FEPjz = P − FEPiz
FEM jy = Pb − FEPiz L − FEM iy
The process for solving stiffness problems involving non-prismatic mem-

bers is the same as with prismatic members with the same four modifica-
tions for members with end releases. The following example shows this
process.
Determine the deformations at the free end of the non-prismatic beam

using only three degrees of freedom in the stiffness solution. Also deter-
mine the final end forces and the support reactions. The beam is shown in
Figure 5.9.
Z A=10 in2 A=20 in2

I=100 in4 I=200 in4
W=600 lb/ft
100in 100in
E=10,000 ksi

100 200
dx dx dx 1  100 − 0 200 − 100 
S1 = ∫ = ∫ + ∫ =  +  = 0.00015
EI y 0
100 E 100 200 E 10000  100 200 
1 1002 − 02 2002 − 1002 
100 200
dx xdx xdx
S2 = ∫ x = ∫ + ∫ =  + 
EI y 0
100 E 100 200 E 10000  2 (100 ) 2 ( 200 ) 
= 0.0125
1 1003 − 03 2003 − 1003 
100 200
dx x 2 dx x 2 dx
S3 = ∫x 2 + ∫ 100 E + ∫ =  +  = 1.5
EI y 0 100
200 E 10000  3 (100 ) 3 ( 200 ) 
D = S1 S3 − S 2 = 0.00015 (1.5 ) − ( 0.0125 ) = 0.00006875
2 2
100 200
dx 100 dx
dx dx 200 dx dx 100−−00 200
11 100 200−−100
100
f ==∫∫ == ∫∫ ++ ∫∫ ==  10 ++ ==00.0015
.0015
EEAx x 00 1010EE 100
100
20
20 EE 10000
10000  10 20
20 
11 11
K == == ==666
666.67
.67
f 00.0015
.0015
Since the j-end of the member is fixed, there is no need to build the entire
member stiffness matrix. The j-end motions will be eliminated and only
the i-end of the member stiffness needs to be developed.
1 
f 0 0 
  666.67 0 0 
S1 S2  
[ Kii ] =  0 − = 0 2.1818 −181.81
D D
   0 −181.81 21818 
0 S S3  
− 2
 D D 

The fixed-end forces and moments must be derived and applied to the
system.
1 1004 − 04 2004 − 1004 

100 200
dx x 3 dx x 3 dx
S4 = ∫ x 3 ∫ + ∫ =  +  = 212.5
EI y 0
100 E 100 200 E 10000  4 (100 ) 4 ( 200 ) 
 0   0 
  w  
 Pg  = [ P ] − [ FEPM ] =  −FEPiz  =  − ( S1S 4 − S 2 S3 ) 
2D  
 − ( S3 − S 2 S 4 ) 
 −FE 
 EM iy 
2
 
 0   0 
0.05
 Pg  =  − 0.00015 ( 212.5 ) − 0.0125 (1.5 )   =  −4.7727 
2 ( 0.00006875 )   
   147.73 
− (1.5 ) − 0.0125 ( 212.5 )
 
2
   
The general stiffness equation can be set-up and solved as follows. The
units are in inches and radians:
[ Pi ] = [ Kii ][d i ]
[d i ] = [ Kii ] [ Pi ]
−1
−1
 666.67 0 0   0   0 
 2.1818 −181.81  −4.7727  =  −5.3123
[d i ] =  0    
 0 −181.81 21818   147.73   −0.0375
5.5 SHEAR STIFFNESS, X-Z SYSTEM
The shear stiffness of a member should be included when it is significant.

This effect was developed by Timoshenko (1921) in 1921. For normal
frame structures, the stiffness contributions due to shear are minor and
are sometimes ignored. For frames and structures with larger or deeper
members, the shear stiffness contribution is appreciable and should be
included. The following two sections and corresponding examples derive
the combined flexural and shear stiffness of members.
Example 5.8 Shear stiffness
Derive the local member shear stiffness for qiy using Castigliano’s
theorems.
The free-body diagram of the beam with an imposed rotation of qiy is
shown in Figure 5.10. Also shown is a left-hand free-body of the beam cut
at any distance x from the i-end.
Z
Miy Mjy
θiy
Piz Pjz
Miy L
M
V
Piz x
Figure 5.10. Example 5.8 Shear stiffness.

The internal shear, Vx, and moment, Mx, at any point, x, can be found
from statics and the partial derivatives of that shear and moment can be
found with respect to the applied force and moment at the i-end.
Vx = − Piz
dVx
= −1
d Piz
dVx
=0
d M iy
dM x
= −x
d Piz
dM x
= −1
d M iy
Castigliano’s second theorem can be applied noting that at the i-end the
deflection is zero and the rotation is qiy.
d M x dx d Vx dx dx dx
∆ iz = 0 = ∫M x + ∫Vx = ∫ ( Piz x 2 + M iy x ) + ∫Piz
d Piz EI y d Piz GAz EI y GAz
2
Piz L3 M iy L Piz L
0= + +
3EI y 2 EI y GAz
M iy 2 Piz L 2 Piz
=− −
EI y 3EI y LGAz
d M x dx d Vx dx dx dx
q iy = ∫M x + ∫Vx = ∫ ( Piz x + M iy ) + ∫0
d M iy EI y d M iy GAz EI y GAz
Piz L2 M iy L
q iy = +
2 EI y EI y
Substituting the first equation into the second equation results in the following:
Piz L2 2 Piz L2 2 Piz P L2 2 P

q iy = − − = − iz − iz
2 EI y 3EI y GAz 6 EI y GAz
 L2 2 
q iy =  − −  Piz
 6 EI y GAz 
 6 EI y Az G 
Piz = −  2  q iy (5.13)
 L Az G + 12 EI y 
Substituting Equation 5.13 into the following equation repeated from ear-
lier, results in Equation 5.14 for the second stiffness value.
M iy 2 Piz L P
=− − iz
EI y 3EI y LGAz
(
 4 EI y L2 Az G + 3EI y
M iy = 
) q (5.14)
iy
 L3 Az G + 12 LEI y 

Derive the local member shear stiffness for Diz using Castigliano’s
theorems.
The free-body diagram of the beam with an imposed deflection of Diz
is shown in Figure 5.11. Also shown is a left-hand free-body of the beam
cut at any distance x from the i-end.
Z
Miy
Mjy
∆iz X
Piz L Pjz
Miy
M
V
Piz x
The internal shear, Vx, and moment, Mx, are exactly the same as in
Example 5.8. The partial derivatives are also the same.
Vx = − Piz
dVx
= −1
d Piz
dVx
=0
d M iy
dM x
= −x
d Piz
dM x
= −1
d M iy
Vx = − Piz
dVx
= −1
d Piz
dVx
=0
d M iy
dM x
= −x
d Piz
dM x
= −1
d M iy
rotation is zero and the deflection is Diz.
d M x dx dVx dx dx dx
qiy = 0 = ∫M x
d M iy EI y
+ ∫Vx
d M iy GAz
(
= ∫ Piz x + M iy )
EI y
+ ∫0
GAz
Piz L2 M iy L
0= +
2 EI y EI y
Piz L
M iy = −
2
∆ iz = ∫M x
d Piz EI y ∫ x d Piz GAz ∫
+ V (
= Piz x 2 + M iy x )
EI y ∫ GAz
+ Piz
2
Piz L3 M iy L Piz L
∆ iz = + +
3EI y 2 EI y GAz
Substituting the first equation into the second equation results in the
following:
Piz L3 Piz L3 Piz L P L3 PL

∆ iz = − + = iz + iz
3EI y 4 EI y GAz 12 EI y GAz
 L3 L 
∆ iz = 
 12E
+  Piz
 EI y GAz 
 12 EI y Az G 
Piz =  3 ∆ (5.15)
 L A G + 12 LEI  iz
 z y 
Piz L
M iy = −
2
 6 EI y Az G 
M iy = −  2  ∆ iz (5.16)
 L Az G + 12 EI y 
The forces at the j-end of the member due to the motions at the i-end can
be found using the transmission matrix. Then, the forces at the i-end due
to the motions at the j-end can be found by symmetry of the stiffness
matrix. Finally, the forces at the j-end due to motions at the j-end can be
found using the transmission matrix. This process was illustrated previ-
ously in Chapter 4. The resulting terms are shown in the matrices given as
Equations 5.21 through 5.24.
5.6 SHEAR STIFFNESS, X-Y SYSTEM
The following contains the combined flexural and shear stiffness of mem-
bers in the X-Y system.
Derive the local member shear stiffness for qiz using Castigliano’s
theorems.
The free-body diagram of the beam with an imposed rotation of qiz is
shown in Figure 5.12. Also shown is a left-hand free-body of the beam cut
at any distance x from the i-end.
Y
Miz Mjz
θiz
X
Piy L Pjy
Miz
M
V
Piy x
The internal shear, Vx, and moment, Mx, at any point, x, can be found
from statics and the partial derivatives of that shear and moment can be
found with respect to the applied force and moment at the i-end.
Vx = − Piy
dVx
= −1
d Piy
dVx
=0
d M iz
M x = Piy x − M iz
dM x
=x
d Piy
dM x
= −1
d M iz
deflection is zero and the rotation is qiz.
d M x dx dV dx dx dx
∆ iy = 0 = ∫M x
d Piy EI z
+ ∫Vx x
d Piy GAy
= ∫ Piy x 2 − M iz x (
EI z
+ ∫Piy
GAy
)
Piy L3 M iz L2 Piy L
0= − +
3EI z 2 EI z GAy
M iz 2 Piy L 2 Piy
= −
EI z 3EI z LGAy
θiz = ∫M x
d M iz EI z
+ ∫Vx
d M iz GAy
= ∫ − Piy x + M iz (
EI z
+ ∫0
GAy
)
Piy L2 M iz L
θiz = − +
2 EI z EI z
following:
Piy L2 2 Piy L2 2 Piy Piy L2 2 Piy

q iz = − + + = +
2 EI z 3EI z GAy 6 EI z GAy
 L2 2 
q iz =  + Piy
EI z GAy 
 6E
 6 EI z Ay G 
Piy =  2  q iz (5.17)
 L Ay G + 12 EI z 
M iz 2 Piy L 2 Piy
= −
EI z 3EI z LGAy
(
 4 EI z L2 Ay G + 3EI z
M iz = 
) q (5.18)
iz
 L3 Ay G + 12 LEI z 
Derive the local member shear stiffness for Diy using the Castigliano’s
theorems.
The free-body diagram of the beam with an imposed deflection of Diy
is shown in Figure 5.13. Also shown is a left-hand free-body of the beam
cut at any distance x from the i-end.
Mjz
Miz
∆iy X
Piy L Pjy
Miz
M
V
Piy x
The internal shear, Vx, and moment, Mx, are exactly the same as in
Example 5.10. The partial derivatives are also the same.
Vx = − Piy
dVx
= −1
d Piy
dVx
=0
d M iz
dM x
=x
d Piy
dM x
= −1
d M iz
Vx = − Piy
dVx
= −1
d Piy
dVx
=0
dM
246 • NUMERICAL STRUCTURAL izANALYSIS
dM x
=x
d Piy
dM x
= −1
d M iz
rotation is zero and the deflection is Diy.
qiz = 0 = ∫M x
d M iz EI z
+ ∫Vx
d M iz GAy
= ∫ − Piy x + M iz
EI z
(
+ ∫0
GAy
)
Piy L2 M iz L
0=− +
2 EI z EI z
Piy L
M iz =
2
d M x dx dV dx dx dx
∆ iy = ∫M x
d Piy EI z
+ ∫Vx x
d Piy GAy
= ∫ Piy x 2 − M iz x (
EI z
+ ∫Piy
GAy
)
Piy L3 M iz L2 Piy L
∆ iy = − +
3EI z 2 EI z GAy
following:
Piy L3 Piy L3 Piy L Piy L3 Piy L

∆ iy = − + = +
3EI z 4 EI z GAy 12 EI z GAy
 L3 L 
∆ iy =  + Piy
EI z GAy 
 12E
 12 EI z Ay G 
Piy =  3  ∆ iy . (5.19)
 L Ay G + 12 LEI z 
Piy L
M iz =
2
 6 EI z Ay G 
M iz =  2  ∆ iy (5.20)
 L Ay G + 12 EI z 
The resulting terms are shown in the matrices given as Equations 5.21
through 5.24.
5.7 SHEAR STIFFNESS, 3-D SYSTEM
The total three-dimensional (3-D) shear stiffness matrices are shown in

four parts in the following text as Equations 5.21 through 5.24. These
parts represent the force at the i-end or j-end due to the motions at the
i-end or j-end. This is shown in the total stiffness matrix as follows:
K K ij 
[ K ] =  K ii K jj 
 ji
 Ax E 
 L 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 12 EI z Ay G 6 EI z Ay G 
 0 L3 A G + 12 LEI 0 0 0
L2 Ay G + 12 EI z 
 y z

 12 EI y Az G 6 EI y Az G 
 0 0 3
0 − 0 
 L Az G + 12 LEI y L2 Az G + 12 EI y 
[ Kii ] =  I xG 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 L 
 
 0 0 − 2
6 EI y Az G
0
(
4 EI y L2 Az G + 3EI y ) 0 
 L Az G + 12 EI y L3 Az G + 12 LEI y 
 

 0
6 EI z Ay G
0 0 0
( )
4 EI z L Ay G + 3EI z 
2

 L2 Ay G + 12 EI z L3 Ay G + 12 LEI z 
(5.21)
 Ax E 
− L 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 − L3 A G + 12 LEI 0 0 0 − 2
L A G + 1 2 EI 
 y z y z 
 0 0 − 3 0 − 2 0 
 L Az G + 12 LEI y L Az G + 12 EI y 
 K ji  =  
 0 I G 
0 0 − x 0 0
 L 
 
 6 EI y Az G 2 EI y ( L Az G + 6 EI y )
2

 0 0 − 0 0 
 L2 Az G + 12 EI y L3 Az G + 12 LEI y 
 
z ( z )
2
 6 EI A
z y G 2 EI L Ay G + 6 EI
 0 0 0 0
 L2 Ay G + 12 EI z L3 Ay G + 12 LEI z 
(5.22)
 Ax E 
− L
0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 − 0 0 0
 L3 Ay G + 12 LEI z L Ay G + 12 EI z 
2
 
 0 0 − 0 − 0 
 L3 Az G + 12 LEI y L2 Az G + 12 EI y 
 K ij  =  
 I xG 
0 0 0 − 0 0
 L 
 

0 0
6 EI y Az G
0
( 2
2 EI y L Az G − 6 EI y ) 0

 

 0 −
6 EI z Ay G
0 0 0
(
2 EI z L Ay G − 6 EI z 
2
)

 L2 Ay G + 12 EI z L3 Ay G + 12 LEI z 
(5.23)
 Ax E 
 L 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 L3 A G + 12 LEI 0 0 0 − 2
L Ay G + 12 EI z 
 y z

 0 0 0 0 
 L3 Az G + 12 LEI y L2 Az G + 12 EI y 
 K jj  =  I xG 
 0 0 0 0 0 
 L 
 
 0 0
6 EI y Az G
0
(
4 EI y L2 Az G + 3EI y ) 0 
 

 0 −
6 EI z Ay G
0 0 0
(
4 EI z L2 Ay G + 3EI z 
 )
 L2 Ay G + 12 EI z L3 Ay G + 12 LEI z 
(5.24)
5.7.1 SHEAR AREA
The shear area is the cross-sectional property that is used for shear energy
resistance. It can be found for a cross-section using the shear stress equa-
tion for a beam derived in most strength of materials textbooks. The basic
equations for shear in the Y and Z direction are given as follows:
Vy Qy Vy A′y '
t xy = =
I z tz
I z tz
V Q V A′z '
t xz = z z = z
I yt y I yt y
If these equations are written using a single term to represent all the
cross-sectional properties, it results in the following:
Vy Qy Vy A′y ' Vy
t xy = = =
I z tz I z tz Ay
Vz Qz Vz A′z ' Vz
t xz = = =
I yt y I yt y Az
The equations for the shear areas Ay and Az can then be found.
I z tz
Ay =
A′ y '
I yt y
Az =
A′z '
There are three terms in these equations. The first is the centroidal moment
of inertia. The second is the moment of the area, A′y′ or A′z′, between the
centroid and the extreme fiber taken about the centroid. The third is the
value t, which is the width at the centroid.
Example 5.12 Shear area
Determine the shear areas Ay and Az for the a rectangular section.

Figure 5.14 shows the rectangle in the orientation to calculate Az that
corresponds to bending about the Y axis. To find Ay the area to the left of
the Z axis will be used.
y h
Figure 5.14. Example 5.12 Shear area.

hb3
h
It 2bh
Ay = z z = 12 =
A′ y ' bh b 3
2 4
bh3
I yt y b
2bh
Az = = 12 =
A′z ' bh h 3
2 4
For a rectangle, the shear areas are both two-thirds the cross-sectional
area.
Example 5.13 Shear area
Determine the shear area Az for the T-shaped section shown in Figure 5.15.
The centroid and the centroidal moment of inertia are found using the
moment of area principles.
z=
∑Az =
2 (12 ) 6 + 12 ( 2 )13
= 9.50 in
∑A 2 (12 ) 2
2 (12 ) 12 ( 2 )
3 3
I y = ∑I ′y + Ad z2 = + 2 (12 ) ( 9.5 − 6 ) + + 12 ( 2 ) ( 9.5 − 13)

2 2
12 12
= 884.0 in 4
12"
z
2"
12"
2"
Figure 5.15. Example 5.13 Shear area.

The area of the web below the centroid will be used to find Az.
I yty 884.0 ( 2 )
Az = = = 19.59 in 2
A′z ' 9.5
2 ( 9.5 )
2
Table 5.16 shows the calculations in tabular form.
Table 5.16. Example 5.13 Shear area

Element b h z A Az I d Ad2
Chord 12 2 13.0 24 312 8 3.5 294
Web 2 12 6 24 144 288 –3.5 294
Σ z = 9.5 48 456 296 588
Iy = 884.00 A'z' = 90.25 Az = 19.590
5.8 GEOMETRIC STIFFNESS, X-Y SYSTEM
An ordinary stiffness analysis, whether it includes shear deformations or

not, makes no adjustments for the changing geometry of a loaded struc-
ture. Forces and moments are calculated from the original positions of
the joints, not from their deformed positions. Elastic buckling, which is
a function of joint deformations, is therefore impossible to predict using
ordinary stiffness analysis. A procedure to include member and joint defor-
mations in force and moment calculations can be developed by assuming
a deformed shape and calculating the additional moment such as defor-
mation would cause. Figure 5.16 shows a member subjected to bending
and axial force in an un-deformed and deformed shape. An alternate, yet
similar, derivation is published by Ketter, Lee, and Prawel (1979).
The first is a beam in Figure 5.16 that was used to derive the ordinary
elastic stiffness matrix in Section 4.11 for the X-Y system. In that case, the
Miz
Pix
∆iy Piy
Pix
Miz
L L
Piy
Figure 5.16. Geometric stiffness.

moment in the beam is a function of only the end shears and moments, as
given by the following equation:
The second beam in Figure 5.16 shows the bending deformations. In this

case, the internal moment is a function of not only the end shears and
moments, but also a function of the axial force multiplied by the beam’s
lateral deflection, y.
M x = Piy x − M iz + Pix y
This additional moment, the product of axial force, Pix, and lateral deflec-
tion, y, is usually called the “P-delta effect.” To derive a stiffness matrix
that includes the P-delta effect, equilibrium of the deformed beam must
be considered.
Example 5.14 Geometric stiffness
Derive the Diy stiffness using Castigliano’s theorems for a linear member
including the geometric effects.
Using the principle of superposition, consider a beam with an applied
deflection while the rotation is held to zero. Figure 5.17 shows the
deformed beam with applied end forces. Also shown is a left-hand free-
body of the beam cut at any distance x from the i-end.
The internal bending moment in the beam is found from equilibrium.
(
M x = Piy x − M iz + Pix ∆ iy − y )
Miz
Pix V
∆iy Piy
Miz M
Pix P
∆iy-y
Piy V
Figure 5.17. Example 5.14 Geometric stiffness.

If the lateral deformation, y, is assumed to be a general cubic function,

the four known boundary conditions can be used to find the particular
solution.
y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
y ( 0) = ∆ iy
y ( L) = 0
y ' ( 0) = 0
y ' ( L) = 0
 2 x3 3x 2 
y = ∆ iy  3 − 2 + 1
 L L 
Substituting this equation into the internal moment equation yields the
following:
 2 x3 3x 2 
M x = Piy x − M iz + Pix ∆ iy  − 3 + 2 
 L L 
It is assumed that axial shortening is caused only by the axial force, Pix.
This is the same assumption used for the ordinary elastic stiffness deriva-
tion. The geometric stiffness derivation considers the lateral and rotational
deformations, Diy and qiz. From Castigliano’s theorem, the general deflec-
tion and rotation of the free end are as follows:
d M x dx
∆ iy = ∫M x
d Piy EI z
d M x dx
qiz = ∫M x
d M iz EI z
The partial derivatives of the internal moment equation with respect to

applied shear force and moment are the following:
dM x
=x
d Piy
dM x
= −1
d M iz
It should be noted that rotation and deflection are functions of moment

only, since shear deformations are ignored in this derivation. Setting qiz to
zero and solving for Piy and Miz in terms of the deflection will result in two
terms of the stiffness matrix.
∫
  2 x 3 3 x 2   dx
qiz = 0 =  − Piy x + M iz + Pix ∆ iy  3 − 2  
  L L   EI z
L2 L L
0 = − Piy + M iz − Pix ∆ iy
2 EI z EI z 2 EI z
L 1
M iz = Piy + Pix ∆ iy
2 2
∫
 2  2 x 4 3 x 3   dx
∆ iy =  Piy x − M iz x + Pix ∆ iy  − 3 + 2  
  L L   EI z
L3 L2 7 L2
∆ iy = Piy − M iz + Pix ∆ iy
3EI z 2 EI z 10 EI z
Substituting the first equation into the second equations yields the
following:
L3 L2
∆ iy = Piy + Pix ∆ iy
12 EI z 10 EI z
12 EI z −6 (5.25)
Piy = ∆ iy 3
+ Pix ∆ iy
L 5L
lier results in Equation 5.25 for the second stiffness value.
L 1
M iz = Piy + Pix ∆ iy
2 2
6 EI −1
M iz = ∆ iy 2 z + Pix ∆ iy (5.26)
L 10
Take note that the first terms in each of these stiffness equations are the
same as the elastic stiffness values derived in Equations 4.26 and 4.27.
The second term is the geometric component due to the deflected shape
and the axial thrust.
Derive the qiz stiffness using Castigliano’s theorems for a linear member
including the geometric effects.
In this case, consider a beam with a known rotation while the deflec-
tion is held to zero. Figure 5.18 shows the deformed beam with applied
end forces. Also shown is a left-hand free-body of the beam cut at any
distance x from the i-end.
Miz
Pix
θiz
Piy
L
Miz M
P
Pix y
Piy θiz V
The internal bending moment in the beam is found from equilibrium.

M x = Piy x − M iz − Pix y
If the lateral deformation, y, is assumed to be a general cubic function,

the four known boundary conditions can be used to find the particular
solution.
y = ax 3 + bx 2 + cx + d
y ( 0) = 0
y ( L) = 0
y ' ( 0) = qiz
y ' ( L) = 0
 x3 2 x 2 
y = qiz  2 − + x
L L 
 x3 2 x 2 
M x = Piy x − M iz + Pix qiz  − 2 + − x
 L L 
The general deflection and rotation of the free end are the same as
Example 5.14.
d M x dx
∆ iy = ∫M x
d Piy EI z
d M x dx
qiz = ∫M x
d M iz EI z
The partial derivatives of the internal moment equation with respect to

applied shear force and moment are the same as in Example 5.14.
δM x
=x
d Piy
d Mx
= −1
d M iz
Setting Diy to zero and solving for Piy and Miz in terms of the deflection will
result in two terms of the stiffness matrix.
∫
  x3 2 x 2   dx
qiz =  − Piy x + M iz + Pix qiz  2 − + x 
  L L   EI z
L2 L L2
qiz = − Piy + M iz + Pix qiz
2 EI z EI z 12 EI z
L L EI
M iz = Piy − Pix qiz − qiz z
2 12 L
∫
  x 4 2 x3   dx
∆ iy = 0 =  Piy x 2 − M iz x + Pix qiz  − 2 + − x2  
  L L   EI z
L3 L2 L3
0 = Piy − M iz − Pix qiz
3EI z 2 EI z 30 EI z
Substituting the first equation into the second equation yields the following:
6 EI z −1
Piy = q iz 2
+ Pixq iz (5.27)
L 10
lier results in Equation 5.28 for the second stiffness value.
L L EI
M iz = Piy − Pix qiz − qiz z
2 12 L
4 EI z −2 L
M iz = qiz + Pix qiz (5.28)
L 15
Take note that the first terms in each of these stiffness equations are the
same as the elastic stiffness values derived in Equations 4.24 and 4.25.
The second term is the geometric component due to the deflected shape
and the axial thrust. All four terms can be written in matrix form.
 12 EI z 6 EI z   −6 −1 
  L3 L2   5L 10   ∆ iy   Piy 
  + Pix   =
  6 EI z 4 EI z   −1 −2 L   qiz   M iz 
  2 
 L L   10 15 
The first matrix on the left side of the equation in the basic elastic stiffness
matrix will be called [K]. The second matrix on the left side of the equa-
tion in the geometric stiffness matrix will be called [G]. In general terms,
the equation may be written as follows:
([ K ] + P [G ]) [∆ ] = [ F ]
ix
The same transformation used for previous stiffness matrix derivations can
be applied to find the rest of the geometric stiffness matrix. The geometric
stiffness matrix for the coplanar X-Y system is given as Equation 5.29.
The sign convention on Pix is positive for tension.
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 6 1 6 1 
0 0 −
 5L 10 5L 10 
 1 2L 1 L
0 0 − − 
10 15 10 30 
[ K m ] = Pix 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 − 6 −
1
0
6
− 
1
 5L 10 5L 10 
 
0 1 L 1 2L 
− 0 −
 10 30 10 15  (5.29)
5.9 GEOMETRIC STIFFNESS, X-Z SYSTEM
The geometric stiffness matrix for the coplanar X-Z system can be
derived in a similar manner to the X-Y system performed in Section 5.8.
The primary difference is that the signs of the moments due to transla-
tion and the forces due to rotation will be the opposite of Equation 5.29.
The geometric stiffness matrix for the coplanar X-Z system is given as
Equation 5.30.
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 6 1 6 1
0 − 0 − − 
 5L 10 5L 10 
 1 2L 1 L
0 − 0 − 
10 15 10 30 
[ K m ] = Pix 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
0 − 6 1
0
6 1 
 5LL 10 5L 10 
 
0 − 1 L 1 2L 
− 0
 10 30 10 15  (5.30)
Determine the deformations at the free end of the beam by including both
the elastic and geometric stiffness contributions to the stiffness solution.
The beam is shown in Figure 5.19.
Since the j-end of the member is fixed, there is no need to build the
entire member stiffness matrix. The j-end motions will be eliminated and
Z
A=10 in2
50kips I=100 in4 X
1kip 200in
E=10,000 ksi

only the i-end of the member stiffness needs to be developed. The value of
Pix in this case is known to be −50 kips.
  EAx   
 L 0 0  0 0 0 
     ∆ ix   Pix 
 0 12 EI z 6 EI 6 −1     
− 2 z  + Pix 0 ∆ iz = Piz 
 L3 L   5L 10    
     q  M 
 0 6 EI 4 EI z  0 −1 2 L   iy   iy 
  − 2z
 L L   10 15 
 500 0 0  0 0 0   ∆ ix  50 
  
 0 1.5 
−150  + 0 −.3 5   ∆ iz  =  1 
 
  0 −150 20, 000  0 5 −1333.3  q   0 
     iy   
500 0 0   ∆ ix  50 
 0  
 1.2 −145   ∆ iz  =  1 
 0 −145 18, 666.7   qiy   0 
Solving the general solution as shown in the following equations, the

resulting deformations can be found. The solution is in inches and
radians.
([ K ] + P [G ]) [∆ ] = [ F ]
ix
[∆ ] = ([ K ] + P [G ]) [ F ]
−1
ix
 ∆ ix   0.1000 
   
 ∆ iz  = 13.5757 
 qiy  0.10545
 
If the solution was performed with the geometric stiffness omitted, the
result would be as follows:
 ∆ ix   0.1000 
   
 ∆ iz  =  2.6667 
 qiy  0.02000 
 
Determine the deformations at the free end of the beam by including both
the elastic and geometric stiffness contributions to the stiffness solution.
The beam is shown in Figure 5.20.
Z
A=10 in2
100kips I=100 in4 X
1kip 200in
E=10,000 ksi
This is the same as Example 5.16, except the axial force has been
increased to 100 kips.
 500 0 0  0 0 0   ∆ ix  100 
 
 0 1.5  
−150  + 0 −.6 10   ∆ iz  =  1 
 
  0 −150 20, 000  0 10 −2666.7   q   0 
     iy   
500 0 0   ∆ ix  100 
 
 0
 0.9 −140   ∆ iz  =  1 
 0 −140 17, 333.3  qiy   0 
 ∆ ix   0.2000 
   
 ∆ iz  =  −4.33333
 qiy   −0.00350 
 
Observe that the i-end of the beam moved in the negative Z direction. This
does not make logical sense. The reason of the backward motion is that the
member has buckled elastically. The actual elastic buckling load of this
column is 61.685 kips.
5.10 GEOMETRIC STIFFNESS, 3-D SYSTEM
By combining Equations 5.29 and 5.30 and adding the torsional stiffness
terms, the geometric stiffness matrix in the 3-D Cartesian coordinate sys-
tem can be found.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 6 1 6 1 
0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 
 5L 10 5L 10 
6 1 6 1
0 0 0 − 0 0 0 − 0 − 0   ∆ ix   Pix 
 5L 10 5L 10  ∆ iy   Piy 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0     
 
1 2L 1 L  ∆ iz   Piz 
0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 − 0   q ix   M ix 
 10 15 10 30 
 1 2L 1 L q  M 
0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 −   iy   iy 
Pix  10 15 10 30   q iz   M iz 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx  =  Pjx 
 6 1 6 1 ∆   P 
0 − 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 −   jy   jy 
 5L 10 5L 10   ∆ jz   Pjz 
6 1 6 1 q  M 
0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0   jx   jx 
 5L 10 5L 10 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   q jy   M jy 
  q  M 
1 L 1 2L  jz   jz 
0 0 − 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 
 10 30 10 15 
 1 L 1 2L 
0 0 0 0 − 0 − 0 0 0 
 10 30 10 15  (5.31)
The geometric stiffness of a member can also be derived based on a gen-

eral transcendental equation. The full derivation is published by Blette
(1985).
 np   np 
y = asin   + bcos   + cx + d
 2L   2L 
The particular solution for Diy is as follows:
 2  px px px p 
y = ∆ iy  − sin + cos + − 
 4 − p   2L 2L 2L 2 
The particular solution for qiz is as follows:
 4 L   p  px px px 
y = qiz  2  
1 −  sin + cos + −1
 4p − p    2  2L 2 L 2 L 
These two relationships can be used to develop the geometric stiffness

matrix.
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 1.2036 1.2036 
0 0 0 0 0.1018 0 − 0 0 0 0.1018   ∆ ix   Pix 
 L L  
 1.2036 1.2036   ∆ iy   Piy 
0 0 0 −0.1018 0 0 0 − 0 −0.1018 0    
 L L   ∆ iz   Piz 
0 θ   
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 M
   ix   ix 
0 0 −0.1018 0 0.1379 L 0 0 0 0.1018 0 −0.0361L 0   θiy   M 
   iy 
0 0.1018 0 0 0 0.1379 L 0 −0.1018 0 0 0 −0.0361L   θiz   M iz 
Pix 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   ∆ jx  =  Pjx 
    
 1.2036 1.2036  ∆ P 
0 − 0 0 0 −0.1018 0 0 0 0 −0.1018   jy   jy 
L L ∆
   jz   Pjz 
0 1.2036 1.2036  θ jx  
0 − 0 0.1018 0 0 0 0 0.1018 0 M jx 
 L L    
 θ
  jy   M jy

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   θ  M 
0   jz  
 jz 
0 −0.1018 0 −0.0361L 0 0 0 0.1018 0 0.1379 L 0
 
0 0.1018 0 0 0 −0.0361L 0 −0.1018 0 0 0 0.1379 L 

(5.32)
If more digits are desired for accuracy, the following substitutions can be made:
1.2036 = 1.20362445
0.1018 = 0.1018122226
0.1379 = 0.1378809597
0.0361 = 0.03606873710
5.11 GEOMETRIC AND SHEAR STIFFNESS
The effect of both the geometric and shear stiffness could be included in
the flexural stiffness derivations. This matrix was derived by Karl J. Blette
(Blette 1985). The procedure to derive the stiffness matrix would be to
include the shear stiffness contribution used in Sections 5.5 and 5.6 in
the geometric stiffness of Sections 5.8 and 5.9. Equation 5.33 shows the
elastic and shear member stiffness in the 3-D Cartesian coordinate system.
Equation 5.34 shows the elastic geometric and shear member stiffness in
the 3-D Cartesian coordinate system.
The terms a and b are defined as follows:
L3
ay =
12 EI y
L3
az =
12 EI z
L
by =
GAz
L
bz =
GAy
 Ax E Ax E 
 L 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 
L 
 1 L 1 L
 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 
 a z + bz 2 (a z + b z ) a z + bz 2 (a z + b z ) 
 1 L 1 L 
 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 − 0 − 0 
 a y + by 2 (a y + b y ) a y + by 2 (a y + b y ) 
 I xG I xG 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0  P 
 L L   ix 
   Piy 
L EI y ( 4 a y + b y ) L EI y ( 2 a y − b y )
  Piz 
 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0
 2 (a y + b y ) L (a y + b y ) 2 (a y + b y ) L (a y + b y )   M ix 
 
L EI z ( 4 az + b z ) L EI z ( 2 a z − b z )   M iy 
 0
 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 M
2 (a z + b z ) L (a z + b z ) 2 (a z + b z ) L (a z + b z )  =  iz 
   Pjx 
 − Ax E Ax E  P 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0   jy 
 L L
 1 L 1 L   Pjz 
 0 − 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 −  M 
 a z + bz 2 (a z + b z ) a z + bz 2 (a z + b z )   jx 
M
 1 L 1 L   jy 
 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0   M jz 
 a y + by 2 (a y + b y ) a y + by 2 (a y + b y ) 
 IxG IxG 
 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 L L 
 L EI y ( 2 a y − b y ) L EI y ( 4 a y + b y ) 
 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 2 (a y + b y ) L (a y + b y ) 2 (a y + b y ) L (a y + b y ) 
 
L EI z ( 2 az − b z ) L EI z ( 4 a z + b z ) 
 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0
 2 (a z + b z ) L (a z + b z ) 2 (a z + b z ) L (a z + b z ) 
 (5.33)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
0 0 0 0 az 0 0 0 0 az 
 − ( 6a z + 5b z ) − ( 6a z + 5b z ) − 
 5L ( a z + b z ) 10 (a z + b z ) 5L (a z + b z ) 10 (a z + b z ) 
 
0 0 ( 6a y + 5b y ) 0 ay 0 0 0 ( 6a y + 5b y ) 0 ay 0 
 − 
 5L ( a y + b y ) 10 a y + b y
( ) 5L (a y + b y ) 10 a y + b y
( ) 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 ay 0 L 8a y + 5b y
( ) 0 0 0 ay 0 L 2a y + 5b y
( ) 0 
− −
 10 a y + b y 10 a y + b y 
 ( ) 60 (a y + b y ) ( ) 60 (a y + b y ) 
 
0 L 0 0 0 L ( 8a z + 5b z ) 0 az 0 0 0 L ( 2a z + 5b z ) 
 −
2 (a z + b z ) 60 (a z + b z ) 10 (a z + b z ) 60 (a z + b z ) 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 ( 6a z + 5b z ) 0 0 0 az 0 ( 6a z + 5b z ) 0 0 0 az 
 −
5L ( a z + b z ) 10 (a z + b z ) 5L (a z + b z ) 10 (a z + b z ) 
 
0 0 0 ay 0 0 0 0 ay 0 
 ( 6a y + 5b y ) − −
( 6a y + 5b y ) − 
 5L (a y + b y ) 10 a y + b y
( ) 5L ( a y + b y ) 10 a y + b y
( ) 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 0 0 ay 0 L 2a y + 5b y
( ) 0 0 0 ay 0 L 8a y + 5b y
( ) 0 
 − − 
 10 a y + b y
( ) 60 (a y + b y ) 10 a y + b y
( ) 60 (a y + b y ) 
 
0 az 0 0 0 L ( 2a z + 5b z ) 0 az 0 0 0 L ( 8a z + 5b z ) 
 − − 
 10 a
( z + bz ) 60 (a z + b z ) 10 (a z + b z ) 60 (a z + b z ) 
(5.34)
5.12 TORSION
The torsional stiffness of slender linear members is composed of two parts.

The first is known as St. Venant’s torsion, which is uniform on a member
at any distance, r, from the longitudinal axis. This is the torsional stiffness
that is included in the elastic member stiffness Equation 4.33. This is the
primary resistance to torsion for circular crosses-sections that have area
distributed uniformly about the longitudinal axis. The second type of tor-
sional stiffness is known as warping torsion. Warping torsion is the primary
stiffness in thin-walled open cross-sections such as angles shapes and wide
flange shapes. The warping torsion will cause longitudinal deformations in
the cross-section that will cause certain portions to elongate and other por-
tions to shorten. This warping effect can be included in the derivation of the
stiffness. “Structural Analysis and Design,” by Ketter, Lee, and Prawel, Jr.,
covers this derivation (Ketter, Lee, and Prawel 1979). The torsional stiffness
at each degree of freedom is represented as two components instead of the
single values used in the normal elastic stiffness. Equation 5.35 shows the
elastic torsional member stiffness in the 3-D Cartesian coordinate system.
 Ax E Ax E 
 L 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 L 
 0 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI z 
0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0
 L3 L2 L3 L 
2
 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 12 EI y 6 EI y 
 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 − 0 0 − 0 
L3 L2 L3 L2
 
 0 0 0 −T1 −T2 0 0 0 0 0 T1 −T2 0 0 
 0 0 0 −T2 −T3 0 0 0 0 0 T2 T4 0 0 
 
 6 EI y 4 EI y 6 EI y 2 EI y 
 0 0 − 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 L L L2 L 
 6 EI z 4 EI z 6 EI z 2 EI z 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 0 0 0 0 
 L2 L L2 L 
 xA E Ax E 
− L 0 0 0 0 0 0
L
0 0 0 0 0 0 
 
 12 EI z 6 EI z 12 EI z 6 EI 
 0 − L3 0 0 0 0 −
L2
0
L3
0 0 0 0 − 2z
L
 
 12 EI y 6 EI y 12 EI z 6 EI y 
 0 0 − 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
L L2 L3 L2
 
 0 0 0 T1 T2 0 0 0 0 0 −T1 −T2 0 0 
 0 0 0 −T2 T4 0 0 0 0 0 T2 T3 0 0 
 
 6 EI y 2 EI y 6 EI y 4 EI y 
 0 0 − 2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 
 L L L2 L 
 6 EI z 2 EI y 6 EI 4EI z 
 0 0 0 0 0 0 − 2z 0 0 0 0 
 L2 L L L 
(5.35)
The resulting member stiffness matrix is 14×14 in size with the terms T1,
T2, T3, and T4 defined as follows:
l sinh ( l L )
T1 = GκT
2 cosh ( l L ) − 1 − l Lsinh ( l L )
cosh ( l L ) − 1
T2 = GκT
2 cosh ( l L ) − 1 − l Lsinh ( l L )
GκT sinh ( l L ) − l Lcosh ( l L )
T3 =
l 2 cosh ( l L ) − 1 − l Lsinh ( l L )
GκT l L − l sinh ( l L )
T4 =
l 2 cosh ( l L ) − 1 − l Lsinh ( l L )
GκT
l=
EIw
In the equation for l, kT is the St. Venant torsion constant, which is typi-
cally the polar moment of inertia, Ix. The value of Iw is known as the warp-
ing constant. Both of these values are normally tabulated in handbooks or
specifications.
5.13 SUB-STRUCTURING
When a structure is of large enough size that the contents for the global
joint stiffness matrix cannot be contained in the RAM of a computer, the
matrix can be transformed into segments by reduction or decomposition.
The resulting transformed matrix can take many forms depending on the
process used. One of the common transformations is the N-matrix, due to
the configuration of resulting values. The following is a general descrip-
tion of the operation used to solve large systems using the N-matrix. This
method can be used by operating on the individual degrees of freedom or
on the entire joint as matrix operations.
The original equation set is normally a sparse matrix with most of
the values near the main diagonal. Equation 4.34 represents the original
stiffness solution set. For clarity, the zero values are left out of the matrices
and X indicates where values exist.
 K g   ∆ g  =  Pg 
X X 
X X X X 
    P 
 X X X    
  ∆  =  − 
 X X X X     FEPM 
 X X X   
 
 X X  (5.36)
The matrix is reduced by the appropriate reduction method. The degrees of

freedom or joints used to represent the stiffness should be placed at the outer
ends of the matrix. These will be the degrees of freedom in the outer col-
umns of Equation 5.37. All of the values above and below the main diagonal
of the matrix will be reduced to zero except those retained in the outer col-
umns. The resulting matrix is shown in Equation 5.37 and is the N-matrix.
Kg K g   ∆ g   Pg 
X
 X X   d   S 
X X X  d   A
   =  
X X X  d  V
X X X  d   E 
    
 K g K g   ∆ g   Pg 
(5.37)
The information contained in the N-matrix is used in two ways. The values
in the extreme boundaries of the matrices represent the stiffness, deforma-
tion, or force (Kg, Dg, and Pg) of the structure related to the retained degrees
of freedom or joints. These values can be combined with other members
in a stiffness analysis. The interior portions of the matrices represent the
values of the stiffness, deformation, or force of the degrees of freedom or
joints eliminated in the reduction. These values are used to find the deforma-
tions and forces of these degrees of freedom or joints once the main analysis
results are known. The N-matrix can be compressed as shown in Equation
5.38. The interior stiffness values can be inverted for later processing.
Kg K g   ∆ g   Pg 
X X −1
X   ∆   S 

X X −1 X  ∆   A
   =  
X X −1 X  ∆  V
X X −1 X  ∆  E 
    
 K g K g   ∆ g   Pg 
(5.38)
The main analysis is performed and the global deformation of the retained
degrees of freedom of joint is found.
−1
∆ g  =  K g   Pg 
     
The interior loads to be used to find the remainder of the deformations

are shown in Equation 5.39. This represents the loads due to the interior
loading that was saved and the load due to the motion of the main analysis
motions on the interior joints.
      ∆ g 
L S  X  
     X   
O   A   X X 
 = +  
A  V   X X 
D  E   X X 
      
       ∆ g 
(5.39)
The deformations of the interior degrees of freedom or joints can be found

from Equation 5.40.
    
 ∆   X −1   L 
    
 ∆   X −1  O 
  =  −1   
∆   X  A 
 ∆   X −1   D 
    
      (5.40)
The local member forces are found from the deformation in Equation
5.40, the same as in step 6 of the general stiffness procedure given in
Section 4.13. The values of D are used for Dg in Equation 4.38 and
repeated here.
 P & M  =  K  [R ]  ∆  +  FEPM 
 m  m  g   m
REFERENCES
Blette, K.J. 1985. Numerical Methods for Architectural Engineers. Stillwater,

Oklahoma: Oklahoma State University.
Ketter, R.L., G.C. Lee, and S.P. Prawel. 1979. Structural Analysis and Design.
New York, New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Timoshenko, S.P. 1921. “On the Correction Factor for Shear of the Differential
Equation for Transverse Vibrations of Bars of Uniform Cross-section.” Phil-
osophical Magazine 41, pp. 744–6.
About the Authors
Steven O’Hara is a Professor of Architectural Engineering and Licensed

Engineer who has taught architectural engineering at the Oklahoma State
University School of Architecture since 1988. His primary areas of inter-
est include the design and analysis of masonry, steel and timber struc-
tures, with special interest in classical numerical structural analysis and
the design of concrete structures. Professor O’Hara is one of four faculty
members in the Architectural Engineering program at OSU, and as teaches
courses in the AE program at all levels; he enjoys his close mentoring rela-
tionship with the students in the AE program at OSU, as he also performs
the role of their academic advisor. Outside the OSU classroom, Professor
O’Hara is an Affiliate Professor of Civil Engineering and Architecture in
“Project Lead the Way,” a nationwide program for high-school students.
He trains the high school teachers responsible for introducing engineering
principles into the secondary curriculum, through project-based learning
and has coauthored the workbook for the curriculum Civil Engineering &
Architecture Workbook. He is the coauthor of ARE Review Manual used
by thousands of architects to prepare for their licensing exams.
As a faculty member, Professor O’Hara has received numerous
awards: In 2013, he was elected to the first class of Faculty Teaching Fel-
lows at Oklahoma State University and was elevated to Chapter Honor
Member by Chi Epsilon. In 2001, he was the honored recipient of the first
Melvin R. Lohmann Professorship. In 1999, he received the Chi Epsilon
Excellence in Teaching Award. In 1995, he was recognized as the Halli-
burton Excellent Young Teacher for the College of Engineering, Architec-
ture, and Technology at OSU.
Carisa H. Ramming joined the faculty at Oklahoma State University

in January 2009. Professor Ramming is a graduate of Oklahoma State
University with a bachelor of architectural engineering degree and dual
master’s degrees: master of science in civil engineering with an emphasis
in Construction Engineering and master of architectural engineering. Pro-
fessor Ramming teaches engineering mechanics: statics, steel design, and
building foundations.
272 • About the Authors
Before returning to academics, Professor Ramming worked as a

consulting engineer primarily designing large structural steel retail facil-
ities, and obtained her license as a professional engineer in the state of
Oklahoma.
Professor Ramming is a member of the American Society of Engi-
neering Educators and the Oklahoma Structural Engineers Association.
She has served the engineering community as Director, Vice-President,
President, and Delegate of Oklahoma’s Chapter of the National Council
of Structural Engineering. Professor Ramming is the advisor for OSU’s
student chapter of the Architectural Engineering Institute; the College of
Engineering, Architecture and Technology’s Student Council; and Tau
Beta Pi.
Professor Ramming recently coauthored Civil Engineering & Archi-
tecture Workbook for Project Lead the Way, which provides curriculum
for science, technology, engineering, and mathematics education used in
middle and high schools. She was also named the Outstanding Faculty
Member from the College of Engineering, Architecture, and Technology
by The Panhellenic Council and Interfraternity Council in 2010 and 2012.
In 2013, she was awarded the Halliburton Young Teaching Award and in
2014, she received the Excellent Teacher Award for the College of Engi-
neering, Architecture and Technology.
Index
A Difference operators
Adjoint matrix, 60, 62–63 column buckling with,
Algebraic equation, 1 134–136
Alpha rotation matrix, 148–149 fixed beam with, 128–133
Area moment method, 155–158 partial differential equations,
136–140
B simple beam with, 123–128
Bairstow’s method, 38–46 Taylor series expansion,
Basket weave method, 55–56 118–123
Beta rotation matrix, 149–150 Distribution factor, 171
Bisection method, 13–15 Double integration
Gaussian quadrature, 114–115
C Simpson’s one-third rule,
Carry-over factor, 171 112–114
Castigliano’s second theorem,
165–168 E
Cholesky decomposition method, Eigenvalues, Cramer’s rule, 87–90
73–78 Elastic member stiffness
Cofactor matrix, 57, 59, 61 three-dimensional (3-D)
Column buckling, difference system, 186–187
operators, 134–136 X-Y system, 181–186
Column matrix, 49 X-Z system, 174–181
Conjugate beam method, 158–161 Equations
Coordinate systems, 147–148 algebraic, 1
Cramer’s rule homogeneous, 47
definition, 56 linear algebraic, 47
eigenvalues by, 87–90 non-homogeneous, 47
example, 57 simultaneous, 47–48
Crout’s method, 73–78 transcendental, 1–2
Error equations, 78–80
D
Descartes’ rule, 3–6 F
Diagonal matrix, 49–50 Faddeev−Leverrier method, 90–91
274 • Index
False position method, 15–17 J

Fixed beam with difference Joint stiffness factor, 171
operators, 128–133
Fixed-end moments, 234–239 L
Flexibility, 174 Linear algebraic equations, 47
Flexural stiffness, 171 Linear interpolation method,
15–17
G Lower triangular matrix, 50
Gamma rotation matrix, 150–152
Gaussian elimination method, M
63–67 Matrix
Gaussian quadrature method adjoint, 60, 62–63
description, 109–112 cofactor, 57, 59, 61
double integration, 114–115 column, 49
Gauss−Jordan elimination method definition, 48
description, 68–71 diagonal, 49–50
improved, 72–73 identity, 50
Gauss−Seidel iteration method, inverted, 51
86–87 minor, 51
Geometric stiffness row, 49
flexural stiffness derivations, square, 49
262–264 transposed, 51
three dimensional (3-D) triangular, 50
system, 260–262 Matrix factorization, 73–78
X-Y system, 251–257 Matrix inversion method, 80–86
X-Z system, 258–260 Matrix operations
Global joint stiffness, 187–203 matrix addition and
Graeffe’s root squaring method subtraction, 52–53
description, 24–27 matrix determinants, 54–56
real and complex roots, 35–38 matrix multiplication, 53–54
real and distinct roots, 28–31 scalar multiplication, 53
real and equal roots, 31–35 Matrix structural analysis
area moment method, 155–158
H Castigliano’s second theorem,
Homogeneous equation, 47 165–168
conjugate beam method,
I 158–161
Identity matrix, 50 global joint stiffness, 187–203
Improved Gauss−Jordan moment-distribution method,
elimination method, 170–174
72–73 slope-deflection method,
Incremental search method, 10–12 168–170
Inverted matrix, 51 transformation matrix
Iterative method, 91–94 rotation matrix, 148–152
Index • 275
transmission matrix, partial differential equations,

153–155 numeric modeling,
virtual work method, 161–163 140–145
visual integration method, Romberg’s integration method,
163–165 99–104
Member end releases Simpson’s rule, 104–109
three dimensional (3-D) Taylor series polynomial
system, 217–229 expansion, 116–118
X-Y system, 214–217 trapezoidal rule, 97–99
X-Z system, 205–214
Member relative stiffness factor, O
171 Orthogonal forces, 153
Member stiffness factor, 171
Method of false position, 15–17 P
Moment-distribution method, Partial differential equations
170–174 difference operators, 136–140
numeric modeling, 140–145
N Partial pivoting, 63
Newton−Raphson method, 18–21 Pivot coefficient/element, 63
Newton’s second order method, Pivot equation, 63
21–24 Polynomials, 2–3
Newton’s tangent method, 18–21 Power method, 91–94
Non-homogeneous equation, 47
Non-prismatic member stiffness, R
229–234 Real and complex roots, 35–38
Numerical integration and Real and distinct roots, 28–31
differentiation Real and equal roots, 31–35
difference operators Refined incremental search
column buckling with, method, 12–13
134–136 Romberg’s integration method,
fixed beam with, 128–133 99–104
partial differential Root methods
equations, 136– Bairstow’s method, 38–46
140 bisection method, 13–15
simple beam with, 123–128 Descartes’ rule, 3–6
Taylor series expansion, false position method, 15–17
118–123 Graeffe’s root squaring method
double integration description, 24–27
Gaussian quadrature, real and complex roots,
114–115 35–38
Simpson’s one-third rule, real and distinct roots,
112–114 28–31
Gaussian quadrature method, real and equal roots,
109–112 31–35
276 • Index
incremental search method, Faddeev−Leverrier method,

10–12 90–91
linear interpolation method, Gauss−Jordan elimination
15–17 method, 68–71
Newton−Raphson method, Gauss−Seidel iteration method,
18–21 86–87
Newton’s second order method, improved Gauss−Jordan
21–24 elimination method,
Newton’s tangent method, 72–73
18–21 iterative method, 91–94
refined incremental search matrix inversion method,
method, 12–13 80–86
secant method, 17–18 matrix operations, 52–56
synthetic division, 7–10 power method, 91–94
Rotation matrix Slope-deflection method, 168–170
alpha, 148–149 Square matrix, 49
beta, 149–150 Stiffness
gamma, 150–152 definition, 174
Row matrix, 49 elastic member
three-dimensional (3-D)
S system, 186–187
Scalar multiplication, 53 X-Y system, 181–186
Secant method, 17–18 X-Z system, 174–181
Shear area, 248–251 flexural, 171
Shear stiffness geometric
flexural stiffness derivations, flexural stiffness
262–264 derivations,
shear area, 248–251 262–264
three dimensional (3-D) three dimensional (3-D)
system, 247–248 system, 260–262
X-Y system, 243–247 X-Y system, 251–257
X-Z system, 239–243 X-Z system, 258–260
Simple beam with difference global joint, 187–203
operators, 123–128 shear
Simpson’s one-third rule, 112–114 flexural stiffness
Simpson’s rule, 104–109 derivations,
Simultaneous equations, 47–48 262–264
Simultaneous linear algebraic shear area, 248–251
equation methods three dimensional (3-D)
Cholesky decomposition system, 247–248
method, 73–78 X-Y system, 243–247
eigenvalues, Cramer’s rule, X-Z system, 239–243
87–90 torsion, 265–266
error equations, 78–80 Stiffness factor, 171
Index • 277
Sub-structuring, 266–268 Transposed matrix, 51

Synthetic division, 7–10 Trapezoidal rule, 97–99
Triangular matrix, 50
T
Taylor series polynomial U
expansion, 116–118 Upper triangular matrix, 50
Three-dimensional (3-D) system
elastic member stiffness, V
186–187 Virtual work method, 161–163
geometric stiffness, 260–262 Visual integration method,
member end releases, 217–229 163–165
shear stiffness, 247–248
Torsional stiffness, 265–266 X
Transformation matrix X-Y system
rotation matrix elastic member stiffness,
alpha, 148–149 181–186
beta, 149–150 geometric stiffness, 251–257
gamma, 150–152 member end releases, 214–217
transmission matrix shear stiffness, 243–247
cause and effect, 153–155 X-Z system
orthogonal forces, 153 elastic member stiffness,
Transcendental equation, 1–2 174–181
Transmission matrix geometric stiffness, 258–260
cause and effect, 153–155 member end releases, 205–214
orthogonal forces, 153 shear stiffness, 239–243
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THE CONTENT
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• Manufacturing structural engineering. Once the numerical formulations are un-
Engineering derstood, engineers can then develop structural analysis meth-
• Mechanical ods that use these techniques. This will be done primarily with
Analysis
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Engineering topics will be developed and presented to solve unique struc-
• Materials Science tural problems, including member end releases, non-prismatic,
& Engineering shear, geometric, and torsional stiffness.
• Civil &
Steven O’Hara is a professor of architectural engineering and li-
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Engineering chitecture since 1988. Professor O’Hara is an affiliate professor
• Electrical of civil engineering and architecture in “Project Lead the Way,”
Engineering a nationwide program for high-school students. He trains the
high school teachers responsible for introducing engineering
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EBOOKS Numerical Structural Analysis SUSTAINABLE STRUCTURAL

Numerical Structural Analysis

MOMENTUM PRESS, LLC, NEW YORK

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

First published by Momentum Press®, LLC

ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-488-8 (print)

Momentum Press Sustainable Structural Systems Collection

Cover and Interior design by Exeter Premedia Services Private Ltd.,

Printed in the United States of America

As structural engineers move further into the age of digital computa-

complex conjugate pairs, complex roots, conjugate beam, conjugate pairs,

2.6 Gaussian Elimination Method 63

4.9 Moment-Distribution Method 170

Figure 1.1. Incremental search method. 11

Figure 4.1. Coordinate systems. 148

Figure 4.34. Example 4.19 Global joint stiffness. 191

Table 1.1. Synthetic division 7

Table 3.14. Example 3.5 Gaussian quadrature 111

Our sincere thanks go to Associate Professor Christopher M. Papadopoulos,

In structural engineering, it is important to have a basic knowledge of how

The second type is transcendental equations. These are non-algebraic

algebra. Examples of such are exponential functions, trigonometric func-

A polynomial is defined as an algebraic equation involving only positive

For these polynomials, the following apply:

• The order or degree of the polynomial is equal to the highest power

• The coefficients (a0, a1, a2 …, an-1, an) are real numbers.

1.3 DESCARTES’ RULE

Descartes’ rule is a method of determining the maximum number of pos-

Example 1.1 Descartes’ rule

Find possible positive roots for f(x) = 0:

( − x)3 − 6 ( − x)2 + 11( − x) − 6 = − x3 − 6 x 2 − 11x − 6 = 0

Possible complex roots:

Example 1.2 Descartes’ rule

Find possible positive roots for f(x) = 0:

Find possible negative roots by rewriting the function for f(–x) = 0:

Possible complex roots:

Example 1.3 Descartes’ rule

Find possible positive roots for f(x) = 0:

Possible complex roots:

Example 1.4 Descartes’ rule

Find possible positive roots for f (x) = 0:

Possible complex roots:

1.4 SYNTHETIC DIVISION

Synthetic division is taught in most algebra courses. The main outcome is

Table 1.1. Synthetic division

Example 1.5 Synthetic division

Find f(1) or divide the following polynomial by x – 1.

Table 1.2. Example 1.5 Synthetic division

Table 1.3. Example 1.5 Synthetic division

Use the quadratic equation to reduce the remaining polynomial as follows:

−b ± b 2 − 4ac − ( −5) ± ( −5) − 4 (1) 6 5 ± 1

If the remaining polynomial was divided by x – 2, r = 2 is a root as

Table 1.4. Example 1.5 Synthetic division

Table 1.5. Example 1.5 Synthetic division

The roots are x = 1, 2, 3.

Example 1.6 Synthetic division

Table 1.6. Example 1.6 Synthetic division

Table 1.7. Example 1.6 Synthetic division

Since the remainder, R, is –24, f(–1) = –24, the polynomial evaluated at –1

f ( −1) = ( −1) − 6 ( −1) + 11( −1) − 6 = −24

2.6 Gaussian Elimination Method 63

4.9 Moment-Distribution Method 170

Figure 1.1. Incremental search method. 11

Figure 4.1. Coordinate systems. 148

Figure 4.34. Example 4.19 Global joint stiffness. 191

Table 1.1. Synthetic division 7

Table 3.14. Example 3.5 Gaussian quadrature 111

1.8 METHOD OF FALSE POSITION OR LINEAR