Challenges of global environmental issues on ecosystem

management in Malaysia
Mohd Nasir Hassan, Muhamad Awang, and Abu Bakar Jaafar
Centre for Environmental Technology and Natural Resource Management (CETNaRM), Department of Environmental
Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM-Serdang, Selangor

Environmental problems and their management, particularly when related to urban ecosystems, are becoming
increasingly challenging. The end-of-pipe method which has been practiced in the past, and is manifested in our
laws and regulations, has gradually changed towards a more pro-active approach. Industries now recognize that
environmental management and pollution control are no longer liabilities, but rather opportunities to increase
their competitiveness. The general public is increasingly aware of the fact that they have to pay more for
management of the environment that is based on the end-of-pipe approach. International agencies and industries
world-wide are responding positively with a new paradigm shift towards proactive environmental management
through voluntary initiatives. The most challenging task in Malaysia however, is to convince the small and
medium scale enterprises to shift from the old to the new management system. While local government agencies
remain the key players in the management of urban ecosystems, they still lack human resources and the capacity
to handle new challenges. This paper discusses new initiatives towards achieving sustainable urban ecosystem
management. It highlights the tools and approaches that are being used as alternatives to the existing end-of-pipe
approaches. These tools include, eco-management, wastes minimization, ISO 14000 standardization, design for
environment, eco-labeling, life cycle assessment and industrial ecology.

Keywords: environmental management, end-of-pipe, paradigm shift, pollution control, green consumerism

Introduction depletion and global warming have emerged as ma-

jor pollution issues, and issues in which personal val-
Global environmental impacts have been viewed ues play an important role, such as species diversity,
to occur in two waves. The first occurred in the late are also increasingly becoming the subject of interna-
1960s and early 1970s, and was evident mainly in na- tional debate and a source of friction between coun-
tional and regional problems associated with indus- tries. This internationalization results from the fact that
trial pollution in advanced economies. Following the many of the new issues have transborder features; in-
lull brought on by economic disorders between 1973 volving either the physical spillover of pollutants or
and 1982 such as double digit inflation, recession in what might be called psychological spillovers, as in the
industrial countries and two world oil price shocks, case of concern over species extinction (Anderson and
there was a second wave of global impacts. This new Blackhurst, 1992). Today, concerns about the environ-
wave was much more intense and widespread; ozone ment have given rise to new realities. Environmental

269
Aquatic Ecosystem Health & Management, 9(2):269–283, 2006. Copyright

C 2006 AEHMS. ISSN: 1463-4988 print / 1539-4077 online

DOI: 10.1080/14634980600728800
270 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

Figure 1. Human impacts on natural systems: a conceptual model.

issues have been increasingly integrated into interna- Causes for concern
tional trade, and markets and consumers worldwide
are increasingly demanding environmentally friendly Very few environmental problems (Figure 1) can
products. This new reality requires businesses to place be accounted for on a simple cause-and-effect basis.
equal footing both on the environment, and on their Problems usually stem from a multitude of causes, with
business objectives. There is increasing evidence that a single course of action having multiple effects. A
environmental improvement is good business (Porter multitude of living, interdependent organisms can be
and Van der Linde, 1995). Thus, most business enter- affected in a chain reaction by a single human activity.
prises worldwide are undergoing rapid rearrangement Some damage may be irreversible, but some potentially
for the better. Lovins reports, in The Harvard Busi- reversible. Some consequences may be remedial, others
ness Review on Business and Environment (2000), that not. Further, major environmental problems are related
businesses are embarking on a journey toward “natural to resource depletion as well as to depletion of natural
capitalism” i.e., economic reforms that would embrace assets. This approach, only one of many schools of
environmentalism, and sustainability. Truly a journey thought, is summarized in Figure 1.
that would comprise major shifts in business practices. The major environmental problems facing
Are we in Malaysia prepared to take on the chal- Malaysia, and having global consequences are descri-
lenges posed by these developments? Perhaps the great- bed below.
est challenge that we face is to understand what “sus-
tainable practices” are and how they can be actualized Atmospheric pollution
into all socio-economic sectors in Malaysia. It is no
longer acceptable to argue that the more goods and ser- Atmospheric pollution has long been associated
vices produced, the higher the quality of life will be. It with the burning of fossil fuels, the resulting sulphur
is not so much the amount of goods and services per se dioxide being a major atmospheric pollutant. Combus-
that produce quality of life, but the right type. The chal- tion of motor fuels causes an added influx of volatile or-
lenge for the new millennium is to develop an indus- ganic compounds, coupled with carbon dioxide (CO2 )
trial system that has minimal socio-ecological impacts, and Nox, nitrous oxides. In Malaysia, local and trans-
without compromising quality of life (Hutchinson and boundary emissions play very important roles in de-
Hutchinson, 1997). termining the status of the atmospheric environment
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 271

(Awang et al., 2000). The major pollutants observed through Singapore, Malaysia and Brunei. The results of
are sulphur dioxide (SO2 ), nitrogen dioxide (NO2 ), car- several studies have also provided strong evidence for
bon monoxide (CO), ozone (O3 ) and total suspended the assessment of biomass burning as the dominating
particulate matter, in particular PM10 . Air pollution in source of particulate matter during the haze episodes.
Malaysia can be divided into two periods; the non-haze, The analysis indicated that reductions of local non-
and haze episodes. biomass emissions such as those from traffic did not
During the non-haze episodes, vehicular emissions have any effect during haze episodes. Even in the Klang
contribute more than seventy percent of the total air Valley, a reduction of half of the local non-biomass re-
emissions in the urban areas. Air quality studies con- lated pollution will only result in an approximately 25
ducted in the Klang Valley between 1986 and 1989, µg m−3 reduction of the total suspended particulate.
December 1991 to November 1992 and January 1995 In 1996, the percentage of the load by air emission
to December 1997 demonstrated two distinct daily air types was as follows: motor vehicles, 82 percent; power
pollution peaks. The morning “rush-hour” peak was stations, 9 percent; industrial fuel burning, 5 percent;
mainly due to vehicle emissions, while the late evening industrial production process, 3 percent; domestic and
peak was mainly attributed to meteorological condi- commercial furnaces, 0.2 percent; and open burning at
tions. Total suspended particulate matter was the main solid waste disposal sites, 0.8 percent (DOE, 1996).
pollutant; their concentrations at a few sites often ex-
ceeding recommended Malaysian air quality guide- Water pollution
lines. The levels of other pollutants were generally be-
low the guidelines. Daily average emissions of those The production and use of a multitude of prod-
pollutants in rural areas were found to be much lower ucts, from agrochemicals to cleaning agents, paints and
than those in the Klang Valley and never exceeded the dyes, lead to environmental damage and the creation
critical levels for damage to sensitive crops or nat- of wastes. In Malaysia, pollution of watercourses is
ural forest species as a result of direct atmospheric attributed to discharges of effluents from agro-based
exposure. manufacturing and heavy industries, and primarily, the
During the haze episode in the months of September locations of factories are too close to water bodies. The
to October 1991, October 1994 and July to Novem- Department of Environment uses six parameters for
ber 1997, it was clearly indicated that in general, water quality indicators: biochemical oxygen demand
East Malaysia experienced higher suspended particu- (BOD), chemical oxygen demand (COD), ammonia ni-
late matter (PM10 ) levels than other parts of Malaysia. trogen (NH3-N), suspended solids (SS), pH, and heavy
Based on the Air Pollution Index established by the metals (Mg and Na). On the basis of these parameters,
Department of Environment, in September 1997, out 255 river basins were monitored. In 1998, 163 rivers
of a total of 10 days, 8 days were deemed as extremely (63 percent) were found to be very polluted, 59 rivers
unhealthy. In Peninsular Malaysia, the Klang Valley (23 percent) slightly polluted and 33 (14 percent) clean
had more than 2/3 of the month of September expe- (Table 1).
riencing unhealthy levels. Large forest fires in parts
of Sumatra and Kalimantan during the haze period, as Coastal pollution
clearly evident in satellite images, were identified as
the probable key sources of the wide spread heavy haze Coastal wastes are known to have been caused not
that extended across South East Asia from Indonesia, only from oil spills due to accidents at sea, but also

Table 1. Quality of inland water (rivers) in Malaysia.

1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Category No Percent No Percent No percent No percent No percent No percent No percent

Very Polluted 7 8.1 11 9.5 14 12.1 13 11.2 13 11.2 24 21.4 163 63
Slightly Polluted 55 63.2 73 62.9 64 55.2 61 46.1 61 52.6 71 58.1 59 23
Clean 25 28.7 32 27.6 38 32.7 42 41.7 42 36.2 25 20.5 33 33
Total 87 100 116 100 116 100 116 100 116 100 120 100 255 100
Source: Department of Environment (1998).
272 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

Table 2. Malaysian beaches affected by tar ball. Source: Department of Environment.

State Station Sampling Date Tar Ball (g m−1 trip)

Johor Desaru Beach (15429140) 09.02.98 365
Desaru Beach (1542914) 13.04.98 86
Sri Pantai Beach (2339960) 27.02.98 187
Sri Pantai Beach (2339960) 14.04.98 135
Telok Gorek Beach (2538958) 24.02.98 316
Telok Gorek Beach (2538958) 14.02.98 117
Air Papan Beach (2538959) 24.02.98 608
Air Papan Beach (2538959) 14.04.98 210
Tanjung Sepata Beach (1341961) 16.03.98 185
Langkawi Chenang Beach 9 (P.Langkawi) 22.07.98 35
Perak Puteri Dewi Beach (P. Pangkor) 17.07.98 5
Pulau Pangkor Laut Beach 17.07.98 250
Pulau Sembilan Beach 17.07.98 175
Melaka Pulau Besar Beach 15.07.98 20

from effluents discharged inland and carried by rivers 1998, the Department of Environment conducted a traf-
to the sea. In 1998 a total of 836 samples were collected fic noise level test in selected urban areas and found it to
from 231 marine monitoring stations, compared to 794 be in the range of 76.4 dB(A) to 83.3 dB(A) (Figure 2)
samples from 226 monitoring stations in 1997. As in (Department of Environment, 1999). Compared to the
previous years, the main contaminants of coastal water 1992 values (75.4 dB (A) to 83 dB(A)), the noise lev-
in all states were oil and grease (OG), total suspended els recorded in 1998 showed a significant increase in
solids (TSS), Escherichia coli (E. coli) and heavy met- all urban centres monitored.
als. From these samples 94.5 percent of samples ex-
ceeded the proposed Marine Interim Standards for oil Solid and hazardous wastes
and grease, 73.7 percent for total suspended solids and
29.7 percent for E. coli. The results show that marine The problem of solid waste management is not a new
water quality in 1998 had deteriorated slightly com- issue. Growing affluence and increasing concentration
pared to the previous year (Jamaluddin, 2000). Almost of population in urban areas have increased the gen-
all Malaysian beaches monitored in 1998 were found eration and types of solid waste produced. Presently,
to be free from oil pollution in the forms of tar balls, solid waste management is one of the most impor-
except for some beaches in Johore (Table 2) where tar tant issues of local authorities; where much money
balls were spotted on those beaches between the months is spent in the collection and disposal of solid waste
of February and April, 1998. The island marine wa- (Jamaluddin, 1998). According to a survey, the esti-
ter quality monitoring activities in July 1998 showed mation of solid waste generation in local authorities
that tar balls were also spotted on the beach of Pulau in Malaysia is summarized in Table 3. The amount of
Besar (Malacca), Pulau Pagar Laut and Pulau Sembi- solid waste collected is 70 percent (Hassan, 2000). The
lan (Perak) and Pulau Langkawi (Kedah). The oil spill remaining 30 percent not collected ends up in illegal
incident at the Malacca PETRONAS refinery on 19 dumping sites, or is diverted at source or during col-
September 1998 also caused serious pollution, leading lection for recycling purposes. Toxic and hazardous
to a 240 g m−1 strip. wastes are also one of the minor issues to be discussed.
According to DOE in 1983 and 1984, 52 percent
of toxic and hazardous waste were generated by elec-
Noise pollution tronic industries, 14 percent by metal and electroplat-
ing industries and the rest were from chemical, rubber,
Noise pollution is another environmental issue in plastics, printing, packaging, tannery and pharmaceu-
Malaysia. The increasing number of motor vehicles tical industries. A survey in 1985 showed that 22,000
in urban areas has contributed to this noise pollution. In m3 of toxic and hazardous wastes were generated in
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 273

Figure 2. Traffic level noise in selected urban areas in 1992 and 1998. Source: Seventh Malaysian Plan, 1996–2000.

Peninsular Malaysia, of which the greatest amount was development process has endangered certain endemic
acid waste. species of trees in the country (Abdul Latiff Mohamad,
2000).
Other environmental concerns
International trade
Apart from the issues mentioned above, there are and the environment
also other environmental issues especially in relation to
the exploitation of forest and forest products that could Environmental problems today have expanded from
result in the loss of biological diversity. In fact, the local and regional ones, to global ones (Lee, 2000).

Table 3. Estimated solid waste generation in local authorities in Malaysia

Estimated Waste Generation Amount Collected

State Population (Tonnes Day−1 ) (Tonnes Day−1 )
Perlis 77650 62 43
Kedah 1581483 1265 885
P. Penang 1290924 1033 723
Perak 1618483 1295 906
Selangor 1583572 2375 1900
Negeri Sembilan 578035 162 323
Melaka 611481 489 342
Johor 1612650 1290 903
Pahang 634660 508 358
Terengganu 583907 467 327
Kelantan 1041311 833 583
Kuala Lumpur 1446803 2257 2023
Labuan 66146 46 32
Sarawak 2007528 1405 984
Sabah 2115546 1481 1037
Grand Total 16850179 15268 11369
Source: Ministry of Housing and Local Government (1999).
274 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

It is a well-known fact that the global environmental chemical fertilizers and insecticides), the opposite
carrying capacity has its limit. Natural resources in- result holds: opening to trade improves the environ-
cluding mineral ores and fossil fuels, agricultural pro- ment if that good is exported but (in the absence of
ductivity, and the self-purification capacity of the nat- appropriate environmental policy) worsens the envi-
ural environment all have their own limits. Irrational ronment if it is imported.
resource consumption together with irresponsible en-
vironmental pollution resulting from the entire product Market failure
life cycle—raw material acquisition, manufacturing,
use and disposal—are the main reasons this global envi- Many environmental problems can be traced to the
ronmental carrying capacity is being exceeded. This is absence of markets for most of nature’s services. The
because our industrial structure and consumption pat- air we breathe, the ozone layer, the oceans, most lakes
tern are not environmentally friendly. Thus, there is a and rivers and large tracts of forest are not privately
growing concern that a sustainable society may not be owned. Without the assignment and enforcement of pri-
achievable. This public concern is not temporary. One vate property rights or some other form of government
reason is that even though uncertainties remain, the sci- intervention, such resources are vulnerable to degra-
entific basis for many of the concerns is more solid now dation in a number of ways. In the case of emissions
then was the case twenty years ago. Another is that the and waste disposal, individuals are unlikely to fully
world’s population has increased by one and a half bil- take into account the impact of their use of nature’s
lion since 1970 (an increase of more than 40 percent), resources on the rest of the population. Other issues,
the annual production of goods and services has nearly such as the protection of endangered species, raise a dif-
doubled, and average per capita income in the world has ferent question about property rights: how to manage
increased about 40 percent (Anderson and Blackhurst, certain assets which may be owned (by a nation state)
1992). These increases, which show very few signs of and yet are considered by some people as belonging to
slowing down, are adding substantially to the demand the world at large (as parts of the global commons).
for the goods and services provided by the natural en-
vironment; these include raw materials for producing Life cycle environmental loads
energy and other primary products, human health ser- Industry or individual corporations are the single
vices (clean air, potable water, filtered sunlight, natural most important source of all these environmental prob-
foods and medicines), aesthetic and recreational ser- lems. This is because human society depends heavily on
vices (such as visiting or even just knowing of the exis- industrial products to sustain its living standard. Cor-
tence of unspoiled wilderness areas), and the capacity porations consume resources and emit environmental
to absorb wastes. emissions because of the products they manufacture.
These are, however, not significant quantities compared
The implications of trade liberalization to what a product generates during its life cycle. A typi-
cal example would include durable goods such as home
Most countries including Malaysia are adopting appliances and automobiles. Environmental loads from
an open economy and according to Anderson and the use and disposal stages are much greater than that
Blackhurst (1992), this has significant impacts on the from the manufacturing stage. For goods like paper
environment particularly for developing countries in towels and aluminum foil, environmental loads from
the following forms: the manufacturing stage are relatively high; however,
r Opening up to trade of a product whose production the total load is still greater than that from the man-
ufacturing stage. From this discussion, it can be con-
is relatively pollution-intensive (mostly from small cluded that environmental loads occurring throughout
and medium-scale industries) improves the environ- a product life cycle are the main cause of today’s envi-
ment and welfare of a small country if it imports the ronmental problem.
good. This is the case of importing a “clean” good
whose production in another country causes pollu- The paradigm shift
tion. Should the good be exported (as is the case of
industries in many developing countries), opening to The way that humans have mistreated the earth is
trade worsens the country’s environment. primarily due to failure to appreciate the value of the
r Conversely, if consumption rather than production ecosystem. Recent calculations published by the jour-
of this good is the source of pollution (for example nal Nature placed the conservative value of the earth’s
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 275

ecosystem services—water storage, atmosphere regu- products were the responsibility of the government and
lation, climate control and so on, at $33 trillion USD a local authorities. However, under EPR, the cost associ-
year. ated with the waste product’s collection, treatment and
Environmental management has undergone signif- disposal should be borne by the manufacturer. Typical
icant changes in the past 20 years. After realizing the regulations based on the EPR concept include the pack-
importance of the services provided by nature, much aging waste order in Germany, the packaging covenant
progress has taken place in terms of the development in the Netherlands, and voluntary agreement on the cost
of advanced technologies and environmental manage- bearing of waste automobile treatment among German
ment principles. Traditionally, environmental laws and auto-makers (Lee, 2000).
regulations have aimed at commanding and controlling In response to the apparent failure of the command
the environmental load occurring during the manufac- and control policies, the emerging EPR policy and
turing stage of a product. Sincere efforts have been ex- growing pressure from the public, industries decided
erted in implementing the command and control prac- to take the initiative in overcoming the environmental
tices in most of the developed nations although they are problems. The initiative was the introduction of a vol-
burdensome to most corporations. However, the global untary program called environmental management into
environment problems have not been mitigated: rather, the corporation’s management.
they tend to have been aggravated. Industries and other polluters have shifted from just
Since 1990, environmental policy makers in the the end-of-pipe control treatment of waste, to pollu-
Netherlands and Germany recognized that packaging tion prevention and ultimately proper manufacturing
wastes may be reduced in quantity by imposing finan- designs for the benefit of the environment (Figure 3).
cial burden on the producer, not on the consumer. This A holistic approach is required if total degradation of
is the basis of the concept of the extended producer the environment is to be avoided over the long term.
responsibility (OECD, 1996). It was a norm that man-
ufacturers were responsible for the product only dur- Greening of world trade—natural capitalism
ing its manufacturing stages (e.g., product function,
production cost and environmental pollution control, There is definitely still much room for improvement
etc.). They were not responsible for the environmental in terms of the proliferation of these new technolo-
problems caused by the waste product discarded after gies and principles that will create a better global envi-
use. Collection, treatment and disposal of the waste ronment in the future. Forward-looking businesses are

Figure 3. The paradigm shift in environmental management.

276 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

embarking on a journey toward “natural capitalism,” lizing technologies to manufacture environmentally

a journey that comprises of four major shifts in busi- “friendly” products. Research and experience have
ness practices. The approach puts forth strategies not shown that industry cannot continue merely to treat
only for protecting the biosphere but also for improving the symptoms of environmental problems. Instead, a
profits and competitiveness. It rests on the idea of very more comprehensive means to reduce pollution is be-
simple but profound changes in the way businesses are lieved by many to be through prevention, by attacking
run, built on advance techniques for making resources the source of pollution at every stage of the product
more productive. life cycle that include raw material extraction, trans-
portation, manufacturing, product use, recycling and
r The first stage involves dramatically increasing the disposal. Corporate environmental strategies have also
productivity of natural resources. evolved to include decision-making tools such as the
r In the second stage, companies adopt closed loop conventional approaches such as environmental impact
production systems that yield no waste or toxicity. assessment (EIA) and waste minimization or the more
r The third stage needs a basic change of business recent initiatives such as eco-efficiency, eco-auditing,
model—from one of selling products to one of de- supply chain management and green marketing, and
livering services. eco-labels. The more comprehensive approaches are
r The last stage involves reinvesting in natural capital the life-cycle assessment (LCA) and design for envi-
to restore, sustain, and expand the planet’s ecosys- ronment (DFE).
tem.
Environmental impact assessments (EIAs)
The greening of world trade issues has been an in-
evitable consequence of not having well-developed and EIAs are undertaken when a new project, or modi-
enforceable environmental property rights. The pres- fications of an existing project, is to be developed. The
sure on the environment from increasing population, EIA assesses all significant direct and indirect envi-
output and incomes, the improved understanding of ronmental effects on the surrounding environment, as
the nature and extent of environmental degradation (in- well as any possible socio-economic impacts that may
cluding the global commons) caused by mankind activ- accrue.
ities, and the ever-greater interdependence between the An EIA is a systematic gathering of all relevant
world’s national economies, has also served to further quantitative and qualitative information by experts in
this cause. consultation with informed parties in order to enable in-
formed decision-making. The process includes a wide-
Eco-management ranging consultation process with statutory and non-
statutory institutions in order to understand all im-
By now, firms should accept responsibility for envi- plications of expansions or purchase, and to assess
ronmental impacts which were once regarded as inci- the benefits or drawbacks of any mitigating measures
dental externalities. Thus, they have to move from an proposed.
environmental management paradigm that focuses on Monitoring programmes with suitable indicators
clean up and control to one that embraces avoidance of and contingency plans are also nowadays considered
environmental harm. Treading this path requires pri- important follow-ups to EIAs, in order to assess the
marily information on how to increase efficiency in effectiveness of the process.
terms of energy and materials use with the objective
of improving environmental performance. Both tech-
nical (e.g. materials substitution, zero emission tech- Waste minimization or cleaner production
nologies, clean energy) and institutional (e.g. financial,
regulatory, legal, geographical strategies) information Waste minimization has been subject to a whole host
on how to implement and measure progress of environ- of international interest in terms of legislation and regu-
mental management practices are also needed. Many of lations since the mid-1980s. There are two central waste
the striking advancements in improving environmental strategies that companies can adopt in their pursuit of
performance come from using nature as a guide. waste minimization.
Huang and Hunkeler (1997) pointed out that indus- The first is to deal with the waste after it has
tries are more aware and responsive to consumers’ de- been generated and to mitigate its effects on the en-
mands and expectations and are developing and uti- vironment. The second is to minimize the amount of
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 277

waste generated in the first place, thereby reducing the Eco-auditing

amount of mitigation required at the end of the process.
Even when financial returns are not immediate, most The environmental audit has evolved from regula-
waste minimization exercises are as cost-effective as tory and customer pressure to quantify, analyse, mea-
treatment or disposal. The dividends of a prevention sure and disclose a company’s environmental perfor-
strategy as opposed to an end-of-pipe approach to waste mance. It provides an in-depth procedural analysis
management are summarized as follows: of performance measurements and targets, offering
Reduced: a management approach to deal strategically with
environmental issues primarily as a means to meet leg-
r Production costs. islative requirements. Environmental auditing is the
r On-site waste monitoring and treatment costs. evaluation of a site, plant, or production and process
r Raw material costs. system in relation to the laws, regulations, policies and
r Energy and water costs consumption. good practices that directly or indirectly affect the en-
r Long-term environmental liability and insurance vironment. It is used to compile and report all pertinent
costs. information related to the environment, as well as oc-
r Risk of spills and accidents. cupational health and safety where appropriate.
Eco-audit attempts to consider environmental per-
Improved: formance from a holistic angle. Rather than viewing
r Operational safety. green issues as purely a risk management issue, eco-
r Income through the sale of reusable waste. logical auditing measures and analyses all aspects of
r Company image in the eyes of shareholders and other company policy and operations with respect to their
environmental impact and consequences.
stakeholders.

Eco-efficiency
Supply chain management
In its report to the June 1992 Earth Summit (United and green marketing
Nations Conference on Environment and Develop-
ment: UNCED) in Rio de Janeiro, and in subsequent During the 1980s and 1990s, the global market was
workshops, the Business Council for Sustainable De- flooded by claims of differing validity. Spurious claims
velopment (BSCD, now the WBCSD) promoted the and false or misleading statements have been made by
concept of eco-efficiency. It defined eco-efficiency in companies keen to cash in on the new green consumer
terms of the delivery of competitively priced goods and seeking to achieve mere marketing advantage. Com-
services designed to satisfy human need and enhance pany images were whitewashed in an attempt to de-
quality of life while “progressively reducing environ- ceive the public about their environmental credentials.
mental impacts and resource intensity throughout the Logos were “greened,” but practices continued, busi-
entire life cycle.” A life-cycle and system approach is ness as usual.
regarded as necessary to bring human economic activ- Despite growing consumer suspicion of these green
ity in line with the earth’s estimated carrying capacity marketing claims, there are important reasons for con-
(Awang et al., 1998). The BCSD advocated progress to- sidering green marketing. If a company is to invest
wards eco-efficiency through seven key routes (Hassan significant amounts of capital and time to improve its
et al., 1999): environmental performance, it should clearly commu-
nicate these improvements to all stakeholders, encour-
r Minimization of the material intensity of goods and aging others to do the same and informing stakehold-
services. ers of the priority of ethical management in the new
r Minimization of energy intensity of goods and millennium.
services. Charter (1992) considers seven aspects of green
r Elimination of toxic dispersion. marketing: price, product, promotions, place, people,
r Enhancement of material recyclability. process and physical evidence. Full-costs accounting,
r Maximization of sustainable use of renewable re- packaging, advertising and claims, eco-labelling, trans-
sources. port, personnel, and employee commitment, awareness
r Extension of product durability. and training are essential elements in progressive green
r Increased service intensity of goods and services. marketing.
278 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

If a green marketing strategy is to be successful it tion is granted by the practitioner seal program which is
needs to be backed up by concrete evidence. This is sponsored by a government or operated privately. The
controlled through proper eco-labelling practices. seal programs require manufacturers to meet a mini-
mum standard or a “threshold” in order to receive the
Eco-labelling seal of the program. Type II, is a self-declared environ-
mental claim, without independent third party certifi-
Essentially the eco-labelling program was started cation, with the condition that the manufacturers may
as a process that would advise consumers as to which place the labels, provided they follow specific require-
products constituted an environmental choice. How- ments set forth in the ISO 14021 standard. Type III,
ever, eco-labeling practice does influence exports and conveys quantitative information of a product’s envi-
imports in that it is being used to unfairly discrimi- ronmental performance that is derived from life cycle
nate against certain products through the adoption of inventory data or life cycle assessment.
local and regional environmental labels. These emerg- The concept of eco-labelling originated in the Ger-
ing environmental labels have been interpreted differ- man Blue Angel Scheme in 1978. By the early 1990s,
ently by various consumers, and the issue of lack of 80 percent of households in Germany were aware of
uniformity has been raised among trade proponents. the scheme and its implications and the idea had spread
Subsequently it was recommended that an ad hoc advi- throughout the developed world. Eventually, the eco-
sory group encourage the International Organization of labelling scheme was established to all members of
Standard (ISO) to develop standards in the field of en- the European Union in 1991. The aim of the EU eco-
vironmental labeling. The objectives are to ensure that labelling scheme was to ameliorate the growing number
eco-labeling is accurate, verifiable and not misleading; of corporate environmental claims and to protect con-
that it reduce marketplace confusion, restrictions, and sumer interests. Designed to inform consumers about
barriers to international trade, and most importantly, the environmental excellence of a product and to amal-
that it increase the potential to stimulate environmental gamate the increasing number of individual country
improvement in product delivery. Such standardized la- environmental labels, the EU label was intended to of-
bels would better enable purchasers to make informed fer consumers the ability to make valid choices between
choices when buying goods and services. different and competing products in the same category
By definition (Husseini, 2006), environmental la- of objective environmental criteria.
beling is any environmental declaration that describes Today, many countries have introduced their own
or implies, by whatever means, the effects of the life cy- eco-labeling schemes as shown in Figure 4.
cle of a product or service on the environment. It might
be in the form of statements, symbols or graphics on Packaging
products or packaging, literature or technical bulletins,
advertising or any form of publicity. Packaging is an important element in the design and
Three types of labeling have been established. Type marketing of the product, as packaging has valuable
I, is a third-party certified “eco-label.” Such certifica- functions to perform:

Figure 4. Example of a variety of logos for eco-labels. The Eco Mark of the Japan Environment Association marks products useful for environ-
mental protection (http://www.ecomark.jp/english/index.html). The Swan is the official Nordic eco-label, introduced by the Nordic Council
of Ministers to that a product is a good environmental choice (http://www.svanen.nu/Eng/default.asp). The Government of Canada’s EcoLogo
is a multi-attribute environmental certification mark that helps buyers find sustainable products (http://www.environmentalchoice.com). From
the U.S.A., the Green Seal is an independent, non-profit organization that strives to achieve a cleaner environment by identifying products
and services that cause less toxic pollution and waste, conserve resources and habitats, and minimize global warming and ozone depletion
(http://www.greenseal.org).
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 279

r It displays essential legal and consumer information. DFE in practice

r It protects the product.
r It avoids unnecessary spillage in transit. The most aggressive efforts on DFE is carried out
r It presents the brand image. in France. The French Agency for Environment and
Energy Management (ADEME) has put words such
as “prevention is better than cure” and “avoid pollut-
The volume of single-use packaging has given rise ing practices rather than having to manage the conse-
to problems of disposal, giving rise to legislative pres- quences,” into practice (French Agency for Environ-
sures, forcing reconsideration of the amount and type ment and Energy Management, 1999). ADEME has
of packaging employed. Companies are therefore re- collected 90 eco-design case studies from industries
quired to assess the environmental impact of the pack- in France that have incorporated DFE into the product
aging materials and to seek out more sustainable de- development processes.
signs and materials, including assessing the potential A product is “easily recyclable” when the materials
for recycling and reuse of the packaging materials. it comprises can be recycled in existing channels at rea-
sonable costs. In the design stage, this criterion could
Design for environment be achieved though;
Design for Environment (DFE) integrates environ- r Design mono-materially.
mental aspects or environmental considerations into the r Choose materials that are compatible with existing
product development. The choices designers make dur-
ing the development of a new or improved product will recycling channels.
r Plan for future material separation.
have an influence on the environmental impacts during r Consider the recovery and disposal at the end of the
each stage of product’s life cycle—from acquiring ma-
terials to manufacturing, use, reuse, and ultimately to product’s life.
the product’s final disposal (Canadian Standard Asso-
ciation, 1995; Hassan et al., 1999). The strategies for Some of the positive results from DFE application in
evolution towards sustainability is depicted in Figure 5 industries are as follows (Crittenden and Kolaczkowki,
(Storen, 1998). 1995):

Figure 5. Business policy and strategies for evolution towards sustainability (Source: Storen, 1998).
280 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

r Replacement of chlorinated solvents in cleaning and restaurant who would like to reduce the environmental
degreasing operations by non-chlorinated solvents, impact of his business activity. He wishes to accom-
water and alkaline solutions. plish this goal by reducing the disposable paper towels
r Substitution of chemical biocides by alternatives, that his clients use to dry their hands in the wash room.
such as ozone. He decides to replace the paper towels with textile ones
r Replacement of solvent-based paints, inks and adhe- to reach his goal. The restaurant owner’s decision has
sive formulations with water-based materials. reduced the source of contamination, which is the waste
r Substitution of a more durable coating to increase in the bathroom. However, he will also increase another
coating life. type of contamination by repetitive washing of the tex-
r Increase in the purity of purchased raw materials to tile towels—consumption of detergents, water and en-
eliminate the use of trace quantities of hazardous ergy, pollution of water, etc. Hence, he will transfer the
impurities. contamination from one process to another. From the
r Reduction of phosphorous in waste water by reduc- example, it is illustrated that analyzing the ecological
tion in use of phosphate-containing chemicals. interest of a decision with respect to one product is
r Replacement of hexavalent chromium salts by triva- meaningless if the global balance, i.e. the life cycle, is
lent chromium salts in plating operations. not considered. From the idea of analyzing activities
r Replacement of solvent-based developing system by from the life cycle perspective, the methodology of life
a water-based system in the manufacturing of printed cycle assessment emerged in order to standardize var-
circuit board. ious approaches. Hence, life cycle assessment (LCA)
r Replacement of cyanide plating baths with less toxic is a tool that can be used to systematically evaluate the
alternatives. environmental effects of a product, process or activity
(Awang et al., 1999; Hassan et al., 2000; Zulina et al.,
1999). The LCA methodology stems from the idea that
Ecological design industrial processes and activities are systemic in na-
Orr (1994) calls for “ecological design intelligence” ture. Industrial processes and activities do not occur in
and this requires the capacity to understand the ecolog- isolation but are instead interlinked, via their suppliers
ical context in which human live, to recognize limits and customers, with other processes and activities. Out-
and to get the correct scale of things. It is the ability to puts in the form of products and by-products transfer
calibrate human purposes and natural constraints and from one operation to another, rendering them all inter-
do so with grace and economy. Ecological design in- dependent. Any industrial system can be represented by
telligence is not just about things like technologies. At a system boundary that encompasses all the operations
its heart ecological design intelligence is motivated by of interest (Figure 6) (Boguski et al., 1996). The area
an ethical view of the world order and our obligations surrounding the industrial system boundary is defined
to it. as the system environment. The industrial system can
be represented by any organizational system that has
Life-cycle approach environmental aspects.
LCA analyzes the environmental burdens along the
No products are totally environmentally friendly, continuum of a product’s life cycle and provides infor-
since all productive processes have some impact on mation on a “per service basis” to the user to help iden-
the environment. This leads some environmentalists to tify, assess and solve the environmental concerns asso-
the conclusion that the only true green business is no ciated with products, processes, and activities. An LCA
business at all. However, it is possible to assess the
life cycle of any product in order to reduce its impact
on the environment. The concept of life cycle assess-
ment, which appeared in the 1950s–1970s, was refined
in the 1980s in order to solve a systematic difficulty
faced when trying to improve product ecological char-
acteristics. This is known as “contaminant transfer”;
whereby a solution to one environmental problem leads
to greater deterioration at another place or time in the
life-cycle. The following is an example of the “con-
taminant transfer” phenomenon. Imagine an owner of a Figure 6. The industrial system (Source: Boguski et al., 1996).
 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283 281

framework has been developed by SETAC (1991, 1993) to the large human population already present, and still
to organize the development of an LCA methodology— likely to grow.
how to conduct LCA in a consistent and transparent
manner. Biotechnology and genetic
Industrial ecology engineering: Dream or nightmare?
During the past few years, much research has been By the late twentieth century scientific advances of-
conducted, for example in Austria, Canada, Denmark, fered solutions to human problems through a new form
Netherlands, Japan, Germany, Italy, and Switzerland, of biotechnology. Genetic engineering, the ability to
on how the term “industrial ecology” offers a frame- take genes for a particular characteristic and insert them
work within which to improve knowledge and deci- in a different plant and animal species, raised many
sions about materials use, waste reduction, and pollu- possibilities and unknown dangers. The bio-molecular
tion prevention and ultimately as a way of approaching revolution will ultimately challenge the ability to ma-
sustainable development using nature as a guide. nipulate life almost at all will. In this respect, the
The term “industrial ecology” suggests that mod- utilisation of microorganisms for environmental biore-
els of non-human biological systems and their inter- mediation in addressing toxic wastes, might not only
actions in nature are instructive for industrial systems. minimize pollution, but become a source of energy.
The biological model is attractive due to the manner in Work involving gene therapy has saved lives and in-
which nature developed its constituents to live off the creased food production through genetic manipulation
bodies and wastes of one another. Industrial ecology of certain crops, and produced reusable products such
seeks to provide technical understanding that encour- as bioplastics from corn. Areas of research include the
ages systems of production and consumption that can development of:
be sustained for very long periods of time without sig- r Strains of staple foods which are resistant to herbi-
nificant environmental harm. It takes a systems view cides, insects, viruses and drought.
of industry in developing strategies to facilitate more r Strains of fruit and vegetables with improved storing
efficient use of material and energy resources and to qualities.
reduce the release of hazardous as well as non- r Animals with improved productivity, such as increas-
hazardous wastes to the environment (Figure 7). The ul- ing milk yield in cows.
timate objective of industrial ecology is the emergence
of an economy that cycles virtually all of the materials it Biotechnology and genetic engineering also
uses, emitting only micro amounts of wastes and pol- have actual applications in (Mannion and Bowlby,
lutants, while providing high and increasing services 1994):

Figure 7. Concept of industrial ecology. Industrial ecosystems are developed on an understanding of how energy, materials, and chemicals
flow through various interlinked processes (Adapted from National Science and Technology Council, 1995).
282 Hassan et al. / Aquatic Ecosystem Health and Management 9 (2006) 269–283

r Waste disposal technology involving treatment of in- fostering environmental awareness. It is vital to inform
dustrial or sewage effluents through bacteria (biore- local consumers on choices of goods, transportation
mediation technology). and leisure patterns for environmental sustainability,
r Degradation of biological materials to produce fuels and crucial in establishing a sustainable quality of life.
such as ethanol.
r Cultivation of fungi or algae to produce food for Education for the masses
animals and humans.
The second aspect of human resource development,
The harnessing of natural processes to serve human the education of the masses, is often forgotten but nev-
needs has infinite and intriguing potential for practical ertheless equally important, as the training for specific
application. For example, domestic waste dumped in skills. Sham Sani (1999) suggested that values associ-
landfill sites degrades through natural microbial pro- ated with environmental ethics need to be embraced by
cesses, resulting in the explosive and potentially haz- everyone. A person who is highly skilled in environ-
ardous discharge of methane. In a similar way, organic mental technology, for example, may not necessarily
material from domestic waste, sewage or agriculture have the passion for the preservation of the environ-
wastes can be biosynthesized by bacteria, to create ment. Such values need to be nurtured right from in-
methane, sometimes called “biogas” (Abdullah et al., fancy. It has been recognised that no legislation and
1994), a valuable source of energy. no conservation programme, however good its design,
However, biotechnology and genetic engineering could be successful without public support. This could
have their own problems. Ho (1998) discussed an un- only come from well-informed citizens who are fully
precedented alliance between bad science and big busi- committed to their right to quality environment. Edu-
ness suggesting that consumers should be critical of cation of the masses includes all sections of the com-
scientists “tampering with nature” and “scrambling the munity from politicians, administrators and the private
genetic code of species” by introducing human genes sector right down to school children and ordinary peo-
into animals and animal genes into vegetables. She ple in the street. This should involve the participation of
warns of unexpected effects on agriculture and biodi- governmental institutions, the media, the private sector
versity, of the dangers of “genetic pollution” that cannot and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) in order
be reversed; the immorality of the “patents of life”— to reach all target groups.
transgenic animals, plants and seeds taken freely by ge-
neticists of developed countries from the Third World, Conclusions
as well as human genes and human cell lines from in- Our aim in the future is to develop an economic
digenous peoples. system that has a high quality of life with the lowest
possible resource use. The ecological development of
Environmental education our cities and towns requires the establishment of sys-
tems that maximize the efficient use of resources and
The final requirement is for local, long-term devel- minimize the export of wastes into the environment.
opments for change to be pioneered through education Cities should focus on measures that promote green
for sustainability. Many ecological and environmental consumerism and its implementation in the environ-
projects have been designed to incorporate an educa- mental business sector.
tional aspect. Thus, schools, colleges and universities
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