Applications of Computer in Educational Research

Swarnima Jaiswal

Summary
Computer was introduced into education in 1970s. Over the past several decades it has
been used in a variety of ways for a variety of purposes. One of the earliest uses of computers
in education was to operate as a supplement to the teachers’ classroom instruction. Since
then there has been an evolution of best technologies. As computers gained in sophistication,
they became proxy for teachers, creating a rich learning environment for its users using
databases, spreadsheets, presentation and several other research tools across all subject
areas. Next the Internet impacted technology use and suddenly there was a volume of
knowledge available to students along with a network of people across the world that
enhanced communication and exchange of ideas. But, In spite of all these sophistications it is
wise to remember that a computer is just a tool and can only calculate or obey commands
and cannot think of its own. Thus, one cannot undermine the necessity of a good statistician.

Introduction
Though computer could simply means a machine for performing calculations
automatically. But, today its role is not restricted to merely being a calculator. It does a vast
variety of job with tremendous speed and efficiency. Today people use computers in almost
all walks of life. Computers have now become an indispensable part of every profession: so
do Research.

The Computer and Computer Technology

The history of computer development is often referred to in reference to the different
generations of its development. All the five generations of computers is characterized by
major technological developments that fundamentally changed the way computers used to
operate, resulting in smaller, cheaper, and more powerful and reliable computing devices.

First Generation (1940-1956): The first generation computers used vacuum tubes and
magnetic drums, and were typically huge. They were very expensive to operate and not only
used a great deal of electricity, but also generated a lot of heat. The UNIVAC and ENIAC are
the examples of first-generation computing devices.

Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors replaced vacuum tubes, thus, allowing

computers to become smaller, cheaper, energy-efficient and more reliable. High-level
programming languages were conjointly being developed at this time, such as COBOL and
FORTRAN. Also, these computers stored instructions in memory, which changed from
magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

Third Generation (1964-1971): The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark
of the third generation of computers. Transistors were replaced by silicon chips, known as
semiconductors, which drastically enhanced the speed and efficiency of computers.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present): The microprocessor was the characteristic feature of the
fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated circuits were built onto a single
silicon chip, making these small computers more powerful, which could be linked together to
form networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet.

Fifth Generation (Present and beyond): Fifth generation computers, based on artificial
intelligence are still under development phase. With the use of Parallel processing and
superconductors efforts are being made to make artificial intelligence a reality and change the
face of computers in years to come. The use of Quantum computation and nanotechnology
will eventually develop devices that will be capable of self-organization.

The Computer system

In general, all computer systems have following three fundamental components:

1) An Input Device is any peripheral which is use to provide data and control signals to a
computer. Examples of input devices are keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and
joysticks.

2) A Central Processing Unit (CPU) is the brains of a computer, it is basically a hardware

within a computer which performs the calculation and logic functions. CPU is in charge of
processing data. Typical components of a CPU are: First is the Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)
which performs simple arithmetic and logical operations. Second is the Control Unit (CU)
which manages the various components of a computer system. It reads and interprets the
instructions received from memory and then converts them into a series of signals to activate
other parts of the computer. Third is the Cache, which serves as high-speed memory where
instructions can be copied to and retrieved later.

3) An Output Device is any computer hardware equipment which can be used to convey the
results of data processing carried out by a computing device by transforming the
electronically generated information into human-readable form. Examples of output devices
are CRT monitors, LCD monitors, plasma monitors, televisions etc.

Characteristics of Computer
  Speed: Computers can perform both simple and complex calculations within a few
seconds that a human being would need hours to do.
 Storage: Long term storage of data with their proper format can be easily stored in a
computer which can be retrieved later when needed whereas a human mind can
remember only limited information.
 Accuracy: The accuracy of a computer is always consistent. Almost without
exception, the errors in computing are due to imprecise thinking by the programmer
or due to inaccurate data or poorly designed system rather than technological
weakness.
 Automation: The computer programmes are automatic in nature. An individual
instruction to perform a programme is needed after which the CPU follows the
instructions until it meets a last instruction which says ‘stop program execution’.
 Diligence: Being a machine computer does not suffer from human traits of tiredness
or lack of concentration. A computer can perform numerous calculations continuously
and always with the same accuracy.

Role of Computers in Research

The computers are indispensable throughout the research process. The role of computer
becomes more vital when the research is conducted on a large scale. Volumes of data can be
stored in computers for immediate access or for later use by storing the data in auxiliary
memories like floppy discs, compact discs, universal serial buses (pen drives) or memory
cards. The computers assist the researcher throughout the various phases of a research
process.

Phases of Research Process

There are five major phases of a research process. They are: 1) Conceptual phase 2)
Design and planning phase 3) Empirical phase 4) Analytic phase and 5) Dissemination phase.

1) Role of Computer in Conceptual Phase: The conceptual phase is the initial phase of a
research process and involves the intellect of a researcher to develop a research idea into a
realistic and appropriate research design. This phase can become time-consuming, depending
on the level of expertise of a researcher. However, with the help of computers a researcher
can expedite this phase, as computers help in searching the literatures and bibliographic
references stored in the electronic databases of the World Wide Web. It can also be used for
storing relevant published articles to be retrieved later whenever needed which has an
advantage over searching the literatures in the form of books, journals and other newsletters
at the libraries which consume considerable amount of time and efforts.
2) Role of Computers in Design and planning phase: Design and planning phase involves
deciding upon the sample size, data collection methods and data analysis plan. Several
software are available to calculate the sample size required for a proposed study. NCSS
PASS (Power Analysis and Sample Size) is one such software. PASS is an easy-to-use
research tool for determining the number of subjects that should be used in a study.

3) Role of Computers in Empirical phase: The next phase is the empirical phase which
involves the collection of data and the preparation of data for analysis. The data obtained
from the subjects are stored in computers as word files or excel spreadsheets, which have the
advantage of making necessary corrections or editing the whole layout when needed, which is
impossible or time and effort consuming in case of writing in papers. Thus, computers allow
for greater flexibility during data entry, data editing and data management. Today, the use of
software to assist not only quantitative analysts but qualitative analysts as well is decidedly a
must.

4) Role of Computers in Data Analysis: In every area of research, the analysis phase is
closely aligned with the empirical phase. After data are collected, they are prepared for
analysis. Many software are now available to perform the calculations using various
statistical methods. Software like SPSS, SAS, STATA are some of the widely used general-
purpose statistical software packages for advanced statistical analysis and data management.
Familiarity with any one of these packages will be suffice to carry out the most intricate
statistical analyses process.

5) Role of Computers in Research Dissemination: The last phase of the research process is
to prepare research reports in order to communicate the findings to the appropriate audience.
The research reports typed on computer using word format can easily be converted into
Portable Data Format (PDF) and thus, can be stored and/or published on the World Wide
Web.

Uses of Computer in Data Analysis

Quantitative analysis with computers: A computer based approach is invaluable, when
handling large amounts of data and storing or arranging data items efficiently. The ability of a
computer to make repetitive calculations rapidly and accurately has revolutionised
quantitative research and it would now seem rather out of keeping with normal practice to try
to undertake such analysis by hand. There are large numbers of computer programs that can
assist with quantitative analysis. The most commonly used are:
i. MATLAB (MATrix LABoratory) software provides a numerical computing
environment to its users, developed by MathWorks; it can access data from vast
 variety of sources including word files, spreadsheets, databases, or the Web.
MATLAB can explore volumes of data so as to identify trends, test hypotheses, and
forecast uncertainty. It can also publish customized reports as per the needs of a
researcher.
ii. Microsoft Office Excel is a spreadsheet-application written and distributed by
Microsoft for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. Researchers can use Excel's simple
statistical and plotting functions to help gain insight into their data. However, for
those research projects that require use of more extensive statistical techniques, the
researchers can use some additional statistical software packages such as SAS or
SPSS software.
iii. IBM SPSS was originally named Statistical Package for the Social Sciences but was
later modified to Statistical Product and Service Solutions so as to reflect the
diversity of its user base. SPSS is among the most widely used program for statistical
analyses as it allows for in-depth data analysis, data reporting, data warehousing and
database management. SPSS is capable of handling large amounts of data and can
quickly and accurately perform any type of statistical function. It is also used by
survey companies, government agencies and various other marketing organizations.
iv. SAS (Statistical Analysis System) is a software suite that can access data from a
variety of sources and perform statistical operations on it. SAS provides an easy
graphical point-and-click user interface for non-technical users. It is a high-level
programming language with flexible input/output styles and file management
capabilities that can easily alter, manage and retrieve data. It also includes a wide
range of analysis procedures to help users navigate through data.

Qualitative analysis with computers: Today, researchers are increasingly making use
of computer software for their Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA). Several good computer
programmes exist that can help the researcher to manage large data sets involving filing,
storage, coding, retrieval and presentation of data. The Computer Aided Qualitative Data
Analysis Software (CAQDAS) are the programmes that can replace or support some of the
manual tasks that qualitative researchers do such as naming or labelling data, sorting and
organising the data into manageable sections, preparing diagrams and maps, storing and
retrieving texts, etc. There are large numbers of CAQDAS that can assist with qualitative
analysis. The most commonly used are:

i. NVivo formerly known as NUDIST (Non-numerical Unstructured Data Indexing,

Searching and Theorising) is a Qualitative Data Analysis (QDA) computer software
 package produced by QSR International. It has been designed for the qualitative
researchers who work with very rich text-based information and where deep levels of
analysis of data are required. This software allows classifying, sorting, arranging of non-
numerical or unstructured data and can examine complex relationships between them.
The researcher can their test theories, discover trends and cross-examine information in
different ways using its search engine and query functions. They can also make
observations in the software and build a body of evidence in their support.
ii. Ethnograph, a code and retrieve software program for analysis of qualitative data is
utilized in analyzing the content of in-depth interviews and group data. It requires basic
computer hardware and is fairly easy to use. The main advantage of this software is easy
access to data dealing with a particular issue and easy retrieval of text for analysis and
illustration. The Ethnograph is designed to ease the frustration of the analysts of
qualitative data and to assist them in the process of noticing of items of interest, collecting
instances, and reasoning about them.
iii. ATLAS.ti is a computer program used mostly for qualitative data analysis. ATLAS.ti
helps qualitative data analysts systematically analyze complex phenomena hidden in
unstructured data. The program provides such tools that let the user weigh and evaluate
the important findings in primary data material, and visualize the complex relations
between them. ATLAS.ti can consolidate volumes of documents and keeps track of all
notes that require close study. In addition, it also provides analytical and visual tools
designed to open new interpretative views on the material.
iv. HyperRESEARCH is an easy to use qualitative data analysis software package that
enables data analysts to build theories and analyse patterns and trends and code and
retrieve qualitative data.  Features of HyperResearch include easy and fast coding of any
type of source, inclusion of text, audio, video, and image files, intuitive case base
approach and easy integration of multiple study files. It is well supported across various
operating systems be it Microsoft Windows or Apple's OS X.

Preparation of Tables & Graphs

Tables

The representation of data in a table is formally referred to as tabular presentation.

Tabular presentation of data allows large amounts of raw data to be sorted and reorganized
enabling grouping of data by different classifications which helps to make comparisons and
understand it better.
 Types of Tables

i. Numerical Tables: These are the most commonly used form of tables, which typically
represent quantitative data. As the name suggests, most of the body of the table consists
of specific numeric values.
ii. Textual (Word) Tables: Oftentimes, tables are needed that have textual data in it. These
tables dealing with qualitative data serves the same purpose as any other table i.e., to
make comparisons easy.
iii. Statistical Tables: These tables are use to present descriptive or inferential statistics or
both. Descriptive statistics refers to frequency distribution, mean, median, mode, range,
etc whereas; inferential statistics refers to various statistical tests such as Mann Whitney
U Test, t Test, etc.

Graphs
A graph is commonly used to present summarized data usually describing the
relationship between two variable quantities, each of which is measured along one of a pair of
axes at right angles.

Types of Graphs

Line graphs: A line graph is a way of representing two groups of information, which is
usually connected to each other in some way (such as change over time). This graph is useful
when comparisons are to be made.

Pie Charts: A pie chart is a type of a circle graph normally used in showcasing a wholesome
quantity; into broken sub parts. The whole circle graph depicts the entire sample and the
broken pieces of the circle graph known as pie depicts the various sectors.

Bar Charts: A bar chart or a bar graph is a chart with rectangular bars with lengths
proportional to the values that they represent. These are also known as histogram; Bar Graph
is useful when there is a numerical comparison.

Area Graphs: These graphs are usually used to show trends over time among related
attributes using numbers or percentages. An area graph shows the contribution of each data
series in the form of colours or textures.

Waterfall Chart: This is a type of chart that contains floating vertical columns that shows
how an initial value affected by a series of intermediate positive or negative values. All the
values are represented by colour-coded columns.
Polar Chart: A Polar Chart is a circular chart in which data is displayed in terms of values
and angles. A Polar Chart has two variables X and Y where X is plotted as an angle and Y is
the radius. This provides a mechanism to compare various qualitative and quantitative aspects
of a situation graphically.

Important Points

1. Whenever a table and/or graph are used while analyzing data, the relevance of that table or
graph must be given.

2. Tables and graphs should be labeled independently of each other. For example, when two
tables and two graphs are used, the tables would be numbered as Table 1, Table 2 and the
graphs would be numbered Graph 1 and Graph 2.

3. Tables and graphs are given their respective numbers as per the order in which they appear
in the paper.

4. Tables and graphs should be placed as close as possible to the text where the reference
about table or graph is given so that the reader can relate to them conveniently.

5. All tables and graphs must be numbered and must have self-explanatory titles. The reader

should be able to understand them simply by reading its title and without having to read the
whole text of the paper for information.

6. All tables and graphs must include the name of the variable and its corresponding unit of
measurement. In case of graphs, the independent variable is placed on the x-axis and the
dependent variable is placed on the y-axis.

Conclusion
To conclude, computers are useful tools that make the research process easier and faster with
greater accuracy and reliability and with fewer errors. The recent developments taking place
in the area of technology will further enhance and facilitate the use of computers to
researchers. However, in spite of all these sophistications it is wise to remember that a
computer is just a tool that can only obey commands and cannot think of its own. No facility
can replace the intellectual process of developing a research idea as well as its design and
planning process. Therefore, it would be a disaster to replace a statistician by a computer, no
matter how powerful the computer is. Though statistical software are built on sound
principles of design, but their proper implementation as well as handling of exigencies during
various phases of research process lies solely in the hands of a qualified statistician. Thus, a
researcher should have a thorough knowledge about the abilities and limitations of the
software used during the proposed research process.

References
1. Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopaedia. http://en.wikipedia.org.
2. Researchware, Inc. http://www.researchware.com.
3. Kothari C. R. (2004), Research Methodology: Methods and Techniques, New Delhi, New
Age International (P) Limited Publishers.
4. Fouts J.T. (2000), Research on Computers and Education: Past, Present and Future.