Computer Science 9608 (Notes)

Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

2.4.2 Program testing

Types of programming Errors

There are several types of errors, with consequences ranging from deficiencies in the formatting of the
output to the calculation of wrong results. A compilation error (which prevents the compiler from
compiling the source code) is usually a syntax error but could be an error in the compiler itself. A syntax
error results when the source code does not obey the rules of the language. The compiler generates error
messages to help the programmer to fix the code. The source code may compile to machine code which
then fails upon execution. A run-time error causes this situation. Potentially the most serious type of error
occurs when the program appears to be working but is performing faulty processing due to logic errors in
the source code. We classify the common errors as syntax errors, run-time errors, and logic errors, but
begin with three very common errors for beginners that do not fit neatly into any of these categories.

Common Syntax Errors

Do not be discouraged if your first program generates many error messages. Often there are cascading
errors, in which a single mistake such as a misspelled identifier in a variable declaration gives rise to
several error messages. You then make one correction and several messages disappear at once. In the
following table showing extracts from error messages to look out for, note how some messages are much
more helpful than others.

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Computer Science 9608 (Notes)
Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

Description of error Typical message Typical message Comment
content in Delphi content in Lazarus
Misspelled identifier Undeclared identifier Identifier not found Spelling of identifier must
be consistent
Semicolon immediately ';' not allowed before ";" expected but The if … then … else is one
before else 'ELSE' "ELSE" found statement and should not
have a semicolon
immediately beforeelse.
Use of := instead of = in Type of expression "THEN" expected but
test of equality must be BOOLEAN ":=" found

e.g. if Total := 10 then ...

Identifier of variable ',' or ':' expected but … ":" expected but …
contains space

e.g. var my num : real;

Identifier of variable identifier/declaration BEGIN" expected but Identifier must begin with
begins with digit expected but number "ordinal const" found letter or underscore
found
e.g. var 2ndPlace:string;
Identifier of procedure identifier expected but "identifier" expected Identifier must begin with
begins with digit number found but "ordinal const" letter or underscore
found
e.g. procedure 5Times;
Use of double quotes Illegal character in input Illegal character ($22)
instead of single quotes file ($22)
to enclose a string literal

e.g. Surname := "Coe";

String literal not enclosed Undeclared identifier Identifier not found
by quotes

e.g. Forename := Joe;

Use of round brackets to Missing operator or ";" expected but "(" Use square brackets to
enclose array index semicolon found enclose array index.

e.g.MyArray(63)
Real number starts with Expression expected Illegal expression Include the leading 0 e.g.
decimal point but '.' found
MyReal := 0.34;
e.g. MyReal := .34;
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Computer Science 9608 (Notes)
Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

Argument type does not Incompatible types Incompatible types
match parameter type
when calling a subroutine
Expression operated on Operator not applicable Incompatible types Should be:
by logical operators not to this operand type
enclosed in brackets. until (Count = MAX) or
Found;
e.g.until Count = MAX or
Found;

Description Example Comment

Missing type check, allowing Letter "a" entered and assigned Validate entered data.
wrong type of data to be to integer variable
entered
Index of array not within Example of INCORRECT code: If the user hits a wrong key (e.g. 5
declared array bounds instead of 4) there could be a run-
programArrayBounds; time error.
{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}{$R+}
uses The compiler directive {$R+} enables
SysUtils; run-time checking of ranges. With
const the default directive {$R-}, the effects
Sales : array[1..4] ofinteger = of the user's mistake are difficult to
(2435, 3423, 3410, 2865); predict.
var
Index : integer; Include validation code to accept
begin only the digits 1 to 4.
write('View sales for which
quarter? ' +
'1, 2, 3 or 4 ');
readln(Index);
writeln(Sales[Index]);
readln;
end.
Overflow e.g. when a number Example of INCORRECT code: The compiler directive {$Q+} enables
is too large to be held in the run-time checking of overflow. With
type of variable used program Overflow; the default {$Q-}, the program runs

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Computer Science 9608 (Notes)
Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

{$APPTYPE CONSOLE}{$Q+} and outputs a negative number of
uses milliseconds in January! An integer is
SysUtils; held in two's complement format,
var which represents a negative number
MillisecsPerDay, Jan_ms : when the most significant bit is 1.
integer;
{Use int64 instead of integer
to make
this program work.}
begin
MillisecsPerDay := 24 * 60 * 60
* 1000;

Jan_ms := MillisecsPerDay *
31;
writeln(Jan_ms);
readln;
end.

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Computer Science 9608 (Notes)
Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

Common Run-time errors

Some errors cannot be detected by the compiler and only become apparent at run time. For example,
errors which depend on the input from a user cannot be predicted by the compiler.

Division by 0 Example of INCORRECT code: An entry of 0 for Time will cause

a run-time error when Speed is
programDivisionByZero; calculated. The program needs
{$APPTYPE CONSOLE} validation to ensure that Time is
uses greater than zero. (It also needs
SysUtils; type checking, perhaps using
var the val procedure, to accept only
Distance, Time, Speed : real; valid numbers
begin for Distance and Time).
write('Distance in m? ');
readln(Distance);
write('Time in s? ');
readln(Time);
Speed := Distance / Time;
write('Speed in m/s: ');
writeln(Speed : 6 : 2);
readln;
end.
Infinite loop Example of INCORRECT code: The integer Num "misses" the
end of the loop, which continues
Num := 0; to run. Use safe conditions such
repeat as
Num := Num + 3;
untilNum = 10; untilNum>= 10
in this example.

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Computer Science 9608 (Notes)
Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

Common logic errors

When you have removed all the syntax errors, compile-time errors and run-time errors you may think it is
time to heave a huge sigh of relief - but don't forget that there may still be logical errors lurking in your
program.

Out-by-one (or off-by-one) errors are very common, hence the emphasis on boundary testing in
computing courses. The cause of the error is often the operator used, as in the first example below.

Description Example Comment

Out-by-one Example of INCORRECT code: The >= operator should have been used
instead of >.
if Marks[i] >PassMarkthen
inc(NumberOfPasses);
Out-by-one Example of INCORRECT code: The calculated number of coaches may
be one less than required.
NumCoaches :=
NumPeopleDIVSeatingCapacity;
Missing begin and end to Example of INCORRECT code: This code will
group statements intended assign True to Foundwhether or not the
to be run together if Names[i] = SearchNamethen condition is true. This error is often
depending on some writeln('Found at position ', i); made when adding an instruction to
condition Found := True; existing code. If you always
use begin and end after then,else and do,
your programs will be safeguarded from
this type of error.
Semicolon immediately Example of INCORRECT code: In this code the for loop has no code to
after then,else or do execute other than incrementing i. After
fori := 1 to 10 do; the loop, the writeln statement is
writeln('Line ', i); executed once using the final value of i.
Operator precedence not Example of INCORRECT code: The operators * and / have precedence
what is required to give the over + and -. In order to perform the
right answer Celsius := Fahrenheit - 32 * 5 / 9 subtraction first, the
expression Fahrenheit - 32 should be
enclosed in brackets.

Tip: If you are unsure of the operator

precedence, use brackets to force the
order of calculation to be the one you
require.

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Computer Science 9608 (Notes)
Chapter: 2.4 Software development

Topic: 2.4.2 Program testing

How can I avoid making mistakes while coding any program?

Follow these tips to reduce the number of errors in your programs:

Take frequent breaks; mistakes are more likely when you are tired.
If in doubt, check. Look at examples if you are unsure of the correct syntax. Read the checklists
above from time to time and be on the lookout for those mistakes.
Learn from your mistakes. Try to recognize the types of mistake you make most often and
concentrate on reducing those.
Do not rely on the compiler to find your mistakes; it will only find certain types of mistake.
Check the computer output carefully to make sure it is correct. Your tests should include normal,
boundary and erroneous data. See our sample test plan in the tutorial on testing.
U U

Include checks in the program itself, such as validating the input and intermediate results.
U U

Try your hand at spotting the errors in our selection of Programs to Debug. See how many of our
U U

deliberate errors you are able to spot and fix.

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