Ex.

No:1(a) DATA DEFINITION COMMANDS

AIM:
To execute and verify Data Definition Language commands in DBMS.

PROGRAM:
SQL:

Structured query language pronounced as (SEQUEL). This language is used to communicate to oracle
database.

Database Management System (DBMS):

DBMS is software it helps to manage the database. It performs the following activities very easily.
 Inserting the new data.

 Updating the exiting data.

 Deleting unnecessary data.

 Retrieving the required data.

Examples of RDBMS:
 ORACLE

 SQL SERVER

 DB2

 MYSQL

 SYBASE

 TERA DATA

 MS ACCESS
Structured Query Language (SQL)

The SQL language is subdivided according to their functions as follows

DDL Data Definition Language

DML Data Manipulation

Language

DRL/DQL Data Retrieval Language / Data Query

LanguageDCL Data Control Language

1
 TCL Transaction Control

Data Definition Language (DDL):

Data Definition Language (DDL) or Schema Definition Language, statements are used to
define thedatabase structure or schema.

CREATE - to create objects in the

database ALTER - alters the structure of

the databaseDROP - delete objects from

the database

TRUNCATE - remove all records from a table, including all spaces allocated for the records are removed

COMMENT - add comments to the data dictionary

RENAME - rename an object

Transaction Control (TCL):

Transaction Control (TCL) statements are used to manage the changes made by DML
statements.It allows statements to be grouped together into logical transactions.

COMMIT - save work done

SAVEPOINT - identify a point in a transaction to which you can later roll back

ROLLBACK - restore database to original since the last COMMIT

SET TRANSACTION - Change transaction options like isolation level and what rollback segment to use

Data Types

SQL data type is an attribute that specifies type of data of any object. Each column, variable and
expression hasrelated data type in SQL.
You would use these data types while creating your tables. You would choose a particular data
type for atable column based on your requirement.
SQL Server offers six categories of data types for your use.

2
Exact Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

bigint - 9,223,372,036,854,775,808 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

int -2,147,483,648 2,147,483,647

smallint -32,768 32,767

tinyint 0 255

bit 0 1

decimal -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

numeric -10^38 +1 10^38 -1

money -922,337,203,685,477.5808 +922,337,203,685,477.5807

smallmoney -214,748.3648 +214,748.3647

Approximate Numeric Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

float -1.79E + 308 1.79E + 308

real -3.40E + 38 3.40E + 38

3
Date and Time Data Types

DATA TYPE FROM TO

datetime Jan 1, 1753 Dec 31, 9999

smalldatetime Jan 1, 1900 Jun 6, 2079

date Stores a date like June 30, 1991

time Stores a time of day like 12:30 P.M.

Note − Here, datetime has 3.33 milliseconds accuracy where as smalldatetime has 1 minute accuracy.

Character Strings Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

Maximum length of 8,000 characters.( Fixed length

char
non-Unicode characters)

Maximum of 8,000 characters.(Variable-length non-

varchar
Unicodedata).

Maximum length of 231characters, Variable-length

varchar(max)
non-Unicode data (SQL Server 2005 only).

Variable-length non-Unicode data with a maximum

text
length of2,147,483,647 characters.

4
Unicode Character Strings Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

Maximum length of 4,000 characters.( Fixed

nchar
lengthUnicode)

nvarchar Maximum length of 4,000 characters.(Variable length Unicode)

Maximum length of 231characters (SQL Server

nvarchar(max)
2005 only).(Variable length Unicode)

Maximum length of 1,073,741,823 characters. (

ntext
Variable lengthUnicode )

Binary Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

Maximum length of 8,000 bytes(Fixed-length binary data

binary
)

varbinary Maximum length of 8,000 bytes.(Variable length binary data)

Maximum length of 231 bytes (SQL Server 2005 only).

varbinary(max)
( Variablelength Binary data)

Maximum length
image 2,147,483,647 bytes. ( Variable
oflength Binary
Data)

5
Misc Data Types

DATA TYPE Description

Stores values of various SQL Server-supported data types,

sql_variant
excepttext, ntext, and timestamp.

Stores a database-wide unique number that gets updated every

timestamp
timea row gets updated

uniqueidentifier Stores a globally unique identifier (GUID)

Stores XML data. You can store xml instances in a column

xml
or avariable (SQL Server 2005 only).

cursor Reference to a cursor object

table Stores a result set for later processing

Operators
An operator is a reserved word or a character used primarily in an SQL statement's WHERE
clause toperform operation(s), such as comparisons and arithmetic operations.

Operators are used to specify conditions in an SQL statement and to serve as conjunctions for
multipleconditions in a statement.

 Arithmetic operators
 Comparison operators
 Logical operators
 Operators used to negate conditions.

6
SQL Arithmetic Operators:

Operator Description Example

Addition - Adds values on either side of the a+b

+
operator will give
30
Subtraction - Subtracts right hand operand fromleft hand a - b will
- operand give -10

Multiplication - Multiplies values on either side ofthe a*b

*
operator will give
200
Division - Divides left hand operand by right handoperand b / a will
/
give 2

b%a
Modulus - Divides left hand operand by right handoperand
% willgive0
and returns remainder

SQL Comparison Operators:

Operator Description Example

(a = b)is
Checks if the values of two operands are equal ornot, if yes
= not true.
then condition becomes true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal ornot, if

(a != b)is
!= values are not equal then condition becomes true.
true.

Checks if the values of two operands are equal ornot, if

(a <> b)is
<> values are not equal then condition becomes true.
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater thanthe value (a > b)is
> of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true. not true.

Checks if the value of left operand is less than thevalue of

(a < b)is
< right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
true.

Checks if the value of left operand is greater thanor equal (a >= b)is
>= to the value of right operand, if yes thencondition becomes not true.
true.

7
 Checks if the value of left operand is less than orequal to
(a <= b)is
<= the value of right operand, if yes then condition
true.
becomes true.

Checks if the value of left operand is not less thanthe value

(a !< b)is
!< of right operand, if yes then condition becomes true.
false.

Checks if the value of left operand is not greaterthan the

(a !> b)is
!> value of right operand, if yes then condition becomes
true.
true.

SQL Logical Operators:

Operator Description

The ALL operator is used to compare a value to all values inanother value
ALL
set.

The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions inan SQL
AND
statement's WHERE clause.

The ANY operator is used to compare a value to any applicablevalue in the

ANY
list according to the condition.

The BETWEEN operator is used to search for values that arewithin a

BETWEEN set of values, given the minimum value and the maximum value.

The EXISTS operator is used to search for the presence of arow in a

EXISTS
specified table that meets certain criteria.

The IN operator is used to compare a value to a list of literalvalues that

IN
have been specified.

The LIKE operator is used to compare a value to similar valuesusing

LIKE
wildcard operators.

The NOT operator reverses the meaning of the logical operator with which
NOT it is used. Eg: NOT EXISTS, NOT BETWEEN, NOT IN,etc. This is a negate
operator.

The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in anSQL

OR statement's WHERE clause.

The NULL operator is used to compare a value with a NULLvalue.

IS NULL

The UNIQUE operator searches every row of a specified tablefor

UNIQUE
uniqueness (no duplicates).

8
SQL - CREATE Table

Creating a basic table involves naming the table and defining its columns and each column's data

type.The SQL CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table.

Syntax:
Basic syntax of CREATE TABLE statement is as follows:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column1 datatype,
column2 datatype,
column3 datatype,
.....
columnN datatype,
CONSTRAINT CONSTRAINTNAME CONSTRAINTKEYWORD1( one or more columns ),
CONSTRAINT CONSTRAINTNAME CONSTRAINTKEYWORD2( one or more columns ),
.
.
.);

CREATE TABLE is the keyword telling the database system what you want to do. In this case, you want
tocreate a new table. The unique name or identifier for the table follows the CREATE TABLE statement.

Then in brackets comes the list defining each column in the table and what sort of data type it is. The syntax
becomes clearer with an example below.
A copy of an existing table can be created using a combination of the CREATE TABLE statement and
theSELECT statement.

9
 SQL> CREATE TABLE
CUSTOMERS( ID INT NOT
NULL,
NAME VARCHAR (20) NOT
NULL, AGE INT NOT NULL,
ADDRESS CHAR (25) ,
SALARY DECIMAL (18, 2),
CONSTRAINT PK1 PRIMARY KEY
Example:
(ID)
Following is an example, which creates a CUSTOMERS table with ID as primary key and NOT NULL
arethe constraints showing that these fields can not be NULL while creating records in this table:

You can verify if your table has been created successfully by looking at the message displayed by the
SQLserver, otherwise you can use DESC command as follows:

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

+++++++
| Field| Type| Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+++++++
| ID| int(11)| NO| PRI |||
| NAME| varchar(20)| NO||||
| AGE| int(11)

| NO|| ||
| YES | | NULL|
| ADDRESS | char(25) |
| NULL|
|
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES |
+++++++
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

Now, you have CUSTOMERS table available in your database which you can use to store
requiredinformation related to customers.

SQL - ALTER TABLE Command

The SQL ALTER TABLE command is used to add, delete or modify columns in an existing table.You
would also use ALTER TABLE command to add and drop various constraints on a an existing table.
Syntax:

10
The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a new column in an existing table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD column_name datatype;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP COLUMN in an existing table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name DROP COLUMN column_name;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to change the DATA TYPE of a column in a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY COLUMN column_name datatype;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to add a NOT NULL constraint to a column in a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name MODIFY column_name datatype NOT NULL;

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD UNIQUE CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint UNIQUE(column1, column2...);

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD CHECK CONSTRAINT to a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint CHECK (CONDITION);

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to ADD PRIMARY KEY constraint to a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2...);

The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP CONSTRAINT from a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT MyUniqueConstraint;

If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX MyUniqueConstraint;

11
 The basic syntax of ALTER TABLE to DROP PRIMARY KEY constraint from a table is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP CONSTRAINT MyPrimaryKey;

If you're using MySQL, the code is as follows:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP PRIMARY KEY;

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY|
++++++

| 1 | Ramesh| 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

|
2 | Khilan| 25 | Delhi 3 | kaushik | 23| |1500.00
Kota |
|
4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 2000.00 |
|
| 6500.00 |
|
| 8500.00 |
|
| 4500.00 |
| | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal
| 10000.00 |
| Komal | 22 | MP
| Muffy | 24 | Indore

++++++

Following is the example to ADD a new column in an existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS ADD SEX char(1);

Now, CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:

12
 +++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY| SEX |
+++++++

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 | NULL |

|
2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 | NULL |
|
| 2000.00 | NULL |
| | kaushik | 23 | Kota
| 6500.00 | NULL |
| | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai
| 8500.00 | NULL |
| 27 | Bhopal
| 4500.00 | NULL |
| | Hardik | 22 | MP
| 10000.00 | NULL |
| Komal | 24 | Indore
| Muffy |

Following is the example to DROP sex column from existing table:

ALTER TABLE CUSTOMERS DROP SEX;

Now, CUSTOMERS table is changed and following would be output from SELECT statement:

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS| SALARY|
++++++

| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

|
2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
|
| 2000.00 |
| | kaushik | 23 | Kota
| 6500.00 |
| | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai
| 8500.00 |
| 27 | Bhopal
| 4500.00 |
| | Hardik | 22 | MP
| 10000.00 |
| Komal | 24 | Indore
| Muffy |

++++++

You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove complete table
structure form the database and you would need to re-create this table once again if you wish you
store somedata.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of TRUNCATE TABLE is as follows:

13
 TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |

| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

| | 8500.00 |
| Hardik | 27 | Bhopal
| | 4500.00 |
| Komal | 22 | MP
| | 10000.00 |
| Muffy | 24 | Indore

++++++

Following is the example to truncate:

SQL > TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Now, CUSTOMERS table is truncated and following would be the output from SELECT statement:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

Empty set (0.00 sec)

SQL - DROP or DELETE Table

The SQL DROP TABLE statement is used to remove a table definition and all data, indexes, triggers,
constraints, and permission specifications for that table.

NOTE: You have to be careful while using this command because once a table is deleted then all
theinformation available in the table would also be lost forever.

14
Syntax:
Basic syntax of DROP TABLE statement is as follows:

DROP TABLE table_name;

Example:
Let us first verify CUSTOMERS table and then we would delete it from the database:

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

+++++++
| Field| Type| Null | Key | Default | Extra |
+++++++
| ID| int(11)| NO| PRI |||
| NAME| varchar(20)| NO||||
| AGE| int(11)

| NO|| ||
| YES | | NULL|
| ADDRESS | char(25) |
| NULL|
|
| SALARY | decimal(18,2) | YES |

+ + + + + + +
5 rows in set (0.00 sec)

This means CUSTOMERS table is available in the database, so let us drop it as follows:

SQL> DROP TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Query OK, 0 rows affected (0.01 sec)

Now, if you would try DESC command, then you would get error as follows:

SQL> DESC CUSTOMERS;

ERROR 1146 (42S02): Table 'TEST.CUSTOMERS' doesn't exist

Here, TEST is database name which we are using for our examples.

SQL – Constraints
Constraints are the rules enforced on data columns on table. These are used to limit the type of data that
can gointo a table. This ensures the accuracy and reliability of the data in the database. Constraints could
be column level or table level. Column level constraints are applied only to one column, whereas table
level

15
constraints are applied to the whole table.

Following are commonly used constraints available in SQL.

These constraints have already been discussed in SQL - RDBMS Concepts chapter but it’s worth to
revisethem at this point.

 NOT NULL Constraint: Ensures that a column cannot have NULL value.

 DEFAULT Constraint: Provides a default value for a column when none is specified.

 UNIQUE Constraint: Ensures that all values in a column are different.

 PRIMARY Key: Uniquely identified each rows/records in a database table.

 FOREIGN Key: Uniquely identified a rows/records in any another database table.

 CHECK Constraint : The CHECK constraint ensures that all values in a column satisfy
certain conditions.

 INDEX: Use to create and retrieve data from the database very quickly.

Constraints can be specified when a table is created with the CREATE TABLE statement or you can use
ALTER TABLE statement to create constraints even after the table is created.

Dropping Constraints:
Any constraint that you have defined can be dropped using the ALTER TABLE command with the
DROPCONSTRAINT option.

For example, to drop the primary key constraint in the EMPLOYEES table, you can use the following
command:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP CONSTRAINT EMPLOYEES_PK;

Some implementations may provide shortcuts for dropping certain constraints. For example, to
drop theprimary key constraint for a table in Oracle, you can use the following command:

ALTER TABLE EMPLOYEES DROP PRIMARY KEY;

Some implementations allow you to disable constraints. Instead of permanently dropping a

constraint fromthe database, you may want to temporarily disable the constraint and then enable it
later.

16
Integrity Constraints:
Integrity constraints are used to ensure accuracy and consistency of data in a relational database.
Dataintegrity is handled in a relational database through the concept of referential integrity.

There are many types of integrity constraints that play a role in referential integrity (RI). These
constraintsinclude Primary Key, Foreign Key, Unique Constraints and other constraints mentioned above.
SQL RENAME Statement

With RENAME statement you can rename a table

Some of the relational database management system (RDBMS) does not support this command,
because thisis not standardizing statement.

For example renaming a table through MS SQL Server you must use storage procedure
SP_RENAME.Syntax for SQL RENAME is:

RENAME TABLE {tbl_name} TO {new_tbl_name};

Where {tbl_name} table that exists in the current database, and

{new_tbl_name} is new table name.

As for Oracle may also be use the following option: ALTER TABLE

{tbl_name} RENAME TO {new_tbl_name};

The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.
Syntax:

There are two basic syntaxes of INSERT INTO statement as follows:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)]

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);

Here, column1, column2,...columnN are the names of the columns in the table into which you want to
insertdata.

You may not need to specify the column(s) name in the SQL query if you are adding values for all the
columnsof the table. But make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the
table.

The SQL INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

17
 INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

Example:
Following statements would create six records in CUSTOMERS table:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) VALUES

(2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) VALUES

(3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) VALUES

(4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) VALUES

(5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY) VALUES

(6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

You can create a record in CUSTOMERS table using second syntax as follows:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS

VALUES (7, 'Muffy', 24, 'Indore', 10000.00 );

All the above statements would produce the following records in CUSTOMERS table:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |

+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

18
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

19
 Populate one table using another table:
You can populate data into a table through select statement over another table provided another

ehas a set of fields, which are required to populate first table. Here is the syntax:

INSERT INTO first_table_name [(column1, column2, ... columnN)] SELECT

column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM second_table_name
[WHERE condition]

RESULT:
Thus DDL commands has been written, executed and the output was verified.

20
Ex . No 1 (b) DATA MANIPULATION LANGUAGEAND TCL

AIM:
To execute and verify DML Commands and various Transaction Control statements in DBMS.

PROGRAM:
SQL is equipped with data manipulation language (DML). DML modifies the database instance by
inserting, updating and deleting its data. DML is responsible for all forms data modification in a
database. SQL contains the following set of commands in its DML section −

 SELECT/FROM/WHERE
 INSERT INTO/VALUES
 UPDATE/SET/WHERE
 DELETE FROM/WHERE
These basic constructs allow database programmers and users to enter data and information into
the database and retrieve efficiently using a number of filter options.

SQL-SELECTQuery

SQL SELECT statement is used to fetch the data from a database table which returns data in the form
of result table. These result tables are called result-sets.
Syntax:
The basic syntax of SELECT statement is as follows:

SELECT column1, column2, columnN FROM table_name;

Here, column1, column2...are the fields of a table whose values you want to fetch. If you want to
fetch allthe fields available in the field, then you can use the following syntax:

SELECT * FROM table_name;

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

21
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Following is an example, which would fetch ID, Name and Salary fields of the customers available in
CUSTOMERS table:

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce the following result:

+ + + +
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+ + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |

| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
|6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+ + + +

If you want to fetch all the fields of CUSTOMERS table, then use the following query:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

This would produce the following result:

22
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

SQL-INSERTQuery
The SQL INSERT INTO Statement is used to add new rows of data to a table in the database.

Syntax:
There are two basic syntaxes of INSERT INTO statement as follows:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME (column1, column2, column3,...columnN)]

VALUES (value1, value2, value3,...valueN);

Here, column1, column2,...columnN are the names of the columns in the table into which you want to
insert data.

You may not need to specify the column(s) name in the SQL query if you are adding values for all the
columns of the table. But make sure the order of the values is in the same order as the columns in the
table.The SQL INSERT INTO syntax would be as follows:

INSERT INTO TABLE_NAME VALUES (value1,value2,value3,...valueN);

23
Example:
Following statements would create six records in CUSTOMERS table:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (1, 'Ramesh', 32, 'Ahmedabad', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (2, 'Khilan', 25, 'Delhi', 1500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (3, 'kaushik', 23, 'Kota', 2000.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (4, 'Chaitali', 25, 'Mumbai', 6500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (5, 'Hardik', 27, 'Bhopal', 8500.00 );

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS (ID,NAME,AGE,ADDRESS,SALARY)

VALUES (6, 'Komal', 22, 'MP', 4500.00 );

You can create a record in CUSTOMERS table using second syntax as follows:

INSERT INTO CUSTOMERS

VALUES (7, 'Muffy', 24, 'Indore', 10000.00 );

All the above statements would produce the following records in CUSTOMERS table:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

24
 | 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Populateonetableusinganothertable:
You can populate data into a table through select statement over another table provided another
table has aset of fields, which are required to populate first table. Here is the syntax:

INSERT INTO first_table_name [(column1, column2, ... columnN)]

SELECT column1, column2, ...columnN
FROM second_table_name
[WHERE condition];

Dynamic Insert Query:

Syntax:

Insert into <tablename> values(‘&attribute1’,’&attribute2’,…’&attributen’);

SQL-UPDATEQuery
The SQL UPDATE Query is used to modify the existing records in a table.

You can use WHERE clause with UPDATE query to update selected rows otherwise all the rows
would beaffected.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of UPDATE query with WHERE clause is as follows:

UPDATE table_name
SET column1 = value1, column2 = value2... , columnN = valueN
WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +

25
 | 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +
Following is an example, which would update ADDRESS for a customer whose ID is 6:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune'
WHERE ID = 6;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 10000.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | Pune
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore

++++++

If you want to modify all ADDRESS and SALARY column values in CUSTOMERS table, you do notneed
to use WHERE clause and UPDATE query would be as follows:

SQL> UPDATE CUSTOMERS

SET ADDRESS = 'Pune', SALARY = 1000.00;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+ + + + + +

26
 | ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Pune
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | Pune | 1000.00 |
| 1000.00 |
| 1000.00 |

| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Pune
++++++

SQL-DELETEQuery
The SQL DELETE Query is used to delete the existing records from a table.

You can use WHERE clause with DELETE query to delete selected rows, otherwise all the records
wouldbe deleted.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of DELETE query with WHERE clause is as follows:

DELETE FROM table_name

WHERE [condition];

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators.

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi| 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota| 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal| 8500.00 |

| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 4500.00 |

27
 | 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Following is an example, which would DELETE a customer, whose ID is 6:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE ID = 6;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would have the following records:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

If you want to DELETE all the records from CUSTOMERS table, you do not need to use WHERE
clauseand DELETE query would be as follows:

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS;

Now, CUSTOMERS table would not have any record.

SQL-TRUNCATE TABLE Command

The SQL TRUNCATE TABLE command is used to delete complete data from an existing table.

You can also use DROP TABLE command to delete complete table but it would remove complete
table structure form the database and you would need to re-create this table once again if you wish
you store some data.

Syntax:
The basic syntax of TRUNCATE TABLE is as follows:

TRUNCATE TABLE table_name;

28
Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Following is the example to truncate:

SQL > TRUNCATE TABLE CUSTOMERS;

Now, CUSTOMERS table is truncated and following would be the output from SELECT statement:

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;

Empty set (0.00 sec)

SQL-Transactions
A transaction is a unit of work that is performed against a database. Transactions are units or
sequences of work accomplished in a logical order, whether in a manual fashion by a user or
automatically by some sort of a database program.

A transaction is the propagation of one or more changes to the database. For example, if you are
creating a record or updating a record or deleting a record from the table, then you are performing
transaction on the table. It is important to control transactions to ensure data integrity and to handle
database errors.

Practically, you will club many SQL queries into a group and you will execute all of them together as
a part of a transaction.

Properties of Transactions:
Transactions have the following four standard properties, usually referred to by the acronym ACID:

29
 Atomicity: ensures that all operations within the work unit are completed successfully;
otherwise, the transaction is aborted at the point of failure, and previous operations are rolled
back to their former state.

 Consistency: ensures that the database properly changes states upon a successfully
committed transaction.

 Isolation: enables transactions to operate independently of and transparent to each other.

 Durability: ensures that the result or effect of a committed transaction persists in case of a
system failure.

Transaction Control:
There are following commands used to control transactions:

 COMMIT: to save the changes.

 ROLLBACK: to rollback the changes.

 SAVEPOINT: creates points within groups of transactions in which to ROLLBACK

 SET TRANSACTION: Places a name on a transaction.

Transactional control commands are only used with the DML commands INSERT, UPDATE and
DELETE only. They cannot be used while creating tables or dropping them because these operations
are automatically commited in the database.

The COMMIT Command:

The COMMIT command is the transactional command used to save changes invoked by a transaction
to the database.

The COMMIT command saves all transactions to the database since the last COMMIT or ROLLBACK
command.

The syntax for COMMIT command is as follows:

COMMIT;

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

30
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |

| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |

| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Following is the example which would delete records from the table having age = 25 and then
COMMITthe changes in the database.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> COMMIT;

As a result, two rows from the table would be deleted and SELECT statement would produce the
following result:

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota

| 2000.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal
| 4500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP
| 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore

++++++
TheROLLBACKCommand:
The ROLLBACK command is the transactional command used to undo transactions that have not
alreadybeen saved to the database.

31
The ROLLBACK command can only be used to undo transactions since the last COMMIT or
ROLLBACK command was issued.

The syntax for ROLLBACK command is as follows:

ROLLBACK;

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Following is the example, which would delete records from the table having age = 25 and then
ROLLBACK the changes in the database.

SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE AGE = 25;
SQL> ROLLBACK;

As a result, delete operation would not impact the table and SELECT statement would
produce thefollowing result:

32
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

The SAVEPOINT Command:

A SAVEPOINT is a point in a transaction when you can roll the transaction back to a certain point
without rolling back the entire transaction.

The syntax for SAVEPOINT command is as follows:

SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

This command serves only in the creation of a SAVEPOINT among transactional statements. The
ROLLBACK command is used to undo a group of transactions.

The syntax for rolling back to a SAVEPOINT is as follows:

ROLLBACK TO SAVEPOINT_NAME;

Following is an example where you plan to delete the three different records from the CUSTOMERS
table. You want to create a SAVEPOINT before each delete, so that you can ROLLBACK to any
SAVEPOINT at any time to return the appropriate data to its original state:

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records:

33
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Now, here is the series of operations:

SQL> SAVEPOINT SP1;

Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=1;
1 row deleted.

SQL> SAVEPOINT SP2;

Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=2;
1 row deleted.
SQL> SAVEPOINT SP3;
Savepoint created.
SQL> DELETE FROM CUSTOMERS WHERE ID=3;
1 row deleted.

Now that the three deletions have taken place, say you have changed your mind and decided to
ROLLBACK to the SAVEPOINT that you identified as SP2. Because SP2 was created after the first
deletion, the last two deletions are undone:

SQL> ROLLBACK TO SP2;

Rollback complete.

Notice that only the first deletion took place since you rolled back to SP2:

34
 SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS;
+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +
6 rows selected.

TheRELEASESAVEPOINTCommand:
The RELEASE SAVEPOINT command is used to remove a SAVEPOINT that you have created.

The syntax for RELEASE SAVEPOINT is as follows:

RELEASE SAVEPOINT SAVEPOINT_NAME;

Once a SAVEPOINT has been released, you can no longer use the ROLLBACK command to
undotransactions performed since the SAVEPOINT.

TheSETTRANSACTIONCommand:
The SET TRANSACTION command can be used to initiate a database transaction. This command is
usedto specify characteristics for the transaction that follows.

For example, you can specify a transaction to be read only, or read write.

The syntax for SET TRANSACTION is as follows:

SET TRANSACTION [ READ WRITE | READ ONLY ];

RESULT:
Thus DML and TCL commands has been written, executed and output was verified.

35
Ex.No: 2(a) Database Querying – Simple queries, Nested queries, Sub queries and Joins

AIM :
To execute and verify the SQL commands for Simple queries, Nested queries, Sub queries.

SQL-ANDand OR ConjunctiveOperators
The SQL AND & OR operators are used to combine multiple conditions to narrow data in an SQL
statement. These two operators are called as the conjunctive operators.

These operators provide a means to make multiple comparisons with different operators in the
same SQLstatement.

TheANDOperator
The AND operator allows the existence of multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.

Syntax
The basic syntax of the AND operator with a WHERE clause is as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] AND [condition2]...AND [conditionN];
You can combine N number of conditions using the AND operator. For an action to be taken by the SQL
statement, whether it be a transaction or a query, all conditions separated by the AND must be TRUE.

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 4500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
++++++
Following is an example, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields from the CUSTOMERS
table,where the salary is greater than 2000 and the age is less than 25 years −

36
 SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY
FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY > 2000 AND age < 25;

This would produce the following result −

+ + + +
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+ + + +
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+ + + +
TheOROperator
The OR operator is used to combine multiple conditions in an SQL statement's WHERE clause.
Syntax
The basic syntax of the OR operator with a WHERE clause is as follows −

SELECT column1, column2, columnN

FROM table_name
WHERE [condition1] OR [condition2]...OR [conditionN]
You can combine N number of conditions using the OR operator. For an action to be taken by the SQL
statement, whether it be a transaction or query, the only any ONE of the conditions separated by the
OR must be TRUE.
Example:Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

37
 The following code block hasa query, which would fetch the ID, Name and Salary fields from
theCUSTOMERS table, where the salary is greater than 2000 and the age is less than 25 years.

SQL> SELECT ID, NAME, SALARY

FROM CUSTOMERS
WHERE SALARY > 2000 OR age < 25;

This would produce the following result −

+ + + +
| ID | NAME | SALARY |
+ + + +
| 3 | kaushik | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 10000.00 |
+ + + +
TheSQLLIKEOperator

The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE clause to search for a specified pattern in a

column.There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

 % - The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters

 _ - The underscore represents a single character

Note: MS Access uses a question mark (?) instead of the underscore (_).

The percent sign and the underscore can also be used in

combinations!LIKE Syntax
SELECT column1,column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE columnN LIKE pattern;

Tip: You can also combine any number of conditions using AND or OR

operators. Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%'

and '_' wildcards:

38
LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that starts with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that ends with "a"

WHERE CustomerName
Finds any values that have "or" in any position
LIKE'%or%'

WHERE CustomerName LIKE

Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
'_r%'

WHERE CustomerName LIKE Finds any values that starts with "a" and are at least 3
'a_%_%' charactersin length

WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that starts with "a" and ends with "o"

DemoDatabase

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

Custome Custome Contac Posta

Address City Country
r ID rName tName lCode

Alfreds
1 Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Futterkist
e
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
México
2 Emparedados Ana Trujillo Constituci 05021 Mexico
D.F.
yhelados ó n2222

Antonio Antoni Matadero México

3 Moreno o 05023 Mexico
s2312 D.F.
Taquerí Moreno
a

Around Thoma 120

4 London WA1 1DP UK
theHorn s HanoverSq.
Hardy

Berglund Christin Berguvsvä ge

5 Luleå S-958 22 Sweden
s a n8
snabbkö Berglun
p d

39
SQL LIKE Examples

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName starting with "a":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a
%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName ending with "a":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName LIKE
'%a';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have "or" in any position:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%or%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that have "r" in the
secondposition:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '_r
%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that starts with "a" and
are atleast 3 characters in length:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a_%_%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a ContactName that starts with "a" and
ends with"o":

Example

40
SELECT * FROM Customers
WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a
%o';

41
 The following SQL statement selects all customers with a CustomerName that NOT starts with "a":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE CustomerName NOT LIKE 'a%';

SQL Wildcard Characters

A wildcard character is used to substitute any other character(s) in a string.

Wildcard characters are used with the SQL LIKE operator. The LIKE operator is used in a WHERE
clauseto search for a specified pattern in a column.

There are two wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator:

 % - The percent sign represents zero, one, or multiple characters

 _ - The underscore represents a single character

Note: MS Access uses a question mark (?) instead of the underscore

(_).In MS Access and SQL Server you can also use:

 [charlist] - Defines sets and ranges of characters to match

 [^charlist] or [!charlist] - Defines sets and ranges of characters NOT

to matchThe wildcards can also be used in combinations!

Here are some examples showing different LIKE operators with '%' and '_' wildcards:

LIKE Operator Description

WHERE CustomerName LIKE 'a%' Finds any values that starts with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE '%a' Finds any values that ends with "a"

WHERE CustomerName LIKE

Finds any values that have "or" in any position
'%or%'

WHERE CustomerName LIKE

Finds any values that have "r" in the second position
'_r%'

42
WHERE CustomerName LIKE Finds any values that starts with "a" and are at least 3
'a_%_%' charactersin length

WHERE ContactName LIKE 'a%o' Finds any values that starts with "a" and ends with "o"
Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

Custome Custome Contac Posta

Address City Country
r ID rName t lCode
Name
Maria
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ande
rs
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
Ana México
2 Emparedados Constituci 05021 Mexico
Trujill D.F.
yhelados ó n2222
o
Antonio Antoni México
3 Mataderos 2312 05023 Mexico
Moreno o D.F.
Taquería Moreno
Thoma WA1
4 Around the Horn 120 Hanover Sq. London UK
s 1DP
Hardy
Berglund Christin S-
5 Berguvsvä gen 8 Luleå Sweden
s a 958
snabbkö Berglun 22
p d
Using the % Wildcard

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City starting with "ber":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE 'ber%';

The following SQL statement selects all customers with a City containing the pattern "es":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE City LIKE '%es%';
The SQL LIKE clause is used to compare a value to similar values using wildcard operators. There
aretwo wildcards used in conjunction with the LIKE operator.

43
44
 The percent sign (%)
 The underscore (_)
The percent sign represents zero, one or multiple characters. The underscore represents a single
number orcharacter. These symbols can be used in combinations.

Syntax

The basic syntax of % and _ is as follows −

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE 'XXXX
%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE '%XXXX
%'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE
'XXXX_'

or

SELECT FROM table_name

WHERE column LIKE
'_XXXX'

You can combine N number of conditions using AND or OR operators. Here, XXXX could be
anynumeric or string value.

Example
The following table has a few examples showing the WHERE part having different LIKE clause with
'%'and '_' operators –

45
Sr.No. Statement & Description

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%'

1
Finds any values that start with 200.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%200%'

2
Finds any values that have 200 in any position.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_00%'

3
Finds any values that have 00 in the second and third positions.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2_%_%'

4
Finds any values that start with 2 and are at least 3 characters in length.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '%2'

5
Finds any values that end with 2.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '_2%3'

6
Finds any values that have a 2 in the second position and end with a 3.

WHERE SALARY LIKE '2 3'

7
Finds any values in a five-digit number that start with 2 and end with 3.
Let us take a real example, consider the CUSTOMERS table having the records as shown below.
++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 4500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
++++++
Following is an example, which would display all the records from the CUSTOMERS table, where
theSALARY starts with 200.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

WHERE SALARY LIKE '200%';

46
This would produce the following result −

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
+ + + + + +

The SQL IN Operator

The IN operator allows you to specify multiple values in a WHERE

clause.The IN operator is a shorthand for multiple OR conditions.

IN Syntax

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (value1, value2, ...);

or:

SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name IN (SELECT STATEMENT);
Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "Customers" table in the Northwind sample database:

Custome Custome Contac Posta

Address City Country
r ID rName t lCode
Name
Maria
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
Ande
rs
Ana Trujillo Avda. de la
Ana México
2 Emparedados Constituci 05021 Mexico
Trujill D.F.
yhelados o ó n2222

Antonio Antoni México

3 Mataderos 2312 05023 Mexico
Moreno o D.F.
Taquerí Moreno
a

47
 Thoma WA1
4 Around the Horn 120 Hanover Sq. London UK
s Hardy 1DP

Berglund Christin S-
5 Berguvsvä gen 8 Luleå Sweden
s a 958
snabbkö Berglun 22
p d

IN Operator Examples

The following SQL statement selects all customers that are located in "Germany", "France" and "UK":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

The following SQL statement selects all customers that are NOT located in "Germany", "France" or "UK":

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country NOT IN ('Germany', 'France', 'UK');

The following SQL statement selects all customers that are from the same countries as the suppliers:

Example

SELECT * FROM Customers

WHERE Country IN (SELECT Country FROM Suppliers);
The SQL BETWEEN Operator

The BETWEEN operator selects values within a given range. The values can be numbers, text, or

dates.The BETWEEN operator is inclusive: begin and end values are included.

BETWEEN Syntax
SELECT column_name(s)
FROM table_name
WHERE column_name BETWEEN value1 AND value2;

48
Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

Produc Produc Supplie Categor

Unit Price
tID tName rID yID

1 Chais 1 1 10 boxes x 20 bags 18

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 12 - 550 ml bottles 10

4 Chef Anton's Cajun Seasoning 1 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 1 2 36 boxes 21.35

BETWEEN Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20:

Example

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
NOT BETWEEN Example

To display the products outside the range of the previous example, use NOT BETWEEN:

Example

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE Price NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 20;
BETWEEN with IN Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a price BETWEEN 10 and 20. In addition; do
notshow products with a CategoryID of 1,2, or 3:

Example

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE (Price BETWEEN 10 AND 20)
AND NOT CategoryID IN (1,2,3);
BETWEEN Text Values Example

49
The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers'
and'Mozzarella di Giovanni':

Example

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE ProductName BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di
Giovanni'ORDER BY ProductName;
NOT BETWEEN Text Values Example

The following SQL statement selects all products with a ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'Carnarvon
Tigers' and 'Mozzarella di Giovanni':

Example

SELECT * FROM Products

WHERE ProductName NOT BETWEEN 'Carnarvon Tigers' AND 'Mozzarella di
Giovanni'ORDER BY ProductName;
Sample Table

Below is a selection from the "Orders" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 7/4/1996 3

10249 81 6 7/5/1996 1

10250 34 4 7/8/1996 2

10251 84 3 7/9/1996 1

10252 76 4 7/10/1996 2

BETWEEN Dates Example

The following SQL statement selects all orders with an OrderDate BETWEEN '04-July-1996' and '09-
July-1996':

Example

SELECT * FROM Orders

WHERE OrderDate BETWEEN #07/04/1996# AND #07/09/1996#;

50
 SQL TOP, LIMIT or ROWNUM Clause

SQL-ORDERBYClause
The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order, based on
one ormore columns. Some databases sort the query results in an ascending order by default.

Syntax
The basic syntax of the ORDER BY clause is as follows −

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]

[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];

You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure whatever column you are
usingto sort that column should be in the column-list.

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records –

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 4500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
++++++
The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in an ascending order by the
NAMEand the SALARY −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

This would produce the following result −

51
 ++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 8500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 2000.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 1500.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
++++++
The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in the descending order by NAME.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce the following result −

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 10000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |

++++++
SQL-DistinctKeyword
The SQL DISTINCT keyword is used in conjunction with the SELECT statement to eliminate all
theduplicate records and fetching only unique records.

There may be a situation when you have multiple duplicate records in a table. While fetching such
records,it makes more sense to fetch only those unique records instead of fetching duplicate records.

Syntax
The basic syntax of DISTINCT keyword to eliminate the duplicate records is as follows −

52
 SELECT DISTINCT column1, column2,.....columnN
FROM table_name
WHERE [condition]
Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 1500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai| 2000.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 4500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore

+ + + + + +
First, let us see how the following SELECT query returns the duplicate salary records.

SQL> SELECT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

This would produce the following result, where the salary (2000) is coming twice which is a
duplicaterecord from the original table.

++
| SALARY |
++
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
++

Now, let us use the DISTINCT keyword with the above SELECT query and then see the result.

SQL> SELECT DISTINCT SALARY FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY SALARY;

53
This would produce the following result where we do not have any duplicate entry.

+ +
| SALARY |
+ +
| 1500.00 |
| 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 8500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
+ +

SQL-SORTING Results
The SQL ORDER BY clause is used to sort the data in ascending or descending order, based on
one ormore columns. Some databases sort the query results in an ascending order by default.

Syntax
The basic syntax of the ORDER BY clause which would be used to sort the result in an
ascending ordescending order is as follows −

SELECT column-list
FROM table_name
[WHERE condition]
[ORDER BY column1, column2, .. columnN] [ASC | DESC];
You can use more than one column in the ORDER BY clause. Make sure that whatever column you
areusing to sort, that column should be in the column-list.

Example
Consider the CUSTOMERS table having the following records −

54
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Following is an example, which would sort the result in an ascending order by NAME and SALARY.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME, SALARY;

This would produce the following result −

+ + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |

55
 | 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 10000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
++++++

The following code block has an example, which would sort the result in a descending order by NAME.

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY NAME DESC;

This would produce the following result −

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP
| 10000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 1500.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 2000.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 8500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 6500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai

++++++
To fetch the rows with their own preferred order, the SELECT query used would be as follows −

SQL> SELECT * FROM CUSTOMERS

ORDER BY (CASE ADDRESS

WHEN 'DELHI' THEN 1

WHEN 'BHOPAL' WHEN 'KOTA'
THEN 2
THEN 3

WHEN 'AHMADABAD' THEN 4 WHEN 'MP'THEN 5

ELSE 100 END) ASC, ADDRESS DESC;

56
This would produce the following result −

++++++
| ID | NAME| AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
++++++
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal| 22 | MP | 2000.00 |
| 4500.00 |
| 6500.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai
| 7 | Muffy| 24 | Indore| 10000.00 |
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
++++++

This will sort the customers by ADDRESS in your ownoOrder of preference first and in a natural
orderfor the remaining addresses. Also, the remaining Addresses will be sorted in the reverse
alphabetical order.

SQL MIN() and MAX() Functions

The SQL MIN() and MAX()
Functions

The MIN() function returns the smallest value of the selected column.

The MAX() function returns the largest value of the selected

column.MIN() Syntax

SELECT MIN(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
MAX() Syntax

SELECT MAX(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

57
Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

10 boxes
1 Chais 1 1 18
x 20bags

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

12 - 550 ml
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 10
bottles

Chef Anton's
4 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
CajunSeasoning

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

MIN() Example

The following SQL statement finds the price of the cheapest product:

Example

SELECT MIN(Price) AS SmallestPrice

FROM Products;
MAX() Example

The following SQL statement finds the price of the most expensive product:

Example

SELECT MAX(Price) AS LargestPrice FROM Products;

SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions
The SQL COUNT(), AVG() and SUM() Functions

The COUNT() function returns the number of rows that matches a specified

criteria.The AVG() function returns the average value of a numeric column.

The SUM() function returns the total sum of a numeric

column.COUNT() Syntax

58
SELECT COUNT(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
AVG() Syntax

SELECT AVG(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

SUM() Syntax

SELECT SUM(column_name)
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;
Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "Products" table in the Northwind sample database:

ProductID ProductName SupplierID CategoryID Unit Price

10 boxes
1 Chais 1 1 18
x 20bags

2 Chang 1 1 24 - 12 oz bottles 19

12 - 550 ml
3 Aniseed Syrup 1 2 10
bottles

Chef Anton's
4 2 2 48 - 6 oz jars 22
CajunSeasoning

5 Chef Anton's Gumbo Mix 2 2 36 boxes 21.35

COUNT() Example

The following SQL statement finds the number of products:

Example

SELECT COUNT(ProductID)
FROM Products;
AVG() Example

The following SQL statement finds the average price of all products:

59
 Example

SELECT AVG(Price)
FROM Products;
Demo Database

Below is a selection from the "OrderDetails" table in the Northwind sample database:

OrderDetailID OrderID ProductID Quantity

1 10248 11 12

2 10248 42 10

3 10248 72 5

4 10249 14 9

5 10249 51 40
SUM() Example
The following SQL statement finds the sum of the "Quantity" fields in the "OrderDetails" table:

Example

SELECT SUM(Quantity)
FROM OrderDetails;

RESULT:
Thus the SQL commands for Simple queries, Nested queries, Sub queries has been written , executed and
output was verified.

60
EX.NO 2 (b) NESTED QUERIES AND QUERIES USING GROUP BY AND HAVING
CLAUSE AIM :
To execute and verify Nested Queries and Queries Using Group By and Having Clause.
PROGRAM:
The HAVING Clause

The HAVING clause was added to SQL because the WHERE keyword could not be used with
aggregatefunctions.

SQL HAVING Syntax

SELECT column_name,
aggregate_function(column_name)FROM table_name
WHERE column_name operator
valueGROUP BY column_name
HAVING aggregate_function(column_name) operator value;
Demo Database

In this tutorial we will use the well-known Northwind sample

database.Below is a selection from the "Orders" table:

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID

10248 90 5 1996-07-04 3

10249 81 6 1996-07-05 1

10250 34 4 1996-07-08 2
And a selection from the "Employees" table:
EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo Notes

1 Davolio Nancy 1968-12- EmpID1.pic Education includes

08 aBA....

2 Fuller Andrew 1952-02- EmpID2.pic Andrew received

19 hisBTS....

3 Leverling Janet 1963-08- EmpID3.pic Janet has a BS

30 degree....

61
 SQL HAVING Example

Now we want to find if any of the employees has registered more than 10

orders.We use the following SQL statement:

Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM
OrdersINNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID)

GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 10;

Now we want to find if the employees "Davolio" or "Fuller" have registered more than 25

orders.We add an ordinary WHERE clause to the SQL statement:

Example
SELECT Employees.LastName, COUNT(Orders.OrderID) AS NumberOfOrders FROM
OrdersINNER JOIN Employees
ON Orders.EmployeeID=Employees.EmployeeID
WHERE LastName='Davolio' OR
LastName='Fuller'GROUP BY LastName
HAVING COUNT(Orders.OrderID) > 25;

SQL HAVING Clause

 HAVING filters records that work on summarized GROUP BY results.

 HAVING applies to summarized group records, whereas WHERE applies to individual records.
 Only the groups that meet the HAVING criteria will be returned.
 HAVING requires that a GROUP BY clause is present.
 WHERE and HAVING can be in the same query.

The SQL HAVING

syntax The general
syntax is:

1. SELECT column-names
2. FROM table-name
3. WHERE condition
4. GROUP BY column-names
5. HAVING condition

62
 The general syntax with ORDER BY is:

1. SELECT column-names
2. FROM table-name
3. WHERE condition
4. GROUP BY column-names
5. HAVING condition
6. ORDER BY column-names

CUSTOMER
Id
FirstName
LastName
City
Country
Phone

SQL GROUP BY Examples

Problem: List the number of customers in each country. Only include countries with more than 10
customers.

1. SELECT COUNT(Id), Country

2. FROM Customer
3. GROUP BY Country
4. HAVING COUNT(Id) > 10

Country
Count
11 France
11 Germany
13 USA

CUSTOMER
Id
FirstName
LastName

63
 City
Country
Phone

Problem: List the number of customers in each country, except the USA, sorted high to
low.Only include countries with 9 or more customers.

SELECT COUNT(Id), Country

1. FROM Customer
2. WHERE Country <> 'USA'
3. GROUP BY Country
4. HAVING COUNT(Id) >= 9
5. ORDER BY COUNT(Id) DESC

Count Country
11 France
11 Germany
9 Brazil

ORDER
Id
OrderDate
OrderNumber
CustomerId
TotalAmount

Problem: List all customer with average orders between $1000 and $1200.

1. SELECT AVG(TotalAmount), FirstName, LastName

2. FROM [Order] O JOIN Customer C ON O.CustomerId = C.Id
3. GROUP BY FirstName, LastName
4. HAVING AVG(TotalAmount) BETWEEN 1000 AND 1200

64
 Average FirstName LastName
1081.215000 Miguel Angel Paolino
1063.420000 Isabel de Castro
1008.440000 Alexander Feuer
1062.038461 Thomas Hardy
1107.806666 Pirkko Koskitalo
1174.945454 Janete Limeira
1073.621428 Antonio Moreno
1065.385000 Rita Mü ller
1183.010000 José Pedro Freyre
1057.386666 Carine Schmitt

SQL-GroupBy
The SQL GROUP BY clause is used in collaboration with the SELECT statement to arrange identical
datainto groups.

The GROUP BY clause follows the WHERE clause in a SELECT statement and precedes the ORDER BY
clause.

Syntax:

The basic syntax of GROUP BY clause is given below. The GROUP BY clause must follow the
conditions in the WHERE clause and must precede the ORDER BY clause if one is used.

SELECT column1, column2

FROM table_name
WHERE [ conditions ]
GROUP BY column1, column2
ORDER BY column1, column2

Example:
Consider the CUSTOMERS table is having the following records:

65
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Khilan | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | Chaitali | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

If you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then GROUP BY query would
be as follows:

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result:

+++
| NAME| SUM(SALARY) |
+++
| Chaitali |6500.00 |
| Hardik |8500.00 |
| kaushik |2000.00 |
| Khilan1500.00 |
| Komal4500.00 |
| Muffy10000.00 |
| Ramesh |2000.00 |
+++

Now, let us have following table where CUSTOMERS table has the following records with
duplicatenames:

66
 + + + + + +
| ID | NAME | AGE | ADDRESS | SALARY |
+ + + + + +
| 1 | Ramesh | 32 | Ahmedabad | 2000.00 |
| 2 | Ramesh | 25 | Delhi | 1500.00 |
| 3 | kaushik | 23 | Kota | 2000.00 |
| 4 | kaushik | 25 | Mumbai | 6500.00 |
| 5 | Hardik | 27 | Bhopal | 8500.00 |
| 6 | Komal | 22 | MP | 4500.00 |
| 7 | Muffy | 24 | Indore | 10000.00 |
+ + + + + +

Now again, if you want to know the total amount of salary on each customer, then GROUP BY
querywould be as follows:

SQL> SELECT NAME, SUM(SALARY) FROM CUSTOMERS

GROUP BY NAME;

This would produce the following result:

+++
| NAME| SUM(SALARY) |
+++
| Hardik |8500.00 |
| kaushik |8500.00 |
| Komal |4500.00 |
| Muffy |10000.00 |
| Ramesh |3500.00 |
+++

67
 NESTED QUERIES & QUERIES USING GROUP BY AND OTHER CLAUSES
SAMPLES QUERIES

SET OPERATIONS & OTHER CLAUSES:

NESTED QUERY: - A nested query makes use of another sub-query to compute or
retrievethe information.
UNION - OR
INTERSECT - AND
EXCEPT - NOT
Order by : The order by clause is used to display the results in sorted order.
Group by : The attribute or attributes given in the clauses are used to form groups. Tuples
with thesame value on all attributes in the group by clause are placed in one group.
Having: SQL applies predicates (conditions) in the having clause after groups have been
formed, soaggregate function be used.

PROBLEM STATEMENTS:
1. Find the name of the institute in which the person studied and developed the costliest package.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT SPLACE, PNAME FROM STUDY WHERE PNAME = (SELECT PNAMEFROM
SOFTWARE
WHERE SCOST = (SELECT MAX (SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE);

OUTPUT:
SPLACE PNAME

SAHBHARI MARY

2. Find the salary and institute of a person who developed the highest selling package.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT STUDY.PNAME, SAL, SPLACE FROM STUDY, PROGRAMMER WHERE

STUDY.PNAME = PROGRAMMER.PNAME AND STUDY.PNAME = (SELECT PNAME FROMSOFTWARE

WHERE
SCOST = (SELECT MAX (SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE));

OUTPUT:

PNAM SAL SPLACE

MARY 4500 SABHARI

3. How many packages were developed by the person who developed the cheapest package.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT PNAME, COUNT (TITLE) FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DCOST = (SELECT

68
MIN(DCOST) FROM SOFTWARE) GROUP BY PNAME;
RESULT
PNAME COUNT(TITLE)

VIJAY 1

4. Calculate the amount to be recovered for those packages whose development cost has not
yet recovered.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT TITLE, (DCOST-SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DCOST > SCOST;

5. Display the title, scost, dcost, difference of scost and dcost in the descending order of difference.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT TITLE, SCOST, DCOST, (SCOST - DCOST) FROM SOFTWARE
DESCENDING ORDER BY (SCOST-DCOST);

6. Display the details of those who draw the same salary.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT P.PNAME, P.SAL FROM PROGRAMMER P, PROGRAMMER T WHEREP.PNAME

<>
T.PNAME AND P.SAL = T.SAL;(OR)
INPUT: SQL>SELECT PNAME,SAL FROM PROGRAMMER T WHERE PNAME<>T.PNAME ANDSAL=
T.SAL;

7. Display total salary spent for each job category.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT JOB,SUM (SAL) FROM EMP GROUP BY JOB;

OUTPUT:
JOB SUM(SAL)

ANALYST 6000
CLERK 23050
MANAGER 8275
PRESIDENT 5000
SALESMAN 5600
assistant 2200
clerk 2003

7 rows selected.

8. Display lowest paid employee details under each manager.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT ENAME, SAL FROM EMP WHERE SAL IN (SELECT MIN(SAL) FROM EMPGROUP
BY MGR);
OUTPUT:
ENAME SAL

CHAI 3
JAMES 950
MILLER 1000

69
ADAMS 1100
russel 2200
5 rows selected.

9. Display number of employees working in each department and their department name.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT DNAME, COUNT (ENAME) FROM EMP, DEPT WHERE
EMP.DEPTNO=DEPT.DEPTNO
GROUP BY DNAME;

OUTPUT:
DNAME COUNT(ENAME)

ACCOUNTING 3
RESEARCH 5
SALES 9

10. Display the sales cost of package developed by each programmer.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT PNAME, SUM(SCOST) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY PNAME;

OUTPUT:
PNAME SUM(SCOST)

john 12000
kamala 12000
raju 12333
3 rows
selected.

11. Display the number of packages sold by each programmer.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT PNAME, COUNT(TITLE) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY PNAME;

OUTPUT:
PNAME COUNT(TITLE)

john 1

kamala 1
raju 1
ramana 1
rani 1
5 rows
selected.

70
12. Display the number of packages in each language for which the development cost is less
than thousand.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT DEVIN, COUNT(TITLE) FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DCOST < 1000 GROUPBY
DEVIN;

OUTPUT:
DEVIN COUNT(TITLE)

cobol 1

13. Display each institute name with number of students.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT SPLACE, COUNT(PNAME) FROM STUDY GROUP BY SPLACE;

OUTPUT:
SPLACE COUNT(PNAME)

BDPS 2
BITS 1
BNRILLIANI 1
COIT 1
HYD 1
5 rows
selected.

13. How many copies of package have the least difference between development and selling cost,
weresold?

INPUT: SQL>select SOLD FROM SOFTWARE WHERE SCOST – DCOST=(SELECT MIN(SCOST –DCOST)
FROM SOFTWARE);

OUTPUT:
SOLD

11

14. Which is the costliest package developed in Pascal.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT TITLE FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DEVIN = ‘PASCAL’ AND DCOST =(SELECT
MAX(DCOST) FROM SOFTWARE WHERE DEVIN = ‘PASCAL’);

OUTPUT:
no rows selected

15. Which language was used to develop most no .of packages?

INPUT: SQL>SELECT DEVIN, COUNT (*) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY DEVIN HAVING
COUNT(*)
= (SELECT MAX(COUNT(*) ) FROM SOFTWARE GROUP BY DEVIN);

71
 OUTPUT:
DEVIN COUNT(*)

jsp 2
16. Who are the male programmers earning below the average salary of female programmers?

INPUT: SQL>SELECT PNAME FROM PROGRAMMER WHERE SAL < (SELECT AVG(SAL) FROM
PROGRAMMER WHERE SEX = ‘F’) AND SEX = ‘M’;

OUTPUT:
PNAME

vijay

17. Display the details of software developed by the male programmers earning more than 3000/-.

INPUT: SQL> SELECT PROGRAMMER.PNAME, TITLE, DEVIN FROM PROGRAMMER,SOFTWARE

WHERE SAL > 3000 AND SEX = ‘M’ AND PROGRAMMER.PNAME
= SOFTWARE.PNAME;

OUTPUT:
no rows selected

18. Display the details of software developed in c language by female programmers of Pragathi.

INPUT: SQL>SELECT SOFTWARE.PNAME, TITLE, DEVIN, SCOST, DCOST, SOLD FROM PROGRAMMER,
SOFTWARE, STUDY WHERE DEVIN = ‘C’ AND SEX =’F’ AND SPLACE = ‘PRAGATHI’ AND
PROGRAMMER.PNAME = SOFTWARE.PNAME AND SOFTWARE.PNAME = STUDY.PNAME;

RESULT:
Thus the Nested Queries and Queries Using Group By and Having Clause has been executed and output
was verified.

72
 Ex.No:3 VIEWS, SEQUENCES, SYNONYMS

AIM:
To create view, execute and verify the various operations on views.
PROGRAM:
SQL CREATE VIEW Statement

In SQL, a view is a virtual table based on the result-set of an SQL statement.

A view contains rows and columns, just like a real table. The fields in a view are fields from one or
morereal tables in the database.

You can add SQL functions, WHERE, and JOIN statements to a view and present the data as if the data
were coming from one single table.

CREATE VIEW Syntax CREATE

VIEW view_name AS
SELECT column1,column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Note: A view always shows up-to-date data! The database engine recreates the data, using the view's
SQLstatement, every time a user queries a view.

SQL CREATE VIEW Examples

If you have the Northwind database you can see that it has several views installed by default.

The view "Current Product List" lists all active products (products that are not discontinued)
from the"Products" table. The view is created with the following SQL:

CREATE VIEW [Current Product List] AS

SELECT ProductID, ProductName
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued = No;

Then, we can query the view as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Current Product List];

73
Another view in the Northwind sample database selects every product in the "Products" table with
a unitprice higher than the average unit price:

CREATE VIEW [Products Above Average Price]

AS SELECT ProductName, UnitPrice
FROM Products
WHERE UnitPrice > (SELECT AVG(UnitPrice) FROM Products);

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Products Above Average Price];

Another view in the Northwind database calculates the total sale for each category in 1997. Note that
thisview selects its data from another view called "Product Sales for 1997":

CREATE VIEW [Category Sales For 1997] AS

SELECT DISTINCT CategoryName, Sum(ProductSales) AS CategorySales
FROM [Product Sales for 1997]
GROUP BY CategoryName;

We can query the view above as follows:

SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997];

We can also add a condition to the query. Let's see the total sale only for the category

"Beverages":SELECT * FROM [Category Sales For 1997]

WHERE CategoryName = 'Beverages';

SQL Updating a View

You can update a view by using the following syntax:

SQL CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW Syntax

CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW view_name

AS
SELECT column1,column2, ...
FROM table_name
WHERE condition;

Now we want to add the "Category" column to the "Current Product List" view. We will update the
viewwith the following SQL:
74
CREATE OR REPLACE VIEW [Current Product List] AS
SELECT ProductID, ProductName, Category
FROM Products
WHERE Discontinued = No;
SQL Dropping a View

You can delete a view with the DROP VIEW command.

SQL DROP VIEW Syntax

DROP VIEW view_name;

SQL CREATE INDEX Statement
SQL CREATE INDEX Statement

The CREATE INDEX statement is used to create indexes in tables.

Indexes are used to retrieve data from the database very fast. The users cannot see the indexes, they are
justused to speed up searches/queries.

Note: Updating a table with indexes takes more time than updating a table without (because the indexes
also need an update). So, only create indexes on columns that will be frequently searched against.

CREATE INDEX Syntax

Creates an index on a table. Duplicate values are allowed:

CREATE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);
CREATE UNIQUE INDEX Syntax

Creates a unique index on a table. Duplicate values are not allowed:

CREATE UNIQUE INDEX index_name

ON table_name (column1, column2, ...);

Note: The syntax for creating indexes varies among different databases. Therefore: Check the syntax
forcreating indexes in your database.

CREATE INDEX Example

The SQL statement below creates an index named "idx_lastname" on the "LastName" column
in the"Persons" table:

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CREATE INDEX idx_lastname
ON Persons (LastName);

If you want to create an index on a combination of columns, you can list the column names
within theparentheses, separated by commas:

CREATE INDEX idx_pname

ON Persons (LastName, FirstName);
DROP INDEX Statement

The DROP INDEX statement is used to delete an index in a table.

MS Access:

DROP INDEX index_name ON table_name;

SQL Server:

DROP INDEX table_name.index_name;

DB2/Oracle:

DROP INDEX index_name;

MySQL:

ALTER TABLE table_name

DROP INDEX index_name;

CREATE SYNONYM

Purpose

Use the CREATE SYNONYM statement to create a synonym, which is an alternative name for a table,
view, sequence, procedure, stored function, package, materialized view, Java class schema object,
user- defined object type, or another synonym.

Synonyms provide both data independence and location transparency. Synonyms permit
applications to function without modification regardless of which user owns the table or view and
regardless of which database holds the table or view. However, synonyms are not a substitute for
privileges on database objects. Appropriate privileges must be granted to a user before the user can
use the synonym.

76
You can refer to synonyms in the following DML statements:

SELECT, INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, FLASHBACK TABLE, EXPLAIN PLAN, and LOCK TABLE.
You can refer to synonyms in the following DDL statements: AUDIT, NOAUDIT, GRANT, REVOKE,
and COMMENT.

Prerequisites

To create a private synonym in your own schema, you must have the CREATE SYNONYM system
privilege.

To create a private synonym in another user's schema, you must

havethe CREATE ANY SYNONYM system privilege.

To create a PUBLIC synonym, you must have the CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM system privilege.

Examples

CREATE SYNONYM: Examples To define the synonym offices for the table locations in the schema hr,
issue the following statement:

CREATE SYNONYM

offices FOR hr.locations;

To create a PUBLIC synonym for the employees table in the schema hr on the remote database, you
couldissue the following statement:

CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM emp_table

FOR [email protected];

A synonym may have the same name as the underlying object, provided the underlying object is
contained in another schema.

Oracle Database Resolution of Synonyms: Example Oracle Database attempts to resolve

references to objects at the schema level before resolving them at the PUBLIC synonym level. For
example, the schemas oe and sh both contain tables named customers. In the next example, user
SYSTEM createsa PUBLIC synonym named customers foroe.customers:

CREATE PUBLIC SYNONYM customers FOR oe.customers;

If the user sh then issues the following statement, then the database returns the count of
rowsfrom sh.customers:

77
 SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customers;

To retrieve the count of rows from oe.customers, the user sh must preface customers with the
schemaname. (The user sh must have select permission on oe.customers as well.)

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM oe.customers;

If the user hr's schema does not contain an object named customers, and if hr has select
permission on oe.customers, then hr can access thecustomers table in oe's schema by using the
public synonym customers:

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM customers;

CREATE SEQUENCE

Purpose

Use the CREATE SEQUENCE statement to create a sequence, which is a database object from which
multiple users may generate unique integers. You can use sequences to automatically generate
primary key values.

When a sequence number is generated, the sequence is incremented, independent of the transaction
committing or rolling back. If two users concurrently increment the same sequence, then the
sequence numbers each user acquires may have gaps, because sequence numbers are being
generated by the other user. One user can never acquire the sequence number generated by another
user. After a sequence value is generated by one user, that user can continue to access that value
regardless of whether the sequence is incremented by another user.

Sequence numbers are generated independently of tables, so the same sequence can be used for one
or for multiple tables. It is possible that individual sequence numbers will appear to be skipped,
because theywere generated and used in a transaction that ultimately rolled back. Additionally, a
single user may not realize that other users are drawing from the same sequence.

After a sequence is created, you can access its values in SQL statements with
the CURRVAL pseudocolumn, which returns the current value of the sequence, or
the NEXTVAL pseudocolumn, which increments the sequence and returns the new value.

Semantics

schema

Specify the schema to contain the sequence. If you omit schema, then Oracle Database creates the
sequencein your own schema.

78
 sequence

Specify the name of the sequence to be created.

If you specify none of the following clauses, then you create an ascending sequence that starts with 1
and increases by 1 with no upper limit. Specifying only INCREMENT BY -1 creates a descending
sequence that starts with -1 and decreases with no lower limit.

 To create a sequence that increments without bound, for ascending sequences, omit
the MAXVALUE parameter or specify NOMAXVALUE. For descending sequences, omit the
MINVALUE parameter or specify the NOMINVALUE.
 To create a sequence that stops at a predefined limit, for an ascending sequence, specify a value
for the MAXVALUE parameter. For a descending sequence, specify a value for the MINVALUE
parameter. Also specify NOCYCLE. Any attempt to generate a sequence number once the sequence
has reached its limit results in an error.
 To create a sequence that restarts after reaching a predefined limit, specify values for both
the MAXVALUE and MINVALUE parameters. Also specify CYCLE. If you do not specify MINVALUE,
then it defaults to NOMINVALUE, which is the value 1.

INCREMENT BY Specify the interval between sequence numbers. This integer value can be any
positive or negative integer, but it cannot be 0. This value can have 28 or fewer digits. The absolute of
this value must be less than the difference of MAXVALUE and MINVALUE. If this value is negative,
then the sequence descends. If the value is positive, then the sequence ascends. If you omit this
clause, then the interval defaults to 1.

START WITH Specify the first sequence number to be generated. Use this clause to start an
ascending sequence at a value greater than its minimum or to start a descending sequence at a value
less than its maximum. For ascending sequences, the default value is the minimum value of the
sequence. For descending sequences, the default value is the maximum value of the sequence. This
integer value can have28 or fewer digits.

Note:
This value is not necessarily the value to which an ascending cycling sequence cycles after reaching its
maximum or minimum value.

MAXVALUE Specify the maximum value the sequence can generate. This integer value can have 28
or fewer digits. MAXVALUE must be equal to or greater thanSTART WITH and must be greater
than MINVALUE.

NOMAXVALUE Specify NOMAXVALUE to indicate a maximum value of 1027 for an ascending

sequence or -1 for a descending sequence. This is the default.

MINVALUE Specify the minimum value of the sequence. This integer value can have 28 or fewer
digits. MINVALUE must be less than or equal to START WITH and must be less than MAXVALUE.

NOMINVALUE Specify NOMINVALUE to indicate a minimum value of 1 for an ascending sequence or

-1026 for a descending sequence. This is the default.

CYCLE Specify CYCLE to indicate that the sequence continues to generate values after reaching

79
eitherits maximum or minimum value. After an ascending sequence reaches its maximum value, it
generates its minimum value. After a descending sequence reaches its minimum, it generates its
maximum value.

NOCYCLE Specify NOCYCLE to indicate that the sequence cannot generate more values after reaching
its maximum or minimum value. This is the default.

CACHE Specify how many values of the sequence the database preallocates and keeps in memory for
faster access. This integer value can have 28 or fewer digits. The minimum value for this parameter
is 2.For sequences that cycle, this value must be less than the number of values in the cycle. You
cannot cache more values than will fit in a given cycle of sequence numbers. Therefore, the maximum
value allowed for CACHE must be less than the value determined by the following formula:

(CEIL (MAXVALUE - MINVALUE)) / ABS (INCREMENT)

If a system failure occurs, then all cached sequence values that have not been used in committed
DMLstatements are lost. The potential number of lost values is equal to the value of the CACHE
parameter.

Note:
Oracle recommends using the CACHE setting to enhance performance if you are using sequences in an
Oracle Real Application Clusters environment.

NOCACHE Specify NOCACHE to indicate that values of the sequence are not preallocated. If you omit
both CACHE and NOCACHE, then the database caches 20 sequence numbers by default.

ORDER Specify ORDER to guarantee that sequence numbers are generated in order of request. This
clause is useful if you are using the sequence numbers as timestamps. Guaranteeing order is usually
not important for sequences used to generate primary keys.

ORDER is necessary only to guarantee ordered generation if you are using Oracle Real Application
Clusters. If you are using exclusive mode, then sequence numbers are always generated in order.

NOORDER Specify NOORDER if you do not want to guarantee sequence numbers are generated in
orderof request. This is the default.

Example

Creating a Sequence: Example The following statement creates the sequence customers_seq in the
sample schema oe. This sequence could be used to provide customer ID numbers when rows are
added to the customers table.

80
 CREATE SEQUENCE

customers_seq START WITH

1000

INCREMENT BY 1

NOCACHE

NOCYCLE;
The first reference to customers_seq.nextval returns 1000. The second returns 1001. Each subsequent
reference will return a value 1 greater than the previous reference.

DROP SEQUENCE

Purpose

Use the DROP SEQUENCE statement to remove a sequence from the database.

You can also use this statement to restart a sequence by dropping and then re-creating it. For
example, if you have a sequence with a current value of 150 and you would like to restart the
sequence with a value of 27, then you can drop the sequence and then re-create it with the same
name and aSTART WITH value of 27.

Example

Dropping a Sequence: Example The following statement drops the sequence customers_seq
owned bythe user oe, which was created in "Creating a Sequence: Example". To issue this statement,
you must eitherbe connected as user oe or have the DROP ANY SEQUENCE system privilege:

DROP SEQUENCE oe.customers_seq;

ALTER SEQUENCE

Purpose

Use the ALTER SEQUENCE statement to change the increment, minimum and maximum values,
cachednumbers, and behavior of an existing sequence. This statement affects only future sequence
numbers.

Examples

Modifying a Sequence: Examples This statement sets a new maximum value

forthe customers_seq sequence, which was created in "Creating a Sequence:
Example":

ALTER SEQUENCE

customers_seq MAXVALUE

1500;
81
This statement turns on CYCLE and CACHE for the customers_seq sequence:

ALTER SEQUENCE

customers_seq CYCLE

CACHE 5;

Finding the next value of a sequence: Example This example selects the next value of the
employeesequence in the sample schema hr:

SELECT employees_seq.nextval

FROM DUAL;

Inserting sequence values into a table: Example This example increments the employee sequence
anduses its value for a new employee inserted into the sample table hr.employees:

INSERT INTO employees

VALUES (employees_seq.nextval, 'John', 'Doe', 'jdoe',

'555-1212', TO_DATE(SYSDATE), 'PU_CLERK', 2500, null, null,

30);

Reusing the current value of a sequence:

Example This example adds a new order with the next order number to the master order table. It
then addssuborders with this number to the detail order table:

82
 INSERT INTO orders (order_id, order_date, customer_id)

VALUES (orders_seq.nextval, TO_DATE(SYSDATE),

106);

INSERT INTO order_items (order_id, line_item_id, product_id)

VALUES (orders_seq.currval, 1, 2359);

INSERT INTO order_items (order_id, line_item_id, product_id)

VALUES (orders_seq.currval, 2, 3290);

INSERT INTO order_items (order_id, line_item_id, product_id)

VALUES (orders_seq.currval, 3, 2381);

RESULT:

Thus the Queries for Views, Synonyms and Sequences has been written,executed and output was
verified.

83
Ex. No: 4 Oracle PL/SQL Cursor: Implicit, Explicit, Cursor FOR Loop

AIM:

To execute and verify cursors in DBMS to retrieve data from a result set, one row at a time.
PROGRAM:

What is CURSOR in PL/SQL?

A Cursor is a pointer to this context area. Oracle creates context area for processing an SQL
statement which contains all information about the statement.

PL/SQL allows the programmer to control the context area through the cursor. A cursor holds the
rows returned by the SQL statement. The set of rows the cursor holds is referred as active set.
These cursors can also be named so that they can be referred from another place of the code.

In this tutorial you will learn-

 Implicit Cursor

 Explicit Cursor

 Cursor Attributes

 FOR Loop Cursor

The cursor is of two types.

 Implicit Cursor

 Explicit Cursor

Implicit Cursor

Whenever any DML operations occur in the database, an implicit cursor is created that holds the
rows affected, in that particular operation. These cursors cannot be named and, hence they cannot
be controlled or referred from another place of the code. We can refer only to the most recent
cursor through the cursor attributes.

Explicit Cursor

Programmers are allowed to create named context area to execute their DML operations to get
more control over it. The explicit cursor should be defined in the declaration section of the PL/SQL
block, and it is created for the 'SELECT' statement that needs to be used in the code.

Below are steps that involved in working with explicit cursors.

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 Declaring the cursor

Declaring the cursor simply means to create one named context area for the 'SELECT' statement
that is defined in the declaration part. The name of this context area is same as the cursor name.

 Opening Cursor

Opening the cursor will instruct the PL/SQL to allocate the memory for this cursor. It will make
The cursor ready to fetch the records.

 Fetching Data from the Cursor

In this process, the 'SELECT' statement is executed and the rows fetched is stored in the allocated
memory. These are now called as active sets. Fetching data from the cursor is a record-level activity
that means we can access the data in a record-by-record way.

Each fetch statement will fetch one active set and holds the information of that particular record.
This statement is same as 'SELECT' statement that fetches the record and assigns to the variable in
the 'INTO' clause, but it will not throw any exceptions.

 Closing the Cursor

Once all the record is fetched now, we need to close the cursor so that the memory allocated to this
context area will be released.

Syntax:

DECLARE

CURSOR <cursor_name> IS <SELECT statement^>

<cursor_variable

declaration>BEGIN

OPEN <cursor_name>;

FETCH <cursor_name> INTO <cursor_variable>;

CLOSE <cursor_name>;

END;

 In the above syntax, the declaration part contains the declaration of the cursor and the cursor
variable inwhich the fetched data will be assigned.

 The cursor is created for the 'SELECT' statement that is given in the cursor declaration.

85
 In execution part, the declared cursor is opened, fetched and closed.

Cursor Attributes

Both Implicit cursor and the explicit cursor has certain attributes that can be accessed. These
attributes give more information about the cursor operations. Below are the different cursor
attributes and their usage.

Cursor Description
Attribut
e
%FOUND It returns the Boolean result 'TRUE' if the most recent fetch
operation fetched a record successfully, else it will return FALSE.

%NOTFOUND This works oppositely to %FOUND it will return 'TRUE' if the

mostrecent fetch operation could not able to fetch any record.

%ISOPEN It returns Boolean result 'TRUE' if the given cursor is already

opened, else it returns 'FALSE'

%ROWCOUNT It returns the numerical value. It gives the actual count of

recordsthat got affected by the DML activity.
Example 1: In this example, we are going to see how to declare, open, fetch and close the explicit cursor.

We will project all the employee's name from emp table using a cursor. We will also use cursor attribute
to set the loop to fetch all the record from the cursor.

86
DECLARE

CURSOR guru99_det IS SELECT emp_name FROM emp;

lv_emp_name emp.emp_name%type;

BEGIN

OPEN guru99_det;

LOOP

FETCH guru99_det INTO lv_emp_name;

IF guru99_det%NOTFOUND

THEN

EXIT;

END IF;

Dbms_output.put_line(‘Employee

Fetched:‘||lv_emp_name);END LOOP;

Dbms_output.put_line(‘Total rows fetched

is‘||guru99_det%R0WCOUNT);CLOSE guru99_det;

END:

Output

Employee Fetched:BBB

Employee Fetched:XXX

Employee Fetched:YYY

Total rows fetched is 3

Code Explanation:

 Code line 2: Declaring the cursor guru99_det for statement 'SELECT emp_name FROM emp'.

 Code line 3: Declaring variable lv_emp_name.

 Code line 5: Opening the cursor guru99_det.

87
  Code line 6: Setting the Basic loop statement to fetch all the records in the 'emp' table.

 Code line 7: Fetches the guru99_det data and assign the value to lv_emp_name.

 Code line 9: Using the cursor attribute '%NOTFOUND' to find whether all the record in the
cursor is fetched. If fetched then it will return 'TRUE' and control will exit from the loop, else
the control will keep on fetching the data from the cursor and print the data.

 Code line 11: EXIT condition for the loop statement.

 Code line 12: Print the fetched employee name.

 Code line 14: Using the cursor attribute '%ROWCOUNT' to find the total number of records
that gotaffected/fetched in the cursor.

 Code line 15: After exiting from the loop the cursor is closed and the memory allocated is set free.

FOR Loop Cursor statement

"FOR LOOP" statement can be used for working with cursors. We can give the cursor name instead
of range limit in the FOR loop statement so that the loop will work from the first record of the
cursor to the last record of the cursor. The cursor variable, opening of cursor, fetching and closing
of the cursor will bedone implicitly by the FOR loop.

Syntax:

DECLARE

CURSOR <cursor_name> IS <SELECT statement>;

BEGIN

FOR I IN

<cursor_name> LOOP

END LOOP;

END;

 In the above syntax, the declaration part contains the declaration of the cursor.

 The cursor is created for the 'SELECT' statement that is given in the cursor declaration.

 In execution part, the declared cursor is setup in the FOR loop and the loop variable 'I' will
behave ascursor variable in this case.

88
 Example 1: In this example, we will project all the employee name from emp table using a
cursor-FORloop.

DECLARE

CURSOR guru99_det IS SELECT emp_name FROM emp;

BEGIN

FOR lv_emp_name IN guru99_det

LOOP

Dbms_output.put_line(‘Employee

Fetched:‘||lv_emp_name);END LOOP;

END;

Output

Employee

Fetched:BBB

Employee Fetched:XXX

Employee Fetched:YYY

Code Explanation:

 Code line 2: Declaring the cursor guru99_det for statement 'SELECT emp_name FROM emp'.

 Code line 4: Constructing the 'FOR' loop for the cursor with the loop variable lv_emp_name.

 Code line 5: Printing the employee name in each iteration of the loop.

 Code line 8: Exit the loop

Note: In Cursor-FOR loop, cursor attributes cannot be used since opening, fetching and closing
of the cursor is done implicitly by FOR loop.

RESULT:
Thus cursors in DBMS to retrieve data from a result set has been written, executed and the output was verified.
89
 Ex.No:5 PROCEDURES AND

FUNCTIONS AIM:

To execute and Procedures and Functions in DBMS.

PROGRAM:

An Oracle stored procedure is a program stored in an Oracle database. The following are the
advantages of using procedures.
Better performance: Oracle stored procedures load once into the shared pool and remain
there unless they become paged out. Subsequent executions of the Oracle stored procedure are far
faster than executions of external code.
Coupling of data with behaviour: DBAs can use naming conventions to couple relational tables
with the behaviors associated with a table by using Oracle stored procedures as "methods". If all
behaviors associated with the employee table are prefixed with the table name--employee.hire,
employee.give_raise, for example--the data dictionary can be queries to list all behaviors associated
witha table (select * from dba_objects where owner = 'EMPLOYEE'), and it's easy to identify and
reuse code via stored procedures.
Isolation of code: Since all SQL is moved out of the external programs and into the Oracle
stored procedures, the application programs become nothing more than calls to Oracle stored
procedures. As such, it becomes very simple to swap out one database and swap in another one.
SYNTAX:
CREATE [OR REPLACE] PROCEDURE
procedure_name [(parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN
OUT] type [, ...])]
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
procedure_body
EXCEPTION
Exception
handlingEND
procedure_name
IN - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function. The value of the parameter
cannot beoverwritten by the procedure or function.
OUT - The parameter cannot be referenced by the procedure or function, but the value of the

90
 parameter canbe overwritten by the procedure or function.
IN OUT - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function and the value of the
parameter canbe overwritten by the procedure or function.
Procedure body contains the SQL and PL/SQL statements to perform the procedure's task.

Exception Section: The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword
EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program can be handled in this section, so
that thePL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully.
If the PL/SQL Block contains exceptions that cannot be handled, the Block terminates abruptly with
errors.

REFERRED TABLES:
Borrow(acc_no , rollno, date_issue);
1. Write a procedure to insert a record in borrower relation. Before inserting check whether the
book is available or not.
Procedure
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE PROC_BORROW(ACCNO NUMBER, ROLL VARCHAR,DOI
DATE)
IS
CNT NUMBER(5);
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO CNT FROM BORROW WHERE ACC_NO=ACCNO ;
IF(CNT=0)
THEN
INSERT INTO BORROW VALUES (ACCNO,ROLL,DOI); ELSE

DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(‘BOOK NOT AVAILABLE’);END IF;

END;

OUTPUT:
SQL> @
e:\proc.sql;
Procedure Created.
SQL> exec pro1(‘123’,’CS01’,’27-OCT-2013’);
Procedure successfully completed.
SQL> SELECT * FROM BORROW;

91
 ACC_NO ROLLNO DOI

123 CS01 27-OCT-2013

128 CS10 18-OCT-2013

2. Write a procedure to insert a record in borrower relation with the above constraints and also
ensure that the member has not borrowed more than three books.
Procedure
CREATE OR REPLACE PROCEDURE PROC_BORROW(ACCNO NUMBER, ROLL VARCHAR,DOI
DATE)
IS
CNT NUMBER(5);
BEGIN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO CNT FROM BORROW WHERE ACC_NO=ACCNO;
IF(CNT=0)
THEN
SELECT COUNT(*) INTO CNT1 FROM BORROW WHERE ROLLNO=ROLL;
IF(CNT1<4)
THEN
INSERT INTO BORROW VALUES (ACCNO,ROLL,DOI);END
IF;
ELSE
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE(‘BOOK NOT AVAILABLE’);END
IF;

END;

OUTPUT:
SQL> @ e:\proc.sql;
Procedure Created.

92
 FUNCTIONS
PL/SQL FUNCTION:
A PL/SQL function is same as a procedure except that it returns a value. A standalone function is
createdusing the CREATE FUNCTION statement.
SYNTAX
CREATE [OR REPLACE] FUNCTION function_name (parameter_name [IN | OUT | IN OUT] type [,
...])
RETURN return_datatype
{IS | AS}
BEGIN
< function_body
>
return_variable;
EXCEPTION
exception
sectionEND;

93
 Return Type: The header section defines the return type of the function. The return datatype can be
any ofthe oracle datatype like varchar, number etc. The execution and exception section both
should return a value which is of the datatype defined in the header section.
IN - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function. The value of the parameter
cannot beoverwritten by the procedure or function.
OUT - The parameter cannot be referenced by the procedure or function, but the value of the
parameter canbe overwritten by the procedure or function.
IN OUT - The parameter can be referenced by the procedure or function and the value of the parameter
canbe overwritten by the procedure or function.
Procedure body contains the SQL and PL/SQL statements to perform the procedure's task.
Exception Section: The Exception section of a PL/SQL Block starts with the reserved keyword
EXCEPTION. This section is optional. Any errors in the program can be handled in this section, so
that the PL/SQL Blocks terminates gracefully. If the PL/SQL Block contains exceptions that
cannot be handled, the Block terminates abruptly with errors

The major difference between a procedure and a function is, a function must always return a
value, but aprocedure may or may not return a value.

RESULT:
Thus the program for Procedures and Functions has been written and executed successfully.

94
 Ex.No:6 TRIGGERS

AIM:
To execute and verify triggers for the purpose of monitoring the database objects.
PROGRAM:

PL/SQL TRIGGERS:
Triggers are stored programs, which are automatically executed or fired when some events occur.
Triggersare, in fact, written to be executed in response to any of the following events:
A database manipulation (DML) statement (DELETE, INSERT, or
UPDATE).A database definition (DDL) statement (CREATE, ALTER, or
DROP).

A database operation (SERVERERROR, LOGON, LOGOFF, STARTUP, or SHUTDOWN).

Triggers could be defined on the table, view, schema, or database with which the event is associated.
Benefits of Triggers
Generating some derived column values
automaticallyEnforcing referential integrity
Event logging and storing information on table
accessAuditing
Synchronous replication of
tablesImposing security
authorizations Preventing
invalid transactions.

SYNTAX:
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER < trigger_name >
{BEFORE | AFTER | INSTEAD OF }
{INSERT [OR] | UPDATE [OR] | DELETE} [OF col_name]
ON < table_name >
[REFERENCING OLD AS o NEW AS n]
[FOR EACH ROW]
WHEN < condition
> DECLARE
< Declaration-statements

95
>BEGIN
< Executable-statements
>EXCEPTION
< Exception-handling-
statements >END;
A typical trigger has 3 main components
1.Triggering SQL Statement: - This is the DML statement which causes the triggers to be invoked.
Thatis it tells when to call the trigger – before or after, on which DML statement of the table –
INSERT/ UPDATE/ DELETE and whether to call trigger when whole table is processed or only few
columns are processed. BEFORE and AFTER is used on tables and INSTEAD OF is used on views to
create triggers.

2.Trigger Restriction: - This is the part of trigger which tells how many times the trigger needs to be
executed. It informs, if the trigger has to be called for each row insert /update/delete, or only once
for the transaction.
3.Trigger Action: - This part will actually perform set of transaction as result of original DML statement.

SAMPLE EXERCISE
REFERRED TABLES:
Account (
accnt_no,cst_id,acnt_type,last_trans_date,balance )
Account_bckup(accnt_no,last_trans_date,balance)
Loan (ln_id,cst_id,ln_amount,ln_date);
1. Create a trigger for Account relation such that whenever a record is inserted in the Account
tablethe same record also gets inserted in the backup table.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIG_ACNT_BCKUP AFTER INSERT ON ACCOUNTFOR
EACH ROW
DECLARE
BEGIN
INSERT INTO ACCOUNT_BCKUP VALUES (:NEW.ACCNT_NO, :NEW.LAST_TRANS_DATE,
:NEW.BALANCE);
END;
OUTPUT:
SQL>

96
@e:/plsql/accnt_trig.sql
Trigger Created.

SQL> INSERT INTO ACCOUNT VALUES (‘AC010’,’CST011’,’SVNG’,’27-AUG-2013’,12000);

1 Row inserted.
SQL> SELECT * FROM ACCOUNT_BCKUP;
ACCNO LAST_TRANS_DATE BALANCE

AC010 27-AUG-2013 12,000

2.Create a trigger for account relation such that whenever account record is inserted in account
relation with negative relation then that record should also be inserted in the loan relation with
positive balance.
CREATE OR REPLACE TRIGGER TRIG_LOAN AFTER INSERT ON ACCOUNTFOR
EACH ROW
DECLARE
BEGIN
IF(:NEW.BALANCE<0)
THEN
INSERT INTO LOAN VALUES (:NEW.ACCNT_NO, :NEW.CST_ID, -(:NEW.BALANCE),
SYSDATE);
END IF;
END;

OUTPUT:
SQL>
@e:/plsql/loan_trig.sql
Trigger Created.
SQL> INSERT INTO ACCOUNT VALUES (‘AC011’,’CST011’,’SVNG’,’27-DEC-2013’,-8000);
1 Row inserted.
SQL> SELECT * FROM LOAN;
LN_ID CST_ID LN_AMOUNT LN_DATE

AC010 CST011 8000 30-DEC-

2013

97
RESULT:

Thus the Triggers for the purpose of monitoring the database objects has been written and executed
successfully.

98
Ex.No:7 EXCEPTION HANDLING

AIM:

To execute and verify exception handling in the DBMS.

PROGRAM:

An exception is an error condition during a program execution. PL/SQL supports programmers to

catch such conditions using EXCEPTION block in the program and an appropriate action is taken
against the error condition. There are two types of exceptions −
 System-defined exceptions
 User-defined exceptions
Syntax for Exception Handling
The general syntax for exception handling is as follows. Here you can list down as many
exceptions asyou can handle. The default exception will be handled using WHEN others THEN −
DECLARE
<declarations
section>BEGIN
<executable
command(s)>EXCEPTION
<exception handling goes here >
WHEN exception1 THEN
exception1-handling-
statements
WHEN exception2 THEN
exception2-handling-
statements
WHEN exception3 THEN
exception3-handling-
statements
........
WHEN others THEN
exception3-handling-statements

END;

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Raising Exceptions
Exceptions are raised by the database server automatically whenever there is any internal database
error, but exceptions can be raised explicitly by the programmer by using the command RAISE.
Following is the simple syntax for raising an exception −
DECLARE
exception_name EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF condition THEN
RAISE exception_name;
END IF;

EXCEPTION
WHEN exception_name THEN
statement;
END;
User-defined Exceptions
PL/SQL allows you to define your own exceptions according to the need of your program. A user-
definedexception must be declared and then raised explicitly, using either a RAISE statement or the
procedure DBMS_STANDARD.RAISE_APPLICATION_ERROR.
The syntax for declaring an exception is
−DECLARE
my-exception EXCEPTION;

Pre-defined Exceptions

PL/SQL provides many pre-defined exceptions, which are executed when any database rule is
violated by aprogram. For example, the predefined exception NO_DATA_FOUND is raised when a
SELECT INTO statement returns no rows. The following table lists few of the important pre-defined
exceptions.

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 Exception Description

ACCESS_INTO_NULL It is raised when a null object is automatically assigned a value.

It is raised when none of the choices in the WHEN clause of a
CASE_NOT_FOUND
CASE statement is selected, and there is no ELSE clause.
It is raised when a program attempts to apply collection
methods other than EXISTS to an uninitialized nested table, or
COLLECTION_IS_NULL
the program attempts to assign values to the elements of an
uninitialized nested
table
It is raised when duplicate values are attempted to be stored in
DUP_VAL_ON_INDEX a
column with unique index.
It is raised when attempts are made to make a cursor operation
INVALID_CURSOR that
is not allowed, such as closing an unopened cursor.
It is raised when the conversion of a character string into a
INVALID_NUMBER number fails because the string does not represent a valid
number.
LOGIN_DENIED It is raised when a program attempts to log on to the database
with

an invalid username or password.

NO_DATA_FOUND It is raised when a SELECT INTO statement returns no rows.
It is raised when a database call is issued without being
NOT_LOGGED_ON connected
to the database.
PROGRAM_ERROR It is raised when PL/SQL has an internal problem.
It is raised when a cursor fetches value in a variable having
ROWTYPE_MISMATCH incompatible data type.

It is raised when a member method is invoked, but the instance

SELF_IS_NULL of the object type was not initialized.

It is raised when PL/SQL ran out of memory or memory was

STORAGE_ERROR
corrupted.

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1. For the customer relation Customers(ID, Name, Age Address, Salary). Write a PL/SQL block to input
customerid and display address and salary. Use exception to display “ No such customer” when
data not found.
DECLARE
c_id customers.ID%type
:= &c_id;c_name
customers.Name%type;

c_addr customers.Address
%type;BEGIN
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr FROM customers WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' ||
c_addr); EXCEPTION
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such
customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;

/
OUTPUT:
Enter the value of c_id:100
No such customer
2. For the customer relation Customers(ID, Name, Age Address, Salary). Write a PL/SQL block to
input customerid and display address and salary. Use exception to display “ No such customer”
when data not found.
DECLARE
c_id customers.id%type :=
&cc_id;c_name
customerS.Name%type; c_addr
customers.address%type;
-- user defined exception
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 ex_invalid_id EXCEPTION;
BEGIN
IF c_id <= 0 THEN
RAISE ex_invalid_id;
ELSE
SELECT name, address INTO c_name, c_addr
FROM customers
WHERE id = c_id;
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Name: '|| c_name);
DBMS_OUTPUT.PUT_LINE ('Address: ' ||
c_addr);

END IF;
EXCEPTION
WHEN ex_invalid_id THEN
dbms_output.put_line('ID must be greater than zero!');
WHEN no_data_found THEN
dbms_output.put_line('No such
customer!');
WHEN others THEN
dbms_output.put_line('Error!');
END;
/
OUTPUT
Enter the value of c_id:-50
ID must be greater than zero

RESULT:
Thus the Exception handling program has been written, executed and output was verified.

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 Ex. No: 8. DATABASE DESIGN USING ER MODELING, NORMALIZATION
AND IMPLEMENTATION FOR ANY APPLICATION

AIM:
To design Database using ER Modeling in DBMS.
PROGRAM:
NORMALIZATION
Normalization is the analysis of functional dependencies between attributes/data items of
user views. It reduces a complex user view to a set of small and stable subgroups of the fields and
relations. This process helps to design a logical data model known as conceptual data model.
There are different normal forms
1. First Normal Form(1NF)
2. Second Normal Form(2NF)
3. Third Normal Form(3NF)
FIRST NORMAL FORM (1NF)
1NF states that the domain of an attribute must include only atomic values and that value of
any attribute in a tuple must be a single value from the domain of that attribute. Hence 1NF
disallows multivalued attributes, composite attributes. It disallows “relations within relations”.
SECOND NORMAL FORM (2NF)
A relation is said to be in 2NF if it is already in 1NF and it has no partial dependency. 2NF is
basedon the concept of full functional dependency.
A functional dependency(FD) x y is fully functional dependency is (x-(A)) y does not
holddependency any more if A x.
A functional dependency x y is partial dependency if A can be removed which does not affect
thedependency ie (x-(A)) y holds.
A relation is in 2NF if it is in 1NF and every non-primary key attribute is fully and
functionallydependent on primary key.
A relation is in 1NF will be in the 2NF if one of the following conditions is satisfied:
1. The primary key consist of only one attribute.
2. No non-key attribute exist in relation ie all the attributes in the relation are components of
the primarykey.
Every non-key attribute is functionally dependent on full set of primary key attributes.

104
THIRD NORMAL FORM (3NF)
A relation is said to be in 3NF if it is already in 2NF and it has no transitive dependency.
A FD x y in a relation schema R is a transitive dependency if there is a set of attributes z that is
neither a candidate key nor a subset of any key of the relation and both x z and z y hold.

Entity relationship diagram (ERD):

An entity relationship diagram (ERD) shows the relationships of entity sets stored in a database. An
entity in this context is an object, a component of data. An entity set is a collection of similar
entities. These entities can have attributes that define its properties.
Notation :

105
Database design for property database.
E-R DIAGRAMS
1. First Normal Form

Propnorm

Propi cnam PAd area price Tax_rat

Propi snam city countr

2. Second Normal Form

area price Tax_rat

propnorm

Propi cnam

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3. Third Normal Form

propnorm

Propid cnam area

First Normal Form

1. Create a property table with the following fields: property id, country name, padd, area,
price, tax rateand having property id as the primary key.
SQL> create table prop(propid number(2) primary key, cname varchar(20), padd varchar(50),
area int,price number(9,2),tax_rate number(2));

SQL> desc prop;

Name Null? Type

PROPID NOT NULL NUMBER(2)

CNAME VARCHAR2(20)
PADD VARCHAR2(50)
AREA NUMBER(38)
PRICE NUMBER(9,2)
TAX_RATE NUMBER(2)

107
2. Insert values in the property table.
SQL> insert into prop values('34','india','ganthi nagar,Coimbatore,
india','500','500000','2');1 row created.
SQL> insert into prop values('45','united states','first street southeast, Washington,
Unitedstates','400','2550000','5');
1 row created.
SQL> insert into prop values('39','scotland','capelrig road, Glasgow, scotland','600','2500000','4');

1 row created.

Before Normalization
prop
Propid Cname Padd Area Price Tax_rate

Normalization to first normal form

1. Creating the prop11 tabale with propid, cname, area,price, tax_rate from
prop.SQL> create table prop11 as select , cname, area,price, tax_rate from
prop;
2. Creating the table prop12 with propid, sname,city,country
from propSQL> create table prop12 as select propid,padd from
emp;
3. Altering the table prop11 with primary key on prop.
SQL> alter table prop12 add constraint c1 foreign key(propid) references prop11(propid);
4. Altering the table prop12 with foreign key on propid with reference from
prop11. SQL> alter table prop12 add constraint c1 foreign key(propid)
references prop11(propid);
After
Normalization
Prop11
Propid Cname Area Price Tax_rate

Prop12
Propid sname City country

108
 SECOND NORMAL FORM
Normalization to Second Normal Form
1. Create the table prop21 with propid, cname, area, price from the
table prop.SQL> create table prop21 as select propid,cname,area, price
from prop;
2. Create the table prop22 with cname, tax_rate from the
table prop.SQL> create table prop22 as select cname,tax_rate
from prop;
3. Alter table prop21 with a primary key constraint on propid.
SQL> alter table prop21 add constraint prop21 primary
key(propid);

4. Alter table prop22 with a primary key constraint on cname.

SQL> alter table prop22 add constraint prop22 primary
key(cname);
5. Alter table prop21 with foreign key on cname with references on cname from prop22.
SQL> alter table prop21 add constraint prop212 foreign key(cname) references prop22(cname);
After normalization
Prop21 prop22
Propid Cname Area Price Cname Tax_rate

THIRD NORMAL FORM

The 2NF table is given as input here and convert it to 3NF.
Input: prop21, prop22 tables.
For converting to 3NF it is enough making changes in prop21 table.
Before Normalization
Prop21
Propid Cname Area Price

1. Create table prop31 with propid, cname, area from

prop21. SQL> create table prop31 as select propid,cname,area
from prop21;
2. Create table prop32 with area, price from prop21.
SQL> create table prop32 as select area, price from prop21;

109
 3. Alter table prop31 with the constraint primary key on
propid. SQL> alter table prop31 add constraint prop31 primary
key(propid);
4. Alter table prop32 with the constraint primary key on
area. SQL> alter table prop32 add constraint prop32
primary key(area);
5. Alter table prop31 with the constraint foreign key on area with refernce from area
in prop32.SQL> alter table prop31 add constraint prop311 foreign key(area)
references prop32(area); After Normalization
Prop31 prop32
Propid Cname Area Area Price

RESULT:
Thus the Database Design Using ER Modeling, Normalization has been written, executed
successfully.

110
 Ex . No: 9 GENERATION OF FORMS USING ORACLE FORM BUILDER

AIM:
To generate forms using Oracle form builder.
PROCEDURE:
Use Form Builder to simplify for the creation of data-entry screens, also known as Forms. Forms are
the applications that connect to a database, retrieve information requested by the user, present it in a
layout specified by Form designer, and allow the user to modify or add information. Form Builder
allows you to build forms quickly and easily.

Form Builder Tool

Open the "Form Builder" tool.

Welcome window

You will get the ‘Welcome to the Form Builder’ window. If you don’t want to get this window anymore
uncheck the ‘Display at startup’ box. You can start your work with any of the following options:

 Use the data Block Wizard

 Build a new form manually
 Open an existing form

Build a form based on a template

The default is ‘Use the data Block Wizard.’ If you want to build a new form manually, click on
"Cancel”or check ‘Build a new form manually’ and click ‘OK.’

Connect to database

In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight "Database Objects." Go to the Main menu and choose

"File," then "Connect."

In the ‘Connect’ window, login in as “scott” password “tiger,” then click “CONNECT.”

Notice that the box next to ‘Database Objects’ is not empty anymore and it has a ‘+’ sign in

it.That will indicate that this item is expandable and you are able to see its entire objects.

Click on the ‘+’ sign next to the ‘Database Objects’ to expand all database schemas.

111
Create a Module

In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight module1. This is a default name. Go to the Main menu
and choose “File,” select “Save as” to store the new object in the “iself” folder and save it as
customer data entry. "c:_de." In this example the ‘DE’ abbreviation stands for Data Entry.

Create a Data Block

In the ‘Object Navigator’ window, highlight "Data Blocks,” and click on the "create” icon. The
‘Create’ icon is in the vertical tool bar in the ‘Object Navigator’ window. It is a green ‘+’ sign. If you
drag your cursor on the icon a tooltip will show ‘Create.’

New Data Block

In the ‘New Data Block’ window, choose the default option “Data Block Wizard” and click "OK."

Welcome Data Block

In the ‘Welcome Data Block Wizard’ window click on the “NEXT” icon.

Type of Data Block

Select the type of data block you would like to create by clicking on a radio button. Select the default
option ‘Table or View’ and then click “NEXT” again.

Selecting Tables

Click on “browse.” In the ‘Tables’ window, highlight the "cust11” table; then click "OK."

Selecting columns for the Data Block Wizard

To choose all columns, click on the two arrow signs in the ‘Data Block Wizard’ window. To choose
selected columns, click on the one arrow sign. And then select all columns, and click “next.”

Layout Wizard

End of the Data Block Wizard and beginning of the Layout Wizard In the ‘Congratulations’ screen,
use the default checkmark radio button (Create the data block, then call the Layout Wizard), and
click "Finish." You can also use the Data Block Wizard to modify your existing data block. Simply
select the data block in the Object Navigator and click the Data Block Wizard toolbar button, or
choose ‘Data Block wizard’ from the ‘Tools’ menu.

Welcome screen

In the ‘Welcome to the Layout Wizard’ window, click ”Next.”

112
Selecting canvas

In the ‘Layout Wizard’ window, select the "new canvas" option. Canvas is a place that you will have
your objects such as columns, titles, pictures, etc. If you have already had your canvas, select the
canvas and then click on the next. The following are different types of canvases: Content, Stacked,
Vertical Toolbar, Horizontal Toolbar, and Tab.

Think of the ‘Content’ canvas as one flat place to have all your objects. In the stacked canvas, you
can have multiple layers of objects and it is the same as the tab canvas. You use the vertical or
horizontal toolbar canvases for your push buttons. Check the different types of canvases by clicking
on the ‘down arrow’ box next to the ‘Type’ field. Select "content," then click “Next.”

Selecting Columns for the Layout Wizard

In the ‘Layout Wizard’ window, select all the columns. These are the columns that you want to be
displayed on the canvas. Then click “Next.”

Change your objects appearances

Change size or prompt if needed. In this window, you can enter a prompt, width, and height for
each itemon the canvas. You can change the measurement units. As a default the default units for
item width and height are points. You can change it to inch or centimeter. When you change size,
click “Next.”

Selecting a layout style

Select a layout style for your frame by clicking a radio button. Select "Form," if you want one record
at a time to be displayed. Select “Tabular,” if you want more than one record at a time to be
displayed. Select "Forms," and then click “next.”

Record layout

Type the "Frame Title" and click "next." Checkmark the ‘Display Scrollbar’ box when you use
multiple records or the ‘Tabular’ option.

Congratulation Screen

In the ‘Congratulations’ window, click

"Finish." You will see the output layout screen.

Make some window adjustments and then run the form. To run the form, click on the ‘Run’

icon.The ‘Run’ icon is on the horizontal toolbar in the ‘CUSTOMER_DE’ canvas.

The object module should be compiled successfully before executing the Form.

113
Execute Query

Click on the "Execute Query" icon below the main menu. If you drag the cursor on the toolbar in the
‘Forms Runtime’ window, a tooltip will be displayed and you see ‘Execute Query. So to know all
your option, drag your cursor to view all the icon descriptions.

Next Record

Click on the "Next Record" icon to navigate to the next record.

Previous Record

Click on the "Previous Record" icon to navigate to the previous record.This is an easy way to

navigate through the “Customer” table.

Enter Query

Click on the "Enter Query" icon to query selected records.

Insert Record

Click "Insert Record" to add new customer. All items on the forms will be blanked. You can either

type all the customer information or duplicate it from previous record.

Duplicate Record

To duplicate the previous record, go to the main menu and select the ‘Record’ sub-menu. A drop

down menu will be displayed. Select the ‘Duplicate’ option in the sub-menu.

Apply the changes. Remember in this stage, your record was inserted but not committed yet.

Next and Previous Record

Click "next record" and "previous record" to navigate through the records and the one was added.

Save transactions

Click "Save" to commit the insert statement.

Delete Record

Click "Remove Record" to delete the record.

114
Lock a Record

You can also lock the record.

Exit from Form Runtime

Exit the FORM Runtime. If you have not committed any transaction, you will be prompted to
savechanges. Click “YES” to save changes.

Click “OK” for acknowledgement.Don’t forget to save the Form.

Sample Exercise:

Employee Information form

RABAD

115
Selecting the type of form to create

116
 Selecting the canvas on which data block can be displayed

Form showing the Employee details

RESULT:
Thus the Generation of Forms Using Oracle Form Builder has been designed and executed successfully.

117
Ex. No: 10 DATABASE DESIGN AND IMPLEMENTATION

AIM:
To design database and Implementation using Form Builder.
PROGRAM:
Sample Exercise:

Mini project for customer detail management.

CREATE TABLE CUST FOR CUSTOMER DETAILS:

QUERY:

SQL>create table cust(custname varchar2(10),custcity varchar2(10),accno

number(10),balancenumber(10));

SQL> desc cust;

Name Null? Type

CUSTNAME VARCHAR2 (10)

CUSTCITY VARCHAR2 (10)
ACCNO NUMBER (10)
BALANCE NUMBER (10)

CREATE TABLE TRANS FOR TRANSACTION DETAILS:

QUERY:

SQL>create table trans(accno number(10),amount number(10),trdate date);

SQL> desc
trans;Name Null? Type

ACCNO NUMBER(10)
AMOUNT NUMBER(10)
TRDATE DATE

CODING FOR CREATE BUTTON:

commit;
clear_form
;

CODING FOR CREDIT BUTTON:

update cust set balance=balance+:trans.amount where

cust.accno=:trans.accno;execute_query;

118
commit;

Design Form like this in Form Builder:

CODING FOR DEBIT BUTTON:

debit

declare
wdamount number;
begin
select balance into wdamount from cust where
accno=:trans.accno;if wdamount>=:amount then
update cust set balance = balance-:trans.amount
where cust.accno=:trans.accn

o;execute_query;
commit;
message('money withdraw succesfully');
else
message('you have low balance');
end if;
en
d
;

119
After write all codings Run the
Form:The Form will like this,

After Enter the Customer Details:

120
Then press the Create Button.
MOVE TO SQL PLUS AND ENTER THE QUERY:

SQL> select *from cust;

CUSTNAME CUSTCITY ACCNO BALANCE

A ERODE 101 0

Then Enter Transaction Details:[For Credit]

After that press Credit Button:

121
 MOVE TO SQL PLUS AND ENTER THE QUERY:

SQL> select *from cust;

CUSTNAME CUSTCITY ACCNO BALANCE

A ERODE 101 1000

SQL> Select *from trans;

ACCNO AMOUNT TRDATE

101 1000 01-MAY-09

Then Enter Transaction Details:[For Debit]

Move to Sql plus and enter the query:

SQL> select *from cust;

CUSTNAME CUSTCITY ACCNO BALANCE

A ERODE 101 900

SQL> Select *from trans;

122
 ACCNO AMOUNT TRDATE

101 1000 01-MAY-09

101 100 02-MAY-09

RESULT:
Thus the database has been designed using Oracle Form Builder and executed successfully.

123