Module I : Chapter 1

Fundamentals of Electric Circuits:

Fundamentals of electrical circuit, Ohm’s law,
Kirchoff’s laws, series and parallel connections,
Electric Power and sign conventions, circuit elements
and their characteristics. Practical voltage and current
sources. Source Conversion.
1
Lecture 1 : (module 1)
Date : 23/06/2021
 Topic to be discussed today:
 Current and Charge
 Types of Current:
 Voltage or Potential Difference
 Power and sign convention
 Electric Energy
 Ohm’s Law
 D.C. Circuits
2
 Resistance
Modern Electron Theory

 The nature of electricity can be explained by Modern

Electron theory of matter.

 The Electron:
 (i) Charge on an electron, e = 1.602 × 10–19coulomb
(ii) Mass of an electron, m = 9.0 × 10–31 kg
(iii) Radius of an electron, r = 1.9 × 10–15 metre

3
Current and Charge :

The conventional direction of current was introduced by the

American scientist and inventor BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (1706-1790)
4
Current and Charge :

 Charge is an electrical property of the atomic particles of

which matter consists, measured in coulombs (C ).
 e = – 1.6 × 10–19 C
 1 C of charge = 1/ 1.6 × 10–19 C = 6.25 × 1018 electrons
 The rate of flow of electron in closed circuit is called Electric
current.
or
 Amount of charge passing through the conductor in unit time is
called Electric current. 5
Current and Charge :

• It is measured in Ampere (A).

• 1 A = 1 coulomb/second
The unit is named after French mathematician and Physicist Andre-
Marie Ampere ( 1775-1836 ) .
He defined the electric current and developed a way to measure it in the
1820s. 6
Types of Current:

Direct current current (DC ):

DC stands for direct current. Here current only
travels in one direction. (remains constant with
time )

Alternating current (AC):

AC stands for Alternating current . Here current
swiches at a set of frequency. (Also called time
varying current )

7
 Q1. A 60 W light bulb has a current of 0.5 A flowing through it. Calculate
(i) the number of electron passing through a cross section of filament (ii)
the number of electron that pass the cross-section in one hour.
 Ans - (i) 3.1 X 10^8 electrons/s
 (ii) 1.1 X 10^ 22 electrons/hour.

 Q 2: How much charge is represented by 4,600 electrons?

 Ans = -7.369 × 10–16 C

8
 Voltage or Potential Difference or Electromotive
force
 The total work per unit charge associated with the motion of charge between two
points is called voltage.
or
 Voltage is the energy required to move a unit charge through an element,
measured in volts (V)
a
+
Voltage = work done / charge Vab = W / Q
Unit of work done ( W) = joule
Unit of charge (Q) = coulomb Vab
1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
b 9
-
Voltage or Potential Difference or
Electromotive force
➢ The plus (+) and minus (-) sign are used to define reference direction or
voltage polarity.
➢ Voltage drop from a to b is equivalent to a voltage rise from b to a.

a a
+ -

9V -9 v

b b
- +
10
Power and sign convention
 Power is defined as the work done per unit time.
or
 Power is the time rate of expending or absorbing energy. Measured
in watts (W).
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘
Power =
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒
= X
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑒 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

P=VXI unit = Watts

11
 Passive Sign Convention of power

I I
a a
+ +

v v

b b
- -

P= + VI (element is Absorbing Power ) P= - VI (element is Supplying power )

12

Sign Convention of power

Passive Sign Convention of power

 Passive sign Convention is satisfied when the current enters through

the positive terminal of an element and P= + VI. If the current enters
through the negative terminal, P=- VI.
 + power absorbed = - power Supply

 The law of conservation of energy must be obeyed in any electric

circuit.
 The algebraic sum of power in a circuit, at any instant of time , must be
zero.


13
 3A 3A
a a
+ +

(B)
(A) 4v
4v

b b
- -
3A 3A
a a
- -

(C) (D)
4v 4v

b b
+ + 14
Electric Energy
 The total work done in an electric circuit is called
electrical energy .
 Electrical energy = power × Time
 The unit = watt-sec or kWhr
 where 1 Wh = 3,600 J
 1 kWh = 1kW X 1 hr
 = 1000 W X 60 X 60 sec
= 36 X 105 J
 The electricity bills are made on the basis of total electrical energy consumed by the
consumer. The unit for charge of electricity is 1 kWh. 15
Ohm’s Law
 Georg Simon Ohm ( 1787- 1854 ) a German physicist , in 1826
experimentally determined the most basic law relating voltage and
current for a resistor.
 Ohm’s law states that the voltage v across a resistor is directly
proportional to the current I flowing through the resistor, provided
the temperature and other physical parameters are unchanged.
VαI

 Constant of proportionality = R , Resistance

V= R I
16

R in measured in the unit ohms (Ω )

Resistance
 The resistance R of an element denotes its ability to resist the flow
of electric current, it is measured in ohms (Ω )
or
 The opposition offered by a substance to the flow of electric
current , is known as resistance .

𝑉
 𝑅= V= R I
𝐼

𝑉 𝑉2
 Power P = VI = (R I) I = I2 R = V ( ) =
𝑅 𝑅 17
Factors Upon Which Resistance
Depends
 The resistance R of a wire/ conductor
 (i) is directly proportional to its length i.e. R ∝ l
1
 (ii) is inversely proportional to its area of cross-section i.e. R ∝
𝐴
 (iii) depends upon the nature of material.
 (iv) depends upon temperature.


Cross-sectional
area of wire

18

Length of wire
 From the first three points (leaving temperature for the time
being), we have,
𝑙 𝑙
 R∝ or R=ρ
𝐴 𝐴
 where ρ (Greek letter ‘Rho’) is a constant and is known as
resistivity or specific resistance of the material. Its value depends
upon the nature of the material
𝐴
 ρ=R
𝑙
𝑚2
 ρ = ohm
𝑚
19

 = ohm m (unit of resistivity )

Resistivity of substances

 The resistivity of metals and alloys is very small. Therefore, these

materials are good conductors of electric current.
 Resistivity of insulators is extremely large. As a result, these materials
hardly conduct any current.
 The resistivity of these semiconductor lies between conductors and
20

insulators.
Conductance and Conductivity
 Conductance : The reciprocal of resistance of a conductor is
called its conductance (G). If a conductor has resistance R, then
its conductance G is given by ;
1
 G=
𝑅
 The SI unit of conductance is mho or siemen.
 Conductivity. The reciprocal of resistivity of a conductor is
called its conductivity. It is denoted by the symbol σ ( Greek
letter ,sigma)
1
 Conductivity, σ =
ρ
 The SI unit of conductivity is Siemen metre−1 (S m−1) 21
Q 2 : A coil consists of 2000 turns of copper wire having a cross-sectional
area of 0.8 mm2 . The mean length per turn is 80 cm and the resistivity of
copper is 0.02 mW m. Find the resistance of the coil and power absorbed by
the coil when connected across 110 V d.c. supply.
Q 3 :A 100 V lamp has a hot resistance of 250 Ω. Find the current taken by
the lamp and its power rating in watts. Calculate also the energy it will
consume in 24 hours.

22
23
 Home Work :
 Types of resistor
 Effect of Temperature on Resistance

24
D.C. Circuits
 The closed path followed by direct current (d.c.) is called a d.c. circuit.
 Accordingly, d.c. circuits can be classified as :
 (i) Series circuits
 (ii) Parallel circuits
 (iii) Series-parallel circuits.

25
D.C. Series Circuit

 The d.c. circuit in which resistances are connected end to end so that there
is only one path for current to flow is called a d.c. series circuit.

By Ohm’s law, voltage across the various

resistances is

26
 But V/I is the total resistance RS between points A and B.
 Note that RS is called the total or equivalent resistance of
the three resistances.

Hence when a number of resistances are connected in

series, the total resistance is equal to the sum of the
individual resistances.
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 The total conductance GS of the circuit is given by ;

 The main characteristics of a series circuit are :

 (i) The current in each resistor is the same.
 (ii) The total resistance in the circuit is equal to the sum of
individual resistances.
 (iii) The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of
powers dissipated in individual resistances.

28
D.C. Parallel Circuit

 When one end of each resistance is joined to a common point and

the other end of each resistance is joined to another common
point so that there are as many paths for current flow as the
number of resistances, it is called a parallel circuit.
 By Ohm’s law, current through each resistance is

29
 But V/I is equivalent resistance RP of the parallel resistances.

 Hence when a number of resistances are connected in

parallel, the reciprocal of total resistance is equal to the sum
of the reciprocals of the individua resistances.

 Hence total conductance GP of resistors in parallel is equal to

the sum of their individual conductance 30
Main Features of Parallel Circuits
 The voltage across each resistor is same.
 The current through any resistor is inversely proportional to its resistance.
 The reciprocal of the total resistance is equal to the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual resistances.
 As the number of parallel branches is increased, the total resistance of the
circuit is decreased.
 The total resistance of the circuit is always less than the smallest of the
resistances
 The total power dissipated in the circuit is equal to the sum of powers
dissipated in the individual resistances.

31
 Q4 : Find the equivalent resistance between terminal A and B. (
for fig A and B )

(A) (B)

Q 5 : Find the current supplied by the d.c. source in the circuit

shown in Fig

(C ) 32
Sol 5 :

Current supplied by source = 30 / (58/55) = 28.45 A

33
Q 6 : Find the equivalent resistance
between terminal A and B.

34
Lecture 2 : (module 1)
Date : 22/06/2021
 Topic to be discussed today:
 Open circuit and short circuit
 Kirchhoff’s current and voltage law
 Current division rule
 Voltage division rule

35
Open Circuits
 Open Circuits : When there is a break in any part of a
circuit, that part is said to be open-circuited.
 Open circuit in a series circuit : Here resistor R4 is
burnt out and an open develops.
 Because of the open:
(i) The circuit current becomes zero.
(ii) Resistance of open circuit will be infinite
(iii) The entire voltage drop appears across the open.

36
Open Circuits
 Open circuit in a parallel circuit: Here resistor R3 is burnt out
and now has infinite resistance.
 (i) Branch current I3 will be zero because R3 is open.
 (ii) The total current I will be less than the normal.
 (iii) The open device will not operate. If R3 is a lamp, it will be
out. If it is a motor, it will not run

37
Short Circuits
 A short circuit is an unwanted path of low resistance.
or When two points of circuit are connected together by a
thick metallic wire.
 Since ‘short’ has practically zero resistance, it gives rise to two
important facts :
(i) no voltage can exist across it because V = IR = I × 0 = 0
(ii) current through it (called short-circuit current) is
very large (theoretically, infinity)

38
‘Shorts Circuit’ in a Series Circuit

 Because of the excessive current, connecting wire and other

circuit components can burn out. 39
‘Short circuit ’ in Parallel Circuits

 Fig (a) – Short circuit across 1 branch means short across all branch.
 No current will flow in shorted resistor.
 Fig (b )- Short-circuit across R3 may short out R2 but not R1 since it is
protected by R4
40
Kirchhoff’s Law
 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) and Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL).
 A German Physicist “Robert Kirchhoff” introduced two important electrical laws in
1847.
 Find the equivalent resistance of a complex network and flowing currents in
different conductors.
 Both AC and DC circuits can be solved

41
Kirchhoff’s current law (KCL)
Statement:
 “Algebraic sum of all current meeting at a junction is zero”

Let, Suppose
Branches are meeting at a junction ‘J’
Incoming current are denoted with (+ve) sign
Outgoing currents are denoted with (-ve) sign
 I =0
 ( + I1 ) +(-I2 ) +(-I3 ) = 0
 I1 - I2 - I3 = 0
 Incoming current = Outgoing current

42
Kirchhoff’s voltage law (KVL)
• Statement:
 “In any closed electrical circuit or mesh, the algebraic sum of all the
electromotive forces (e.m.fs) and voltage drops in resistors is equal to
zero”’
 Algebraic sum of e.m.fs + Algebraic sum of voltage drops = 0

43
Sign Convention ( for KVL )
Sign of Battery E.M.F.
 A rise in voltage should be given a + ve sign and a fall in voltage a −ve sign.
 when we go from the −ve terminal of a battery to its +ve terminal, there is a rise in
potential, ( = + E )
 If we go from +ve terminal to −ve terminal, then there is a fall in potential, ( =- E)
 Sign of the battery e.m.f. is independent of the direction of the current through that
branch.

44
Sign Convention ( for KVL )
 Sign of IR Drop
 If we go through a resistor in the same direction as the current, then there is a fall in
voltage. (= -V = - IR )
 If we go in a direction opposite to that of the current, then there is a rise in voltage.
( = + V = + IR )
 sign of voltage drop across a resistor depends on the direction of current through that
resistor

45
Sign Convention ( for KVL )
 Consider the closed path ABCDA in Fig.
 we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction

46
As we travel around the mesh in the clockwise direction, different voltage
drops will have the following signs :
 I1R1 is − ve (fall in potential)
 I2R2 is − ve (fall in potential)
 I3R3 is + ve (rise in potential)
 I4R4 is − ve (fall in potential)
 E2 is − ve (fall in potential)
 E1 is + ve (rise in potential)
 Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law, we get
 −I1R1 −I2R2 + I3R3 −I4R4 −E2 + E1 = 0
 or
 I1R1 + I2R2 −I3R3 + I4R4 = E1 −E2 47
Current Division Rule :

48
Voltage Division Rule :

49
Lecture 3 : (module 1)
Date : 25/06/2021
 Topic to be discussed today:
 Network Terminology
 Network sources
 Ideal and practical source

50
Network Terminology :

 1. Circuit : A circuit is a closed conducting path through which an electric current either
flows or is intended to flow.
 2. Node : Node is a junction in a circuit where two or more circuit elements are
connected together.
 3. Branch : Branch is that part of a network which lies between two junctions.
 4. Loop : It is a close path in a circuit in which no element or node is encountered more
than once.
 5. Mesh : It is a loop that contains no other loop within it.
 6. Active element: An active element is one which supplies electrical energy to the
circuit. Eg – network source (Battery , generator , alternator , semiconductor devices )
51
Network Terminology
 7. Passive element : A passive element is one which receives electrical energy
and then either converts it into heat (resistance) or stores in an electric field
(capacitance) or magnetic field (inductance).
Example: – Resistor , Inductor , Capacitor
 8. Bilateral Element: Conduction of current in both directions in an element
with same magnitude is termed as bilateral element.
(Example: Resistance; Inductance; Capacitance)
 9. Unilateral Element: Conduction of current in one direction is termed as
unilateral element.
 (Example: Diode, Transistor)
52
 10. Linear Element: The element which has linear relationship between excitation
and response. Thus the parameters of linear elements remains constant.
It obeys the law of linearity principle ( Homogeneity and additivity property ).
It also obeys the law of ohm’s Law.
 Example: – Resistor , Inductor , Capacitor
 11. Non Linear Element : The element which has non- linear relationship between
excitation and response. In a non linear element the parameters changes with applied
voltage and current changes. Linearity principle and ohm’s law is not valid for non-
linear elements.
 Example: Semiconductor devices like Diode, Transistor etc

53
 12. Linear Circuit : A linear circuit is an electric
circuit in which circuit parameters (Resistance,
inductance, capacitance, waveform, frequency etc)
are constant. (fig 1)
 A circuit whose values does not changed with
Fig. 1
respect to current and voltage is called Linear
Circuit.
 13. Non Linear Circuit : A nonlinear circuit is an
electric circuit in which circuit parameters
(Resistance, inductance, capacitance, waveform,
frequency etc) are not constant, is called Non Linear
Circuit. ( Fig. 2 )
Fig. 2
54
 14. Unilateral circuits : In unilateral circuits, the property of circuit changes with the
change of direction of supply voltage or current.
Example - Diode rectifier
 15. Bi-lateral circuits :In bilateral circuits, the property of circuit does not change with
the change of direction of supply voltage or current.
Example - Transmission line

55
Network Sources :

Sources are circuit elements that supply energy.

56
Network Sources :
 Voltage source : The term voltage source is used to describe a source of energy
which establishes a potential difference across its terminals, that maintains a
constant terminal voltage, irrespective of current drawn from it.
 e.g., batteries, d.c. generators, alternators etc
 Current source : The term current source is used to describe a source of energy
that provides a current. They supply the same current to any resistance (load)
connected across its terminals.
 e.g., collector circuits of transistors.

57
Symbol for voltage source Symbol for current sources
Ideal Voltage source

 An ideal voltage source is one that maintains a constant terminal

voltage, no matter how much current is drawn from it.
 An ideal voltage source has zero internal resistance.
 Rint = Rs =0

58
Practical Voltage source

 The practical voltage source has low but finite internal resistance (Rint) that causes its
terminal voltage to decrease when load current is increased and vice-versa.
 When load RL is connected across the terminals of
a practical voltage source, a load current IL flows
through the circuit
then the output voltage Vo is given by ;

Ideal
voltage
sources
Vo = E – IL Rint Practical
Voltage
59
Source
Graph of output voltage Vo versus load
current IL ( Practical Voltage Source )
 Let RL is variable.
 With increase of IL
Vo will reduce
 Since Vo = E – IL Rint

V-I characteristics
60
Ideal Current Source

 An ideal current source or constant current source is one which will supply
the same current to any resistance (load) connected across its terminals.
 An ideal current source has infinite internal resistance.
 Rint = Rp = ∞

61
 Practical Current Source

 The practical current source has high but finite internal resistance (Rint).
 Therefore, the load current (IL) will change as the value of load resistance (RL) changes

Ideal
current
source
Graph of load current IL versus
62
output voltage V
Practical
current source
Source Conversion :
 A Practical voltage source can be converted to an equivalent real
current source and vice-versa.
 Voltage to current source conversion

Practical
voltage
source

63
Current to voltage source conversion:

64
Series and parallel combinations ideal voltage
sources
(a)

(b)

(c )
65
Series and parallel combinations of ideal current sources

( a)

(b )

(c )
66
Q 7 . Find the current in 6 kΩ resistor.

Q 8. Convert the current source to a

voltage source and Find the current in 6
kΩ resistor.
67
Sol.

68
Q 9 . Find the current in 28 W resistor in the circuit shown
in Fig shown below .( using source conversion)

Q 10 . Using source conversion technique, find the load

current IL in the circuit shown below.

69
Sol 9 :

70