Metrology and Quality Assurance Lab

Topic: Advanced Measurement Instruments (CMM, Laser

Interferometer, Profile Projector, 3D Laser Scanner)

Student Name: Ali Raza

Roll no: 18-MCE-18

Semester: 6th

Supervisor: Dr Muhammad Arif

Department of Mechanical Engineering

NFC Institute of Engineering and Fertilizer
Research, Faisalabad
 Coordinate Measuring Machine (CMM):
Theory:
A coordinate measuring machine (CMM) is a device for measuring the
physical geometrical characteristics of an object. This machine may be
manually controlled by an operator or it may be computer controlled.
Measurements are defined by a probe attached to the third moving axis of this
machine. Probes may be mechanical, optical, laser, or white light, among
others. A machine which takes readings in six degrees of freedom and displays
these readings in mathematical form is known as a CMM.

Parts of CMM

 Coordinate-measuring machines include three main components:

 The main structure which include three axes of motion. The material used
to construct the moving frame has varied over the years. Granite and steel
were used in the early CMM's. Today all the major CMM manufacturers
build frames from aluminum alloy or some derivative and also use
ceramic to increase the stiffness of the Z axis for scanning applications.
Few CMM builders today still manufacture granite frame CMM due to
market requirement for improved metrology dynamics and increasing
trend to install CMM outside of the quality lab. Typically only low
volume CMM builders and domestic manufacturers in China and India
are still manufacturing granite CMM due to low technology approach and
easy entry to become a CMM frame builder. The increasing trend towards
scanning also requires the CMM Z axis to be stiffer and new materials
have been introduced such as ceramic and silicon carbide.
 Probing system
 Data collection and reduction system - typically includes a machine
controller, desktop computer and application software.
Machine Specifications
The specifications of the machine itself are important for correctly
accommodating a workpiece and dimensional measuring capabilities.

Measuring length is the total distance a probe can move for measuring in the x,
y, or z direction.
Capacity is the maximum size of the object or workpiece that the machine can
accommodate. A CMM must have a capacity sufficient to fit the size of objects
the user needs to measure.
Resolution is the smallest increment that the device can measure to. A higher
resolution denotes a more specific measurement.
Measurement speed is the rate at which a CMM can read positions and take
measurements. It may refer to the imaging speed of the probe, or to the overall
measuring process, which is also a function of control type (CNC being faster
than manual control).
Weight capacity is the maximum or standard weight of the workpiece that the
machine can accommodate. A CMM must have a weight capacity sufficient to
hold the weight of objects the user needs to measure.

Measurement Capabilities
CMMs can be designed to perform different types of measurement. These
include dimensional, profile, angularity, depth mapping, digitizing/imaging, and
shaft measurements.
Dimensional measurements are sizing measurements made in the x, y, and z
directions.
Profile measurements are made to capture information about the form or profile
of an object. These measurements may be 2-D or 3-D, depending on the
machine capabilities.
Angularity or orientation measurements are made to capture angle information
between points on an object.
Depth mapping is constructed by measuring the difference between two stereo
images. Stereo images are successive images of the same scene taken at slightly
different angles. The objects further away will move relatively little from one
image to the next, whereas objects closer to the viewer will move by a greater
degree. A depth map is then created, resulting in a single image using different
intensities to represent the different depths.
Digitizing or imaging provides a digital format or image to visually capture the
geometry of the workpiece from the measurements made by the CMM.
Shaft measurements are application-specific designations for measurements
made by CMMs designed specifically for inspecting shafts.

Apparatus:
Coordinate Measuring Machine, specimen whose dimensions are to be
measured

Procedure:
 Calibration of machine is done using a sphere ball attached to granite
table. Take at least 8 points on the sphere.
  Fix the object whose dimension needs to be measured using jigs and
fixtures as per requirement
 Using joystick, move the probe whose tip is made of diamond slowly and
carefully to the surface whose measurements have to be taken.
 For measurement of a line, touch the probe at 2 points (i.e. starting and
ending points)
 For measuring circular profile, touch the probe at 3 points
 For measuring cylinder surface, touch the probe at 8 points
 For measuring the cone, touch the probe at 6 points
 For measuring the arc, touch the probe at 3 points
 For measuring the slot, touch the probe at 5 points
 For conformity, the same readings of length, diameters etc., use the
Vernier caliper, micrometer screw guage and compare the readings
measured from both CMM and other manual instruments used

Conclusion and Results:

In short, a coordinate measurement machine (CMM) is an advanced, multi-
purpose quality control system used to help inspection keep pace with modern
production requirements. It replaces long, complex and inefficient
conventional inspection methods with simple procedures.
 Profile Projector
Theory

A profile projector is an optical measurement tool that magnifies a sample’s

surface features to allow measurement on a linear/circular scale. A profile
projector is also referred to as an optical comparator, or even known as a
shadowgraph. A profile projector projects a magnified profile image of an area
or feature of a work piece onto a screen most commonly using diascopic
illumination. Dimensions can be measured directly on the screen or compared
to a standard reference at the correct magnification. For accuracy, it is
important that the magnification does not change with perspective, i.e. its
position or the view point of the operator. Telecentric lenses are, therefore,
highly desirable. The screen often has a grid and this grid can often be rotated
through 360 degrees to align with an edge as displayed on the screen. Point
positions, measurements, and calculations may also be performed using a
simple digital read out device. A computer may be added to a profile projector
system for edge detection, thereby eliminating some human error.
Working of Profile Projector:
The projector magnifies the profile of the specimen, and displays this on the
built-in projection screen. On this screen there is typically a grid that can be
rotated 360 degrees so the X-Y axis of the screen can be aligned with a straight
edge of the machined part to examine or measure. This projection screen
displays the profile of the specimen and is magnified for better ease of
calculating linear measurements. An edge of the specimen to examine may be
lined up with the grid on the screen. From there, simple measurements may be
taken for distances to other points. This is being done on a magnified profile of
the specimen. It can be simpler as well as reduce errors by measuring on the
magnified projection screen of a profile projector.

The typical method for lighting is by diascopic illumination, which is lighting

from behind. This type of lighting is also called transmitted illumination when
the specimen is translucent and light can pass through it. If the specimen is
opaque, then the light will not go through it, but will form a profile of the
specimen. Measuring of the sample can be done on the projection screen. A
profile projector may also have episcopic illumination (which is light shining
from above). This useful in displaying bores or internal areas that may need to
be measured.

Apparatus:
Profile projector apparatus along with specimen to be measured, lens of
required magnification, say, 10x

Procedure:
 Choose the projection method out of vertical projectors and horizontal
ones.in vertical projectors the main axe is parallel to the plane of the
screen. They’re most common, and suitable for flat parts or smaller work-
pieces. Whereas in horizontal projector the main axis is perpendicular to
the plane of the projection screen. They are mainly medium and large,
and suitable for shaft parts or heavy work-pieces with large volume.
 Select the positive or inverted image. For the simplest profile projector,
the product’s inverted image, also known as mirror image, will be
displayed on the screen. In order to facilitate the measurement, sometimes
 we will deliberately add a plus-image system, changing the inverted
image into a positive one, but it will undoubtedly increase the cost and
reduced the measurement accuracy.
 Select the appropriate work table and accessories. Work table is used to
place and hold the measured piece. Its own volume, X, Y travel and
carrying capacity are critical. Meanwhile, for the convenience of holding
workpiece, it will be need to buy a rotary table, V-holder and other
accessories.
 Select the appropriate precision. Current commercially available optical
measuring projectors' theory accuracy, because the optical lens and
gratings are on similar quality, are also similar. Therefore it's no need to
deliberately pursue the high precision.

Conclusion and Results:

In short there are three basic requirements for perfect working of Profile
Projector is

• A clean optical system

• Accurately centered lighting

• Careful focusing of the image.

All optical parts must be perfectly clean otherwise the projected image will
appear dull without sharpness. Never touch the glass of episcopic lighting
mirror with the fingers as they are extremely sensitive.
Profile projectors are robust
Introduction
In modern engineering, the term `laser scanning' is used to described two related, but separate
meanings. The first, more general, meaning is the controlled deflection of laser beams, visible
or invisible. Scanned laser beams are used in stereolithography machines, in rapid
prototyping, in machines for material processing, in laser engraving machines, in
ophthalmological laser systems for the treatment of presbyopia, in confocal microscopy, in
laser printers, in laser shows, in Laser TV, and in barcode scanners. The second, more
specific, meaning is the controlled steering of laser beams followed by a distance
measurement at every pointing direction. This method, often called 3D object scanning or 3D
laser scanning, is used to rapidly capture shapes of objects, buildings, and landscapes. Since
the early 1980's, the analytical stereo-compiler has been the workhorse for broad-acre spatial
data acquisition tasks including exploration mapping, regular mine planning and stockpile
measurements (Byrne, 1997). It has also played a lesser role in subsidence monitoring,
environmental lease statistics and infrastructure mapping. Terrestrial laser scanning has
already found its place between the standard technologies for objects acquisition. The laser
scanner can be described as a motorized total station, which measures automatically all the
points in its horizontal and vertical field. For each measured point, its distance to the laser
scanner together with the horizontal and the vertical angles are recorded. So, the space
coordinates relative to the scanner position can be easily computed. Hand-held laser scanners
create a 3D image through the triangulation mechanism described above: a laser dot or line is
projected onto an object from a hand-held device and a sensor (typically a charge-coupled
device or position sensitive device) measures the distance to the surface (Figure 1). The
purpose of a 3D scanner is usually to create a point cloud of geometric samples on the surface
of the subject. These points can then be used to extrapolate the shape of the subject (a process
called reconstruction). If color information is collected at each point, then the colors on the
surface of the subject can also be determined [1]. This article is focusing in presenting a brief
look on the 3D laser scanners. In addition, it gives a general presentation about the 3D laser
scanners’ history and applications.
Applications
3D laser scanning is used in a variety of fields and academic research. It has benefited
clothing and product design, the automotive industry and medical science. Laser scanning can
also be used to record buildings, especially in places that people may not be able to access
due to safety hazards. 3D Laser Scanning is used in numerous applications: industrial,
architectural, civil surveying, urban topography, mining, reverse engineering, quality,
archaeology, dentistry, and mechanical dimensional inspection are just a few of the versatile
applications. 3D laser scanning technology allows for high resolution and dramatically faster
3D digitizing over other conventional metrology technologies and techniques. Some very
exciting applications are animation and virtual reality applications

Material processing and production

Laser scanning describes the general method to sample or scan a surface using laser
technology. Several areas of application exist that mainly differ in the power of the lasers that
are used, and in the results of the scanning process. Low laser power is used when the
scanned surface does not have to be influenced, e.g., when it only has to be digitized.
Confocal or 3D laser scanning are methods to get information about the scanned surface.
Another low-power application are structured light projection systems that are used for solar
cell flatness metrology enabling stress calculation with throughput in excess of 2000 wafers
per hour.

Construction industry and civil engineering –

As-built drawings of Bridges, Industrial Plants, and Monuments.
 Documentation of historical sites.
 Site modeling and lay outing.
 Quality control.
 Quantity Surveys.
 Freeway Redesign.
 Establishing a benchmark of pre-existing shape/state in order to detect structural
changes resulting from exposure to extreme loadings such as earthquake, vessel/truck
impact, or fire.
 Create GIS (Geographic information system) maps and Geomatics.

Reverse engineering
Reverse Engineering refers to the ability to reproduce the shape of an existing object. It is
based on creating a digitized version of objects or surfaces, which can later be turned into
molds or dies. It is a very common procedure, which has diverse applications in various
industries. Non- contact 3D laser scanning allows even malleable objects to be scanned in a
matter of minutes without compression, which could change their dimensions or damage to
their surfaces. Parts and models of all sizes and shapes can be quickly and accurately
captured. 3D laser scanning for reverse engineering provides excellent accuracies and helps
to get products to market quicker and with less development and engineering costs. 3D Laser
scanning provides the fast, accurate, and automated way to acquire 3D digital data and a
CAD model of part’s geometry for reverse engineering when none is available. Also, new
features and updates can be integrated into old parts once the modeling is accomplished [Site
12]. A practical mechanical and civil engineering application would be to assist in the
production of "as built" data and documentation. Currently, many manufacturing or
construction activities are documented after the actual assembly of a machine or civil project
by a designer or engineering professional. 3D laser scanners could expedite this activity to
reduce man-hours required to fully document an installation for legacy.

Mechanical applications
Reverse engineering of a mechanical component requires a precise digital model of the
objects to be reproduced. Rather than a set of points a precise digital model can be
represented by a polygon mesh, a set of flat or curved NURBS surfaces, or ideally for
mechanical components, a CAD solid model. A 3D scanner can be used to digitize free-form
or gradually changing shaped components as well as prismatic geometries whereas a
coordinate measuring machine is usually used only to determine simple dimensions of a
highly prismatic model. These data points are then processed to create a usable digital model,
usually using specialized reverse engineering software.
Medical CAD/CAM
3D scanners are used in order to capture the 3D shape of a patient in orthotics and dentistry.
It gradually supplants tedious plaster cast. CAD/CAM (Computer-Aided Design/ Computer
Aided Manufacturing) software are then used to design and manufacture the orthosis,
prosthesis or dental implants. Many Chairside dental CAD/CAM systems and Dental
Laboratory CAD/CAM systems use 3D Scanner technologies to capture the 3D surface of a
dental preparation (either in vivo or in vitro), in order to produce a restoration digitally using
CAD software, and ultimately produce the final restoration using a CAM technology (such as
a CNC milling machine, or 3D printer). The chairside systems are designed to facilitate the
3D scanning of a preparation in vivo and produce the restoration (such as a Crown, Onlay,
Inlay or Veneer).

Design process Design process including:

 Increasing accuracy working with complex parts and shapes,
 Coordinating product design using parts from multiple sources,
 Updating old CD scans with those from more current technology,
 Replacing missing or older parts,
 Creating cost savings by allowing as-built design services, for example in automotive
manufacturing plants,
 "Bringing the plant to the engineers" with web shared scans,
 Saving travel costs
 Laser Interferometer

Interferometers are investigative tools used in many fields of science and engineering. They
are called interferometers because they work by merging two or more sources of light to
create an interference pattern, which can be measured and analysed; hence 'Interfere-o-meter',
or interferometer. The interference patterns generated by interferometers contain information
about the object or phenomenon being studied. They are often used to make very small
measurements that are not achievable any other way. This is why they are so powerful for
detecting gravitational waves--LIGO's interferometers are designed to measure a distance
1/10,000th the width of a proton!
Widely used today, interferometers were actually invented in the late 19th century by Albert
Michelson. The Michelson Interferometer was used in 1887 in the "Michelson-Morley
Experiment", which set out to prove or disprove the existence of "Luminiferous Aether"--a
substance at the time thought to permeate the Universe. All modern interferometers have
evolved from this first one since it demonstrated how the properties of light can be used to
make the tiniest of measurements. The invention of lasers has enabled interferometers to
make the smallest conceivable measurements, like those required by LIGO.
Remarkably, the basic structure of LIGO's interferometers differs little from the
interferometer that Michelson designed over 125 years ago, but with some added features,
described in LIGO's Interferometer.

 
Laser interferometer for length measurements ranging from a nanometre up
to a few metres
Increasing demands on the accuracies of coordinate measuring machines, machine tools and
positioning devices with movement ranges over several metres pose a challenge to
measurement systems when it comes to their acceptance and calibration. In this context, new
generation laser interferometers offer unique properties that combine a large length
measuring range with an extraordinarily high resolution. By using the wavelength of He-Ne
lasers as a long-term stable measuring standard, the measuring systems can be traced back to
national standards and are, therefore, ideally suited for calibrations and tasks in metrology.
The basis for the interferometers
is SIOS Mess Technik GmbH‘s
single-beam concept, which combines
excellent linearity over the entire
measuring range with simple calibration.

Laser interferometric vibrometer, based on a Michelson interferometer

Mechanically coupled sensors have traditionally been used to measure vibrations. However,
the general, continuing trend toward miniaturization is placing entirely new demands on
measuring systems that have to measure the motion of objects through a wide frequency
range and down to sub-nanometre resolution. This is where laser interferometric vibrometers
of SIOS Mess Technik GmbH are used for the contactless, reaction-free measurement of
macroscopic and microscopic objects at frequencies from 0 to 5 MHz and resolutions in the
sub-nanometre range. These systems are ideally suitable for applications in which the
vibrations of hard-to-reach objects have to be analysed.

The design of a laser interferometric vibrometer is based on that of a Michelson

interferometer, in which a beam of coherent light is split into two partial optical beams: a
reference beam and a measuring beam. The reference beam has a fixed length. The measuring
beam is focused on the surface to be
measured, its length changes as a result of
the motion of the object measured.
After the measuring beam has been
reflected from the object measured, the
two returning partial beams interfere with
one another. Their phase difference is
proportional to the displacement of the
object measured, and is thus the measured
variable. This measurement can
also be traced back to international length
standards because the laser frequency
serves as a linear scale.

Analysing and measuring mechanical vibrations without contact

Series LSV-NG laser interferometric vibrometers can be used in all fields of application in
which mechanical vibrations have to be analysed and measured without contact. Its main
advantages in comparison to other vibration measurement methods are its contactless and
thus reaction-free mode of operation, the large measuring range with a distance resolution of
few picometers in the time range  and, of course, the frequency range from 0 Hz to maximum
5 MHz The vibration spectra, natural frequencies and modes of vibration can also be
determined. Multicandidate measurements and differential measurements can be made with
the aid of multiple systems.
Simple measurements made in high vacuum by placing the non-contact measuring
vibrometer outside the vacuum chamber
A special version of the series LSV-NG vibrometer which can work in vacuum is possible,
but technically very complex. However, it is often possible to see the object to be measured
through a window in the vacuum chamber, in which case the measurement can be made
through the window by an externally placed measuring head. This makes it very easy to
measure objects lying in a vacuum. By focusing the measuring beam, measurements on glass
surfaces or through the glass are possible.
Calibration interferometer with 2D straightness measurement
The SP 5000 C5 2D calibration interferometers (Figure 2) are designed to further simplify
handling and reduce measuring times. The straightness mirror is eliminated, so that the
calibration is made easier and functionality is significantly improved. The compact, fully
passive measuring reflector allows simultaneous measurement of position, pitch and yaw
angle as well as straightness components in a single pass. Due to the absolute, micrometre-
accurate straightness measurement, the SP 5000 C5 2D is also ideal for the alignment of
machine components.
High-performance software solutions
for standardised machine acceptance,
volumetric correction of machine tools for
all common machine control systems,
dynamic component analysis and
measuring system- supported alignment
of machine components exist for
all measuring systems.
Use of C5 and C5 2D series
multicomponent interferometers
significantly reduces the time required for acceptance inspections, calibrations, system
analyses and correction range adjustments. This allows cost reduction, while increasing
accuracy.
Calibration interferometers for measuring of straightness, angle and  position
Two calibration interferometers were developed for measuring lengths up to 6 m especially
for narrow spaces. The high-precision straightness measurement makes them also suitable for
the alignment of machine components.
Calibration interferometers are used, wherever highly accurate detection of rotational and
translational guidance deviations of linear positioning axes, machine tools and coordinate
measuring machines is required. In addition to the high measurement resolution and linearity
achievable, the traceability to the metre specification is a decisive advantage of the
interferometric measurement method. This is ensured by the frequency connection of the
laser source used as a benchmark.

Calibration interferometer SP 5000 C5 2D, compared to the proven SP 15000 C5 system

The high-precision requirements of a system can only be achieved if the existing deviations
are known. These can be documented, for example, in the form of acceptance reports.
Nevertheless, what is much more important is the fact that the accuracy can be increased by a
compensation of the existing deviations – be it linear axis, coordinate measuring machine or
machine tool.
As with all interferometers of SIOS Messtechnik GmbH, the basic concept of the calibration
interferometers presented here is the use of a fibre-coupled sensor that avoids any heat
generation at the measurement site. The measuring reflectors are completely passive, which
means they are electrically and magnetically neutral. Another important advantage is the
simultaneous acquisition of several measured variables, a principle that SIOS has been
following for more than 10 years, since multicomponent measurements allow a mutual
assignment (also random proportions) of guidance deviations and also drastically reduce the
required measuring times.
The SP 15000 C5 laser
Interferometer has already proven itself
on the market as a system that records
the linear position up to a distance of 50 m,
the pitch and yaw angle as well as a
straightness component by laser
interferometry in a single measurement
process. Special advantages of the
system are the long range in the high
angular resolution as well as the large
measuring ranges for the angle and straightness measurement. This and the integrated
alignment aids make system alignment child’s play.
However, in a number of applications, the space available in the machine is limited, or the
permissible mass of the measuring reflector is limited due to the system design or
measurement task (dynamic analysis). In addition, the attachment of the components of the
measuring system can be difficult especially in machine tools.
Since the required measuring range is less than 6 m in many cases, two new calibration
interferometers with a compact sensor head and a compact measuring reflector for measuring
lengths up to 6 m have been developed on the basis of the tried-and-tested SP 15000 C5.
The position resolution and the resolution of the interferometric straightness measurement
remain the same as with the SP 15000 C5, the angular resolution is very high at 0.001 arc
seconds. Since the systems are to be used even in narrow spaces, focus was on easy handling
of the compact system components. Thus, appropriate alignment aids are also included here.

Slip Gauges
THEORY
Slip Gauges:
Slip gauges are also known as gage squares, Block Gauges, Johansson checks, slip checks
and Johansson squares, these are actually type of frameworks used for attaining length
accuracy. They are made up of metal as well as of ceramics having specific thickness. They
have two faces that are flat and parallel to each other at some distance. They come up with
the set that have standard lengths. They are joined together to get a specific dimension. They
are stacked by sliding process named wringing which let them to join together. A few gauges
can be used to create accurate length within a wide range.
 Figure 1: Slip Gauges

Materials used in Block Gauge:

The Block Gauges are most commonly made up of steel alloys and the carbides however
ceramics and glass are also used depending upon the environmental conditions. Like steel is
recommended in circumstances when the initial costs are taken strictly under consideration
and also larger measurements are needed to made.
The material name usually recommended are as follows:
 Tungsten Carbide
 Aluminum Alloys
 Stainless Steel
 High Speed Steel

Wringing Process:
The phenomenon in which two flat surfaces are lapped together or placed in contact by
sliding one surface over the other is known as wringing. A little amount of grease or
moisture should be present between these surfaces in order to wring them satisfactorily.
Wringing process takes place due to the adhesion between the liquid film and the mating flat
surfaces and also moderately due to the influence atmospheric pressure. The gap between the
mating surfaces is just of about 6 nanometers, so therefore no effect will be on the total
length. The blocks are joined with each other after sliding due to the adhesive property of
block gauges. This adhesive property is due to high level of surface finish on the measuring
faces.
 Figure 2: Wringing Process of Block Gauges

2.2 PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:

The following are some of the practical applications of the Block Gauges:
 Automotive Industry:
Block Gauges are used in Automotive Industry. Block Gauges are used for measuring
dimensions of engine blocks. Different gauges are joined together to get required dimensions.
 Instrumental Calibration Purposes in Industries:
They are used in industries and other Quality assurance labs for calibration of different
instruments such as Vernier calipers, Sine Bars and Dial Indicators, screw gauge etc.
 Casting Industry:
Block angle gauges are used in die casting industries to measure the inserts present in die
casting.
2.3 PROCEDURE:
The following are the steps taken during measurement taken from the block gauges:
 Firstly, make it sure that block gauges are properly cleaned otherwise clean them with
kerosene oil.
 The sides that should be cleaned are the sides that are to be joined.
  Start sliding block gauges for joining them according to the required dimensions by
applying pressure on the sides perpendicularly and then rotate them until they are
aligned known as wring process.
 This process will be continued until the required length is obtained.

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
The following are some of the safety precautions that are to be considered during
measurement with Block Gauges:
 Block Gauges should be cleaned, for avoiding gaps between them.
 Avoid the moisture between contact surfaces.
 Volatile liquids are used to clean the gauges because it left the surfaces with no liquid.
.
ERRORS & RESULTS:
The following are the some of the errors:
 Wring process is difficult to perform because of wear and tear of gauges. It is difficult to
adhere for wore gauges.
 There were some gauges in laboratory whose surfaces wore out due to which they cannot be
joined and it was not possible to get all the dimensions.
 Surface smoothness decrease with time.
COMMENTS:
Gauges should have good adhere qualities so that they can be joined easily. Their material
should be hardened and good enough so that they can bear high pressure and temperature
because they start wearing out due to them and also because of moisture in environment
slippage may happen in gauge.

To measure the External Taper Angle of given object using Sin-Bar Apparatus
THEORY:
Sin - Bar Apparatus:
Sin bar is known as one of the most accurate angles measuring instrument and it include
rectangular bar of steel and two rollers at the ends. It is categorized by the center distance
between the rollers i.e. 100mm ,200mm etc. Before grinding and lapping they get hardened.
The rollers are fixed such that when sin bar is placed become exactly parallel to surface place
when it is placed over it.

Figure 1: Sine Bar Apparatus

Working Principle of Sine Bar:
Angles are measured using a sine bar with the help of gauge blocks and a dial gauge or
a spirit level. The aim of a measurement is to measure the surface on which the dial gauge or
spirit level is placed horizontally. For example, to measure the angle of a wedge, the wedge is
placed on a horizontal table. The sine bar is placed over the inclined surface of the wedge. At
this position, the top surface of the sine bar is inclined the same amount as the wedge. Using
gauge blocks, the top surface is made horizontal. The sine of the angle of inclination of the
wedge is the ratio of the height of the gauge blocks used and the distance between the centers
of the cylinders.

Figure 2: Sine Bar Apparatus

Measurement for Small Component:

In case of measuring small angle, arrangements through sine bar are made in such a way that
it is placed parallel to working surface by placing slips gauges according to required
specification. A dial gauge is placed over & adjusted with some suitable stand. This dial
gauge is moved along the length that will assist in finding that whether the surfaces are
parallel or not.

Try to adjust the slip gauges so that deflection of pointer in dial gauge come to zero. After all,
the angle is found out by using the formula

Where,
θ = is the angel to be measure
h = height of the slip gauges.
L = Length of the sine bar (between centers)

Measurement for Larger Angle:

For the larger component as shown in the figure below. First, use the Vernier caliper for the
purpose of measuring the height above the rollers. Measuring pressure is measured by using
the dial gauge. Up till the dial gauge reads zero for each reading keep on adjusting the height
gauge. The difference between the two of the height gauges gives us the rise of the sine bar

. The angle of the component is given by the formula given below:

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS:
The following are some of the practical applications of the Sine Bar apparatus:
 It is useful in finding Taper angles of components, work piece taper-ness etc.
 Also, can be used to set work for a required angle.
 It is limited to use in laboratory and small workshops and not in industry because its
accuracy is good for angles of range 15° to 45° and provide very inaccurate results for
other angles.

PROCEDURE:
The following are the steps taken during measurement taken from the block Sine Bar:
 Firstly, for reducing roughness make sure that both the object and the sine bar dust free
and cleaned.
 Measure the length of object by means of Vernier caliper.
 Adjust the sin bar and make it parallel to working surface plate.
 Put the tapered object on the top and fix the end of dial gauge and adjust its reading to
zero.
 Move the gauge along the tapered surface that will show the height of taper.
 Calculate the theoretical height and use that specific value to select the block gauges and
place under the sine bar.
 Now check the deflection of dial gauge to check about the level of top side that will help
to ensure that selected gauges are accurately selected.
 Finally, use these values and find the taper angle.
FORMULAE USED:
The following formula is used in calculations:
¯¿
H ( theoretical )=Deflection∗Lengthof sine ¿
Length of work piece

Perpendicular H ( practical)
sin ∅= =
Hypotnuse Length of work piece

SAFETY PRECAUTIONS:
The following are some of the safety precautions that are to be considered during
measurement with Block Gauges:
 All the surfaces which are linked with the sine bar must be cleaned properly.
 There should be no error in dial gauge.
 Sine-bar should be accurate and make sure that angles to be measured are between its
range otherwise measurements will not be accurate.

ERRORS & RESULTS:

The following are the some of the errors:
The values of external taper angles that are calculated using sine bar by applying sine law are
accurate as for the reason that the taper angles are smaller. There is a direct relation between
error and angle, it means error increases as angle increases. It is very useful process and is
used various manufacturing industries.
COMMENTS:
Coordinate measuring machines nowadays used in industries as it very much accurate as
compared to the sine bars. Use of sine bar is limited in industries not of only size but also due
to shape. Different error might occur but to reduce them keep the points under considerations:
 Center distance(L) should be known properly with accuracy.
 Roller axes should be parallel to each of them.
 The upper surface should be flat and parallel for sine bar.