LEARNING

Learning is one of the fundamental behaviour processes, involves both the development
and the modification of thoughts and behaviours

Other concepts and aspects of organizational behaviour 9 for example motivation that
will be discussed in later chapters can be fully explained with the use of learning
principles

New employees will bring with them a set of previously leaned ways of behaving. They
are then expected to learn additional information than applies to their jobs.

Established employees continue to develop their job related skills and abilities

Therefore, learning is a never ending process for all employees.

The process is also very complex. For example, an employee who has already learned
one way to perform a job may have trouble learning a second albeit better way

An employee motivation to perform is closely linked to learning. The fore a manager

who understands leaning process can use the principles of learning to guide employees
behaviour and performance. To be successful employees training and development
programmes must be based on sound learning principles

NATURE OF LEARNING

Learning is fairly a permanent change in behaviour that occurs as a result of

experiences

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In order to say that learning has occurred a change or modification of behaviour must
be evident

The change in behaviour must also be more than just temporary

It should be possible to attribute this change to an occurrence of an event

Thus, while learning is a process that we cannot observe directly, we ca infer that
learning has occurred when we can observe a fairly permanent change in behaviour

Studies of learning have produced three approaches to the explanation of learning

 Classical conditioning
 Observational learning
 Operant or instructional conditioning

Classical conditioning

 Based on Pavlov classical conditioning experiment using dogs as subjects

 When presented with meat powder ( unconditioned stimulus) - the dog secreted
saliva (unconditioned response)

 When he merely rang a bell (neutral stimulus) the dog did not salivate

 When meat was accompanied with the ringing of the bell several times, then
Pavlov rang the bell without presenting the meat, the dog salivated to the bell
alone

 Conclusion - that the dog has become classically conditioned to salivate

(conditioned response) to the sound of the bell ( conditioned stimulus)

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  In classical conditioning, an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) or stimulus that has
the capacity to reliably evoke a naturally occurring reflexive or unconditioned
responses (UR) – is paired c

 Thus classical conditioned can be defined as a process in which a formerly

neutral stimulus, when paired with an unconditioned stimulus, becomes a
conditioned stimulus that elicit a conditioned response; in other words, the S-R
connection is learned

 Many jobs require conditioned responses. For example driving a folk lift or a
trailer calls for reflexive behaviour

 The driver’s ability to apply the brakes quickly and or otherwise react
appropriately depends on conditioned response to previous neutral stimuli
such as warning lights on the truck.

 A managers goal in training personnel to the point where they do not

require continual monitoring and feedback also calls for classical
conditioning

OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING

Much of learning that occurs in organizations is based on observation. For example, a

new employee may observe a skilled employee performing a task. After simply
observing the activities, the new employee is bale to model her behaviour after her
observations (this can be informal observational learning

Observational learning occurs when a person witnesses the behaviour of another and
vicariously experiences the consequences of the other person’s actions.

When tasks are fairly simple, observational learning can be immediate and complete;
numerous trials and rehearsals are unnecessary.

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In addition to informal observational learning, employees sometimes undergo formal
training programmes that rely on the same process like on the job training. Training
manuals and lectures are based on the premises that trainees will absorb, retain and
enact preferred forms of conduct on their jobs. Role plays and also case studies are
used with the aim that trainees and observers will imitate the desirable forms of
behaviour portrayed in the case and the role play

Many advocates of observational learning content that it is most successful when

external rewards are provided for successful learning. Thus they join observational
learning principles with conditioning principles and recognize the importance of both
individual cognition (that is mental events) and external rewards)

INSTRUMENTAL OR OPERANT CONDITIONING

Operant conditioning

Based on the work of B. F. Skinner.

 Skinner felt that classical conditioning explains only respondent (reflexive)

behaviours. – i.e. involuntary responses that are elicited by a stimulus

 He felt that more complex, but common human behaviour cannot be explained
by classical conditioning alone.

 He noted that the greater part of the behaviour of an organism was under control
of stimuli which were effective only because they were correlated with reinforcing
consequences

 Through his research thus , skinner posited that behaviour was a function of
consequences, not the classical conditioning eliciting stimuli

 He felt that most human behaviour affects, or operates on, the environment to
receive a desirable consequences

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 Operant conditioning is concerned primarily with learning that occurs as a
consequence of behaviour, or R-S.

 Differences between operant and classical

Classical Operant

 A change in the stimulus (US to  One particular response out of

CS ) will elicit a particular many possible ones occur in a
responses given stimulus

 The strength and frequency of  The stimulus situation serves as a

classically conditioned behaviour cue for person to emit response
are determined mainly by the and does not elicit response
frequency of the eliciting stimuli
 The strength and frequency of
( the environmental events that
operantly conditioned behaviours
precedes the behaviour)
are determined mainly by the
 The strength and frequency of consequences (the environmental
classically conditioned behaviour event that follows behaviour)
are determined mainly by the
 The organism must operate in the
frequency of the eliciting stimuli
environment (thus the term operant
( the environmental events that
conditioning) in order to receive a
precedes the behaviour)
reward
 During the classical conditioning
process, the unconditioned
stimulus, serving as a reward is
presented every time

 The reward s presented only after

the organism gives the correct
response

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 

In operant conditioning, reinforcement is used in conjunction with responses. There are

two kinds of reinforcement: positive and negative

Using reinforcement to manage behaviour/Instrumental conditioning

Much of human behaviour in organisations is instrumental, in the sense that people act
on their surrounding as wells as deliberately move into and out of different situations. In
other words, the behaviour of employees is often instrumental in bringing about desired
outcomes. When desired outcomes is obtained, the likelihood of that behaviour
recurring is enhanced

This principle is summarise in Thorndike law of Effect, which states that responses that
are followed

 Thorndike’ s law of effect ( sometimes called the law of behaviour) stated that “
of several responses made to the same situation, those which are accompanied
or closely followed by satisfaction (reinforcement) … will be more likely to recur;
those that are closely followed by discomfort ( punishment)… will be less likely to
recur

More loosely stated, the law proposes that that behaviour that produces pleasant
outcomes is more likely to recur, while behaviour that produces unpleasant outcomes is
less likely to recur

Desirable and reinforcing, consequences will increase the strength of the preceding
behaviour and increase its probability of being repeated in future

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Undesirable, or punishing, consequences will decrease the strength of the preceding
behaviour and decrease the probability of being repeated in the future

Sometimes a third law is added;

 if the behaviour is followed by no consequence (neither positive or negative

contingent consequences) the behaviour will extinguish over time 9 this is
called extinction principle or law)

Positive reinforcement is any event used to increase the frequency of a

response (for example, praise from a supervisor for the successful completion of
a task)

Negative reinforcement is any event that when removed, increases the

frequency y of a response ( for example a loud buzzer that sounds when a
worker fails to monitor a machines operations and that shuts off only when the
worker can respond appropriately, or the criticism of a supervisor, which the
worker can learn to avoid by performing a task correctly)

Both positive and negative reinforcement can increase the strength and frequency of
the behaviour that follows. However these two types of reinforcement will create a work
environment with different characteristics and behaviour dynamics

 Positive reinforcement will lead to people performing in order to seek

positive outcomes
 While negative reinforcement will lead to people responding out of fear
and anxiety

Differences btw reinforcement and reward

 Reinforcement in behavioral management is defined as anything that both

increases the strength and tends to induce repetition of the behaviour that
preceded the reinforcement

 A reward on the other hand is simply something that the person who presents it
deem to be desirable

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 Something is reinforcing if it strengthens the behaviour preceding it and induces
repetition

 E.g. a manager may ostensibly reward an employee who found an error in a

report by publicly praising the employee.

 Yet on examination it is found that the employee is embarrassed and chided by

coworkers and error finding behaviour decreases in future

 In this example, reward is not reinforcing

Critique of reinforcement theory

 There may be some occasions when a person’s cognitive rationalizations

might neutralize the laws of behaviour

 For example, people with inaccurate self efficacy beliefs many not be affected
by the consequences of their actions. Those with inaccurate or false self
efficacy beliefs who experience performance failures time after time will not
learn from their mistakes or respond to the manages comments on how to
correct the problem. They have high self-efficacy (they believe that their
behaviours are appropriate to successfully accomplish the task0 but they are
wrong

Reinforcement As Used In Behaviour Management

Using operant conditioning principles in organizational setting –

organizational behaviour modification (OB mod)

1. Acquiring complex behaviours: Shaping

One powerful technique used to modify behaviour is terming as shaping

Shaping involves reinforcing small approximation at of the final desired behavior

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As shaping progresses, the reward is gradually withheld until a larger portion of
the complete task is performed. Many times, the desired workers behaviour
involves a set of responses so complex such that complete of correct behavior
is not likely to occur all at once.

When shaping s used in individuals receive reinforcement for small, successful

approximation of the desired behaviour. For example. Learning to operate
complex machinery, trainers would praise a worker for each gradual
improvement in operating the machine. Praise would then be withheld until more
complex patterns of behaviour were successfully performed.

2. Maintaining desired behaviour

Because a manager cannot always be available to administer reinforcement, it is

highly desirable that subordinates learn to perform at high levels without
continual reward

To achieve this, the manager must first increase the strength of the desired
responses to the point where it will not disappear if reinforcement is not provided.

The elimination of response due to discontinuation of reinforcement is called

extinction. For desired behaviours, extinction should be avoided. While for
inappropriate behaviours, such as tardiness and insubordination, extinction may
be activity sought.

A manager wants to increase desired behavior’s resistance to extinction; that is,

he or she wants to ensure the responses persistence in the absence of
reinforcement. Increased resistance to extinction can be achieved through partial
reinforcement. When partial reinforcement or intermittent reinforcement used, a
response is rewarded in a non continuous or variable manner. An alternative
approach would be to praise subordinates for every correct response, an
approach termed a continuous reinforcement. Behaviour learned under a partial

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 reinforcement scheme is more resistance to extinction than behaviour learned
under a continuous reinforcement scheme

3. Schedule of reinforcement

The scheduling of reinforcement is particularly important aspect of BOB mod.

There are four major kinds of partial reinforcement schedules

1. Fixed intervals
2. Variable intervals
3. Fixed ration
4. Variable ratio

Interval schedules reinforce behaviours on the basis of time elapses and ratio
schedules are based on the number of time the behaviour is performed. In a fixed
schedule, the amount of time or number of behaviour is specified in advance, while in
variable schedule the amount of times or numbers of behaviours varies

Fixed interval schedules

A fixed variable schedule reinforces individual for their response after a predetermined
period of time has elapsed

Responses must meet minimal standards requirement to be reinforced

Performance beyond the minimum however does not lead to greater rewards

Performance under a fixed interval schedule or reinforcement tends to be poor. As one

might expect, the lack of a direct relationship between reward and level of performance
to lead only to the minimal amount of effort necessary to meet the standards

In essence, a fixed interval scheme offers workers little incentive

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Nevertheless most organisations rely on such a schedule when they compensate
employees on a weekly or hourly basis and ignore performance as long as it meets
minimal standards

Research shows that responses learned under fixed interval schedules of reinforcement
diminish or extinguish very rapidly when rewards are withheld

Variable interval schedule

With variable interval schedule, reinforcement is administered after varying period of

time have elapsed. Although the average period of time may be calculated, an individual
cannot predict in advance how much time will elapse between reinforcements

An example of such as scheme is when a top level manager announced but fairly
regularly twice-monthly visits to a loading dock. Although the employees cannot say
precisely when the manager will visit, they can nonetheless assume on an average, the
manager will make an inspection every tow weeks or so. Because the controlling
influence of the evaluative experience, it is possible that performance will drop
somewhat after reinforcement is administered

Fixed ratio schedule

In fixed ratio schedule, reinforcement is given in exchange for a predetermined number

of responses. The most common business use of fixed ratio schedule is the piece rate
pay scheme. Under such a scheme, four pickers might be paid a set amount of money
for every 10 kilos of tea that they harvest. Performance tends to be higher under fixed
ratio schedule than it is under interval schedule, but performance is likely to drop
temporary immediately after reinforcement.

Thus, on the average, performance is high but tends to be variable. In such a scheme,
employees are likely to exert effort in spurts in order to obtain a specified level of output

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Variable ratio schedule

Under variable ratio schedule, reinforcement is provided after an individual has

produced a number of desired responses. The desired number of responses or
standards however, is not precisely stated, but instead varies around an average
number. To receive reinforcement, an individual might have to correctly perform a
behaviour 10 times in one instance, 7 times in the next, or 13 times and so one, with
the average number being around 9

Manager commonly praise their employees via a variable ratio schedule. Thus
employees can rarely be certain beforehand when their actions will receive reward

RULES FOR APPLYING REINFORCEMENT (OPERANT CONDITIONING)

PRINCIPLES

Hammer and Hammer have outlined a number of rules for application of the principles
of reinforcement (operant condition). If a manager follows these rules in dealing with
subordinates, then performance should be enhanced. These are:

Use different rewards

Many managers try to teat all subordinates alike. Although this sounds noble, it tends to
encourage mediocrity.

When all employees receive equal rewards, superior performers begin to feel that their
efforts are unappreciated, while the poor performers recognize that they will not be
penalized for minimum effort

In response, over time, most above average performers will drop their performance to
the minimal level. A few superior performers may of course persist, but most will lower
their effort to the level that will equal their rewards

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When rewards commensurate with performance, however, subordinates receive a quite
different message – superior performers get the signal that their efforts are values, and
potentially high performance are encouraged to try harder

Identify valued rewards for individuals

If a manager hopes to influence an employee’s behaviour through the use of reward,

the rewards must have value to the employee. One of the best ways to obtain this
information is simply to ask employees what rewards they would like to receive.
Younger workers might prefer more pay than greater involvement in decision making, or
medical cover

Instruct subordinates on how rewards are tied to performance

In order for reinforcement principles to be maximally effective, employees must clearly

understand how rewards and performance are connected. When specific information is
lacking, subordinates may try to second guess their manager intention by constructing
their own imagined system of reward. Thus much confusion and counterpoductivity can
be avoided if managers clearly stage goals for performance and explain how reward is
related to performance

Provide feedback

In order o meet the mangers standards of performance, employees must have

instructive feedback. Their manager must evaluate and interpret their performance for
them, indicating how well or how poorly they are doing and suggesting specific ways to
improve. In addition, to providing guidance, feedback can also serve as an addition form
of reinforcement

PUNISHMENT

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Differences between Positive, negative reinforcers, and punishment

 It must be understood that reinforcement, positive or negative, strengthens the

behaviour and increases the probability of repetition

 Positive reinforcement strengthens and increases behaviour by the presentation

of desirable consequence

 Negative reinforcement strengthens and increases behaviour by the threat of

use of undesirable consequences or the termination or withdrawal of undesirable
consequence

 Giving recognition and attention to an employee for successful completion of a

task could be an example of positive reinforcement (if this does in fact
strengthen and subsequently increase this task behaviour

 On the other hand, a worker is negatively reinforced for getting busy when the
supervisor walks through the area. Getting busy terminates being ‘chewed out”
by the supervisor

 Negative reinforcement strengthen and increases behaviour, whereas

punishment wakens and decreases behaviour

 However, both are considered to be forms of negative control of behaviour

 Negative reinforcement is actually a form of social blackmail, because the person

will perform in a certain way in order not to be punished

 Negative reinforcement is not equal to punishment

 Punishment is anything that weakens behaviour and tends to decrease its

subsequent frequency.

 Punishment consists of the application of an undesirable or noxious (harmful)

consequences, but can also be defined as the withdraws of desirable
consequences

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  Thus taking away certain organizational privileges from a manager who has poor
performance record could be thought to be punishment

 For punishment to be effective there must be a weakening of and a decrease in,

the behaviour that preceded it.

 Just as a supervisor criticizes a subordinate and thinks this is a punishment, it is

not necessarily the case unless the behaviour that proceeded the criticism
weakens and decreases in subsequent frequency

 Sometimes in fact criticism is reinforcing especially if the employee needs

attention and thinks that by attracting criticism, he will get attention

Role of punishment

Punishment can also be used as a means of altering behaviour just as reward can be
used for the same

Frequently used rewards and punishment

Rewards Punishment
Bonuses Reprimand
Promotions Oral warning
Pay increases Ostracism
Vacation time Criticism form superiors
Time off Suspension
Use of company car Citations
Awards Disciplinary hearing
Praise and recognition Written warning
Increase in formal responsibility Pay cuts
Increase in departmental budget Demotions
Sense of accomplishment Reduced authority
Self recognition Undesired transfers
promotions
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Punishment is an undesirable event that follows behaviour and it intends to eliminate.

Criticism against punishment

Punishment role in shaping employees behaviour is quiet complex because In most

case use of punishment tends to cause many undesirable side effects:

 The punished behaviour tends to be only temporarily suppressed rather

than permanently changed, and the punished person tends to get anxious
or uptight and resentful of the punisher

 Often, in response to its administration, an employee will not eliminate the

desirable behaviour, but instead will often seek ways of engaging in the
behaviour as wall as ways of getting even with the punisher.

 Thus the use of punishment as a strategy to control behaviour is a lose-

lose approach

 Unless punishment is severe, the behaviour will reappear very quickly, but
the more severe the punishment, the greater the side effects such as hate
or revenge

Alternatives to punishment

Before using punishment to eliminate undesirable behaviour, manager should

consider server other strategies.

1. One alternate is to rearrange the work settings o that the undesirable

responses cannot occur. For example, if unauthorized individual are using a
copying machine, the installation of a lock and a meter will prevent further
misuse
2. A second strategy is extinction. A response can be extinguished if the reward
which it is usually paired is eliminated. Identifying the reward that undesirable

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 behaviour generates for employees is often not too difficult. In some
instances, the reward may actually be the satisfaction of knowing that a peer
or supervisor has been annoyed. extinction in such cases might consist of
ignoring their irksome behaviour, thereby reducing the probability that it will
occur
3. Ignoring the behaviour all together is also a strategy. a problem may arise
and instead of the manager taking action, he/she postpones taking action
deliberately

Administering effective punishment

In many cases none of the above alternatives may be feasible or it may be too costly
or physically impossible to change a situation to prevent undesirable behaviour

Some of the guidelines for administering discipline for effective behaviour

management

To minimize the problems with using punishment, effective punishment in an

organisation setting should have the same attributes:

 Impersonal - The punishment should be impersonal - the recipient should

recognize that the punishment is not directed toward his or her character or
sense of self worth

 Strong: -It should be sufficiently severe that it cannot be ignored

 Produced by employees’ action - It should be clearly to employees that the

punishment was caused by the specific actions of the transgressor. The

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 punishment as a result is informative in that the recipient can sense the
connection between behaviour and punishment

 Persons administering it must always provide an acceptable alternative to the

behaviour that is being punished. If they do not, the undesirable behaviour will
tend to reappear and will cause fear and anxiety in the person being punished
 The punishment must be administered as close in time to the undesirable
behaviour as possible – reprimanding a subordinate a week after the rule was
broken is not effective
 When punishment is administered, it should be remembered that there is also an
effective on the relevant others who are observing the punishment – give
punishment in private if possible
 Always attempt to reinforce instead of punish in order to change behaviour. The
use of reinforcement strategy is usually more effective in accelerating desirable
behavior than the use of punishment is for decelerating undesirable behaviours
because no bas side effect accompany reinforcement
 In order to succeed, punishment must be used in an orderly, rational manner –
not, as is too often the case, as a handy outlet for manager anger or frustration. If
used with skill and concern for human dignity. It can be useful
 In behaviour management, discipline is a learning experience, never purely a
coercive experience to prove mastery or control over others., punishment should
give advance warning (it is red hot – don’t touch) and be immediate, consistent
and impersonal ( it burns everyone who touches
 . Punishment should be situational applied and progressive – punishment for a
19 year old should be different form a senior manager. The progressive discipline
many start off with clarifying verbal discussion, then move to written contract
signed by the person being discipline and next move to time off with or without
pay, and then only as a last step, and in termination

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ROLE OF ORGANISATIONAL REWARD SYSTEMS

 Because positive reinforcement consequences are so important to employee

behaviour, the Organisational reward systems becomes critical to behaviour
performance management
 Organisations may have excellent technology, good SP, job descriptions,
comprehensive training programmes, but unless the people are reinforced for
performance related behaviors, these will have little impact

 The challenge of performance management is to understand this behaviour

reality, eliminate the reinforcers for undesirable behaviours, and more importantly
and effectively, reinforce the desirable behaviour

 There are two types of reinforcers:

 Financial
 Non financial

Money as a reinforcer

 Money to employees can be determined in several ways

 Base pay ( the traditional approach)
 Merit pay ( for performance)
 New pay plan ( for performance, skill, competency, etc)

 Base pay

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  The only reinforcing function provided here the employee walking up to the cash
office or banks to pick their pay checks and rarely do employee see it as a
motivator to improve performance

Merit pay
 Money, if well administered can act as a reinforcer – it has a positive effect on
employees behaviour
 However, its shortcomings will be seen if not well implemented such asr:
1. poor measurement of performance
2. lack of acceptance of supervisory feedback
3. limited desirability of merit increases that are too small
4. Lack of linkages between merit pay and performance
5. Potential unintended consequences such as focusing on merit related
activities and behaviours
 Some compensation practitioners argue that merit pay only makes employees
unhappy because they view it as unfair way to reward for past performances instead
of being geared towards improving future performance
 A laboratory study of merit pay led to the following conclusions:
1. Unless a merit pay raise is at least 6 to 7 percent of base pay, it will not
produce the desired effect on employee behaviour
2. Beyond a certain point, increases in merit-rise size are unlikely to improve
performance
3. When merit pay raises are too small, employee morale will suffer
4. Cost of living adjustments, seniority adjustments, and other non-merit
components of a raise should be clearly separated from the merit component
5. Smaller percentage raises given to employees at the higher ends of base-
pay ranges are demotivating
 In other words therefore, both the traditional base and merit-pay plans have a
problem
The new pay plan

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 This seem to overcome a lot of problems associated with the traditional base pay
and the merit pay as a means of rewarding employees
 It is said to increase performance by up to 100 per cent in terms of net returns to the
organisation - i.e. for every one dollar pay out, the gain was more than $2

Non financial rewards

 Although money is the most obvious Organisational reward, non financial rewards
are receiving increased attention
 Survey has shown that employees ranking non financial rewards above the financial
rewards
A study conducted by Peterson and Luthans found that financial incentives initially
has a bigger effect on profits, customer service, and employee retention, but over
time, except for employee retention, both financial and nonfinancial incentives had
an equal significant impact
 In other words therefore, there is little doubt that the nonfinancial rewards can be
very powerful, but are often overlooked as a reinforcer in behaviour performance
management

Categories of non financial rewards

 Consumables – coffee break treats, free lunches, company dinners, company
outing, time off, entertainment events, education classes
 Manipulatables – desk accessories, company car, trophies, clothing, club privileges,
use of company facilities for personal projects
 Visual and auditory – office with space, internet for personal use, decorated work
environment, private office, library
 Job design – job with more responsibility, job rotation, special assignment, training,
flexible work hours, participation in decisions, team works, self management
 Formal recognition – for achievement, feature in in-house newsletters, celebrations,
letter of commendation, acknowledgment in front of others

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 Performance feedback – nonverbal and verbal performance information, written
reports, performance appraisals, performance charts and graphs,
 Social recognition and attention – friendly greeting, soliciting for suggestions,
compliments of work progress, smile, verbal/non verbal recognition or praise

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