Compilation Notes

Forensic Ballistics

BALLISTICS ?
 is the science of the motion of projectile the conditions governing that motion (direct, rotary & translatory).

SCIENCE - is a systematized knowledge based on nature and formulated truth, careful to observation experimentation
and researched.

 is the science that deals with the motion, behavior, and effects of projectiles, especially bullets, gravity bombs,
rockets, or the like; the science or art of designing and hurling projectiles so as to achieve a desired performance.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS
 – is the SCIENCE of FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION by means of the AMMUNTION FIRED THROUGH THEM.

Origin of Ballistics
The word “ Ballistics” originated from the Greek word “ballo or Ballein” which means “to throw” and from the
Roman word Ballista which is machine to hurl a stone.

BALLISTICS THEORY

Ballistics is the scientific study of the propulsion and motion of projectiles such as bullets, artillery shells, rockets
and guided missiles. Also includes the study of the destructive action of such projectiles.

The drag of a projectile moving head on is now usually divided into three parts:

1. bow resistance - due to air pressure at the head of the projectile;

2. skin friction - caused by the friction of air moving along the middle portion of the body; and
3. base drag - due to the under-pressure and disturbance  of the air behind the base.

The following are pioneers in the study of force and projectiles:

1. GALILEO, NEWTON, and LEIBNIZ established the principles of dynamics and the methods of calculus, studies
which helped the rapid development of external ballistics.
2. GALILEO and NEWTON were both interested in the force called air resistance, now usually called aerodynamic
drag, which reduces the speed of a projectile.
3. In 1707, CASSINI, an astronomer suggested measuring firearm’s muzzle velocity.

Branches of Ballistics

A. Interior ballistics – traits of the motion of the projectiles while still in the firearm, namely the studies of combustion of
the powder, pressure developed and velocity.
B. Transitional Ballistics- is branch of Science that deals with the motion of projectile from the time it leaves the muzzle
until the only forces acting upon it are due to exterior ballistics
C. Exterior ballistics- traits of the motion of the projectiles after leaving the muzzle namely trajectory, velocity, range,
penetration, etc.
D. Terminal ballistics – traits of the effects of the projectile on impact on the target.
E. Forensic Ballistics – the science of firearm identification by means of the ammunition fired through them.
F. Shot Ballistics - the study of shotgun ammunition including its spread characteristics and trailing
G. Wound Ballistics – the study on the effects of projectile on the target and the condition that affects them.

INTERIOR BALLISTICS

It is the study of motion of projectiles within the gun barrel. The time during which the projectile is influenced by
Interior Ballistics is very short. From the release of the firing pin to the moment the sound of the shot can be heard as it
leaves the muzzle occupies only about 0.01 seconds, in a modern rifle.

Interior ballistics involves:

1. Ignition of the primer.

2. Flames is produced
3. Combustion of the gunpowder
4. Energy that is generated
5. Force/Pressure developed
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6. Velocity of the bullet (from the chamber to the muzzle)

7. Rotation of the bullet
8. Engraving of the cylindrical surface of the bullet.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Interior ballistics deals with the temperature, volume, and pressure of the gases resulting from combustion of the
propellant charge in the gun; it also deals with the work performed by the expansion of these gases on the gun, its
carriage, and the projectile. Some of the critical elements involved in the study of interior ballistics are the relationship of
the weight of charge to the weight of projectile; the length of bore; the optimum size, shape, and density of the propellant
grains for different guns; and the related problems of maximum and minimum muzzle pressures.

Note the following:

The British engineer Benjamin Robins conducted many experiments in interior ballistics. His findings justly
entitle him to be called the father of modern gunnery.

Late in the 18th century the Anglo-American physicist Benjamin Thompson made the first attempt to measure
the pressure generated by gunpowder. The account of his experiments was the most important contribution to interior
ballistics that had been made up to that time.

About 1760 French ballisticians determined the relationship of muzzle velocity to length of barrel by measuring
the velocity of a musket ball and cutting off a portion of the barrel before taking the velocity of the next shot. By using the
results of these experiments and advances in chemistry and thermodynamics, ballisticians developed formulas showing
the relationship between muzzle velocity and weight and shape of projectile; weight, type, and grain size of powder
charge; pressure and temperature in the barrel; and the size of the powder chamber and the length of the barrel.

Related Terms in Interior Ballistics

1. Action – term referring to the mechanism of a firearm.

2. Burning Rate - An arbitrary index of the quickness that burning propellant changes into gas. Burning rate is
controlled by the chemical composition, the size and shape of the propellant grains, and the pressure at which the
burning takes place. IMR 5010 powder is very slow burning and Bulls eye is fast burning.

3. Bulk Density - The ratio of the weight of a given volume of powder vs. the weight of the same volume of
water.

4. Chamber Pressure – the pressure generated within the chamber erroneously called breeched pressure.
5. Charge Weight to Bullet Weight ratio - This is the ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the weight of
the projectile.

6. Detonation – Chemical rearrangement of molecules into gas instead of solids to cause the high explosives to
exert full power of shock. The speed of detonation varies in different explosive but in some it is as high as 7000
yards in a second.
7. Energy - is measured in foot-pounds, and one foot-pound means that amount of energy, which would be
capable of lifting a weight of one pound through a distance of one foot Drop-Block Action- That type of action in
which the breechblock rises and forces vertically in cuts in the receiver side walls. Lever actuated as a rule.
8. Expansion Ratio - The ratio of the capacity of the powder chamber plus bore (in grains of water) to the
capacity of the powder chamber (in grains of water).

9. Foot – Pound - the amount of work required to raise one pound one foot high against the force of gravity.
10. Foot second - velocity expressed in foot per second.
11. Gas - a fluid resulting from the combustion of gun powder with a relatively great expansion and spontaneous
tendency.
12. Hangfire - Occurs when a cartridge fails to explode on time or delayed in firing.
13. Knocking Power - the power of the bullet which delivers a very heavy paralyzing blow that put the victim
down and may then recover if the wound inflicted upon is not fatal.
14. Loading Density - The ratio of the weight of the powder charge to the capacity of the powder chamber
(case).  It is usually expressed as the ratio of the charge weight to the capacity the powder chamber in grains of
water. (See below.) Generally, the more fully the powder charge fills the case the more consistent and accurate the
load will be.  On the other hand if the loading density is too low, (too much free space in the case) it can cause
erratic ignition, change in the pressure curve (moving the peak towards the muzzle), or even overly rapid
burning ("detonation") of the powder charge. (One reason manuals list minimum or starting loads.)

15. Misfire – total failure of a cartridge to discharge. This is different from hang fire which merely a delayed
combustion, while misfire a complete failure eve to start combustion.
16. Powder Chamber Capacity - As with most interior ballistics capacity measurements it is usually expressed in
grains of water. It is determined by measuring the weight of water that a fired case from the test firearm can
contain with a bullet seated to its normal depth. Note that this varies with different bullets or seating depth as
well as the dimensions of the chamber, and the brand of case.
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17. Pressure – Outward push of gases from powder combustion against cartridge case, chamber and bore.
18. Sectional Density - The ratio of the bullet's weight (in pounds) to its diameter.
DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.
 19. PSI - Pounds per square inch. It is often seen designated as PSIA. This designation is now used to signify a
measurement of chamber pressure taken with a piezo-electric device. Piezo-electric units operate in a similar
fashion to the copper crusher units but use a reusable crystal "crusher" that changes its electrical properties in
response to pressure. When connected to suitable recording equipment the entire pressure pulse history can be
recorded or displayed. The peak pressure recorded by a piezo-electric peak device usually reads about 5,000 psi
higher than the figure determined by the copper crusher method.

20. Recoil – the equal and opposite reaction of the gun against the forward movement of the bullet during the
explosions.
21. Residual Pressure – the pressure remaining in the chamber after the bullet has left the barrel.

EXTERIOR BALLISTICS

Exterior Ballistics deals with the motion of projectiles from the time they leave the muzzle of the firearm to the
time they hit the target. The flight of most bullet or projectile does not exceed 30 seconds at maximum range, which for
almost any firearms is obtained at an elevation of about 33.

CONDITIONS - refers to the natural laws.

a. velocity - speed per unit of time ex. M16 - 3,300 ft/sec.
b. energy - fatal equivalent of a bullet.
c. yaw - the unstable rotating motion of a bullet.
d. gyroscopic action - refers to the stillness of its rotating motion and attained its highest  momentum or
stability in flight and penetrating power.

In exterior ballistics, elements such as shape, caliber, weight, initial velocities, rotation, air resistance, and
gravity help determine the path of a projectile from the time it leaves the gun until it reaches the target.

Further, exterior (external) ballistics refers to the attributes and movements of the bullet after it has left the gun
muzzle. It includes:

1. Muzzle blast - the noise created at the muzzle point of the gun due to the sudden escape of
the expanding gas coming in contact with the air in the surrounding atmosphere at the muzzle point.
2. Muzzle energy - energy generated at the muzzle point.
3. Trajectory - the actual curved path of the bullet during its flight from the gun muzzle to the target. The
following are the kinds of trajectory: straight horizontal line - parabola-like flight - vertical drop
4. Range - the straight distance between the muzzle point and the target.
a. Accurate (effective) range - the distance within the shooter has control of his shots, meaning he can place
his shots at the desired spots.
b. Maximum range - the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.

* While the range at which the ordinary pistol and revolver are supposed to be effective in only 50-70 yards,
all of them can send their bullets much further than that and are capable of inflicting fatal wounds at distances up to
one mile, depending on the caliber and gunpowder content.

5. Velocity - rate of speed of the bullet per unit of time.

Long barrel rifle – up to 3,000 yards accurate range and its hinge muzzle velocity of 1000-4000 ft./sec.

* Bullets from rifled weapons spin at 2000-3000 revolutions per second, but over the first few yards of
trajectory – distance varies with the weapon – their flight is slightly unstable; the end of the projectile wobbles before
it picks up a smooth flight path. This phenomenon is called “TAILWAG”, and is of considerable important in
evaluating gunshot wounds. A bullet with “tailwag” does not strike its target clearly.

6. Air resistance - resistance encountered by the bullet while in flight.

7. Pull of gravity - downward reaction of the bullet while in flight.
8. Penetration - depth of entry on target.

Note on the following Contributors:

1. 1707 - Cassini. Suggested measuring of firearms muzzle velocity

2. 1857 – Monsieur Noiles. Published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt with the subject of
wounds made by small firearms.
3. 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot with a small bursting
charge, increasing the effective range of case.
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4. 1898 – Mr. Corin in Paris, France. Published an article titled “La Determination de La Distance a’Laguelle un
Coup de Feu a e’te’ Tire” (Determination of the distance at which a shot has been discharged from a firearm).

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 5. 1900 – Dr. Albert Llewellyn Hal in Buffalo, New York (USA). A very significant article entitled “The Missile
and the Weapon” was published in the June issue of the Buffalo Medical Journal.
6. 1903 – Mr. E.J. Churchill in London, England (uncle of Robert Churchill of later fame as a firearms examiner
for the United Kingdom). He provided testimony as to some experimentation that he had performed involving
the distance of which a shot had been fired into a human skull.
7. 1900 - Dr. Albert Llewellyn. He wrote an article entitled “The Missile and the Weapon”, which dealt with a
variety of issues to include how measurement of land and groove markings are made on bullets. He also
discussed the examination of gunpowder residues in barrels of firearms and the changes that take place over time
after the weapon is fired.
8. 1921 - Mr. Jorge T. Filho. He published an article entitled “Estimation of Distance from which a Bullet was
Fired” (“Da Diagnose da Distance nos Tiros de Projecteis Multiplos Chumbo de Caca”).
9. Emile Monnin Chamot. He authored a 61-paged monograph entitled “The Microscopy of Small Arms
Primers”.

Note on the following Terms in Exterior Ballistics:

1. Accuracy Range – The maximum distance at which a particular gun and cartridges will consistently place all
shots in the standard target for that distance.
2. Accurate Range – The distance within which the shooter has control of his shots.
3. Back Curve - This is that portion of the bullets trajectory that drops below the critical zone beyond the point
blank range. Past this point the trajectory begins to drop off very rapidly with range and the point of impact
becomes very difficult to estimate.

4. Ballistic Coefficient – The means that the bullet may lose its speed very rapidly during its flight the air. This is a
number that relates to the effect of air drag on the bullet's flight and which can be used to later predict a bullet's
trajectory under different circumstances through what are called "drag tables."
5. Bullet Energy – the power possessed by a moving bullet, or in other words, its ability to keep going when it
meets an obstacle and to do work on the obstacle is immense importance, for obviously the more power a bullet
has an the harder it is to stop the more effective it can be as a weapon
6. Bullet Trajectory - This is the bullet's path as it travels down range. It is parabolic in shape and because the line of
the bore is below the line of sight at the muzzle and angled upward, the bullet's path crosses the line of sight at
two locations.

7. Critical Zone - This is the area of the bullet's path where it neither rises nor falls greater than the dimension
specified. Most shooters set this as ± 3" to 4" from the line of sight, although other dimensions are sometimes
used. The measurement is usually based on one-half of the vital zone of the usual target. Typical vital zones
diameters are often given as: 3" to 4" for small game, and 6" to 8" for big game and anti-personnel use.

8. Drift - is the curve taken by the bullet while in flight. A right hand rifling curves to the right while that of the left
and rifling curves to the left.
9. Effective Range- The maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonably be expected to travel accurately and
kill a particular type of live target
10. Extreme Range – The greatest distance the bullet will travel when the cartridge is fired.
11. Flat Trajectory - A comparative term used to indicate very little curvature in the flight in the bullet from muzzle
to point of impact. When the velocity is high, comparatively flat trajectory.
12. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules required stance from
firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly
constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and
50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually
only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
13. Gallery Range - The indoor target range. National rifle association of America, gallery rules required stance from
firing point to target of 50 feet or 75 feet for.22 rim fire riffle; 50 feet or 60 feet for .22rim-fire pistols. On properly
constructed indoor ranges, firing may be conducted with center fire pistol and revolvers at ranges of 25 yards and
50 yards. Such installation are generally referred to as “indoor range” the term “gallery” being applied usually
only to the short range .22 caliber installation.
14. Initial Point - The range at which the bullet's trajectory first crosses the line of sight. This is normally occurs at a
range of about 25 yards.

15. Instrument Velocity - the velocity of a projectile measured by the scientific instrument called chronograph, at a
specified point on its trajectory. Always lower than the muzzle velocity.
16. Key-hole Shot – the tumbling of the bullet in its flight and hitting the target sideways as a result of not spinning
on its axis.
17. Maximum Point Blank Range - This is the farthest distance at which the bullet's path stays within the critical
zone. In other words the maximum range at which you don't have to adjust your point of aim to hit the target's
vital zone. Unless there is some over riding reason to the contrary shots should not generally be attempted much
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past this distance. In the words of the Guru, "It is unethical to attempt to take game beyond 300 meters." If you do,
you should write yourself a letter explaining why it was necessary to do so. An approximate rule of thumb says
that the maximum point blank range is approximately your zero range plus 40 yards.
DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.
 18. Maximum Range – the farthest distance that a projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
19. Maximum Ordinate - This is the maximum height of the projectile's path above the line of sight for a given point
of impact and occurs somewhat past the halfway point to the zero range and it is determined by your zeroing
range.

20. Mid-range Trajectory - This is the height of the bullets path above the line of sight at half way to the zero range.
It does not occur at the same range as the maximum ordinate height which can be greater.

21. Minute of Angle (MOA) - A "minute" of angle is 1/60 of a degree which for all practical purposes equates to 1
inch per 100 yards of range. Thus 1 MOA at 100 yards is 1 inch and at 300 yards it is 3 inches. The term is
commonly used to express the accuracy potential of a firearm.

22. Point Blank Range – Popularly used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops enough to
require sight adjustment. A short fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
23. Ricochet – The bouncing off or deflection of a bullet from its original trajectory (normal path) after striking a
resistant surface.
24. Shocking Power – the power of the bullet that results in the instantaneous death of the victim.
25. Stopping Power – the power of the bullet that put the victim out of action instantly. So it should be understood
that stopping power is not necessarily the same thing as killing power. However, stopping power depends very
largely on the location of the sot.
26. Target – an object at which the firearm is aimed and discharged.
27. True Drop – the actual distance the bullet falls during the time of flight to the target. This is not the same as what
we speak of when we discuss drop in the ordinary sense, which is more properly termed effective or apparent
drop
28. Zero Range - This is the farthest distance at which the line of sight and the bullet's path intersect.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS

It is the study dealing with the effect of the impact of the bullet on the target. Penetration of the bullet is of prime
interest. Penetration is important also in determining safety requirements for target backstops. They are important to both
sportsman and military.

TERMINAL BALLISTICS involves:

1. Terminal accuracy - size of the bullet grouping on the target.

2. Terminal energy - energy of the projectile when it strikes the target. Also known as striking energy.
3. Terminal penetration - depth of entry of the bullet in the target.
4. Terminal velocity - speed of the bullet upon striking the target.

Terminal ballistics also deals with the destructive actions and effects that occur at the end of the projectile's flight
as an integral and un-deformed body. The flight may end in one of two ways:

1. the projectile may strike a solid obstruction, or

2. its metal case may be broken by the explosion of a bursting charge

SHOTS BALLISTICS - deals with the attributes and properties of shots and pellets.

CHOKE - When the diameter of a barrel of a shotgun is the same throughout the bore, it is called true cylinder.

The bore of the gun is sometimes constricted near the muzzle end. That is, the diameter near the muzzle end is
slightly smaller than the diameter of the bore of the rest of the barrel. The barrel is said to be choked.

Full – if reduced by one mm; half if reduced by one-half mm; quarter if reduced by ¼ mm; and improved
cylinder if reduced by about 1/10 mm.

The amount of spread in the shot is controlled by the choke. If a barrel will put 70 percent of its shot charge in a
30-inch (76-centimeter) circle at 40 yards (37 meters), it is called full choke. Modified choke will deliver about 60 percent;
improved cylinder about 50 percent. A full choke 12-gauge gun will kill ducks that are about 60 to 65 yards (55 to 59
meters) away.

Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially hardened by the addition of a slight amt. of antimony.

WOUND BALLISTICS – It is the study of the effects of projectile to human body.

Gunshot Wound (GSW). It is an open wound produced by the penetration of bullet slug within the tissues of the
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body. The bullet which was propelled from the gun as well as the flame from the heated expanded gases in short range
fire is the one that produces injury.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Three Basic Kinds of GSW Distinguished by the Proximity of the Weapon

1. Contact – gun muzzle pressed against, or within an inch or two, of the body.
2. Close discharge – 6 inches to 2 ft.
3. Distance Discharge – over 2 ft. or 3 ft.

Range of Fire - an important aspect of forensic ballistics.

1. Muzzle Pattern – indicates contact wound and are often observed in suicide cases. The whole charge
(projectile, wads, if any, smoke, unburnt or semi-burnt powder particles and hot gases) enter into the target. No
burning, blackening and tattooing are observed. Instead, they are observed inside the hole through careful
examination. The edges are found ragged (torn in star shape) and the wound is like an exit wound.
2. Scorching – caused by the flame or hot gases not by the hot projectiles as is commonly believed. It is also
known as burning or charring.
3. Blackening – caused by the deposition of smoke particles by all types of powders at close ranges. Being light
particles, they soon lose their velocity and get deposited on any material available in the path.
4. Tattooing (a.k.a. peppering) – caused by the embedding of unburnt and semi-burnt powder particles into the
surface of the target. These particles are slightly heavier than the smoke particles. They retain motion to
somewhat longer intervals and consequently cause tattooing to a distance of about one and a-half times
blackening range.

Other GSW Characteristics

1. Pink Coloration – caused by absorbed carbon monoxide in the skin and flesh.
2. Dirt Ring – deposited by some projectile (which carry greases on them) around the wound. Existence of this
indicates the entrance side of a firearm injury & does not indicate range.
3. Contusion – caused by the impact of the projectile (reddish dark to bluish black - varies somewhat with the
age of the injury). It takes the form of a belt around the wound. It is of uniform in thickness.
4. Foreign Materials – Their presence not only permits the identification of the firearms injury but they also
permit a fairly reliable guess of firearm.

Factors influencing entrance and exit gunshot wounds

1. Kind of weapon - The higher power the weapon is the more destructive to the tissues of the body.
2. Caliber of the weapon - The higher the caliber of the wounding bullet, the greater will be the size of the wound
of entrance, hence, greater destruction to the tissues.
3. Shape and composition of the missile - The conical shape free end of the bullet slug has more penetrating power
but less tissue destruction, while bullet slug with hemispherical free end had less penetrating but more
destruction to the tissues.

* Some  bullets  were  made to be deformed  upon  heating  the target  like  the hallow point, dum-dum and  soft
point  bullet. Bullets made of hard metals like the magnum 44 and the armor-piercing bullet are not usually deformed upon
hitting the target. Other bullets and the fragments may cause further injury to the body. The tracer bullet is in flame during
its flight to the air and may caused burn upon hitting the body and this bullet is also used in targeting the low flying
airplane.

4. Range of fire - the injury is not only due to the missile but also due to the pressure of the heated expanded gases,
flame and articles of gunpowder.  However, in long range fire, the characteristic effect of the bullet alone will
produce the injury.
5. Direction of fire - A right angle approach of the bullet to the body will produce a round shape wound of entrance
in short distance fire, while in acute angle of approach the bullet will produce an oval shape wound of entrance
with contusion collar widest on the side of the acute angle of approach and a tendency for the bullet to deflect to
another direction upon hitting the target.
6. Part of the body involved - When the bullet hit the soft tissues of the body; the bullet penetrates and
usually without any change in direction, however upon hitting the bones and other hard body structures the
bullet may fracture the bones causing further injury or may deflect to another direction.

Description of the wound of entrance is based on the distance of the body from the fired gun

1. Contact fire. This is burst due to the explosion of the powder which produces the heated and expanded gases.
There is burning of the tissues because it is within the flame zone; singeing of the hair; and particles of
gunpowder in and around the wound of entrance; skin is separated from the underlying tissues in the affected
area and the blasted tissues are cherry red in color because of the presence of carbon monoxide; pressure of the
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bullet will caused caving-in or excavation of tissues and the contusion collar is seen around the wound of
entrance. The size of the wound is rather small.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 2. Near contact up to six inches distance. There is bursting of tissues, burning and blackening of the skin as in
contact fire but the particles of gunpowder are present inside as well as around the wound of entrance. The
shape of the wound maybe lacerated or slit-like and the size is larger than the diameter of the missile. The
excavation of tissues due to the pressure of the penetrating bullet slug but it can be severe as in contact fire.
3. Distance above six inches up to 24 inches. The size of the wound gradually approximates the size of the missile.
The farther the target, the lesser the burning or blackening of tissues, gun powder tattooing, singeing of the hair
and excavation of tissues and lesser until they disappear beyond the 24 inches distance.

Differentiation between gunshot wound of Entrance and Wound of Exit

Differential points Wound of Entrance Wound of Exit

1. Size of the wound  smaller than the missile  bigger than the missile
2. Edge of the wound  Inverted Everted
3. Shape of the wound  Round or oval  no definite shape
4. Contusion collar  present in contact  absent
5. Gunpowder tattooing  and near contact fire  absent
6. Presence or absence  always present  maybe absent if the slug
7. Protrusion of tissue  Absent is lodged inside the body
8. Paraffin test  + in contact and near fire  maybe present
 negative

Determination whether the gunshot injury is Suicidal, Homicidal or Accidental

A. Evidence to prove that gunshot wound is suicidal

1. Accessibility of the involved part to the hand of the victim

2. Usually only one gunshot wound
3. Usually the distance is short range or class range
4. Presence of suicide note
5. History of frustration or despondency of the victim
6. Presence of cadaveric spasm on the hand of the victim
7. Exclusion of other evidences to prove that it is not suicide

B. Evidence that the gunshot wound is homicidal

1. Wound is located at any part of the body

2. Victim usually at a certain distance from the assailant
3. Signs of struggle (Defense wound) maybe present in the victim
4. Disturbances of the surroundings.
5. Wounding weapon usually not found at the scene of the crime
6. Testimony from the witnesses

C. Evidence that gunshot wound is accidental

1. Usually only one gunshot wound

2. Wound located at any part of the body
3. Absence of personal grudge between the victim and the one who fired the gun
4. Testimony from witnesses

Take note:

Shotgun Wound - It is an open wound produced by the penetration of pellets or shots within the tissues of the
body. In shotgun fire, the pellets penetrate and usually lodged inside the body and a tendency for a wider dispersion of
pellets at a certain distance except in contact and near contact fires.

Characteristics of the Shotgun Wound of Entrance

1. Contact fire - irregular with bursting of the affected tissues due to explosion of the heated and expanded with
accompanying flame causing burning of the skin and the tissues. There is singeing of the hair; presence of wads
and particles of gunpowder inside the wound of entrance.
2. Near shot up to six inches distance. There is marked laceration of the skin and destruction of tissues due to the
pressure of explosion. The burning on the surface of the skin and particles of gunpowder are present inside and
around the wound of entrance. There is singeing of the hair as well as pieces of wads inside and outside the
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wound of entrance.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 3. Distance about one yard. The pellets penetrate the tissues as one mass making the wound with irregular edge
of the wound of entrance. There will also be blackening of tissues with slight burning, singeing of the hair or
gunpowder tattooing.
4. Distance about two to three yards. The wound of entrance has a big central hole with ragged edges and a few
stray wounds of entrance around the central hole. At this distance, there will be no more blackening or burn ing
of the skin, gunpowder tattooing, singeing of the hair and pieces of wads or near the wound of entrance.
5. Distance of four yards. A small group of pellets may penetrate the tissues producing a central core, although
plenty of pellets in a wider dispersion may produced separate wound of entrance. The pellets dispersed about
one and a half the distance in yards in non-choked barrel while in full-choked bore the disper sion is one half less
but there is a wider dispersion in short barrel shotgun.

Points to consider in the reporting of gunshot and shotgun injuries

1. Detailed description of the gunshot and shotgun wound

2. Location of wound in the body
3. Measurement of the wound as to diameter and depth
4. Number of wound of entrance and exit
5. Direction and length of the bullet tract
6. Organs or tissues involved
7. Location of the slug if lodged in the body
8. Diagram, photograph, sketch or drawing of the gunshot or shotgun wound

Effects or complications of wound

1. Hemorrhage – Bleeding. It is the loss of blood from the ruptured vessel secondary to trauma or existing
pathology.
2. Direct mechanical injury - This is the direct damage to the tissues
3. Shock - It is disturbance of the balance of fluid in the body characterized by fall in blood pressure, decreases
blood flow or blood volume in the body.
4. Infection. It is the appearance, growth and multiplication of the micro-organism in the living tissues.
5. Embolism. It is the clogging of the blood vessel by foreign bodies such as air or bits of fats or septic embolus
causing blocking to the blood flow to the distal tissues supplied by the blood.

Points to consider in the reporting of wound:

1. Character of the wound
2. Location of wound in the body
3. Measurement of the wound - It is declared in inches, centimeters and millimeters.
a. Length
b. Width
c. Depth
4. Number of wound
5. Direction of wound
6. Organs involved
7. Severity of the wound
8. Period of healing or incapacity of the victim.

Other pieces of evidence in dealing with the wound

1. Evidence from the wounding weapon

a. Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the wounding weapon.
2. Evidence from the victim as well as the assailant
a. Presence of blood stains, bits of tissues and other body fluids on the victim or assailant
b. Presence of wound on the victim as well as the assailant
c. Effects or complications of wound such as found in the clinical manifestations on the victim
3. Evidence from the scene of the crime
a. Presence of blood stains or drops of blood on the streets or flouring, walls, furniture and other materials at
the scene of the crime
b. Presence of bits of tissues, torn clothing and other body fluids at the scene of the crime

Take Note:

SIR SYDNEY SMITH – founder of the Medico-Legal Faculty at Cairo University and later Regis Professor of
Forensic Medicine at Edinburgh, was one of the leading exponents in studying entrance and exit wounds, powder burns
and powder “tattooing” on human skin and other medical phenomena associated with gun fire.
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Studies involving Terminal and Wound Ballistics

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

  1857 – Monsieur Noiles. He published a thesis titled ‘Les Plaies Feu Courtes’. His thesis dealt
with the subject of wounds made by small firearms.
 1889 – Mr. A. Lacassogne of Lyon, France. He published a paper tided “La Deformation Des
Balles de Revolver” (Deformation of Revolver Bullets) in Volume 5. Archives de l’Antropologie Criminelle et Des
Sciences Penales.
 1748 - Henry Shrapnel. He invented the shrapnel, which disperse its load of case shot whit a
small bursting charge, increasing the effective range of case.
 Anomynous author. Published a thesis an article entitled “Entrance Wounds and Powder
Markings”.
 Mr. Louis B. Wilson. He published an article entitle “Dispersion of Bullet Energy in Relation
to Wound Effects”.
 P. Chavigny and E. Gelma. They authored an article entitled “Fissures of the Skull by
Revolver Bullets at short-range”.
 J. Howard Mathews. Chairman of the Department of Chemistry at the University of
Wisconsin. In this first criminal case, he was involved on the metallographic analysis of bomb parts used to kill
an individual.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS

It is the study of Firearm Investigation and Identification of firearms by means of ammunition fired through
them. This is the real branch of the science which the police use as their guide in field investigations.  This includes the
following:

1. Field Investigations - conducted by the first officers on the case in the field when they investigate a case or
cases wherein firearms have been used. This is a routine job of the investigating officers, and this involves
recognition, collection, marking, preservation, and transmittal of ballistics exhibits like fired bullets, fired
shells, firearms and allied matters.
2. Technical examinations of the ballistics exhibits - This is the job performed by the firearms examiners in the
laboratory. It involves marking of the evidence firearms, test firings of evidence firearms to obtain test bullets
and test shells for comparative purposes, photomicrography under the bullet comparison microscope,
preparation of comparative charts, and the making of reports on the findings and observations of the firearms
examiners.
3. Legal proceedings - Court Trials - wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the ballistics
exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.

Take Note:

FORENSIC - As applied to ballistics, or to any other subject, suggest a relationship to Courts of Justice and legal
proceedings.

FORUM – It is a Latin word from which forensic was derived, meaning a marketplace, where people gather
for "public disputation" or "public discussion". Thus, the title "Forensic Ballistics" aptly describes the subject under
consideration - the science of investigation and identification of firearms and ammunitions used in crimes. The terms
"Ballistics", Forensic Ballistics" and "Firearms Identification", have come to mean one and the same thing in the minds of
the public, and they can be used interchangeably.

Studies concerning Forensic Ballistics

 1835 - Henry Goddard. In one of his case in England, where a homemaker was shot and killed, he was able to
identify the mold mark – the mold is used to manufacture lead balls from molten leads – on the field projectile.
He was the bullet, which could be traced back to the mold. He also examined the paper patch – the paper patch
provides the seal between the ball gunpowder firearms – was able to identify it as having been torn from a
newspaper that was found on the room of the guilty servant.
 Paul Jesrich. He took photomicrographs of two bullets to compare, and subsequently individualize them
through the minute differences.
 1905 - Mr. Kockel. He published an article entitled “The Expert Examination of Fired Bullets”.
 1912 - Professor V. Baltahazard. He devised a series of procedures to identify fired bullets to the firearms from
which they were fired. He studied the firearms by taking an elaborate series of photographs of test fired bullet
from the firearms as well as evidence bullet. He also applied these same specilalized photographic techniques to
the examination and identification of cartridge casings using firing pin, breech face, ejection and extractor marks.
 1913 - Professor Balthazard. Published the first article individualizing bullet markings.
 1922 - Mr. C. Williams. He wrote an article entitle “Fingerprints on Bullets” which appeared in Outdoor Life
magazine.
 1920 - R.E. Herrick. He published an article entitled “Ballistics Jurisprudence”.
 November 1924 – Dr Sydney Smith. He wrote an article concerning the details of the investigating that appeared
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in the British Medical Journal in January 1926. He relates that he believes that scientific examination of firearms
and projectiles in Great Britain had its beginning as a result of the publication of his report on the case.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

  1920  - COL CALVIN H. GODDARD  (M.D.,  U.S.  ARMY) pioneered the introduction of this science
in Criminology courses in the different universities.
 1947 - Col Goddard came to the Philippines when Gen.  Castaneda was ambushed together with his aid, Col
Salgado in Kamias, Quezon City, both died.
 1924 – Captain Edward C. ‘Ned’ Crossman. A well-known shooter and sports writer, examined firearms
evidence for the Los Angeles County Sheriff in April 1925, in New York City, New York (USA), THE Bureau of
Forensic Ballistics was established by C.E. Waite, Major (later Colonel) Calvin H. Goddard, Philip O. Gravelle and
John H. Fisher.
 1934 - Major Sir Gerald Burrard. He wrote a book entitled “The Identification of Firearms and Forensic
Ballistics”, which discussed many early cases that occurred throughout the British Empire.
 1935 Major Julian S. Hatcher. He wrote and published; “Textbook of Firearms Investigation, Identification and
Evidence” together with the “Textbook of Pistols and Revolvers.”
 1944 – John E. Davis. He joined the Police Department in Oakland, California establishing its first criminology
laboratory.
 Derechter and Mage. They wrote an article entitled “Communication on the Identification of Fired Bullets and
Shells”.
 Arthur Lucas. He published an article entitled “The Examination of Firearms and Projectiles in Forensic Cases”.
 Jack D. Gunther & Professor Charles O. Gunther. They published the entitled “The Identification of Firearms”,
which provided additional information about the principles of firearms identification with approximately one-
half of the book discussing in great detail the Sacco-Vanzetti case to include reprinting large portions of the actual
court transcript. They also discussed the need for the science of firearm identification to utilize the scientific
methodology.
 1958 – John E. Davis. An eminent criminals and Director of the Oakland Police Department (CA) Criminalistics
Section (Crime Lab) wrote a book titled “An Introduction to Tool Marks, Firearms and the Striagraph”. In his
book, Davis provided excellent information about the examination and identification of firearms and tool mark
evidence.
 1996 – Tom A. Warlow. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Firearms, the Law and Forensic
Ballistics”. Warlow has written a useful text that contains excellent information for firearm and toolmark
examiners.
 1997 – Brian J. Heard. He published a text on firearms identification titled “Handbook of Firearms and Ballistics
Examining and Interpreting Forensic Evidence”.

Division of Forensic Ballistics

 FIELD INVESTIGATION – refers to the work of an investigator in the field. It concerns mostly with the
collection, marking, preservation, packing and transmission of firearm evidences. It includes the study of class
characteristics of firearms and bullets.

 TECHNICAL EXAMINATION OF THE BALLISTICS EXHIBITS – refers to the examiners who examine
bullets/ or shells, whether fired from also whether or not cartridges were loaded and ejected made by the
suspected firearm submitted. Reports are made by the examiners and testify in court regarding their report.

 LEGAL PROCEEDINGS – COURT TRIALS – wherein the ballistics report of the firearm examiner and the
ballistics exhibits are presented during the trial of the case in a court of justice.

LEGAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM

 Firearms” or “Arms”
as herein used includes rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers, pistol and all other deadly weapons from
which the bullet, ball, shot, shell or other missile may discharge of by means of gunpowder or other explosives. The term
also includes air rifles expect such as being of small caliber and limited range used as toys. The barrel of any firearm shall
be considered a complete firearm for all purposes hereof (Sec. 877, Revised Administrative Code see also Sec. 290
National Internal Revenue Code).

TECHNICAL DEFINITION OF FIREARM

– Instrument used for the propulsion of a projectile by means of expansive force of gases from burning powder.

Take Note:

 Rifle – long rifle bored firearm designed to hit targets at a greater or longer distance, with spiral grooves to fire
only a single shot.
 Musket – long smooth bored firearm that is designed to prepare a single shot.
 Shotgun – long smooth bored firearm having a barrel of 25-30 inches long and designed to shot birds in flight;
long smooth bored firearm and breech loading designed to fire a number of lead pellets or shot in one charge.
 Carbine – s short barrel rifle, having a barrel not longer than 22 inches and it is designed to fire a single shot
through a rifled-bore, either semi-automatic or full automatic, for every press of the trigger.
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 .22 – minimum caliber - .19 - .18 – if only used as toys, could not be considered as firearm.
 barrel of any firearm - Possession of any part of a firearm is considered a violation of illegal possession of firearm
(SCRA Dec. 11, 1992).

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Firearm is any weapon that uses gunpowder to fire a bullet or shell. Generally, the term is used for light firearms,
such as rifles, shotguns, and pistols. They are often called small arms. Heavier firearms are generally referred to as
artillery.

Mechanism

Any firearm, large or small, has four essential parts:

1. Barrel – It is a long tube. It may be smooth, as in a shotgun, or with spiral grooves on the
inner surface, as in a rifle.
2. Chamber - It is a widened hole at the breech (rear) end of the barrel. It holds the cartridge
(explosive charge).
3. Breech mechanism - The breech mechanism closes the rear end of the barrel, holding the
cartridge in the chamber.
4. Every up-to-date firearm has some way by which the breech can be opened for loading
and locked for safety in firing. Artillery uses screw plugs or breechblocks. Machine guns, rifles, and other small
arms usually have a metal cylinder, or bolt, that is locked when the gun is fired, and drawn back to eject (force
out) the empty cartridge case and to reload.
5. Firing mechanism - The firing mechanism may be electric, as in some large artillery
pieces. In small arms, a spring drives a pointed firing pin through the breech bolt against a sensitive primer in the
cartridge. The firing pin is cocked (drawn back) against a hook called the sear. When the trigger is pulled, the sear
releases the firing pin, which in turn leaps forward to strike the primer. A jet of flame from the primer ignites the
rest of the powder, forming a gas. This explosive gas propels the bullet from the barrel.

ORIGINS OF FIREARMS

 13th Century – development of firearms followed the invention of gunpowder in Western Europe.
 BERTHOLD SCHWARTZ – a German monk, and Roger Bacon, an English monk – are both credited with
gunpowder invention.

* Most reference books credit Roger Bacon, English monk and scientist, with the invention of gunpowder in
1248, and Berthold Schwartz, with the application of gun powder to the propelling of a missile in the early 1300’s.
This powder was that we now call “black powder”.

 1118 – Moors used artillery against Zaragoza. Early manuscripts tell o fseveral Moorish campaign in which
artillery was used all dating prior to Bacon and Scwartz.
 1245 – Gen. Batu, the Tartar leader used artillery in Liegnitz when he defeated the Poles, Hungarians and
Russians.
* It is also often stated that gunpowder was first invented by Chinese were aware of gunpowder and its use as a
propellant long before its advantage became recognized in Europe. It may also assume the Arabs with their advance
knowledge of chemistry at that time.

 1247 – one of the earliest recorded uses of firearms in warfare was that o fan attack on Seville, Spain.
 1346 – Cannons used by King Edward III of England at Crecy
 1453 – Mohammed II of Turkey in his famous conquest of Constantinople.
 1500 AD - French Artist LEONARDO DA VINCE as can be gleaned in his sketch of steam powered cannon to
his primitive wheel lock firearm.

* First firearms were inefficient, large and heavy and were not capable of being carried by an individual soldier
hence; the development of cannons preceded that of small arm weapons by almost 50 years.

Stages of development of man’s weapon:

> STONES > CLUBS > KNIVES > SPEARS AND DARTS > SLINGSHOTS TO HURL OBJECTS > BOWS AND
ARROWS > CROSS-BOWS >GUNS > MISSILES

Contributors in Firearms Development

 Col. Calvin H. Goddard, Md., OS, U.S. Army – Father of Modern Ballistics
 Horace Smith – Founded the great firm Smith & Wesson and pioneered the making of breech-loading riffles.
 Daniel B. Wesson – An associate or partners of Smith in revolver making.
 John M. Browning – Wizard of modern firearms and pioneered the breech loading single shot riffle.
 John T. Thompson – Pioneered the making of Thompson Sub-machine gun.
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 David “Carbine” Williams – maker of first known carbine.

 Alexander John Forsyth – Father of the percussion ignition.
 Elisha King Root – Designed machinery of making Colt firearms.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

  Eliphalet Remington – one of the first riffle makers.
 John Mahlon Marlin – founder of Marlin Firearms Company.
 James Wolfe Ripley – Stimulated the development of the Model 1855 riffled-musket.
 Samuel Colt (1814-1862) - of Hartford, Connecticut, produced the first practical revolver bringing it to what most
gunsmiths would agree was its perfect form in the Colt Army 1873 model, which became famous for its .45
caliber.
 Other manufacturers followed Colt’s lead: Remington and Smith and Wesson in the US., Adams and Scott-
Webley in BRITAIN, Star, Luger, Browning and Beretta on the CONTINENT, until revolvers were in used in
every part of the world.
 Henry Derringer – He gave his name to a whole class of firearms (Riffles and pistols)
 John C. Garand – Designed and invented the semi-automatic US Riffle, Cal. .30 MI
 Oliver F. Winchester – one of the earliest riffles and pistol makers.
 John Dreyse (1841) - Invented a breech-loading infantry rifle, the so called needle gun because of its long sharp
firing pin.
 Maj. Cavalli of Sardina (1845) - He develop a serviceable breech loading artillery rifle.
 Carl Walther (1866) - Develop a reliable small caliber automatic Pistol.
 Paul Withelm Mauser (1871) - Produced parts of the rifle which had been adopted by the German government.
 Sergei Mossin (1891) - Designed the Russian Service rifle.
 Kijiro Nambu (1904) - An army gun designer whose design was first produced by the Kayoba factory.
 Charles Dorchester & George Sullivan (1950) - Formed the Armalite business.

IMPORTANT DATES IN FIREARMS HISTORY

1313 – Gunpowder as a Propellant. The age of gunpowder began with its first use as a propellant for a projectile.
Such use has been recorded as early as 1313.
1350 – Small Arms. Gunpowder was first used only in cannons. It was in the middle of the 14 th century that portable
hand firearms were introduced. These guns were ignited by a hand-held hot wire or lighted match.
1498 – Riflings. The first reference to riffled barrels appeared. Although it’s important as an aid to accuracy was
recognized by some, it was a year after before riffling was generally used.
1575 – Cartridge. Paper cartridge combining both powder and ball were developed. This greatly speeded loading
and reduced the hazards of carrying loose powder.
1807 – Percussion System. The discovery of Forsyth in 1807 that certain compounds detonated by a blast would be
used to ignite the charge in a firearm, for the basis for all later percussion and cartridge to come into general use.
1845 - Rimfire Cartridge. In France, Flobert developed a “bullet breech cap” which was in reality the first rim fire
cartridge.
1858 – Center fire Cartridge. The Morse cartridge o f1858 marked the beginning of the rapid development of the
center fire cartridge.
1884 – Automatic machine-gun. Hiram Maxim built the first fully automatic gun, utilizing the recoil of the piece of
load and fire the next charge.
1885 – Smokeless Powder. In France, Vieille developed the first satisfactory smokeless powder, a new propellant
which not only lacked the smoke characteristic of black powder, but also more powerful.

CLASSIFICASTION OF FIREARMS

ACCORDING TO GUN BARREL INTERNAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Rifled Bore Firearms - those that contain riflings inside the gun barrel. Riflings refers the lands and grooves such
as the following: Rifle – Pistol - Revolver
2. Smooth Bore Firearms – those that have no riflings inside the gun barrel for the breech end up to the muzzle of
the firearm. Such as the following: Shotguns - Muskets

SHOTGUN – it is smooth bore firearm designed to shoot a number of lead pellets one discharge.
GAUGE – as applied to shotgun indicates that the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of lead ball weighing in
pounds.

MAIN TYPES OF FIREARM (according to caliber of projectile)

1. Artillery – propelled projectile is more than one inch in diameter.
Ex. Cannons, mortars, bazookas
2. Small Arms – propelled projectile is less than one inch diameter.
Ex. Machine guns, shoulder arms and handguns/arms

TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

1. Single Rifle Firearms – type of firearm designed to fire only one shot for every loading. Example:
Pistol, Rifle, Shotgun
2. Repeating Arms – type of firearm designed to fire several shots in one loading. Example: Automatic pistols,
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Revolvers, Rifles, Shotguns

3. Bolt Action Type – reloading is done by manipulation of the bolt. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 4. Automatic Loading Type – after the first shot is fired, automatic loading or feeding of the chamber takes place.
Examples: Rifles, Shotguns
5. Slide Action Type (Trombone) – loading takes place by back and forth manipulation of the under forearm of the
gun. Examples: Rifles and Shotguns.
6. Lever Type (Break-type) – loading takes place by lever action on the firearm. Examples: Rifles, Shotguns.

TYPES OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Military Firearms
a. Pistols d. Shotguns
b. Revolvers e. Machine guns
c. Rifles
2. Pocket and Home Defense Firearms
a. Pistols c. Rifles
b. Revolvers d. Shotguns
3. Target and Outdoorsman known as Sporting
a. Pistols b. Revolvers c. Rifles

UNUSUAL/MISCELLANEOUS TYPES – those that are unique in mechanism and construction.

a. Paltik pistols b. Paltik rifles c. Paltik revolvers d. Paltik shotguns

CLASSIFICATION OF FIREARMS ACCORDING TO ITS POWER PURSUANT TO R.A. 8294

Section 1. Unlawful Manufacture, Sale, Acquisition, Disposition or Possession of Firearms or Ammunition or

Instruments used or intended to be used in the Manufacture of Firearms or Ammunitions. The penalty of prision
correctional in its maximum period and a fine of not less than Fifteen thousand pesos (P15,000.00) shall be imposed upon
any person who shall unlawfully manufacture, dealt in, acquire, dispose or possess any low-powered firearm, such as
rimfire handgun, .380, .32 and other firearm of similar firepower, part of firearm, ammunition or machinery, tool or
instrument used in the manufacture of any firearm or ammunition: provided, that no other crime was committed.

The penalty of prision mayor in its minimum period and a fine of thirty thousand pesos (P30,000.00) shall be
imposed in the firearm is classified as high powered firearms which includes those with bore bigger in diameter than
caliber .38 and 9mm such as caliber .40, .44, .45 and also lesser caliber firearms but considered powerful such as caliber .
357 and caliber .22 center fire magnum and other firearms with firing capability of full automatic and by burst of two (2)
or three (3): Provided, however, that no other crime was committed by the person arrested.

AUXILIARY PARTS (ACCESSORIES)

The following parts must be removed first before disassembly of the weapon:
- recoil plug - recoil spring - barrel bushing - recoil spring guide - slide stop pin

ADVANTAGES

1. Revolver

 almost everyone knows something about how to handle it.

 safer for inexperienced people.
 the mechanism allows the trigger pull to be better.
 a misfire does not put the revolver out of action.
 Can handle satisfactory old or new or partly deteriorated ammunition which reduces velocity.

2. Automatic pistol

 has a better grip, fits the hand and points naturally

 more compact for the same fire power
 easier to load, easier to clean
 barrel when worn or corroded can be replaced without sending the gun to the factory
 gives greater number of shots
 gives greater fire power and greatest ease in firing
 no gas leakage during firing

DISADVANTAGES

3. Revolver
Page28

 bulkier to carry
 grip or handle is generally not as good as that of pistol

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

  hard to clean after firing
 slower to load
 harder to replace worn out parts – it’s a factory job
 worn out or poorly made weapon is subject to variable accuracy to improper lining up of cylinder

4. Automatic Pistol

 ammunition must be perfect – it causes jam

 misfire stops the functioning of gun
 when kept loaded for long period of time – magazine spring is under tension
 has poorer trigger pull
 magazine requires jacketed bullet
 more dangerous to handle especially for inexperienced people
 usually not adopted for reloading
 possible ejection of empty shell towards the face of the firer causing flinching
 throws out empty shell on the ground to remain as evidence
 cannot be fired from the pocket without jamming

PRECAUTION FOR REVOLVERS

Every police officer should frequently check his revolver for:

5. obstruction in the barrel
6. bulging or swollen barrel
7. firing pin protrusion through recoil plate when trigger is in rearward position
8. on older revolvers, the imprint of the primer on the recoil plate in relation to the firing pin hole (insures blow in
the center of primer)
9. evidence of “splitting lead” around breech of barrel or for complaints of fellow shooters
10.tightness of all side plate screw
11.tightness of ejector rod head if the weapon is S & W
12.cleanliness and protective film of oil to prevent rust

TYPES OF SMALL ARMS GENERAL:

 Smooth – bore – firearms which do not have rifling
Example: shotgun, muskets

 Rifled – bore – firearms, which contain rifling marks.

Example: Pistols, revolvers, and rifles

RIFLING-consist of a number of helical grooves cut

in the interior surface of the bore. The rifling in the
firearms may be divided into the following types:

PURPOSE OF RIFLING – is to impact a motion of

rotation to a bullet during its passage inside the barrel
in order to insure gyroscopic in the flight, and so
that it will travel nose-on towards the target.

TYPES OF FIREARMS-
ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL
CONSTRUCTION

Rifle- a firearms normally designed to be fired from the should.

Cabrine( David Carbine William) Caliber. 30 a short barrel rifle having a barrel not longer than 22 inches
Shotgun- a smooth bore weapon designed to shoot a number of lead pellets in one charge.
gauge-indicates the bore diameter is equal to the diameter of lead whose weight in pound is equal to the
reciprocal gauge index.
Revolver- a hand firearm in which a rotating cylinder successively places cartridges into position for firing.
Pistol- a hand firearms usually applies to single shot and automatic loading.
Terms:
 Single action- weapon which pressure upon the trigger release the hammer that must be manually cocked.
 Double action- weapon which pressure upon the trigger both cocks and release the hammer
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Take Note:

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Recent developments - The grooves most commonly used in modern rifling have fairly sharp edges. More recently,
polygonal rifling has become popular, as it seems to produce better accuracy due to the fact that it does not damage the
bullet as badly as conventional rifling. Polygonal barrels also tend to have longer service lives because the reduction of
the sharp edges of the land reduces flame erosion. Higher velocities may be generated due to a reduction of friction and
an improvement of the gas seal between the bullet and barrel. A disadvantage of polygonal rifling is that if simple lead
bullets are used, lead from the bullet tends to accumulate in the barrel (called leading) resulting in a dirty barrel, poor
accuracy, and if the leading becomes severe, excessive chamber pressure which could cause a barrel or locking failure.
Polygonal rifling is currently seen on most pistols from GLOCK and Kahr Arms.

Kinds of Rifles

Rifles are classified by:

 type of action: (manually operated, automatic, or semiautomatic);

 the name of the designer or manufacturer (for example, Remington or Winchester); or
 caliber. Caliber may refer to the inside diameter of the barrel or the diameter of the bullet. The caliber is measured
in millimeters or in decimal fractions of an inch.

There are three kinds of repeating rifles with hand-operated actions-bolt-action, lever-action, and slide-action.
These rifles have magazines (cartridge holders) that feed cartridges into the firing chamber.

The action on two other kinds of rifles-automatic and semiautomatic-is operated by forces caused by the burning of
the propellant powder in the firing chamber.

1. Bolt-action rifles have an action that resembles a bolt used to lock a door. When the bolt on the rifle is
pulled back, the used cartridge is thrown out and the hammer is cocked. When the bolt is moved forward, it
pushes a new cartridge into the firing chamber.
2. Lever-action rifles are loaded by moving a lever under the breech down and back up. The down
movement throws out the used cartridge and cocks the hammer. The up movement inserts a new cartridge into
the firing chamber.
3. Slide-action rifles, also called pump-action rifles, are loaded with a back-and-forth movement of a rod and
handle beneath the front part of the barrel. When the handle is pulled back, the breech opens and the used
cartridge is thrown out. A live cartridge is inserted when the handle is pushed forward.

Automatic and semiautomatic rifles are used mainly by soldiers and police officers. When a rifle is fired, gas is
formed by the burning powder in the firing chamber. The expanding gas drives the bullet out of the barrel. In most
modern automatic and semiautomatic rifles, some of this gas operates the action. When a cartridge is fired, a fresh
cartridge is moved out of the magazine into the firing chamber, and the firing mechanism is cocked.

The M16A2 is the automatic rifle used by the U.S. armed forces. It weighs 8.9 pounds (4 kilograms) when loaded
with a 30-cartridge magazine. The M16A2 can fire one shot at a time, or three shots in a single burst. It uses a 5.56-
millimeter cartridge.

Rifle cartridges are enclosed in a casing (metal covering) made of brass or steel. Cartridges vary in size according to
the caliber of the rifle. The names of some cartridges include the year the cartridge was put into use. The .30-06 is a .30-
caliber cartridge chosen for use by the U.S. Army in 1906. The classification of some cartridges includes the caliber and
velocity (speed) of the bullet. The bullet from a .250-3000 cartridge has a velocity of 3,000 feet (910 meters) per second.

Take Note:

Modern rifles developed from the crude, muzzle-loading firearms of the 1400's. Rifling of barrels was invented in
Europe about 1500. Smooth-bore firearms (weapons without rifling) could not be depended on to hit targets more than
100 steps away.

The jaeger rifle of central and northern Europe was the first accurate rifle. It was developed about 1665. German
immigrants brought jaegers to Pennsylvania in the early 1700's and gave them new features, including longer barrels. The
Pennsylvania-made Kentucky rifle developed from the jaeger. Some Kentucky rifles were used in the Revolutionary War
in America (1775-1783).

Rifles used round bullets until the 1850's, when more accurate Minie bullets became popular. Minie bullets had
hollow bases and pointed tips and were used in the U.S. Civil War (1861-1865). Improvements of the late 1800's included
repeating rifles, smokeless explosive powder, and jacketed bullets, which have a tough metal cover over a lead or steel
core.
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THE HANDGUN:

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Handgun is a firearm that can be operated with one hand. Other types of guns, such as rifles and machine guns,
require the use of both hands, a tripod (three-legged stand), or a shooting rest.

Parts of a handgun (the frame, the grip, the barrel, the sights, and the action)

The frame is the main body of the gun that connects the other parts. The grip is the handle of the gun, and the
barrel is the metal tube through which the bullet is fired. The lands and rifling (grooves) are alternating raised surfaces
and channels inside the barrel. They cause the bullet to spin and thus make it travel in a direct path.

The shooter uses the sights to line up the handgun with the target. Some sights can be adjusted to help aim the
gun more easily. All handguns made for target shooting have adjustable sights.

The action includes the main working parts of the handgun. It consists of such parts as the trigger, the hammer,
and the cartridge chamber. The type of action determines how the handgun is loaded and fired. The action of every
handgun includes a safety, a mechanism that prevents the gun from being fired unintentionally. The safety ensures that
the gun fires when the shooter squeezes the trigger, but not, for example, when the gun is dropped to the ground.

Types of handguns - There are five main types of handguns:

1. single-action revolvers,
2. double-action revolvers,
3. single-action semiautomatic pistols,
4. double-action semiautomatic pistols, and
5. single-shot pistols.

Revolvers carry ammunition in chambers in a rotating cylinder. Most pistols are loaded with a magazine
containing the ammunition. The magazine is a metal holder inserted in the gun's butt (thicker end).

Single-action revolvers typically hold six cartridges. An arm near the hammer rotates the cylinder one-sixth of a
turn when the hammer is cocked. This movement puts a cartridge into line with the barrel and the firing pin (part that
strikes the primer to fire the cartridge). After cocking the hammer, the shooter pulls the trigger. The hammer unlocks and
falls, exploding the cartridge. The Colt single-action Army revolver, first produced in the 1870's, is the most famous
firearm of this type.

Double-action revolvers, like single-action revolvers, typically hold six cartridges. But, unlike single-action
revolvers, double-action revolvers do not require the user to manually cock the hammer before firing. Instead, the gun is
fired by only pulling the trigger. When the trigger is pulled, a lock that holds the cylinder in place is released, revolving
the cylinder and cocking the hammer. When the next chamber is lined up with the barrel, the cylinder locking bolt is
raised into the locking notch, securing the cylinder. The hammer then falls and fires the cartridge. The cycle is repeated
for the next shot.

The main advantage of the double-action revolver over the single-action revolver is that it can be fired rapidly.
The Smith & Wesson military and police revolver is one of the most popular double-action revolvers. This firearm was
introduced in 1905.

Single-action semiautomatic pistols are fired by first pulling back a device called a slide to cock the hammer or
the firing pin, which is sometimes called a striker mechanism. When the slide is released, it moves forward and feeds a
round from the clip into the cartridge chamber. When the shooter pulls the trigger, the hammer falls or the striker
mechanism is released, impacting the primer and exploding the gunpowder in the cartridge. The explosion causes the
slide to move backward. This recoil automatically ejects the empty cartridge and recocks the gun. When the slide moves
forward again, it reloads the chamber. The most famous single-action semiautomatic is the Colt .45 automatic pistol. It
served as the standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces from 1911 until 1985.

Double-action semiautomatic pistols operate somewhat like double-action revolvers. When the trigger is pulled,
the hammer goes through the firing cycle and fires the cartridge. After the initial shot, the pistol begins to operate like a
single-action semiautomatic pistol. The recoil of the first shot forces out the empty cartridge case, cocks the hammer, and
inserts a new cartridge from the clip into the cartridge chamber. Double-action semiautomatics are widely used by sports
enthusiasts and police officers. In 1985, the 9-millimeter Beretta, a double-action semiautomatic pistol, became the
standard sidearm of the U.S. armed forces. Other popular models include the Smith & Wesson Model 39 and the Walther
PPK.

Single-shot pistols are used chiefly in international target-shooting competitions. To load a single-shot pistol, the
user moves the operating lever (part that opens and closes the action) forward and down to lower the breech block and to
cock the firing pin. The breech block closes the breech of the gun-that is, the part behind the barrel. After the breech block
has been lowered, the cartridge chamber is exposed. The user then inserts a cartridge into the chamber. Next, the
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operating lever is pulled up and back to close the chamber and move the cartridge into the closed position. The pistol is
then ready to fire. When the trigger is pulled, the firing pin drops, exploding the cartridge. The procedure is then

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 repeated to remove the cartridge and reload the pistol. Famous single-shot pistols include the Hammerli Free Pistol, the
Walther, and the Martini.

Take Note:

The first gun operated with one hand was the matchlock gun, which appeared in the 1400's. It was fired by
attaching a burning cord or match to an S-shaped holder called a serpentine. In the early 1500's, the wheel-lock gun was
invented. Its metal wheel struck a spark when it revolved against a piece of pyrite. With the wheel lock, soldiers no longer
had to carry flames to ignite the gunpowder.

During the mid-1500's, snaphance pistols, which were easier to operate than the wheel lock, came into
widespread use. In the 1600's and 1700's, many kinds of gunlocks were developed, including the flintlock.
In 1807, Alexander Forsyth, a Scottish inventor, introduced the percussion system. Percussion-system pistols were
loaded from the muzzle, with a sliding can of priming powder on the breech. Small handguns called derringers are
descended from percussion-system pistols, but are breech loaded. They are named for Henry Deringer, Jr., a U.S. pistol
maker of the 1800's.

Rapid-fire handguns - One of the first practical revolvers was the Colt Paterson, patented in England in 1835 by
Samuel Colt, a U.S. inventor. In 1857, the U.S. inventors Horace Smith and Daniel Wesson began producing revolvers that
used cartridges.

The Borchardt, the first self-loading semiautomatic pistol, appeared in 1893. It had an eight-cartridge clip placed
in the hollow of the grip. George Luger, an Austrian-born inventor, improved the Borchardt in the early 1900's. In 1897,
John M. Browning, a U.S. inventor, patented an automatic pistol that became the basis for later automatics, including the
Colt .45.

THE MACHINE GUN

1. Machine gun is an automatic weapon that can fire from 400 to 1,600 rounds of ammunition each minute.
Machine gun barrels range in size from .22 caliber to 20 millimeters. Ammunition is fed into the gun from a cloth or metal
belt, or from a cartridge holder called a magazine. Because machine guns fire so rapidly, they must be cooled by air.
Machine guns are heavy weapons and are usually mounted on a support.

Operation: In all machine guns, extremely high gas pressure provides the operating energy for the firing cycle.
The cycle begins when the propellant charge in the cartridge case burns. This combustion creates the gas pressure that is
used in the blowback, gas, and recoil operating systems. All three systems fire the projectile through the bore of the
barrel, eject the cartridge case, place a new cartridge in the firing chamber, and ready the mechanism to repeat the cycle.

In the blowback system, the operating energy comes from the cartridge case as the case is forced to the rear by
the gas pressure. The case moves against the bolt (a device that opens and closes the bore), driving the bolt backward
against a spring. The case is ejected, and the compressed spring drives the bolt forward. As the bolt moves forward, it
cocks the firing mechanism, picks up a new cartridge, carries it into the chamber, and the cycle begins again.

In the gas system, the gas pressure drives a piston against the bolt. The bolt is driven to the rear, providing
energy for a cycle like that of the blowback system.

In the recoil system, the bolt locks to the barrel when the gun is fired. These parts remain locked together as they
are forced to the rear by the gas pressure. This movement provides energy to operate the gun.

2. Ground weapons. The 7.62-millimeter M60 machine gun is a major infantry weapon. It is air-cooled and gas-
operated, and fires about 600 rounds a minute. The M60 replaced the Browning machine gun, an important weapon in
World Wars I and II, and the Korean War.

3. Aircraft weapons. By the close of World War I, several types of machine guns were mounted on airplanes.
These types included the Vickers, Maxim, Hotchkiss, Colt-Martin, and Lewis. Some machine guns were synchronized to
fire in between the blades of propellers.

During World War II, fighters and bombers carried machine guns as armament. They also carried automatic
cannon up to 20 millimeters in size. During the Vietnam War, airplanes and helicopters called gunships carried machine
guns or cannon. Today, most fighter planes and gunships carry rockets for air-to-air and air-to-ground use. Bombers use
machine guns mounted in groups of two or four in power-driven turrets. The Vulcan 20-millimeter aircraft cannon has six
rotating barrels. It can fire more than a ton of metal and explosives each minute.

4. Anti-aircraft weapons. The .50-caliber Browning machine gun was used as an antiaircraft weapon during
World War II. It was used alone, or in groups of two or four. Large-caliber automatic cannon that fired explosive shells
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were also developed as antiaircraft weapons. The 20-millimeter, Swiss-made Oerlikon gun was used on U.S. Navy ships.
It was a self-fed, self-firing cannon that could fire 600 rounds a minute.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Take Note:

A type of machine gun appeared as early as the 1500's. It consisted of several guns bound together in a bundle or
spread out in a row. A device that was fitted to the gun barrels caused them to fire simultaneously or in series. But little
success was achieved until the Civil War, when many quick-fire guns appeared. Practical, rapid-fire, mechanical guns
were used in the Franco-Prussian War, when soldiers operated them with a crank or lever. The French Montigny
mitrailleuse and the American Gatling were among the more successful of these guns.

In 1883, Hiram Maxim, an American-born inventor, developed the first entirely automatic machine gun to gain
wide acceptance. By the time of World War I, many different types of machine guns had come into use.

AMMUNITION (DEFINED) –

Ammunition is a generic term meaning (the assembly of) a projectile and its propellant. It is derived through French from
the Latin munire (to provide).

 It is defined as “loaded shell” for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolver and pistols from which a ball,
bullet, shot, shell or other missiles may be fired by means of gunpowder or other explosives.
 The term ammunition refers to a group of cartridges or to a single unit of single cartridge – meaning, a
complete unfired unit consisting of bullet, cartridge case, gunpowder and primer.
 May also refer to a “single round”
The term cartridge is derived from the Latin word “charta” which means paper and in French word
“cartouche” which means roll of paper

It is also define as a case, capsule, shell or bag of metal

Ammunition– under the National Internal Revenue Code the word “Ammunition” shall mean loaded shell or loaded
cartridge for rifles, muskets, carbines, shotguns, revolvers and pistols from which a bullets, ball shot, shell or other missile
may be ammunition for air rifles.
A modern cartridge consists of the following:
1. the bullet itself, which serves as the projectile;
2. the casing, which holds all parts together;
3. the propellant, for example gunpowder or cordite;
4. the rim, part of the casing used for loading;
5. the primer, which ignites the propellant.

Types of Cartridges:
 Pin – Fire – the pin extends radically through the need of the cartridge case into the primer.

 Rim – fire – the priming mixture is placed in the cavity formed in the rim of the head of the cartridge case. The
flame produced is in direct communication with the powder charge. Used in the caliber’s .22, .25 and .45
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Derringer pistols.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

  Center – fire – the primer cup is forced into the middle portion of the head of the cartridge case and the priming
mixture is exploded by the impact of the firing pin. The flame is communicated to the power charge through the
vents leading into the powder charge.

TYPES ACCORDING TO CALIBER

1. Caliber .22 – used in revolvers, pistols, rifles

2. Caliber .25 – used in pistols and rifles
3. Caliber .30 – used in carbines and other rifles
4. Caliber .32 – used in automatic pistols and revolvers
5. Caliber .380 – used in pistols
6. Caliber .38 – used in revolvers
7. Caliber .357 – used in .357 revolvers (Magnum)
8. Caliber .44 – used in Magnum revolvers
9. Caliber .45 – used in Automatic pistols
10. Caliber .50 – used in caliber .50 machine guns

The abovementioned different classes of small arms cartridges are generally encountered by the Police in the field
of firearms investigation in our jurisdiction. These are commonly used by criminals because they are used in firearms that
are easy to carry, conceal, fire and dispose of.

CLASSIFICATION OF AMMUNITIONS ACCORDING TO ITS EFFECTS

1. Penetrators - pierce targets using a single bullet,

2. High explosives - burst before hitting their target, fragmenting into thousands of penetrating pieces or becoming
a high-speed jet of molten metal, and
3. Carrier projectiles - break open near the target to deliver leaflets, radar-deceiving materials, or submunitions
(small ammunition).

ARTILLERY AMMUNITION

Artillery includes rocket launchers and such mounted guns as howitzers, mortars, antiaircraft guns, and naval
guns. Most types of field and naval artillery ammunition are called shells. A single shell, like a single cartridge, is known
as a round. Field artillery projectiles range in size from 50 to 240 millimeters and can weigh over 200 pounds (90
kilograms). Most artillery shells taper to the rear, a shape that gives them greater range. Some have streamlined ogives
(nose shields). Others, known as base-burner shells, have a small amount of propellant burning in the tail during flight.
This reduces drag (air resistance).
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Some shells are high explosives, which detonate on impact and damage or destroy the target. Detonating the
shell's explosive filler shatters the shell into thousands of fragments. High explosives include TNT; RDX, also known as
cyclonite or hexogen; composition B, a mixture of RDX and TNT; PETN; and pentolite, a combination of PETN and TNT.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Other shells contain mines or small shells that can be expelled at intervals over a specified area or during a certain period
of time.

Still other shells are filled with a non-explosive substance, such as a chemical that is poisonous or that produces
smoke or fire. Illuminating, or star, shells light up the battlefield or seascape. A shell with a chaff warhead expels strips of
aluminum, which produce images on a radar screen similar to those caused by aircraft. Such images confuse radar
operators and thus help protect aircraft from enemy attack.

There are five main types of artillery shells

1. Fixed ammunition fired by artillery consists of a projectile, a casing, a primer, and a propellant. Like small-arms
cartridges, fixed artillery ammunition shells are manufactured as complete units.
2. Semifixed ammunition resembles fixed ammunition. However, the projectile fits loosely into the casing so that
the sections can be separated. Thus, the amount of propellant in the casing can be increased or decreased,
depending on how far the shell is from the target.
3. Separate loading ammunition, also called bag ammunition, consists of separate sections for the projectile, the
primer, and the propellant. The propellant is packed into bags that are placed behind the projectile. The number
of bags used depends on the distance the shell must travel. This type of ammunition is used to fire the heaviest
artillery shells over great distances.
4. Separated ammunition consists of two sections. One section is the projectile. The other includes the primer, the
casing, and a fixed amount of propellant.
5. Guided ammunition can correct its flight in the air after being fired. It often uses pop-out tail fins to steer itself.
Most guided ammunition finds its target by tracking a laser spot on the target. This spot is usually produced by a
forward observer, a person or object forward of the line of fire. Some shells known as smart shells have small
radars and computers in them. These shells can search for and find such targets as armored vehicles or trucks
without help.

ARTILLERY-VEHICLE AMMUNITION

Armored-vehicle ammunition consists of projectiles fired by guns mounted on tanks and other armored vehicles.
They have diameters from 20 to 125 millimeters.

A common armored-vehicle penetrator is a projectile with a nose cap of tungsten or another heavy metal. The cap
helps the projectile penetrate opposing vehicles. A high explosive projectile is a hollow-charge warhead. This warhead is
hollow in the front and has an explosive charge in the back. Its explosion converts a copper cone in the warhead to a
molten, high-speed jet. The jet penetrates the target. Another armored vehicle projectile is a long dart made of tungsten or
depleted uranium (uranium with most of its radioactivity removed). The dart travels on a device called a sabot, which
breaks away after the dart leaves the gun's barrel.

RIOT CONTROL AMMUNITION

This is used by law enforcement officials to subdue rioters without causing serious injury. Most of this
ammunition consists of hard rubber bullets. Another type is made of soft rubber rings that look like doughnuts and may
contain tear gas. These rings cause less damage than do the rubber bullets.

BULLET DEFINED

- It is a metallic or non-metallic, cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of an expansive

force of gasses from burning powder.
- These includes projectiles designed for shotgun known as shot, slug or pellets
- Originated from the French word “boulette” which means a small ball.
- It endure/last until 40 years or more provided that the storage having its proper storage.

Bullet / Slugs

Is a metallic or non-metallic cylindrical projectile propelled from a firearm by means of expansive gases coming
from burning gunpowder.

Slugs – laymen’s term-use in court during proceeding

Projectiles propelled from a shotgun are termed shots or pellets.

SHOTGUN CARTRIDGE (SHELL)

Shotgun is a shoulder gun that fires a cartridge that contains a powder charge and a load of metal pellets, called
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shot. The shot spreads over a wide area. This makes it easier to hit a moving target with a shotgun than with the single
bullet from a rifle or a pistol. The shotgun is chiefly a hunting gun.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Kinds of Shots:

1. bird shot - small shotgun pellets

2. buckshot – larger ones are used to shoot such animals as deer
3. single shot – consist of single unit of projectile

Shotgun cartridges consist of a plastic or paper tube with a brass or steel case at one end. They contain lead or
steel shot instead of bullets.

The caliber of a shotgun is measured by bore, or gauge. The weight of the lead shot required to fit the muzzle of
the gun is the standard of measurement for the bore. If a bullet weighing 1/12 pound (38 grams) fits the bore, the shotgun
is called a 12-bore, or a 12-gauge, gun. Popular gauges are 10, 12, 16, 20, 28, and .410.

Some shotguns are named by caliber, as for example, the one that is called .410 gauge shotguns which actually
means .41 caliber. A 12-gauge shotgun has a caliber of .729 inch.

The first shotgun, developed in 1537, was loaded with small shot instead of one round ball. In 1831, Augustus
Demondion patented a cartridge that held small shot. Modern shotguns are single barrels, double barrels, or single
barrels with automatic repeating magazines that hold several cartridges. Repeating shotguns are popular in the United
States with hunters as well as with many law enforcement officers.

SHOT WADS. At a distance of 5-8 yards or more from the place of firing in the approximate direction of fire, one can
sometimes find wads.

CARTRIDGE LIFE

The life of well made metallic small arms ammunitions perhaps 10 years on the average. Some last 5-6 years,
however, ammunitions may lose some of its strength in 5 or 6 years. Some may last 25 years or more depending on the
conditions storage. Damp, and warm climates are worst.

In order to prevent the entrance of oil or moisture, it is common practice to varnish the mouth of the case before
the insertion of the bullet and to put a ring of waterproofing around the joint between the primer and the primer pocket.

CARTRIDGE CASES/SHELL

It is a tubular metallic or non-metallic container which holds together the bullet, gunpowder and primer.

It is the portion of the cartridge that is automatically ejected from the automatic firearm during firing and this
remains at the scene of the crime. This is firearm evidence that can help trace a particular firearm from which it was fired.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIGE CASE

The function of cartridge case is basically the same whether it is fired in revolvers, pistols, rifles, shotguns, or
machine guns. These include:

1. It holds the bullet, gunpowder and primer assembled into one unit.
2. It serves as a waterproof container for the gunpowder.
3. It prevents the escape of the gases to the rear as the sidewalls of the cartridge case are forced against the walls
of the chamber by the pressure. It serves as a “gas seal” at the breech end of the barrel.

PARTS OF THE CARTRIDGE CASE

1. RIM – the projecting rims of rimmed and semi-rimmed cases serve the purpose of limiting the forward travel of
cartridges into their chambers and thus also limit the clearance, if any between the head and the supporting.
2. PRIMER POCKET – performs three functions:
a.) holding primers securely in certain position;
b.) providing a means to prevent the escape of gas to the rear of the cartridge;
c.) providing a primer support for primer anvils, without which the latter could not be fired.
3. VENTS ORFLASH HOLES –the “vent” or “flash holes” is the hole in the web or bottom of the primer pocket
through which the primer “flash” provides ignition to the powder charge. It is the “opening” or “canal” that
connects the priming mixture with the gunpowder.
4. THE HEAD AND BODY – the “head” and “body” constitute the “cork” that plugs the breech of the barrel
against the escape of the gas.
5. NECK – applied to that part of the cartridge case that is occupied by the bullet to prevent the bullet from being
push back or loosened.
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6. CANNELURES – shell cannelures are the serrated grooves that are sometimes found rolled into the neck and
body of cases at the location of the cases of the bullet to prevent the bullet from being pushed back or loosened.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 7. CRIMP – is that part of the mouth of a case that is turned in upon the bullet. It works two ways a) it aids in
holding the bullet in place; b) it offers resistance to the movement of the bullet out of the neck which affects the
burning of gunpowder.
8. BASE - the bottom portion of the case which holds: a)the primer which contains the priming mixture; b) the shell
head which contains the head stamp, caliber, and year of manufacture.
9. SHOULDER –that portion which supports the neck.
10. EXTRACTING GROOVE – the circular groove near the base of the case or shell designed for the automatic
withdrawal of the case after each firing.

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO CASESHAPE

1. Straight – all rimmed shell and most centerfire revolver cartridges. Ex. Cal. 38 special
2. Tapered – very rare but being used in so-called “magnum jet” Cal. .22.
3. Bottleneck – ex. 5.56mm cartridge cases
4. Belted – ex. .30 magnum

CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO HEAD FORMS

1. Rimmed – diameter of base is very much bigger than of the body
2. Semi-rimmed – diameter of base is slightly bigger than of the body
3. Rimless – diameter of base is the same as of the body

CLASSIFICATION OF CARTRIDGE ACCORDING TO THE CONFIGURATION OF ITS BASE

1. RIMMED – It has a flange at the base which is larger than the diameter of the body of the cartridge case. This
flange is to enable the cartridge to be extracted from the weapon in which it is used.
2. SEMI-RIMMED – It has a flange which is slightly larger than the diameter of the cartridge case and a groove
around the case body just in front of the flange.
3. RIMLESS – The flange diameter is the same as the body and there is, for extraction purposes, a groove around
the case-body in front of the flange.
4. REBATED – It has an extractor flange which is less than the diameter of the cartridge case.
5. BELTED CASE – It has a pronounced raised belt encircling the base of the cartridge, the belt is for additional
strength in high pressure cartridge.

CARTRIDGE CASES ACCORDING SHAPES

1. Straight cased – where the case diameter is approximately the same along its length.
2. Bottled-necked – where a wide bodied case is, just before the case mouth, reduced in diameter to that of the
bullet.
3. Tapered case – where a wide based cartridge case is gradually reduced in diameter along its length.

FUNCTIONS OF CARTRIDGE CASE

1. Serves as container for bullet, powder charge and the primer
2. Prevent the escape of gases
3. It serves as the waterproof container of the powder charge.

Take Note:

 Annealing – is the process of making cartridge case by heating a brass to become very soft and ductile and very
weak: when it is drawn or otherwise worked, it becomes hard, strong and elastic.
 Belted Cartridge – A cartridge, which has a raised belt before the extractor groove. The cartridge seats on this
belt, most “Magnum” cartridge case. Also called a European type primer.
 Blank Cartridge – Is a cartridge consisting of the case with its primer, powder charge and a wad to train the
powder.
 Blank Cartridge Pistol – A firearm without opening in the muzzle, the gas may escape through the hole in the
top of the frame.
 Center Pin – serve us a locking device for the cylinder.
 Drawing – a machine operation in manufacturing cartridge cases. Is the process of making case by punching
discs from a sheet of brass and then making these discs out into tubes closed to one end.
 Guard Cartridge – one loaded with buckshot or a reduced charge ball.
 Rolled Crimp – One in which the mouth of the cartridge case is turned inward into a cannelure on the bullet all
around its circumference to retain the bullet at the proper seating depth.
 Round – One single complete cartridge.
 Ruptured Case – Any cartridge case, which has been split in firing so that the gas has escape.
 Short Cartridge – a metallic cartridge loaded with a small shot.
 Signal Cartridge – one containing vari-colored luminous balls of the “roman candle” variety.
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BULLETS (Projectiles)

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Bullet is also knows as PROJECTILE – is a metallic or non-metallic body usually referred to as a bullet that is
completely dependent upon an outside force for its power.

Under this definition, the term may also include projectiles propelled from shotguns although strictly speaking
these projectiles designed for shotguns are called “shot”, “slug” or pellets. In a layman’s viewpoint, a projectile fired
from a firearms is called slug, although what be actually meant is a “bullet”.

The term “bullet” originated from the French word “boulette”, a small ball. In common Police parlance, a bullet
may be called “slug” which is a colloquial term.

CLASSIFICATION OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO MECHANICAL CONSTRUCTION

Basically there are two (2) kinds of bullets:

1. Lead Bullets – those which are made of lead or alloy of this metal such as lead, tin and antimony.
2. Jacketed Bullets – those with a core of lead alloy covered a jacket of harder metal such as guiding metal and
copper zinc.

Purposes of the jacket

1. keep the bullet intact and from not breaking up when it strike the target.
2. prevent damage while in the weapon
3. control expansion

Take Note:

 copper plated steel maybe used instead of gilding metal for the jacket of caliber .45 - jacket of metal patch made of
cupro nickel or gilding metal.
 If jscket bullets are used in revolvers, the gun barrel will be loosened or destroyed.

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO SHAPE

1. Pointed bullet
2. Round Nose bullet
3. Wad Cutter bullet
4. Semi-Wad Cutter bullet
5. Hollow Point bullet
6. Boat Tailed bullet

* Another improvement in bullets was the boat-tail in which the name became .30 M1. The “M” stands for Mark but some
contend stands for MODIFICATION.

PURPOSES OF BULLETS

1. .38 – disability purposes

2. .45 – knocking power – subduing a maniac or amok
3. M16 – fatal effects
4. Garand and Carbine – penetration and long range shooting

TYPES OF BULLETS ACCORDING TO USE

1. Ball Bullets – have a soft cores and are used against personnel.
2. Armor Piercing Bullet – have hardened steel cores and are fired against vehicles, weapons and armored targets
in general.
3. Tracer Bullets – contains compound usually similar to barium nitrates which is set on fire when the bullet is
projected. The flash of this smoke from this burning permits the flight of the bullet to be seen.
4. Incendiary Bullets – contains a mixture such as phosphorous or other materials, that can be set on fire by impact.
They are used against target that will burn readily such as aircraft.
5. Explosives Bullets – contains a high charge of high explosive and because of their small size it is difficult to make
a fuse tat will work reliably in small arms ammunition. For this reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually
limited to 20mm and above.

BULLETS’ MEASUREMENT (DIAMETER)

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Cartridges used in weapons other than shotguns are measured by caliber (the diameter of the bullet).
Manufacturers and users of ammunition in the United States have traditionally specified caliber in decimal fractions of an
inch. For example, a .30-caliber cartridge has a diameter of 30/100 inch (7.6 millimeters). However, it is becoming

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 customary to use millimeters instead. The U.S. armed forces specify caliber in millimeters. Small-arms cartridges are less
than 20 millimeters or .78 caliber.

EQUIVALENT OF CALIBER TO MILLIMETER

1. Caliber .22 about 5.56 mm

2. Caliber .25 about 6.35 mm
3. Caliber .32 about 7.65 mm
4. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Mauser)
5. Caliber .30 about 7.63 mm (Luger)
6. Caliber .38 about 9mm
7. Caliber .45 about 11.43 mm

Take Note:

 .0002 second – explosion of a bullet by means of tremendous explosion of burning gases.

 Resistance of .38 is 15,000 to 45,000 ft./found.
 Buck-shot – it ranges 50 yards

Take Note:

 Ball Bullet – Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.

 Cannelure (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved
around the body of the bullet which contains wax for lubrication in order to minimize friction during the passage
of the bullet inside the bore.
 Dumdum Bullet – an out-moded and generally misused
term – hollow point bullets manufactured in Dumdum, India.
 Explosive (Fragmentary) Bullets – Contain a high charge
explosive, because of heir small size, it is difficult to make a fuse that will work reliably in small arms
ammunitions. For this reason the use of high explosive bullets is usually to 20 mm. and above.
 Hollow Point – designed to increase expansion (sometimes
called “express bullets”)
 Iced Bullets or solidified bullets – super cooled water made
as a projectile.
 Lead Bullets - Actually a mixture of lead and one or more
hardening ingredient.
 Metal Cased Bullet – colloquially used to indicate either a
metal patched of full patched bullet.
 Metal Patched Bullet – any metal-jacketed bullet.
Technically, it is a bullet having a metal cup over the base and extending forward over that portion of the bullet
which bears against the rifling, the lead core being exposed at the nose of the bullet.
 Mushroom Bullet – colloquially. Any bullet designed to
expand on impact. Technically, a metal patched bullet with exposed round nose.
 Ogive – the curved portion of the bullet that is symmetrical
and forms the head of the projectile of ogival shape.
 Plated Bullet – a bullet covered with a thin coating of a
copper alloy to prevent leading on the inside of the barrel.
 Pointed Bullet – more effective ballistically because there is
less surface resistance to air, thus the speed is less retarded and greater velocity.
 Soft or Drop Shot – shotgun pellets made of ordinary soft
lead made into round pellets.
 Soft Point Bullet – expands on striking hence it produces
more serious damage and have greater stopping power: from a high velocity rifle, it will expand upon striking a
flesh until it looks like a mushroom, hence, they are often called mushroom bullet. Such bullets are of little effect
than a full-jacketed bullet in revolvers or automatic pistols, because the velocity is too low to cause the bullet to
expand.
 Steel Jacketed Bullet – bullet having soft steel jacket, often
clad or plated with gliding metal to prevent resting and reduce frictional resistance in the bore.
 Tracer Bullet – a bullet containing a substance inside the
jacket at the base of the bullet which is ignited when fired showing a brilliant “tail light” during its flight. It has
an incendiary effect if they strike before the “tail light” base burned put.

GUNPOWDER
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It is a substance or a mixture of substances which upon suitable ignition releases a large amount of chemical energy
at a high and controllable rate, the energy liberation is to convert the propellant into a high of gas.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 CLASSIFICATION AND COMPOSITION

Generally, there are two types of powder in small arms. These are:

1. Black Powder (Europeans) – the standard ingredients are: Potassium nitrate 75%, Sulphur 10% and Charcoal
15%. It’s characteristics are:
a. oldest propellant powder
b. consist of irregular grains and have either a dull or shiny black surface
c. produces grayish smoke and considerable residue is left in the barrel
d. burns with reasonable great rapidity when ignited

Qualities (typical to all explosives)

a. when ignited, it will burn by itself without aid from the outside air
b. in burning, it gives off large amount of gas
c. a considerable amount of heat is evolved

2. Smokeless Powder – Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine as the major ingredients, mixed with one or more minor
ingredients such as centralite, Vaseline esters, inorganic salts and etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SMOKELESS POWDER

1. Single based (Nitrocellulose) – pure nitroglycerin gelatinized with nitrocellulose

2. Double based - Nitrocellulose and Nitroglycerine with the following minor ingredients:
a. centralite
b. Vaseline phthalate esters
c. Inorganic salt

Purposes of the minor ingredients:

a. insure stability
b. reduce flash or flame temperature
c. improve ignitability

Characteristics
a. gray green to black in color and grains are similar in size and shape to the single-base propellants
b. almost all have a perfectly definite shape such as: small squares; discs; flakes; stripes; pellets; and perforated
cylindrical grains

3. Triple based – Nitrocellulose, Nitroglycerine and Nitroguanadine - It was devised in an attempt to compromise
between the low power single based powders and high power but excessive heat of double based powders. The
percentage of nitroglycerin is small, but sufficient to give added power. The nitro-guanidine lowers the flame
temperature while still adding active explosive constituent. One of its virtues is that it is entirely flashless though
it does not generate rather more smoke than the other types.

4. High ignition temperature propellant – Its main constituent is from RDX group of high explosives. It was
moderated to the process of gelatinozation and was then developed by Dynamite Noble of Germany in
conjunction with Heckler and Koch for the latter’s G11K2 rifle. This is a caseless cartridge.

Take Note:

 Cordite – A British propellant made by dissolving gun

cotton and nitroglycerin and adding 5% of Vaseline.
 Gun Cotton – A very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerin
which is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton
or any other kind of cellulose.

PRIMER

It is an assembly which ignites the propellant. The primer assembly of center fire cartridges consists of a brass or
guiding-metal cup that contains a primer composition pellet of sensitive explosive, a paper disc (foil), and a brass anvil.

A blow from the firing pin of a small arms weapon on center of the primer cup
compresses the primer composition violently between the cup and the anvil, thus causing the composition to explode.
The hole or vent in the anvil allows the flame to pass through the primer vent in the cartridge case, thereby igniting the
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propellant.

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 Rimfire ammunition, such as the caliber .22 cartridge does not contain primer assembly; the primer composition
is spun into the rim of the cartridge case and the propellant is in intimate contact with the composition. In firing, the
firing pin strikes the rim of the case and thus compresses the primer composition and initiates its explosion.

Take Note:

1807 – Alexander John Forsyth conceived the percussion ignition system. He was a Scotch Presbyterian
Minister, chemist and hunter.

First successful priming mixture was one composed of potassium chlorate.

TYPES OF PRIMER ACCORDING TO ANVIL

1. Boxer primer (one flash hole) – favorite in U.S. invented by Col. Edward Munier Boxer in 1869.
2. Berdan (European Type) – two flash holes or vents invented by Hiram Berdan of New York in 1850’s.

PARTS OF PRIMER AND FUNCTION

1. Primer Cap – it is the soft guiding metal which serves as the container of priming mixture, paper disc and anvil.
2. Priming Mixture – contains a small amount of explosive mixture which is sufficiently sensitive to result of
chemical reaction being set up by the caused by a sudden blow.
3. Paper Discs – this is made of thin shellacked paper disc that protects the priming mixture that will cause its
disintegration. Its two-fold purposes:
a. help hold the priming mixture in place and
b. exclude moisture
4. Anvil – it is made of spring tempered brass place inside the primer and it is on this side or point which the
priming mixture is crushed.
5. Battery Cap – battery cap as applied to shotgun primer serves as the main support for the whole primer
components.

PRIMING COMPOUNDS

1. Corrosive – it has potassium chlorate – IF ignited produces potassium chloride which draws moisture from the air
and this moisture speeds the rusting and corrosion in gun barrels.

CORROSION – chemical wear and tear of the inside of the barrel due to rust formation or chemical reaction by
products of combustion during firing.

EROSION – mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical abrasion or
sliding friction.

2. Non-corrosive
Mixture 25 yrs. ago:
a. potassium chlorate (initiator & fuel) – 45%
b. antimony (element & fuel) – 23%
c. fulminate of mercury (initiator) – 32%

Take Note:

 Match Slow – a slow burning fuse or twisted cotton soaked in a solution of saltpeter or hemp or on matchlock
weapons.
 Maynard Primer – another form of percussion cap. Explosive pellets were sealed at proper intervals between two
strips of paper. This primer tape was then rolled and inserted in guns of suitable design. The action of cocking the
hammer pulled the primer tape until a primer pellet lay under the hammer and over the ignition vent into the
chamber ready for firing. Similar forms are used in cap pistols.

FORENSIC BALLISTICS (FIREARMS IDENTIFICATION)

It is the study of recovered projectiles to identify the firearms which fired them. It would be better termed
firearms identification. The evidence thus obtained is generally accepted in criminal Courts trials to establish use or
possession of a certain weapon.

Formerly, all that an “expert” could testify in Court concerning a bullet recovered from the scene of a crime was
that it was a certain type and caliber. Thus a caliber .38 bullet could not have fired in a caliber .45 revolver. Linking a
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bullet to a specific revolver was not then possible. About 1920, great advances began to be made in identifying firearms
by their fired bullets and/or cartridge cases, and for the first time, formed criminology courses were offered by
universities to train individuals in the techniques of Forensic Ballistics. Colonel Calvin H. Goddard was the leader in this

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 effort. The most important tools used was the Comparison Microscope, a binocular instrument so arranged that two
similar objects can be compared in detail simultaneously, with corresponding surfaces adjacent.

When bullet is fired, it acquires marks or scratches from the bore surfaces. These marks, from irregularities left
by the tool cuts or caused by wear and rust, by reproducible by firing another bullet through the same barrel. The bullet
is evidence and the second bullet can then be compared for match. The pattern obtain is comparable to a fingerprint, thus
making coincidence of identical patterns from two different guns most unlikely if not impossible. A composition is that,
was yet, there has been no system devised to classify such patterns, as there is with fingerprints.

When a cartridge is fired it is pressed forcibly against the breechface of the firearm, there receiving an impression
of any tool marks. The firing pin also leaves its marks can be compared by the microscope, and a fired cartridge case thus
be linked to a specific weapon.

PRINCIPLES OF IDENTIFICATION (BULLETS)

 1. No two barrels are microscopically identical as the surface of their bores all possess individual characteristics
markings of there own.
 2. When a bullet is fired from a rifled barrel, it becomes engraved by the rifling and this engraving will vary in
its minute details with every individual bore. So it happens that the engravings on the bullets fired from one
barrel will be different from another bullet fired from another barrel.
 3. Every barrel leaves its thumb mark or fingerprints on very single bullet fired through it just as every breech
face leaves its thumb mark on the base of every fired cartridges case.

PRINCIPLES IN CARTRIDGE/SHELL IDENTIFICATION

A. The breech face and the firing pin of every single firearm leave microscopically individualities of their own.
B. The firearm leaves its fingerprint or thumb mark on every cartridge case which it fires.
C. It is based on the fact that the breech face of every weapon must be individually distinct; the cartridge cases
which it fired are imprinted with these individualities. The impression in the cartridges case which fired from
the same weapon are always the same, those on cartridge cases fired from different weapons must always be
different.

TYPES OF CHARACTERISTICS MARKINGS

Class Characteristics – those characteristics which are determinable even prior to the making or manufacturing of the
firearm. These are the manufactory specification within the control of the company and they serves as the basis for
identification of a certain group or class of firearms

-Those, which are determinable prior to the manufacturer of the firearm and within the control man. These serve as basis
to identify a certain class or group of firearm.
 Caliber (Bore Diameter)
 Number of lands
 Number of grooves
 Width of lands
 Width of grooves
 Direction of twist
 Pitch of rifling
 Depth of grooves

INDIVIDUAL CHARACTERISTICS
Those which are determinable only after the manufacture of the firearm. They are characteristics whose existence is
beyond the control of man which have random distribution. Their existence in a firearm is brought about by the tools in
their normal operation resulting through wear and tear, abuse, mutilations, corrosion, erosion and other fortuitous
causes.

Marks Found on Fired Bullet

1. Land marks – caused by the land

2. Groove marks – caused by the grooves
3. Skid marks – due to worn out barrel
4. Stripping marks – due to bullet jumping into the rifling

Marks Found on Fired Cartridge Case

1. Firing pin mark – caused by firing pin, found at the base of the cartridge case
2. breech face mark – caused by the breech face, found at the base of cartridge case
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3. extractor mark – found in the extracting groove

4. ejector mark – located near the rim
5. shearing mark – secondary firing pin marks, found in the primer near the firing pin mark

DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 6. chamber mark – found around the body of the cartridge case
7. pivotal mark – due to sudden turn of the cartridge when firing
8. magazine lip markings – found in the two points of the rim

METHOD OF SEARCHING FIREARM EXHIBITS

1. Strip Method –applicable in shooting incident took place in a small closed area.
2. Double Strip method – shooting incident took place in a bigger area.
3. Spiral Method – searchers follow each other in the path of a spiral beginning from outside and then spiral
in toward the center.
4. Wheel Method – the searchers gather at the center and proceed in outward radii and spokes.
5. Zone Method – suggested method when shooting took place at the big outdoor area. The area will be
divided into zones and in each zone and any one of the above method maybe used.

EQUIPMENT USED IN FIREARM IDENTIFICATION

1. Bullet Comparison Microscope – to determine the similarity and dissimilarity between two bullets or two shells, by
simultaneously observing their magnified image in a single microscopic field. Through this type of equipment, the to
fired bullet are seen in JUXTAPOSITION – this is where the bullets are observed at:
a. the same time
b. the same plane or level
c. the same direction
d. the same magnification
e. the same image
2. Bullet Recovery Box – used to recover test bullets and test shells for comparison with the questioned bullets or
questioned shells.
3. Vernier Caliper – used to measure the diameter of the bullet as shell up to a thousand of an inch.
4. Micrometer – same purpose of Vernier caliper
5. Analytical Torsion Balance – used more or less for determining weights of bullets and shotgun pellets for possible
determination of type, caliber, and make of firearms from which it was fired.
6. Helixometer – used to measure the pitch of rifling of firearms
7. Taper gauge – used primarily for determining bore diameter of firearms.
8. Electric Gun Marker – used to mark fired bullets, fired shells and firearms submitted for examination.
9. Scanning Electronic Microscope – identify left over particles like gunpowder residues and primer residues. This is a
computer system combined with an electron microscope and laser spectrophotometer unit. Shadowgraph – contains
series of microscopic lenses of different magnification that can be used in examining fire bullets or fired shells to
determine class characteristics.
10. Onoscope – used in examining the internal surface of the gun barrel. It has a tiny lamp at the terminal portion and
this inserted inside the bore for internal examination.

BREECH FACE, EXTRACTOR, EJECTOR, CHAMBER etc….

- no two firearms are microscopically identical as the surfaces of their breech faces, extractor, ejector, firing pin, chambers,
slides possess individual characteristics markings.

when a cartridge case is fired from a firearm the individualities of the parts that get in touch with shells are imprinted or
transferred on the shells.

- so it happens, an empty shell fired from one firearm having a firing pin, breech face, ejector, extractor, etc. marks will be
entirely different from another shell fired from another firearm.
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DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.

 DEFINITIONS OF TERMS:

Percussion – action when the priming mixture of chemical compound hit or struck by firing in would ignite.
Juxtaposition – two objects evidence bullet and test bullet are examined, and compared under the bullet comparison
microscope. Includes also the examination of fired shells.
from which means “to throw”.
Forum – a Greek word of forensic which means debatable, argumentation in relation to the court justice.
Forensic Ballistics – the study of firearm identification by means of ammunition fired from them.
Ballistician – person whose knowledge in identification is accepted by the courts and other and investigation agencies
Ball Bullets – Bullets have soft lead cores inside a jacket.
Bullets Recovery Box – consist of a wooden box, 12’’ x 12’’ x 96’’, with a hinged to cover and with one end open. This
long box is filled with ordinary cotton and separated into section by cardboard partitions.
Caliber – is the diameter of the inner surface of the barrel that is measured from land to land.
Dumdum Bullet – “Dumdum” is an out model and generally misused term. It was an unofficial name first applied to
hollow point bullets made at the British arsenal at Dumdum, India.
Erosion – the mechanical wear and tear of the inner surface of the gun barrel due to mechanical abrasion of sliding
friction.
Caliper – A instrument used for making measurement such as bullet, diameter and bore diameter.
Cannelure (bullet) – A knurled ring or serrated grooved around the body of the bullet which contains wax for lubrication
in order to minimize friction during the passage of the bullet inside the bore.
Chilled Shot – shotgun pellets made from lead especially by the addition of a slight amount of antimony.
Class characteristics -Are those that are determinable even before the manufacture of the firearm. It is categorized into
caliber or gauge number of lands and grooves, width of land and grooves, twist of rifling, patch of rifling and depth of
grooves.
Range – the straight distance between muzzle and target.
Corrosion – the mechanical wear and tear of the inside of the gun barrel due to rust formation or chemical action of the by
products of combustion after firing.
Point Blank Range – Popularity used to indicate the distance the bullet will travel before it drops enough to require sight
adjustment. A shot fired so closed to the target that no sighting is necessary for effective aiming.
Maximum range – the farthest distance that projectile can be propelled from a firearm.
Gallery Range – the indoor targets ranges on properly conducted strutted indoor ranges, firing maybe conducted with
center fire pistols and revolvers at ranges of 25 yarns and 50 yarns. Such installation are generally referred to as indoors
ranges the term gallery being applied usually only to short rage .22 caliber installation.
Extreme range – the greatest distance the bullet will travel the cartridge is fired.
Effective range – the maximum distance at which a bullet may reasonable be expected to travel accurately and skill a
particular types of live target.
Accurate Range – the distance with in which be shoot has control of his shots.
Fouling – the accumulation of a deposit with in the bore of a firearm caused by solid by products remaining a cartridge is
fired.
Gun Cotton – a very powerful explosive, like nitroglycerine, which is a chemical compound and not a mixture. This is
formed by the action of nitric and sulfuric acid on cotton or may other kind of cellulose.
Lands – the raised portion between the grooves in the interior surface of the gun barrel.
Lapping – is the smoothening of the bore and the testing the accuracy of a firearm.
Machine rest – a machine used for testing the accuracy of a firearm.
Primer – the complete assembly of cup, priming composition, paper disc and anvil
Cartouche - French word of cartridge which means roll of paper.
Charta – Latin words for cartridges which means paper.

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DR. OSCAR P. COSICOL, JR.