be considered.
It is to note that dead load and live load cause biaxial bending Roof
whereas the wind load produces bending about major principal axis.
The purlins may sometimes be designed as continuous beams supported over
principal rafters of the roof trusses. The moments at the supports and
midspans of the ends and intermediate spans may be calculated as
recommended in the code.
For end span (one end simply supported and other end continuous)
a) Bending moment due to dead loads
Mid-span M = + Wd .
(
Support M = ( wd . ~*/9j
b) Bending moment due to live loads
Support M = w .~
( L
~
1 / 9 ...(11.11)
For intermediate spans, the bending moments are less than these values. It is
recommended to use the value (WL . L2/10).
11.5.2 Design of Purlins with Sag-rods
The combined stresses caused by loads parallel and perpendicular to the roof slope
may often exceed the allowable stresses in purlins essentially because of their weak
minor axes.
Truss
L A
(a
SECTION A - A
( b )
Figure 11.5
Figure 11.5(a) shows a purlin subjected to uniformly distributed vertical load W per
unit length of its span 1 between supporting truss. If 8 denotes the angle of
inclination of the roof to the horizontal, the load W may be resolved as follows.
W, = W sin 0 : Component parallel to slope.
W, = W cos 0 : Component perpendicular to slope
The bending moments in the purlin about its X and Y-axes are
Steel Structures
(c) Sag-rods at 112 points (d) Sag-rods at V3 points
Figure 11.5
I
Assuming that the full section modulus of the purlin about its y-axis (i.e. Zy) is
effective in resisting My, the maximum combined stress in the purlin due to Mx and
My at points A (tension) or B (comp) is given by
The combined stress may often exceed the allowable bending stress due to the
small value of Zy. This can be solved by using large purlins with relatively big
values of Zy. A more desirable and effective solution is to use "sag rods" (round
bars threaded at their ends) parallel to the roof slope and secured to the purlin
webs with nuts at strategic locations Sag-rods are often used at the mid-points or
the third points of the purlins to support them for Y-axis bending.
Figure 11.5(b) shows such rods in purlins which now act as S.S beams of span 1
for X-axis bending but as continuous beams for Y-axis bending.
Figure 11.5(c) shows that the maximum bending moment about their Y-axis as
drastically reduced from Wy 12/8 to the value Wy 12/32.
Figure 11.5(d) indicates the bending moment diagram for purlins supported over
three spans by sag-rods at their third points. The resultant reduction in the size of
the purlin is obvious.
11.5.3 Design of Purlins without Sag-rods
Since the load component normal to the roof surface is resisted by the full section
modulus about the strong axis of the purlin, the resultant stress is calculated in the
usual manner. However, inasmuch as the load component parallel to the roof slope
is resisted by the top flange of the purlin only and since almost all of the moment
of inertia about its weak axis is contributed by the flangs, stresses for weak axis
bending may be calculated on the basis of the moment of inertia of the top flange
only. Since this valve is almost half the Iyyfor the Section, the maximum bending
stress in the section is given by:
76
11.5.4 Guidelines for Selecting a Particular Section for Purlins Roof Trusses
1) The angle or channel section may be used suitably and economically
upto 5 m span without sag-bars except in heavy snow zones.
2) The tubular sections may be used upto 6 m span. A minimum of 3 mm
thickness of the tube is essential for the structural welding. As far as
possible, tubes with thickness more than 3.5 mm may be used.
3) In case of snow zones, sag bars are used for purlins for 4 m and more
spans for angle sections and channel sections. The channel sections even
sag bars for pulins of spans beyond 8 m are not suitable.
4) For purlins of spans 6 m and more, the triangulation or truss purlins may
be used economically. However, their fabrication is slightly difficult.
11.6 DESIGN OF WIND BRACING
All structures undergo horizontal movement (i.e., sway) when subjected to wind,
seismic or similar horizontal forces. They are always braced against excessive sway
which may cause structural damage and may even signify their failure. Their
capacity to resist horizontal forces may either be inherent in the type of frames or
bents used or may be provided by a suitable system of braces located strategically
in their walls and roof structure.
A rigid frame is fully capable of resisting lateral forces in its own plane by virtue
of its moment resistant joints. However a trussed structure of the type shown in
Figure 11.6(a) is obviously unstable when subjected to such forces. It may be
stabilized by various methods three of which are shown in Figure 11.6(b), (c) &
(d). The fixed column base of Figure 11.6(b) can be constructed only with
considerable expense and efforts and only if the structure is founded on rock or
exceptionally good soil. The knee base of Figure 11.6(c) and the rigid bent of
Figure 11.6(d) (where the columns are made an integral part of the truss) provide
too practical and rc!.i!i\.cly economical alternatives. Structures may use one of the
Column
B.M.D.
(b)
Figure 11.6
Steel Structures following two types.
1) Rigid frames or trussed bents.
2) Trusses on columns.
The bents of Figure 11.6 can resist vertical loads and all horizontal loads in their
own plane but they offer very little resistance to horizontal loads acting normal to
their planes. These must therefore be thoroughly braced so that the structure may
Knee brace lype
&
Figure 11.6
not collapse due to wind or earthquake force and may also resist the horizontal
surge due to acceleration and braking as travelling cranes. The function of the
bracing is to transfer horizontal forces from the frames to the foundations. It will
be well to recaptuate the transfer as wind from top chord to bearings through the
top lateral truss and the portal bracings or cross frames. In a similar way wind
acting in the longitudinal direction of the building that is, normal to the plane of
trusses, will require a horizontal truss to transmit the load to the columns and then
a cross frame or bracing in the longitudinal vertical plane of the columns to
transmit the load to the foundations.
Figure 11.7 shows typical arrangement. The plan gives the gridwork of columns.
Longitudinal lines are indicated by letters A, B, C, D, & E and the transverse lines
by 1, 2, 3, 4, & 5. Thus any intersection points will be denoted by two letters. C,
will mean point of intersection of C-line and 2-line. For horizontal loads due to
wind or earthquake in the longitudinal direction, the truss in the plane of the top
chord between A-2, A-3, E2, E3 acts as a horizontal girder transmitting the
reaction to the ends. Then, as seen in section QQ, the wind loads are transmitted to
the foundations by means of cross frames. The bottom panel points of the trusses
are connected by struts throughout the length. These reduce the effective length of
the horizontal tie member against their buckling transverse to the plane of trusses.
The upper cross frame may also be provided in the bay 2-3 along all longitudinal
lines B, C, D, & E. Similarly the horizontal truss may also be provided in the
plane of bottom chord or it may only be provided at bottom and omitted from the
top chord. In that case the purlins will act as the struts connecting top chords of
various trusses. The upper cross frame will transfer wind load between the top and
bottom chords to the lateral truss A2 - A3, E3 - E2. in eifecl a space to wt is
Roof Trusses
1
t
.-
4
0
A c D E
PLAN
Figure 11.7
formed in the bay 2-3 which transmits the wind loads to the foundation. Such
towers may be formed every fourth or fifth bay along the length of the buiding.
Not less than two towers should be used for any structure.
Sometimes a column may have to be omitted from under a truss. For instance the
column at A, has been omitted, the truss in line 4 is supported on an 'Eaves
girder' or 'beam' to which it transfers its vertical reaction. Since now the
transverse wind or earthquake load on truss-no. 4 cannot be transmitted by portal
action, this load is transferred by a horizontal truss A3-B3-B5-A5 to columns A5
and A3. The trussed portal frames in lines 3 and 5 shall now be designed to carry
the horizontal load from truss 4 also.
At the end of the building it is not necessary to use a truss unless a very wide
variety gate is required. Columns may be used to support rafters which will carry
the purlins. The same columns will be used to support grits to which end sheeting
will be bolted. In such an arrangement the wind load on the end of the building
will go to the foundations partly through the columns A, B, C,D and E and partly
it will go to the horizontal truss through struts at tie level, purlins at roof level and
the cross frames connecting the two chords in the lower bay. But if it is desired to
extend the building length-wise at some later date a truss will have to be provided
at the end also. Temporary columns or suspenders carrying the sheeting or a
temporary wall may be constructed to enclose the end if so desired.
The Secti~n-ppin Figure U.7 shows an interesting arrangements of roofing which
I' has the advantages of "orthlight roof and flat truss as adequate depth at the same
time. ~h~ left end column is hinged and the right end column is continuous with
r.-.-~+*,: f,,l,n~ations.Such a frame would permit
ske! Structures easy erection and has adequate stiffness against horizontal loads. Such trusses have
been employed at the Heavy Eletricals, Hardware.
The bracings of roof trusses is done to provide a stiff rigid structures so that it is
not subjected to vibrations due to rolling loads of machinery. In building structures,
the roof trusses are supported on masonry walls. The purlins at ends also rest on
end masonry walls. For such structures, lateral bracing is not necessary. The roof
trusses are also securely fixed with the anchor bolts in the masonry walls. When
the roof trusses are supported on steel columns, then lateral bracing should be
provided for stability against lateral forces. In the absence of lateral bracing, the
structure will collapse in a high wind storm. The bracings may consists of single
angle sections.
11.7 DESIGN OF TRUSS MEMBERS
11.7.1 Assumptions
The analysis of roof trusses consists of two parts. Part one consists of
determination of loads and reactions. The other part consists of determination of
the internal forces in the members of roof trusses. The following assumptions are
made for determining the forces in the members.
1) The roof truss is not restrained by the reactions.
2) The axes of members meeting at a joint intersect at a common point.
3) The riveted joints in roof trusses act as frictionless hinges.
11.7.2 Design
If the purlins are placed on the rafter at the panel points only, there will be no
bending moment in any member and all members will be either the tension
member or compression member. Single angle or double angle is used for all
members. Since the span of the sheeting and consequently the spacing of purlins
should be less than 1.68 m and in some cases the distance between panel points is
more than 16.8 m, it may not be possible to place the purlins only at the panel
points. In such cases, the rafter will be subjected to bending moment in addition to
axial compression. The rafter is a continuous member and the bending moment will
be computed by the moment distribution method.
The calculations might indicate that very small angles are sufficient for the various
members of the truss, but the members should be fairly stiff to avoid damage
during loading, transport, off-loading and erection. The following minimum
sections are recommended for use in compound fink roof truss.
Rafter JSA 75 x 50 x 6
Main ties ISA 75 x 50 x 6
Centre tie ISA 65x45x.6
Main sling ISA 6 5 x 4 5 ~ 6
Minor sling ISA 50 x 50 x 6
Main strut ISA 65 x 45 x 6
Minor strut ISA 50 x 50 x 6
Vertical sag tie ISA 50 x 50 x 6
Rafter is a primary compression member and a double angle section is preferred.
During handling and also due to wind. the main ties are subjected to compression.
These have a long unsupported lenl:rll and the double angle section should
Rod Tnnrs
preferably be used for these. For larger spans a compound fink roof truss is riveted
up in two halves in the workshop. These two halves are transported to site and the
centre tie is fitted up there. The main slings, therefore, are subject to severe
handling stresses and a double angle section should preferably be used. All other
members could be single angle members. The long legs of angle sections are
connected together. The equal angle sections are selected for single angle section.
The angle section smaller in size than 50 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm will not be used.
The members are so designed that their slenderness ratios are not greater than 180.
The effective length of compression members in roof truss is adopted as 0.7 to 1.0
times the distance between centre to centre of intersections of longitudinal axes of
members at the joint.
The double angle sections are used for all tension members except those which are
lightly stressed. The single angle sections are objectionable. The single angle
sections have a tendency to twist the truss and produce eccentric forces at the
joint. The long legs are kept outstanding. The angle sections smaller in size than
50 mm x 50 mm x 6 mm will not be used. If reversal of forces takes place in
tension members, their slenderness ratio should be less thnn350.
1 % 11.8 DESIGN OF JOINTS
The members meeting at a joint should have their centroidal axes intersecting at
one point so as to avoid eccentric effect. The joints are designed for the forces in
the members. When the lneinbers are continuous over a joint, the forces on both
sides of the joints act in opposite directions. The rivets are provided for the
, difference of their values. The rivets are placed symmetrical to the joints. The rivet
I
of nominal diameter less than 16 mm will not be used. The thickness of the gusset
plate at any joint will not be less than 6 mm.
11.9 DESIGN OF BEARING PLATES
It the steel roof truss is supported Dn steel columns, a suitable connection should
be provided to transfer the reaction from the tmss to the column. If concrete or
masonry columns have to support the roof truss, a suitable bearing plate will have
to be used to distribute the load on the column so that the pressure on masonry or
concrete does not exceed the allowable bearing pressure. Let R be the maximum
end reaction. The area of bearing plate required
where, ap is the allowable bearing pressure in masonry or concrete and it is taken
as 4 ~ / m m ~ .
The width of bearing plate b be kept equal to twice the length of horizontal leg of
shoe angle plus the thickness of gusset plate. The length of bearing plate
Area of bearing plate
-1
width of bearing plate
.
...( I 1-17]
If o,, is actual bearing pressure in masonry or concrete, then oy,should be less
than 0,.
The thickness of bearing plate t , is designed to resist the bending moment M, at xx
- caused due to actual bearing pressure acting at the bottom of bearing plate as
shown in Figure 11.8. The moment of resistance of bcaring plate.
Steel Structures
A \
,
,Shoe angle
,-Guswt pkte
A \
TI,;,,,,,,
I t t f tttt
Width of boaring plate
Figure 11.8 : Shoe Angles and Bearing Plate
where,
Z = Modulus of section of bearing plate
a,, = Allowable bearing pressure in steel bearing plate
= 185 ~ / m m
(Mpa)
~
M = Moment of resistance
.. t = ( t , - thickness of angle)
A base plate is provided under the bearing plate. The thickness of base plate is
kept eqtlal to the thickness of the bearing plate.
11.9.1 Design of Shoe Angles
The shoes angles are designed so as to accommodate number of rivets necessary to
transmit maximum end reactions. The number of rivets are found by dividing
maximum reaction by rivet value. If the number of rivets works out small, then,
rivets are provided on the basic practical considerations. Two shoe angles are used.
The shoe angles are connected with base plate. The number of rivets for
connecting horizontal legs of shoe angles is kept equal to the number of rivets
used for connection of vertical legs. The nominal size of 75 mmx 50 mm x 6 mm
may be used for the shoe angles.
The design of end supports consists of (i) design of bearing plate, (ii) design of
shoe angle, and (iii) design of anchor bolt.
11.9.2 Design of Anchor Bolt
The anchor bolts are designed to resist net uplift pressure acting on the roof truss.
One end of the truss is kept fixed, while slots of elliptical shape are provided at
the other end. The elliptical slots are provided in the horizontal legs of those
angles and in the bearing plate. This provides allowance for the expansion or
contraction of the truss. The bearing plate can slide over the base plate.
Figure 11.9: Elements at End Supports of a Roof Truss
-
1110 DESIGN PROBLEMS
Example 11.1
A roof truss is to be built in Jodhpur city area for an industrial use.
Determine the basic wind pressure. The size of truss shed is 18 m x 30 m.
Solution
Step I : Basic wind speed
From IS: 875 (part 3)-1987, the basic wind speed in Jodhpur,
Step 2: Risk coeficient (factor-Kl).
The design life for roof shed for industrial use may be assumed 50 yrs. From
IS : 875 (part 3)-1987 or Table the risk coeff (factor- K2) for V , = 47rn/sec
Step 3: Terrain, height and structure size factor (factor-K2)
The terrain is Jodhpur city industrial area. Therefore the area is of type
category 3. Therefore the size of shed shall be 18 m x 30 m and maximum
horizontal dimension is between 20 m and 50 m. So the roof shed structure is
of type class B. From IS: 875 (part 3) 1987 or table K2 = 0.98
Step 4: Topography factor, K3
Topography factor from Eq. 11.4
K3 = (1 +- C.S)
where, C = ? = 0, K3 = 1.00
L
Here the ground is assumed to be plain.
Steel Structures Step 5: Design wind speed
V,= K,xK,xK,xV,
= (1 x 0.98 x 1 x 47) = 46.06 d s e c
Step 6: Basic wind pressure
p, = 0.0006 x V: kN/m2
Example 11.2
Design an angle from purlin for a trussed roof from the following data:
Span of root truss = 12 m
Spacing of roof trusses = 5 m
Spacing of purlins along the slope of roof = 1.2 m
Slop of roof truss = 1 ver to 2 Hor
Wind load on roof surface normal to roof = 1.04 kN/m2
Vertical load from roof sheeting = 0.200 kN/m2
Solution
Step 1: Slope of roof truss
1
i.e., tan 8 = - , 8 = 26" 565' = 26' 34' < 30°. The design is according to
2
I S 800- 1984.
Step 2: Vertical load on purlin per metre length
Vertical load from roof sheeting = 0.200 x 1.2 x 1
= 0.240 kNlm
Assume self-weight of angle purlin = 0.120 kN/m
Total vertical load = 0.360 kN/m
Step 3: Wind load on roof s u ~ a c enormal to roof
Step 4: Total load
Load on purlin normal to roof (1.248 + 0.360) = 1.608 kN/m
WL 1.608 x 5 x 5000 = 4.02 mlm
Max B.M in purlin M = -- -
10 10
4.02 x lo6
Required modulus of section Z =
1.33 x 165
L 5000
Depth of angle purlin -=
45
-45
= 111.1 1 mm
L 5000
Width of angle purlin -= -= 83.33 mm
60 60
From IS1 Handbook No 1, Select ISA 125 mm x 95 mm x 6 mm (ISA 12595,
@ 0.129 kNIm)
