Unit-III

Oscilloscopes CRT features, vertical amplifiers, horizontal deflection system, sweep, trigger
pulse, delay line, sync selector circuits, simple CRO, triggered sweep CRO, Dual beam CRO,
Dual trace oscilloscope, sampling oscilloscope, storage oscilloscope, digital readout
oscilloscope, digital storage oscilloscope, Lissajous method of frequency measurement, standard
specifications of CRO, probes for CRO- Active & Passive, attenuator type.
Introduction:
 CRO is a very useful and versatile instrument which is used for display, measurement and
analysis of wave forms and other phenomena in electrical and electronic circuits
 The Uses of Cathode Ray Oscilloscope allows the amplitude of electrical signals,
whether they are voltage, current, or power, to be displayed as a function of time.
 The CRO depends on the movement of an electron beam, which is bombarded
(impinged) on a screen coated with a fluorescent material, to produce a visible spot. If the
electron beam is deflected on both the conventional axes, i.e. X-axis and Y-axis, a two-
dimensional display is produced.
 The beam is deflected at a constant rate relative of time along the X-axis and is deflected
along the Y-axis in response to an stimulus, such as a voltage. This produces a time-
dependent variation of the input voltage.
 The stylus of this plotter luminous spot which moves over the display area in response to
an input voltage.
 The luminous spot produced by a beam of electrons striking a fluorescent screen.
 The oscilloscope is basically an electron beam voltmeter.
 The heart of oscilloscope is Cathode Ray Tube which makes the applied signal visible by
the deflection of a thin beam of electrons.
Advantages of General Purpose Oscilloscope:
1. It provides a graphical display of the amplitude of a signal as a function of time. Hence, it is
used to measure various electrical parameters.
2. Amplitude of signals like voltage, current, power etc., can be measured by the oscilloscope.
3. Apart from amplitude measurement, it can measure frequency, phase angle, time delay of the
signal, time between two events, and relative timing of two related signals.
4. It has an advantage over electro-mechanical measuring devices that it can respond very well to
high frequency signals because it is completely an electronic device.
5. General purpose CRO's are used for maintenance of electronic equipment and laboratory
work.
6. It can also be used to measure capacitance, inductance, etc.
Cathode Ray Tube (CRT):
To understand the principle of an Electron Beam Experiment in CRT, let us consider a
torch which is focused on a piece of cardboard (held perpendicular to the torch). The light beam
will make a bright spot where it strikes the cardboard or screen. Hold the torch still, the spot
remains still, move the torch, the spot also moves. If the movement is slow, the eye can follow
the movement, but if it is too fast for the eye to follow, persistence of vision causes the eye to see
the pattern traced by the spot. Hence when we wave the torch from side to side, a horizontal line
is traced; we can similarly have a vertical line or a circle. Hence, if the torch is moved in any
manner at a very rapid rate, light would be traced, just like drawing or writing.
A similar action takes place in the CRT of an oscilloscope. The torch is replaced by an
electron gun, the light beam by a narrow Electron Beam Experiment in CRT, and the cardboard
by the external flat end of a glass tube, which is chemically coated to form a fluorescent screen.
Here the electron gun generates the beam which moves down the tube and strikes the screen. The
screen glows at the point of collision, producing a bright spot.
When the beam is deflected by means of an electric or magnetic field, the spot moves
accordingly and traces out a pattern. The electron gun assembly consists of the indirectly heated
cathode with its heater, the control grid, and the first and second anodes.

The control grid in the CRT is cylindrical, with a small aperture in line with the cathode.
The electrons emitted from the cathode emerge from this aperture as a slightly divergent beam.
The negative bias voltage applied to the grid, controls the beam current. The intensity (or
brightness) of the phosphorescent spot depends on the beam current. Hence this control grid bias
knob is called or labeled as intensity.
The Electron Beam Experiment in CRT may be deflected transversely by means of an
electric field (electrostatic deflection) or a magnetic field (electromagnetic deflection). Most
oscilloscopes use electrostatic deflection, since it permits high frequency operation and requires
negligible power. Electromagnetic deflection is most common in TV picture tubes.
Electrons are negatively charged particles, they are attracted by a positive charge or field
and repelled by a negative charge. Since the electron beam is a stream of electrons, a positive
field will divert it in one direction and a negative field in the opposite direction. To move the
beam in this way in the CRT, deflecting plates are mounted inside the tube and suitable
deflecting voltages are applied to them. These plates are arranged in two pairs; H1 and H2 for
deflecting the beam horizontally, and V1 and V2 for deflecting it vertically. Leads are taken out
for external connections. The beam passes down the tube between the four plates
When the plates are at zero voltage the beam is midway between them and the spot is in
the centre of the screen. When H1 is made positive with respect to the cathode (and all other
plates are at zero voltage), it attracts the beam and the spot moves horizontally to the left. When
H2 is made positive, it attracts the beam and the spot moves horizontally to the right. Similarly
when V1 is made positive, the spot moves vertically upwards and when V2 is made positive it
moves vertically downwards. In each of these deflections, the displacement of the beam, and
therefore, the distance traveled by the spot, is proportional to the voltage applied at the plates.
CRT Features:
CRT Features – Electrostatic CRTs are available in a number of types and sizes to suit individual
requirements. The important features of these tubes are as follows.
1. Size
2. Phosphor
3. Operating Voltages
4. Deflection Voltages
5. Viewing Screen
1.Size
Size refers to the screen diameter. CRTs for oscilloscopes are available in sizes of 1, 2, 3,
5, and 7 inches. 3 inches is most common for portable instruments.
For example a CRT having a number 5GP1. The first number 5 indicates that it is a 5 inch tube.
Both round and rectangular CRTs are found in scopes today. The vertical viewing size is 8 cm
and horizontal is 10 cm.
2.Phosphor
The screen is coated with a fluorescent material called phosphor. This material
determines the colour and persistence of the trace, both of which are indicated by the phosphor.
The trace colours in electrostatic CRTs for oscilloscopes are blue, green and blue green. White is
used in TVs, and blue-white, orange, and yellow are used for radar.
Persistence is expressed as short, medium and long. This refers to the length of time the trace
remains on the screen after the signal has ended.
The phosphor of the oscilloscope is designated as follows.
P1 – Green medium
P2 – Blue green medium
P5 – Blue very short
P11 – Blue short

These designations are combined in the tube type number. Hence 5GP1 is a 5 inch tube with a
medium persistence green trace.
Medium persistence traces are mostly used for general purpose applications.
Long persistence traces are used for transients, since they keep the fast transient on the screen for
observation after the transient has disappeared.
Short persistence is needed for extremely high speed phenomena, to prevent smearing and
interference caused when one image persists and overlaps with the next one.
P11 phosphor is considered the best for photographing from the CRT screen.
3.Operating Voltages
The CRT requires a heater voltage of 6.3 volts ac or dc at 600 mA. Several dc voltages
are listed below. The voltages vary with the type of tube used.
 Negative grid (control) voltage – 14 V to – 200 V.
 Positive anode no. 1 (focusing anode) – 100 V to – 1100 V
 Positive anode no. 2 (accelerating anode) 600 V to 6000 V
 Positive anode no. 3 (accelerating anode) 200 V to 20000 V in some cases
4.Deflection Voltages
Either ac or dc voltage will deflect the beam. The distance through which the spot moves
on the screen is proportional to the dc, or peak ac amplitude. The deflection sensitivity of the
tube is usually stated as the dc voltage (or peak ac voltage) required for each cm of deflection of
the spot on the screen.
5.Viewing Screen
The viewing screen is the glass face plate, the inside wall of which is coated with
phosphor. The viewing screen is a rectangular screen having graticules marked on it. The
standard size used nowadays is 8 cm x 10 cm (8 cm on the vertical and 10 cm on horizontal).
Each centimeter on the graticule corresponds to one division (div). The standard phosphor colour
used nowadays is blue.
Block Diagram of Oscilloscope:
The major Block Diagram of Oscilloscope shown in Fig. 7.4, of a general purpose Oscilloscope,
is as follows:
1. CRT
2. Vertical amplifier
3. Delay line
4. Time base
5. Horizontal amplifier
6. Trigger circuit
7. Power Supply
The function of the various blocks are as follows.
CRT: This is the cathode ray tube which emits electrons that strikes the phosphor screen
internally to provide a visual display of signal.
Vertical Amplifier: This is a wide band amplifier used to amplify signals in the vertical section.
Delay Line: It is used to delay the signal for some time in the vertical sections.
Time Base: It is used to generate the sawtooth voltage required to deflect the beam in the
horizontal section.
Horizontal Amplifier: This is used to amplify the sawtooth voltage before it is applied to
horizontal deflection plates.
Trigger Circuit: This is used to convert the incoming signal into trigger pulses so that the input
signal and the sweep frequency can be synchronized
Power Supply: There are two power supplies, a -ve High Voltage (HV) supply and a +ve Low
Voltage (LV) supply. Two voltages are generated in the CRO. The +ve volt supply is from + 300
to 400 V. The -ve high voltage supply is from - 1000 to - 1500 V. This voltage is passed through
a bleeder resistor at a few mA. The intermediate voltages are obtained from the bleeder resistor
for intensity, focus and positioning controls.
Advantages of using -ve HV Supply:
 The accelerating anodes and the deflection plates are close to ground The ground
potential protects the operator from HV shocks when making connections to the plates.
 The deflection voltages are measured with respect to ground, therefore HV blocking or
coupling capacitor are not needed, but low voltage rating capacitors can be used for
connecting the HV supply to the vertical and horizontal
Less insulation is needed between positioning controls and chasis.
Vertical Amplifier:
The sensitivity (gain) and frequency bandwidth (B.W.) response characteristics of the
oscilloscope are mainly determined by the vertical amplifier. Since the gain B.W. product is
constant, to obtain a greater sensitivity the B.W. is narrowed, or vice-versa. Some oscilloscopes
give two alternatives, switching to a wide bandwidth position, and switching to a high sensitivity
position.
The vertical amplifier consists of several stages, with fixed overall sensitivity or gain
expressed in V/divs. The advantage of fixed gain is that the amplifier can be more easily
designed to meet the requirements of stability and B.W. The vertical amplifier is kept within its
signal handling capability by proper selection of the input attenuator switch. The first element of
the pre-amplifier is the input stage, often consisting of a FET source follower whose high input
impedance isolates the amplifier from the attenuator.

This FET input stage is followed by a BIT emitter follower, to match the medium impedance of
FET output with the low impedance input of the phase inverter. This phase inverter provides two
antiphase output signals which are required to operate the push-pull output amplifier. The push-
pull output stage delivers equal signal voltages of opposite polarity to the vertical plates of the
CRT.
The advantages of push-pull operation in CRO are similar to those obtained from push-
pull operation in other applications; better hum voltage cancellation from the source or power
supply (i.e. dc), even harmonic suppression, especially the large 2nd harmonic is cancelled out,
and greater power output per tube as a result of even harmonic cancellation. In addition, a
number of defocusing and non-linear effects are reduced, because neither plate is at ground
potential.
Horizontal Deflecting System:

The Horizontal Deflecting System consist of a Time Base Generator and an output amplifier.

Sweep or Time Base Generator:

A continuous sweep CRO using a UJT as a time base generator is shown in Fig. The UJT
is used to produce the sweep. When the power is first applied, the UJT is off and the C T changes
exponentially through RT The UJT emitter voltage VE rises towards VBB and when VE reaches
the peak voltage VP, as shown in Fig., the emitter to base ‘1’ (B1) diode becomes forward biased
and the UJT triggers ON. This provides a low resistance discharge path and the capacitor
discharges rapidly. The emitter voltage VE reaches the minimum value rapidly and the UJT goes
OFF. The capacitor recharges and the cycle repeats.

To improve sweep linearity, two separate voltage supplies are used, a low voltage supply
for UJT and a high voltage supply for the RTCT circuit. RT is used for continuous control of
frequency within a range and CT is varied or changed in steps for range changing. They are
sometimes called as timing resistor and timing capacitor respectively. The sync pulse enables the
sweep frequency to be exactly equal to the input signal frequency, so that the signal is locked on
the screen and does not drift.
Triggered Sweep CRO:

The continuous sweep is of limited use in displaying periodic signals of constant

frequency and amplitude. When attempting to display voice or music signals, the pattern falls in
and out of sync as the frequency and amplitude of the music varies resulting in an unstable
display. A triggered sweep can display such signals, and those of short duration, e.g. narrow
pulses. In triggered mode, the input signal is used to generate substantial pulses that trigger the
sweep. Thus ensuring that the sweep is always in step with the signal that drives it.
As shown in Fig.a , resistance R3 and R4 form a voltage divider such that the voltage
VD at the cathode of the diode is below the peak voltage VP for UJT conduction. When the circuit
is switched on, the UJT is in the non conducting stage, and CT charges exponentially through
RT towards VBB until the diode becomes forward biased and conducts; the capacitor
voltage never reaches the peak voltage required for UJT conduction but is clamped at VD. If now
a –ve pulse of sufficient amplitude is applied to the base and the peak voltage V/P is momentarily
lowered, the UJT fires. As a result, the CT discharges rapidly through the UJT until the
maintaining voltage of the UJT is reached; at this point the UJT switches off and the CT charges
towards VBB, until it is clamped again at VD. Figure b. shows the output waveform.
Trigger Pulse Generator Circuit:
The Trigger Pulse Generator Circuit is activated by signals of a variety of shapes and
amplitudes, which are converted to trigger pulses of uniform amplitude for the precision sweep
operation. If the trigger level is set too low, the trigger generator will not operate. On the other
hand, if the level is too high, the UJT may conduct for too long and part of the leading edge of
the input signal may be lost. The trigger selection is a 3-position switch, Internal-External-Line,
as shown in Fig. The trigger input signal is applied to a voltage comparator whose reference
level is set by the Trigger Level control on the CRO front panel.

The comparator circuit C produces a change in the output whenever the trigger input
exceeds the present trigger levels. The pulse generator that follows the comparator produces —
ve trigger pulses each time the comparator output crosses its quiescent level, which in turn
triggers the sweep generator to start the next sweep. The trigger sweep generator contains the
stability or sync control, which prevents the display from uttering or running on the screen.
Stability is secured by proper adjustments of the sweep speed. Sweep speed is adjustable by
means of a sweep rate control and its multiplier, i.e. range control. The timing resistance RT is
used for sweep rate control and timing capacitor CT is changed in steps for sweep rate control.
Delay Line Circuit:
Figure a. shows a Delay Line Circuit in Triggered Sweep Circuit. Figure b. indicates the
amplitude of the signal with respect to time and the relative position of the sweep generator
output signal.
The diagram shows that when the delay line is not used, the initial part of the signal is
lost and only part of the signal is displayed. To counteract this disadvantage the signal is not
applied directly to the vertical plates but is passed through a delay line circuit, as shown in Fig. a.
This gives time for the sweep to start at the horizontal plates before the signal has reached the
vertical plates. The trigger pulse is Picked off at a tune t0 after the signal has passed through the
main amplifier. The sweep generator delivers the sweep ti; the horizontal amplifier and the sweep
starts at the HDP at time t0 + 80 ns. Hence the sweep starts well in time, since the signal arrives
at the VDP at time t0 + 200 ns.

Sync Selector for Continuous Sweep CRO:

The sync selector is a 3-position switch, Int-Ext-Line. Therefore horizontal sweep can be
synchronized with the signals coming from any of the three sources, as shown in Fig.
CRT Showing Power Supply:

Figure shows the various voltages applied to CRT electrodes. The intensity control
controls the number of electrons by varying the control grid voltage. Focusing can be done either
electrostatic-ally or electromagnetically. Electrostatic focusing is obtained by using a cylindrical
anode, which changes the electrostatic lines of force which controls the beam.
Block Diagram of CRO:

The Basic Block Diagram of CRO is shown in Figure. The ac filament supplies power to
the CRT heaters in the Block Diagram of CRO. This also provides as accurate ac calibrating
voltage. CRT dc voltage is obtained from the HV dc supply through voltage dividers. R 1 —
R5 Included along with this voltage divider is a potentiometer (R3) which varies the potential at
the focusing electrode, known as focus control, and one which varies the control grid voltage,
called the intensity control (R5). Capacitor C1 is used to ground the deflection plates and the
second anode for the signal voltage, but dc isolates these electrodes from the ground.
Normally S2 is set to its linear position. This connects the sweep generator output to the
horizontal input. The sweep voltage is amplified before being applied to the horizontal deflecting
plates. When an externally generated sweep is desired, S2 is connected to its external position
and the external generator is connected to the input. The sweep synchronizing voltage is applied
to the internal sweep generator through switch S1, which selects the type of synchronization.
Dual Beam CRO:
The dual trace oscilloscope has one cathode ray gun, and an electronic switch which
switches two signals to a single vertical amplifier. The dual beam CRO uses two completely
separate electron beams, two sets of VDPs and a single set of HDPs. Only one beam can be
synchronized at one time, since the sweep is the same for both signals, i.e. a common time base
is used for both beams. Therefore, the signals must have the same frequency or must be
related harmonically, in order to obtain both beams locked on the CRT screen, e.g. the input
signal of an amplifier can be used as signal A and its output signal as signal B.
Dual Trace Oscilloscope:
This CRO has a single electron gun whose electron beam is split into two by an electronic
switch. There is one control for focus and another for intensity. Two signals are displayed
simultaneously. The signals pass through identical vertical channels or vertical amplifiers. Each
channel has its own calibrated input attenuator and i positioning control, so that the amplitude of
each signal can be independently adjusted. A mode control switch enables the electronic switch
to operate in two modes namely Alternate mode and Chop mode.

Where the switch is in ALTERNATE position, the electronic switch feeds each signal
alternately to the vertical amplifier. The electronic switch alternately connects the main vertical
amplifier to channels A and B and adds a different dc component to each signal; this dc
component directs the beam alternately to the upper or lower half of the screen. The switching
takes place at the start of each new sweep of the sweep generator. The switching rate of the
electronic switch is synchronized to the sweep rate, so that the CRT spot traces the channel A
signal on one sweep and the channel B signal on the succeeding sweep [Fig. (b)].
The sweep trigger signal is available from channels A or B and the trigger pick-off takes
place before the electronic switch. This arrangement maintains the correct phase relationship
between signals A and B. When the switch is in the CHOP mode position, the electronic switch is
free running at the rate of 100-500 kHz, entirely independent of the frequency of the sweep
generator. The switch successively connects small segments of A and B waveforms to the main
vertical amplifier at a relatively fast chopping rate of 500 kHz e.g. 1µs segments of each
waveform are fed to the CRT display (Fig. (c)). If the chopping rate is slow, the continuity of the
display is lost and it is better to use the alternate mode of operation.

In the added mode of operation a single image can be displayed by the addition of signal
from channels A and B, i.e. (A + B), etc. In the X — Y mode of operation, the sweep generator is
disconnected and channel B is connected to the horizontal amplifier. Since both preamplifiers are
identical and have the same delay time, accurate X — Y measurements can be made.
Difference between Dual trace and Dual beam CRO:

Sampling Oscilloscope:

An ordinary Sampling Oscilloscope has a B.W. of 10 MHz. The HF performance can be

improved by means of sampling the input waveform and reconstructing its shape from the
sample, i.e. the signal to be observed is sampled and after a few cycles the sampling point is
advanced and another sample is taken. The shape of the waveform is reconstructed by joining the
sample levels together. The sampling frequency may be as low as 1/10th of the input signal
frequency (if the input signal frequency is 100 MHz, the bandwidth of the CRO vertical
amplifier can be as low as 10 MHz). As many as 1000 samples are used to reconstruct the
original waveform. Fig.a shows a Sampling Oscilloscope Block Diagram.

The input waveform is applied to the sampling gate of the Sampling Oscilloscope Block
Diagram. The input waveform is sampled whenever a sampling pulse opens the sampling gate.
The sampling must be synchronized with the input signal frequency. The signal is delayed in
the vertical amplifier, allowing the horizontal sweep to be initiated by the input signal. The
waveforms are shown in Fig.b.
At the beginning of each sampling cycle, the trigger pulse activates an oscillator and a
linear ramp voltage is generated. This ramp voltage is applied to a voltage comparator which
compares the ramp voltage to a staircase generator. When the two voltages are equal in
amplitude, the staircase advances one step and a sampling pulse is generated, which opens the
sampling gate for a sample of input voltage. The resolution of the final image depends upon the
size of the steps of the staircase generator. The smaller the size of the steps the larger the number
of samples and higher the resolution of the image.
Storage Oscilloscope(For VLF Signal):
Storage Oscilloscope – Storage targets can be distinguished from standard phosphor
targets by their ability to retain a waveform pattern for a long time, independent of phosphor
persistence. Two storage techniques are used in oscilloscope CRTs, mesh storage and phosphor
storage. A mesh-Storage Oscilloscope uses a dielectric material deposited on a storage mesh as
the storage target. This mesh is placed between the deflection plates and the standard phosphor
target in the CRT. The writing beam, which is the focused electron beam of the standard CRT,
charges the dielectric material positively where hit. The storage target is then bombarded with
low velocity electrons from a flood gun and the positively charged areas of the storage target
allow these electrons to pass through to the standard phosphor target and thereby reproduce the
stored image on the screen. Thus the mesh storage has both a storage target and a phosphor
display target. The phosphor Storage Oscilloscope uses a thin layer of phosphor to serve both as
the storage and the display element.

Mesh Storage
It is used to display Very Low Frequencies (VLF) signals and finds many applications in
mechanical and biomedical fields. The conventional scope has a display with a phosphor
persistence ranging from a few micro seconds to a few seconds. The persistence can be increased
to a few hours from a few seconds.
A mesh Storage Oscilloscope, shown in Fig. a, contains a dielectric material deposited on
a storage mesh, a collector mesh, flood guns and a collimator, in addition to all the elements of a
standard CRT. The storage target, a thin deposition of a dielectric material such as Magnesium
Fluoride on the storage mesh, makes use of a property known as secondary emission. The
writing gun etches a positively charged pattern on the storage mesh or target by knocking off
secondary emission electrons. Because of the excellent insulating property of the Magnesium
Fluoride coating, this positively charged pattern remains exactly in the position where it is
deposited. In order to make a pattern visible, a special electron gun, called the flood gun, is
switched on (even after many hours).

The electron paths are adjusted by the collimator electrode, which constitutes a low
voltage electrostatic lens system (to focus the electron beam), as shown in Fig. b. Most of the
electrons are stopped and collected by the collector mesh. Only electrons near the stored positive
charge are pulled to the storage target with sufficient force to hit the phosphor screen. The CRT
will now display the signal and it will remain visible as long as the flood guns operate. To erase
the pattern on the storage mesh, a negative voltage is applied to neutralize the stored positive
charge. Since the storage mesh makes use of secondary emission, between the first and second
crossover more electrons are emitted than are absorbed by the material, and hence a net positive
charge results.

Below the first crossover a net negative charge results, since the impinging electrons do
not have sufficient energy to force an equal number to be emitted. In order to store a trace,
assume that the storage surface is uniformly charged and write gun (beam emission gun) will hit
the storage target. Those areas of the storage surface hit by the deflecting beam lose electrons,
which are collected by the collector mesh. Hence, the write beam deflection pattern is traced on
the storage surface as a positive charge pattern. Since the insulation of the dielectric material is
high enough to prevent any loss of charge for a considerable length of time, the pattern is stored.
To view, the stored trace, a flood gun is used when the write gun is turned off.

The flood gun, biased very near the storage mesh potential, emits a flood of electrons
which move towards the collector mesh, since it is biased slightly more positive than the
deflection region. The collimator, a conductive coating on the CRT envelope with an applied
potential, helps to align the flood electrons so that they approach the storage target
perpendicularly. When the electrons penetrate beyond the collector mesh, they encounter either a
positively charged region on the storage surface or a negatively charged region where no trace
has been stored.
The positively charged areas allow the electrons to pass through to the post accelerator
region and the display target phosphor. The negatively charged region repels the flood electrons
back to the collector mesh. Thus the charge pattern on the storage surface appears reproduced on
the CRT display phosphor just as though it were being traced with a deflected beam. Fig.c shows
a display of the stored charge pattern on a mesh storage.

Digital Readout Oscilloscope:

The Digital Readout Oscilloscope instrument has a CRT display and a counter display.
The diagram shown is of an instrument where the counter measures the time (Fig. a). The input
waveform is sampled and the sampling circuit advances the sampling position in fixed
increments, a process called strobing. The equivalent time between each sample depends on the
numbers of sample taken per cm and on the sweep time/cm, e.g. a sweep rate of 1 nano-sec/cm
and a sampling rate of 100 samples/cm gives a time of 10 pico-sec/sample. Fig.a shows a block
diagram of a digital read out oscilloscope when measuring voltage.
 Two intensified portions of the CRT trace identify 0% and 100% zones position. Each
zone can be shifted to any part of the display. The voltage divider taps between the 0% and 100%
memory voltage are set for start and stop timing. The coincidence of any of the input Waveforms
with the selected percentage point is sensed by this voltage comparator. The numbers of the
clock pulse which correspond to the actual sample taken are read out digitally in a Nixie display
tube in ns, µs, ms or seconds.
Fig.b shows a block diagram of a digital readout CRO when used for voltage to time
conversion. The CRT display is obtained by sampling the 0% reference voltage as chosen by the
memory circuit. A linear ramp generator produces a voltage; when the ramp voltage equals the
0% reference the gate opens. When the ramp equals 100% reference the gate closes. The number
of clock pulses that activate the counter is directly proportional to the voltage between the
selected reference and is read out in mV or volts by the Nixie tube display.

Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method:

The oscilloscope is a sensitive indicator for frequency and phase measurements. This
Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method techniques used are simple and dependable, and
measurement may be made at any frequency in the response range of the oscilloscope.
One of the quickest methods of determining frequency is by using Lissajous patterns produced
on a screen. This particular pattern results when sine waves are applied simultaneously to both
pairs of the deflection plates. If one frequency is an integral multiple (harmonic) of the other, the
pattern will be stationary, and is called a Lissajous figure.
 In this Frequency Measurement by Lissajous Method a standard frequency is applied to
one set of deflection plates of the CRT tube while the unknown frequency (of approximately the
same amplitude) is simultaneously applied to the other set of plates. However, the unknown
frequency is presented to the vertical plates and the known frequency (standard) to the horizontal
plates. The resulting patterns depend on the integral and phase relationship between the two
frequencies. (The horizontal signal is designated as fh and the vertical signal as fv) Typical
Lissajous figures are shown in Fig.a and Fig.b for sinusoidal frequencies which are equal,
integral and in ratio.

To determine the frequency from any Lissajous figure, count the number of horizontal loops in
the pattern, divide it by the number of vertical loops and multiply this quantity by f h (known or
standard frequency). The fractional relationship between the two frequencies is determined by
counting the number of cycles in the vertical and horizontal.
Probes for CRO-Direct Probes (1 : 1):
Probes for CRO – The simplest types of probe (one can hardly call it a probe) is the test
lead. Test leads are simply convenient lengths of wire for connecting the CRO input to the point
of observation. At the CRO end, they usually terminate with lugs, banana tips or other tips to fit
the input jacks of the scope, and at the other end have a crocodile clip or any other convenient
means for connection to the electronic circuit.

Since a CRO has high input impedance and high sensitivity, the test leads should be
shielded to avoid hum pickup, unless the scope is connected to low impedance high level
circuits.
 Although the input impedances of most CROs are relatively very high compared to the
circuits where they are connected, it is often desirable to increase their impedance to avoid
loading of the circuits or causing unstable effects. The input capacitance of the scope, plus the
stray capacitance of the test leads, may be just enough to cause a sensitive circuit to break into
oscillation when the CRO is connected. This effect can be prevented by an isolation probe made
by placing a carbon resistor in series with the test lead, as shown in Fig.
Passive Voltage (High Z) Probe:
Figure (a) shows a 10 : 1 probe. Figure (b) shows the equivalent circuit. Referring to Fig. (b).
The capacitor is adjusted so that the elements of the bridge are balanced. Under conditions of
balance we have
R1 X C2 Cin   Rin X C1 

Fig: a) 10:1 Probe b) Equivalent circuit of 10:1 probe

R1 R
 in
jw  C2  Cin  jwC1

R1C1  Rin  C2  Cin 

Rin  C2  Cin 
C1 
R1
Therefore, X and Y are equipotential and the effect of the probe is equivalent to placing a
potential divider consisting of R1 and Rin across the input circuit. The attenuation of the signal is
10 : 1, i.e. (R1 + Rin)/ R1 = 10 : 1 over a wide frequency range. Therefore, it is called a
compensated 10 X 1 probe. As far as dc voltage inputs are concerned, the coaxial capacitance
equals 30 pf per foot. (Assuming a coaxial length of 3.5 ft, the total coaxial length capacitance is
105 pf). Substituting this value in the balance bridge equation, we have
Rin  C2  Cin  1M 105 pf  20 pf 
C1    13.88 pf
R1 9M
Therefore, the input capacitance of a CRO can range from 15-50 pf. C1 should be adjusted from
13-47 pf. It must be adjusted to obtain optimum frequency response from the probe-CRO
combination. The C1 adjustment is done by connecting the probe tip to a square wave of 1 kHz
and observing the CRT display. When the CRT display has optimum response, the C1 value is
deemed to be appropriate.
Therefore
Vin * Rin
Vout  0.1*Vin 
R1  Rin
Active Probes:
Active probes are designed to provide an efficient method of coupling high frequency, fast rise
time signals to the CRO input. Usually active probes have very high input impedance, with less
attenuation than passive probes. Active devices may be diodes, FETs, BJTs, etc.
Active probes are more expensive and bulky than passive probes, but they are useful for small
signal measurements, because their attenuation is less.
Active Probes Using FETs:

Fig. Active probe using FET

The FET is used as the active element to amplify the input signal. Although the voltage
gain of the FET follower circuit shown is unity, the follower circuit provides a power gain so that
the input impedance can be increased. To be effective the FET must be mounted directly in the
voltage probe tip, so that the capacitance of the interconnecting cable can be eliminated. This
requires that the power for the FET be supplied from the oscilloscope to the FET in the probe tip.
The FET voltage follower drives a coaxial cable, but instead of the cable connecting directly to
the high input impedance of the oscilloscope, it is terminated in its characteristic impedance.
There is no signal attenuation between the FET Amplifier and the probe tip. The range of the
signals that can be handled by the FET probe is limited to the dynamic range of the FET
amplifier and is typically less than a few volts. To handle a larger dynamic range, external
attenuators are added at the probe tip. Active probes have limited use because the FET probe
effectively becomes an FET attenuator. Therefore, oscilloscopes are typically used with a 10 to 1
attenuator probe.
Attenuators:
Attenuators are designed to change the magnitude of the input signal seen at the input stage,
while presenting a constant impedance on all ranges at the attenuator input. A compensated RC
attenuator is required to attenuate all frequencies equally. Without this compensation, HF signal
measurements would always have to take the input circuit RC time constant into account.
The input attenuator must provide the correct 1-2-5 sequence while maintaining a constant input
impedance, as well as maintain both the input impedance and attenuation over the frequency
range for which the oscilloscope is designed.
Uncompensated Attenuators:
The circuit diagram shown in Fig. gives a resistive divider attenuator connected to an amplifier
with a 10 pf input capacitance. If the input impedance of the amplifier is high, the input
impedance of the attenuator is relatively constant, immaterial of the switch setting of the
attenuator.

Fig. Uncompensated Attenuator

 The input impedance, as seen by the amplifier, changes greatly depending on the setting
of the attenuator. Because of this, the RC time constant and frequency response of the amplifier
are dependent on the setting of the attenuator, which is an undesirable feature.
Compensated Attenuator:
The diagram in Fig. shows an attenuator with both resistive and capacitive voltage
dividers. The capacitive voltage dividers improve the HF response of the attenuator. This
combination of capacitive and resistive voltage dividers is known as a compensated attenuator.
For oscilloscopes where the frequency range extends to 100 MHz and beyond, more complex
dividers are used.

Fig. Compensated Attenuator

Problem:
An electrically deflected CRT has a final Anode voltage of 2000V and parallel deflecting plates
of 1.5cm long and 5mm apart. If the screen is 50cm from the centre of the deflecting plates, Find
a) Beam speed b) Deflection sensitivity of the tube and c) Deflection factor of the tube.
Given that
Final Anode voltageVa  2000V ,
L  50cm,
d  5mm,
l  1.5cm.
Beam speed V  5.94*105 Va  5.94*105 2000  26.56*106 m / s
lL 1.5*102 *50*102
sensitivity of tube S    3.75*104 m / V
2dVa 2*5*103 * 2000
1 1
deflection factor of tubeG    2666.667V / m
S 3.75*104