TABLE OF CONTENT 4,0. GENERAL 2,0 DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS 2.1 Defenitions 2,2 Abbreviations 3,0 Code and Standards 3,1 Code and Standards 3,2 Project Specifications 33. Project References 40. UNIT 5,0 RIGID PAVEMENT 5,1. HEAVY DUTY RIGID PAVEMENT DESIGN 52 THICKNESS DESIGN ATTACHMENT20 2A 22 30 3A 32 33 49 GENERAL Introduction Purpose ‘This document covers, but not limited to, the requirements for design, manufacture, assembly, testing, inspection, preservation, packing, and supply of goods, services and documentation for the package. DEFINITIONS AND ABBREVIATIONS Defenitions Abbreviations Aci ‘American Concrete Institute ASCE ‘American Society of Civil Engineers CFSPP Ash Fired Steam Power Plant sNI Standar Nasional Indonesia REFERENCES. Code and Standards Pa T-14-2003 Perencanaan Perkerasan Jalan Beton Semen AASHTO ‘American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials Project Specifications 18JE0S-SPC-ZEN-50-0001 Design Criteria Civil and Structure Project References 18JE05-DWG-1000-ZEN-50-0001 General Plant Layout unit Allunits are in Metric System.5,0 RIGID PAVEMENT 5,1. HEAVY DUTY RIGID PAVEMENT ‘Traffic Load Data Vehicles Type ‘Average Dally Traffic (LAR) [Truck Loading 20 tons | 15 vehicles/dayriwo tanes [Truck Loading 33_tons | _ 5 vehicles/dayitwo lanes LHR= 20. vohicles/sayitwo lanes ‘Average Daily Traffic (1+1)" ‘a. During construction period (assume construction period 3 year) i= 1% _n=3 Vehicles Type LHR, = (1+ 0)" forn=2 Truck Loading 20_tons TG vehiclos/dayriwo lanes [Truck Loading 33_tons 6 vehicles/dayltwo lanes LHR= 22. vehicles/dayitwo lanes Note: i = growth of average daily traffic (base on assumption from previous project) n= partial design life cycle (years) LHR, = Average daily traffic at the initial cor b, At the end of design period (28 years) i= 0% ns 25 Vehicles Type LHR = (1+ 0) forn=25 Truck Loading 20_tons 76 vehiclos/daytwo lanes Truck Loading 33_tons 6 vehiclesidayitwo lanes LHR= 22. vehicles/dayitwo lanes Equivalent Axle Loads (E) B= te Vehicles Type | _Axlo_| Axlo Load Distribution (ton) EFront | EMid. | ERear | &) Trak Leasing 20 era] [inal ae oi ‘o2075 | on000 | e047 | a9s7a [reektonsing sOtone] [singloanb| 6 + 15 + 12 ozies | 1aatee | 40770 | 80077] Note: - For Axle Load Distribution of Vehicle (see attachment 8) = For Formula and value of Equivalent Axle loa (see attachment C)Equivalent Traffic This ca culation is refer to SNI and AASHTO Interim Guide Initia! Daily Equivalent (LEP) LEP = LHR) x Cj xe) Data: = LHR) = Average dally trafic atthe initial condition (chapter 2.3a) + LEP = Lintas Ekivalen Permulaan (Initial Equivalent Traffic) = C= Vehicle Distribution Coetficiont (soe attachment D) = Ej = Equivalent Axle Load Vehicle Type aR. _o [6 LEP, Truck Loading 2 tons | 16 | 05 ] 8.9570) 71,656 cargo on Engine 33 tons | 6 | 05 | 16,3877| 49,163 720,819 = For Vehicle Distribution Coefficient (Cj) (see attachment D) Final Equivalent Traffic (LEA) LEA = LHRIM x C)x Data: - Where Cj is Vehicle Distribution Coefficient UR (Design Per = 25 years Vehicle Type ery [OS LEA) [Truck Loading 20 tons | 16 | 05 | 89570] 71,056 cargo on Engine 33 tons | 6 | 0.5 | 16,3877] 49,163 720,819) Average Traffic Equivalent (LET) Ler LEP +LEA 2 120.8187 + 120,187 2 120.8187 Equivalent Traffic Design (LER) LER UR 70 ETxFP FP (Adaption Factor UR (Design Period) 40. years52 Estimated Total Equivalent Single Axle Load (ESAL) ESAL= CG) x UR x 365 x (LHRic+LHRQ)2 x6} Vehicle Type [Gix UR x 365 x LHRss + LHR) 2x E Truck Leading 20 Tor 05 x 40x3 65 x (16+ 6)/ x 80ST Tae TAT ICargo.on Engine 29t0n 05 x 40x365 x (G+6)/2 x 16,388 717.79,34 [Estimated Total Equivalent Single Axo Loas [=| _ 1765.953,4 Modulus Subgrade and Subbase Reaction (k) From Chart (see attachment A) for CBR= 30% Modulus of Subgrade Reaction (k) = 82 KPaimm = 8,20E+08 kgimtim ‘THICKNESS DESIGN Values of parameter for obtain the thickness . Concrete Elastic Modulus (Ec) Ee = 4700 x (fy? He = 250 kglem= 25. Mpa = 4700 x( 28 os = 23,600,00 Mpa 3408385,95 psi b, Modulus of Rupture (MR) MR = K x (ey? For:fe! = 250 kglom-—> |= 8-10 (Refer to: Book of Concrete Engineering page 746) MR = [AON x( 250 x 14,504 os = 602,16 psi ©. Transfer Load (J) AASHTO recommended for Plain jointed and jointed reinforcement with no ied PCC, J (see attachment E) 4. Reliability! Surface Condition ( R) For road that classified as a principal arterials in rural area used R = 90% (see attachment F) ‘8. Surface Drainage (Ca) AASHTO recommended for road with excellent drainage and saturation greater than 25% is= 1 (c00 attachment G) {. Present Serviceability Index (DPS!) Initial Serviceabilty Index (IPO)-Surface Condition is very good at UR = 0 ro = 45Final Serviceabiliy Index (IP)}-Fait-Surface of Road is stable and good enough at UR = 25 P= 25 45 - 28 = 20 (600 attachment H) ‘Standard Deviation developed at the AASHTO road test, use So = 0,40 Use athe above vai to find the thickness of pavement from (se attachment) From the dagram Obtained with 7§ inch o 190.5 mm concrete pavement. For practical use: [200]mm thickness of concrete pavement 6,0 REINFORCEMENT 6.1 JOINT CONNECTION DESIGN 6.4.1 Joint opening width ‘A pavement required joint shapes for effective expands and contracts due to temperature and moisture changes. Sealants palced in the joints must be capable of it Joint with dowel shall be designed to have minimum joint spacing 20 ft (6 meter) or less, and width of sealant reservoir shape is 0.25 inch or 6.35 mm. (Table Joint width and depth for poured sealents - Table 22-6 - Handbook of concrete Engineering page 754) (see attachment J) Joint spacing 30 ff = 9144 m tom (a) width (w) 0375 in = 9525 mm 10 mm Depth (0) = 05 in = 127 mm = 13mm Use Formula : z = Lx(e.Dt+d) where Z = jpint opening (amount a joint will open) (in) (loints without dowels are generally satisfactory ifthe joint opening is 0.04 inch or less, For doweled joints the opening should be 0.25 inch or less).Slablengh = 30 m_ (maximum interval) 1181.1 in Coefficient of thermal volume change (0.000008 in/in/F) 0.000005 infin = coefficient of shrinkage (0.00005 invin) 0.00005 invin Dt = temperature drop TF So, 2 = 1181.1 x( 0.000005 x 27 + 0.00005 ) = 0.218504 in = 555 mm To satisfy joint opening between wo panels, the width of joint is about 2.2 = 2 x 485 = 1.40 mm (2) use joint openingz = 12 mm Status z= (1) > (2 = 12mm 6.1.2 Dowel bar design Layout a, Longitudinal joint design ‘The amount of reinforcing steel required to control volume changes is dependent primarily on the thickness of the concrete, tensile strength of the concrete and yield strength ofthe reinforcement Asreq = bhp 100 (Refer to: Handbook of concrete engineering page 665 - see attachment J) Where [As = total erans-sactional area of langitidinal sta! (inch) = slabthiokness (inch) = 7.87 inch = 200mm p= steelarea ratio (percent) = 0.0018So, As req = 314.96 Inchx 7.87 inchx 0.0018 100 0.0446 inch? 28.800 mm Provided D 16 @ 1000 Dia. of dowel db = 16mm Rebar spacing s = 1000 Rebar nos _ 1000 | 2 000 ‘Area of dowel As = 026xmxdbixn = 025 x 27 x( 16%) x 4 = 201.143 mm? Status : As = 201.143 mm’ > As req > OK! For Longitudinal Joints, used Dowel D-16 @1000 b. Constraction Joint 'No need to put dowel for Constraction Joint. Joint width spacing z = 10 mmis satisfied enough. 6.2 CONCRETE REINFORCEMENT ‘The concrete road pavement is design as a slab foundation with foundation fixed but (Mx, My, Mz = Release) to support the concrete slab. To find the internal forces of the slab, STAAD Pro Program is used. ‘The slabs are & m width. The length for each expansion joint is 30 m. The area of soil spring constant is 11mx 1 m In this report, part of 8 mx30 mconcrete road is used for design model 6.2.41 Schedule a. SupportModulus of Subgrade Reaction (k) 90 KPalmm (see: chapler 3.1.5) = 9000000 kgimtim Tributary Area: CT) = support 1 4.00 mx k = 9.006406 kgimf/m TA = support2 0.50 m® x k = 4.506406 kg/mm O =~ supports 0.25 mx k = 2256106 ko/ntim Support 4 Compression only springs (Al support b. Vehicle Load Distribution ‘The concrete road pavement is designed with 2 positions of heavy truck as fokow: Condition 4; Two heavy trucks in a centerline of road pavement Condition 2 : Two heavy trucks side by side in two opponent lane of road pavement 622 Loading Analysis + Pressure due to Vehicle Load (Refer to: Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 7th ed, 1996, page 24) Hs20-44 Point Load from ale lead: Front: Pot = 5 tonne Rear: Po2 = 22.8 tome Impact Load from vehicles : Front: Pil = O2xPol = 02x 8 = 1 tom (20%) Rear: Pi2 = 02xPo2 = 02 x 25 = 45 ton Point Load Front: Pit = Pot + Pil = 50 + 10 = 60 ton Rea: P2 = Po2+ Pi2 = 23+ 45 = 27 tonSingle axte load From: p, . Pi = _ 60 ye = 3 tome 2 2 Rear pas 27 pg = 2 “1 _ = 135 tonne 2 2 6.2.3 Program input a. Geometry b. Truck Load Condition 1 Condition 2:624 Program Output ‘a. Internal forces x direction A ome b. Internal forces y direction 6.2.5 Slab Reinforcement Staad Input a. Dead Load (OL) = Selfweight (calculated by Staad Pro) . Life Load (LL) 2500 kg Wirontt = , = 100000 kgin? (020.125) af 11250 k . Wreart = 2 112500 kgim? (02x05) af‘c. Impact Load (1) Yodrection Wiront = 02 x Wont = 02 x 100000 = 20000 kgin’ Wrear = 02 x Wreart = 02 x 112500 = Xdirection Whront = 0.1 x Wont = 0.1 x 100000 10000 gin Wrear = 0.1 x Wreart = 01 x 112500 11250 kgin? Zaltoaton front - 02 x Whronti - 02 x 100000 20000 igi? Wear = 02 x Wreart = 02 x 112500 = 22500 kgin 4. Temperature (T) = calculated by Staad Pro Load Combination willbe used Loading Condition | No Load Combination zor |it.4)0 conaon | 202 |itaioecrnun 208 |(1.4)0+(4.7)L4 + (1.7)T0 208 _|(1.4)0 + (.7)L4 + (1.3)T0 ant |i1.4)0 212 : ‘Gondicn 2 (1.40 + (1.712 213. |i1.a)0 + (1.712 + (1.7170 214 |i.4o + 1.712 + (1.770 Staad Output mee [ue] SERN Sa TT TOG] SY toca Tnx] TT 2979) 1781 ‘4601 Moment summary from staad pro. Output Memax = 365 kam = May max = 196 kam Mein = 629 kgm Meyrin = 3kgm My max 703 kgm = Mxymax = tkgm My min = “842 kgm May min = 3 kgm‘Added torsion moment (mx my = my) Memax = 561 kgm My max = Me min 632 kg. My min = From Staad output, ulimate moment resuit Mulx= 632 kg.mim Muly= 845 kgm ‘Moment uimate for slab reinforcement 708 kgm 845 kgm. Mut = Max (Mulx; Maly) = 85 kgm Shab Properties Rebar Properties Seb Thickness hs = 180mm Yield Strength of Wiremesh yw = 4900 kofem2 Unit wieth b = 100mm —Goncrete compressive srengh fo! = 250 kglom2 Cover concrete Ce = 50mm Witemesh Diameter m mm Effective depth d= 130mm —_Rebar Spacing 8 mm umber oflayer nl = 2 layers my Sinmas MS 55055.550 yin 550 hyena 0.9xbxd"2 0.9x1x0.13"°2 2 Poi — fe % \" 085% eq = 00011 0.85-f, -0.85/ 612 Pan =0.75222 fe 088) 6120 co f 620+, ) em = prin = 0,002 shrinkage = prin 0.0020 vreq = "Change Wal Thickness" if req> max preq = 0.0020 req if req > rmin Asreq = prea xbxhs ‘min if min > req 0.002 x 1000x 180, 360,00 mma.‘Try Rebar diameter Wiremesh diameter M = Wiremesh spacing = Wiremesh number 6mm 150 mm b 1000 5 150 "6.3 BEARING CAPACITY ANALYSIS Asprov = ixnx025xmxd" = 667 x2x025 xr x62 Output Staad Horizontal | Verteal_| Worizontl Moment fx Fy f ca Mr ie ee | 1g sg mronm | ron | wronm Tiactx| 116 | Toxo | —aoe2so asses} reve] 0000) a0 0.000 infx| 265 [1s 0s120] 474736 «29179 -1sos08| 0.000, 0000, 0.000 itaxty| zz [vost] 45693 @oeae2 | -e19i2/ 0000/0000 0.000 iin Fy | 280 [10a Dattani] 8017 aan 0.0001 0000/0000 o.000 ine Fa] 259 [10a batter | 0063) Wiz ses /iasssn4 "0.000000 0.000 in Fz | 250 [1150-120] ~“iouoo |” 250.0 |”-420a.963 | "0000/00 | 0.000 Taxis 1 [or ‘0000 /"—"ossri |" 0000/ ~~ eawo | ~"o.000/ 0.00 tin tie] 1 [1010 ‘000/~—~sssri|~~0.000/ ~~ eaoo/~“o.000 0.00 Tiaxii 1104 000) —ossri 0000/0000 ~“a000/ 0.00 tise] [010 0.000) 9ss7i)" 0000 | ~o000 | oa00 | ano a doce | ~9ss7i/~-o000 | ~~o.000/ ~“o.00/ ~a.s00 Fymax = 5053042 kg oo qect = Fymax/A 205.082 gin? cal kon? staus: [rox if qa>qact Nook" otherwise [Status= “OKATTACHMENT ACER B. Distribution of Axle Load C. Equivalent Axle Load Number D. Vehicle Distribution Number E. Load Transfer Coefficient F. Level of Reliability G. Surface Drainage H. Serviceabilty Index (IP) |. Nomograph Diagram 4 Excerpt from Handbook of Engineering, 2nd Ecltion, 1985, Mark Fintel‘OBR Tanah Dasar Eki Aigunakan pada Penentuan Tebal Pondasi Beton ATTACHMENT A T oa S20 3035 Reference Perencanaan Perkerasan Jalan Beton Semen (Pe 7-14-2003) om @ mm mm HO we im ae ‘Modi Rest Tanah Der, k RP) GGambar 22, Hubungan antara CBR éan Modulus Reaks| Tanah Datat Reference : Perencanaan Perkerasan Jalan Baton Semen - DepkimpraswiATTACHMENT B Gbr.2.7. Jenis tipe kendaraan untuk rancanganATTACHMENT Eqn Sree (meen Sahil eer (testy usar oLoad Narber(E) ‘ato Eater rer ATTACHMENT D Lane Number Base on Wit of RoadATTACHMENT E ‘Wle24 Resell ad Te Cai Yi Prema ysis Ter oc ATTACHMENT F ‘Table 2.2. Suggested Levels of Reliability for Various Functional Classifications Recommended Functional Classification Interstate and Other Freeways Principal Arterials Collectors Local _ Norn: Results based on a survey of the AASHTO Pavement 75-95 50-80 ATTACHMENT G ‘able 28, Recommended Vales of Drainage Coefiiet, Cy for Rig Pavement Design ‘erent of Time Pavement Strciure is Eypsed to Moisture Levels Appro Quality of Tess Than Drainage 1% 155 £288 ea 125100 MS LasLI0 ens iste 0.09 7] Fur LISLI0 1.0.00 100-490, % or L100 Los) 090-0 aso Verypoor 100-090 090-00 o.80.0.70 070ATTACHMENT H ‘Sepa linge gt esis ‘tetany detarne fr tral ce pe ston be ected tar hep sales ty Index iP Description 40 Bas Servicoabilty 4.5 Low Servieabily but Road Stl Possible to passe 20 Low Servceabilty but Road Stil Stable 25 Surface of Roads Stable and Good Enough IP = Index Permukaan (Surface Index) Table V Final Servicoability Indox (P) Read Classification (Gqulvalent Tate Local] collector Highway 0-100 15 15-20] 2 00 = 1000 ks-2d 2 _bo-ad 1000 2025 | 25] 28JAS WANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING normal concrete, usually with low cement contents, The aggregates may range from normal concrete aggregates to substandard local materials or crushed, recycled concrete, 224 THICKNESS DESIGN FOR HIGHWAY AND STREET PAVEMENTS ‘The thickness design procedure of the Portlnd Cement Association?" ig presented as appropriate for a wide range of conditions with proper assessment of the design variables. 224.1 Basis for Design ‘The thickness design method is based on knowledge from ‘the following sources: 1. Theoretical studies of pavement slab behavior by HM, Westergaard719"292"'G, Pickett and G. K. Ray 2222226 and others. 2. Model and fullscale tests such as the Arlington Test conducted by the Bureau of Public Roads!?7* and tests made at the PCA laboratories 221-20#,7296 3. Experimental pavements subjected to controlled test traffic, such st the Bates Test Road,??*” the Pitts- burg, Calif. Test Highway,2?#5 the Maryland Road ‘Test2? and the AASHO Road Test.27*62231 4, The performance of normally sonstracted pavements subject to normal mixed trafic. All these sources of knowledge are useful. However, the knowledge gained from performance of normally con structed pavements is the most important. 2242. Subgrade-Subbate Strength The degree of subgrade or subgrade-subbase support is in terms of k, Westergaard’s modulus of subgrade reaction. ‘The K-value is determined by in situ plate bearing tests with @ 30-inediameter plate. Procedures are described in ASTM Method D1196 and the Department of the Army (U.S.), Technical Manuel TM-5-824-3 and are discussed in Ref. 2232, If time and equipment are not available for plate-load testing, k can be estimated by correlation to soil classifica- tion oF laboratory strength test as shown in Fig. 22-1. ‘Tables 22-2 and 223 show the effect of subbase thickness ‘on the design f-value. 2243 Load Stresses Bending of a concrete pavement under wheel loads pro duces both compressive and tensile (or flexural) stresses. ‘Although compressive stresses are not critica, the ratio of flexural stresses to flexural strength is high, often exceeding values of 0.5. Asa result, slab thickness design is controlled by Keeping flexural stresses due to traffic loads within safe limits. Tor strect and highway pavements with tho usual 12 ft pavement lanes, the critical stress location is considered to ‘ye the transverse joint edge rather than at the outside pave~ ment corner or edge, This conclusion is based on studies of truck placements?#9> across pavement lanes and an analy fis of the effect of load position.?#342295 Accordingly, the charts shown in Figs. 22-2 and 22-3 were developed from influence charts*%* to be used for determining stresses at this load position. While load stresses are critical at the transverse joint edge, shrinkage and temperature stresses are low at this location and usually are aot additive to load stresses. For this rea- son, load stresses only are considered. Conservatively, no beneficial allowance is made for load transfer across the joint. 2244 Flexural Strength of Concrete Flexural strongth is determined by modulus of rupture (MR) tests, usually made on 6X 6X 30-in, beams. The modulus of rupture is determined by third-point loading tests (ASTM C78). The 28-day M-R values are currently used for thickness design of streets and highways. However, thi practioe ie conservative, since concrete continues to ain Strength for many years (sce Fig 22-14), ‘The following approximate relationship between flexural and compressive strength is sometimes useful in preliminary design stages; however, the final design should be based on ‘modulus of rupture test data: MR=KVIE where: MR = flexural strength (modulus of rupture), psi K =a constant between 8 and 10 £4 compressive strength, psi 2245 Fatigue Like other construction materials, concrete is subject to the effects of fatigue. Since the critical stresses in concrete are flexural, fatigue due to flexural stress is used for thickness design, Stross ratio is defined as the ratio of flexural stress to modulus of rupture. For example, if an axle load causes 4 flexural stress of 500 psi and the modulus of rupture 7700 psi, then: 300 stress ratio = 289 = 0.71 700 Flexural fatigue research on concrete has shown that, as stress ratios decrease, the number of repetitions to fail lure increases, Allowable load repetitions for stress ratios between 0.50 and 0.85 are shown in Table 22-4. The values ate “conservatively based on fatimue research on Concrete st962897 ‘The design example in this section shows how Table 22-4 fatigue data are used for thickness design. ‘This usage is based on the Miner hypothesis#© that fatigue resistance not consumed by repetitions of one load is available for repetitions of other loads. ‘Theoretically, the total fatigue used should not exceed 100%. For designs based on ths 28 day modulue of rupture, fatigue consumption can be increased to about 125%. This increase takes account of the strength gain after 28 days. 2246 Load Safety Factors Research??*2229 shows that moving loads cause less stress than static loads, Therefore, the formerly used concept of ‘assigning an impact factor tO increase the effect of loads is ‘morte accurately classified as a load safety factor. In the de- sign procedure axle loads are multiplied by load safety fac- tors of 1.0, Ll, or 1.2, depending on pavement class as, follows: 1,0 for highways, residential streets, and other streets that will carry small volumes of truck traffic for highways and aslerial slots where there will be moderate volumes of truck traffic 1a784 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING inna below srtacg ‘enen sealant nd Initial sw cut or ieee sip back up material Sawed joint face ‘See text for dimensions of salant reservoir Fig. 2210, Joint sealant reservoir and shape factor. depth-to-width ratio, or shape factor value, the lower the strain on the scalant under a given joint movement. The required shape factor will depend on the properties of the sealant and the amount of joint movement; the latter in turn ig related to the panel length or joint spacing and to the maximum expected seasonal temperature change in the slab.* Table 22-6 lists recommended depths and widths of the sealant reservoir for poured sealants frequently used such as those meeting current federal and ASTM specifica- tions. A silt, sell-adhering plastic strip is applied to the bottom of the reservoir to break the bond between the sealant and the bottom concrete surface. Frequently, a butyl or polypropylene rope is placed in the bottom of the sealant space to break bond and prevent Joss of sealant into the crack below the joint filler. In this ‘TABLE 226 Joint Width and Dopth for Poured Sesiante ‘Sealant Reservoir Shape Joint Spacing, | witth, | Depth of Sealant, f in in asorieas | 4 % 20 a % 30 % % 40 5 1 TABLE 227 Joint ond Seal Width {for Praformed 5 Joint Spacing, ft case, it is ncessary to saw the reservoir deeper an extra amount equal to the rope diameter sa that the shape fac- tors of the sealant listed in Table 22-6 are maintained. For preformed, compression-type seals, recommended joint width and width of seals are listed in Table 22-7. The depth of saw cutissuch that the compression seal is installed about 0.25 in. below the pavement surface. With special equipment, the scals are installed, without stretching, to compressed width of about half of their uncompressed wid, ‘Tables 22-6 and 22-7 are presented for general guidance. Sealant manufacturers publish aids for selecting reservoir dimension to suit their products. For residential city streets land parking lots, with joint spacings of 15 ft or less, move- ‘ment at the joints is small, resulting in small sealant strains, so that the joint widths shown above may be lessened with- ‘out serious consequence. 226 THICKNESS DESIGN FOR AIRPORT PAVEMENTS In determining the thickness of concrete pavements for airports several major factors are considered: the types and weights of aircraft, and their effect un fleaurel stiesses it ‘the slab; the flexural strength of the concrete; the sup- porting strength of the subgrade (and subbase if one is used); the type of facility being designed (taxiway, runway, apron, hangar floor, etc.); and the frequency of aircraft op- erations expected on the pavement. ‘Complete descriptions of the current design procedures of| several agencies are given in Refs. 22-58 through 22-60 and 22-67; the methods and results are quite similar as pointed out in Ref. 22-61. The procedure of the Portland Cement Association is described in this section, 22.6.1 Load Strossos Flexural stresses caused by aircraft loads are computed on ‘he assumption that the load is placed near the middle of a large expanse of pavement. This can be assumed when adequate load transfer is provided at all joints. Aircraft wheel loads do not travel near the free outside edges of pavements; if free edge butt joints are used in the interior of a pavement expanse, the edge thickness is increased to compensate for the lack of load transfer. ‘The flexural stress caused by a giveg aircraft load is de- termined by the uco of influence oharte!™ or by computor program. Aircraft manufacturers publish the required data on Toads, wheel spacings, and tire contact areas that are needed in the analysis. Design charts aro then prepared for the specific aircraft that will use the pavement facility. ‘Charts for several aircraft are shown in Figs. 22-11 through. 2:13, Design charts for most civil and military aircraft aro pub- lished by the Portland Cement Association.786 HANDBOOK OF CONCRETE ENGINEERING TABLE 229 Recommended Siza and Spacing of Dowsl Bars stab Dowel | Total Dowet | Dowel Spacing, i Depth, in, | Diameter, in, | Length, in, etoe 56 % 16 12 78 1 18 2 oan * 18 2 12-46 1% Py 15 1720 % 2 18 21-25 2 2 8 ‘Allowance made for joint openings and minor errors in posttoning of dowels ‘cases of dowel fatlures where the pavement slab itself Is adequate for the loads carried. For an economical system of load transfer, the dowel size should be in correct proportion to the load for which the pavement is designed. Since the pavement thickness is also in proportion to the load, dowel design may be related to pavement thickness. “Table 22-9 lists suasested dowel sizes and spacings. It is based on studies of highway pavements and airport pave- ment experience. Dowels are installed at the middepth of the slab, 228.3 Design of Tiebars Tiebare or tiebolts are deformed steel bars. They are used across the joints of concrete pavement where itis necessary To noid tne races of the slab In fm cortact, Tiebars Uy themselves are not designed to act as load-transfer devices. ‘The load transfer across a joint in which they are used is, provided by aggregate interlock or a keyway. Tiebars are designed to overcome the resistance of the subgrade (or subbsse) to horizontal slab movement when the pavement is contracting. The required cross-sectional area of tiebar per foot length of joint is given by the fol lowing formula: BGpwh si 4 rae @22) | where: ‘A= cross-sectional area of steel required per foot length of joint, sa. in. ‘b= distance between joint in question and the nearest untied joint or fre edge, ft y= covificient of resistance between pavement and sub- rede, oF subbase (usually taken at 15) w =/weight of concrete Ib/eu ft (150 Ibjeu ft for normal weight concrete) n= slab thickness, in, f_= allowable working stress in the steel, psi (usualy | taken as 9% of yield strength) side of the joint will develop the allowable working strength of the tiebar. Inaddition, an allowance of about 3 in. should bbe made for inaccurate centering of the tiebar. Expressed as a formula, this becomes: ah Xd 17350" +3 23) _genraly taten a8 0.10 of the compreive strength of the concrete, tip to1 maximum of 360 pat tis permisible to use this maximus ‘value in the design of tebars because paving concrete should have ‘omprossivestrengi In excess of 3,500 ps . i neneinen si T oT / a LN MA ie LY 17] \ 38 W/L i J Fm sere | i ; ae i YS i eT Ne A >t i oe y ~ oe i 2 af i e + : Ey “ * | Q PGE 1. 9] = = = “= 2 8 y 20 UW iat wh. i Diameter, length and spacing of tebers Fig 2222 Revonnnended tebe dimensions and spacings:where: Ly lenath of ticbar, in. f, allowable working stress in steel, psi (same as that bused neg. 222), y= diameter of tieba, in Recommended tiebar dimensions and spacings are given in Fig. 22-22. Since a major use for ticbars is across fongi- tudinal joints, its worthwhile to standardize the length and spacing of ticbars in order to simplify construction pro- ‘cedures and reduce overall pavement costs. ‘The tiebar dimensions given in Fig. 22-22 satisfy eas. (22-2) and (223) when the following factors are used: f= 1.5; w= 150 Ib/ew ft; f= 25,000 psi 22.9 CONTINUOUSLY REINFORCED PAVEMENTS: A continuously reinforced concrete pavement contains a relatively large amount of continuous steel, usually 0.6 to 7%, in the longitudinal direction, It ie built without tran verse joints throughout its length except at the locations where it intersects or abuts existing pavements or struc- tures, Thus, there are no transverse joints to seal and main- tain, In this type of pavement, transverse cracks develop at close intervals (averaging between 3 and 7 ft) and are held tightly together by the continuous, longitudinal steel. The fundamental principles of design for this type of ‘pavement are: (1) to provide adequate paveraent UdoRstess for traffic loads; and (2) to provide enough longitudinal reinforcing steel that the transverse cracks are kept tightly closed. Sources of information on the design of continu- ‘ously reinforced pavements are given in Refs, 22-73 through 22-76 and Ref. 22-40, 22.9.1 Pavement Thickness ‘Thickness design procedures for continuously reinforced pavomonts are the same as those for jointed pavements de- scribed in Sections 22.4 and 22.6. 1. Amount. ‘The amount of reinforcing steel required to contiol volume changes is dependent primarily on the thick- ness of the concrete, tensile strength of the concrete, and yield strength of the reinforcement. Other factors’ that influence the amount of steel are contraction due to tem perature drop, shrinkage due to drying, and modulus of clasticity of conerete and steel. ‘The controlling factor is the crack width. If insufficient stool is weed, the crack widthe will be too wide, permitting intrusion of solids and water. Crack-width criteria have not been finmly established, but good performance has resulted ‘when crack spacings average between 3 and 7 ft. Since crack spacing is directly related to creck width and is more readily observed than crack width, the design has indirectly become a matter of determining the amount of steel re aquired to obtain desirable crack specings, Formulas relating. ‘the amount of longitudinal steel and theoretical crack spac- ing have been proposed by several authors 22°7522-77 In general, however, the amount of steel is based on data obtained from experimental pavements and pavements in service. It is the usual practice to specify steel having a ‘minimum yield strength of 60,000 psi, and to require 0.6% A working stress of 25.000 pals used for siels with yield strengths OP 33000 an $3,000 pa, wise have Veen moranally specified it tievar are to be bent and lata steightoned CONCRETE PAVEMENT DESIGN 767 Of the gross cross-sectional area of the pavement. In severe climates, where freezing and thawing occur or where un- usually heavy traffic prevails, it may be desirable to give consideration to the use of a somewhat higher percentage. ‘The following formula may be used to check the mink mum amount of steel, 0.6% under normal conditions, or to compute a minimum amount based on special concretes or steels that might be selected: teel area ratin, percent (total crose-sactional aren of steel divided by gross cross-sectional area of concrete ‘times 100) ‘Fi tensile strength of concrete, psi (assumed to equal 0.4 times the modulus of rupture) Jaq allowable working stress of steel, psi (0.75 times the yield strength) n= B, |B (ratio of elastic moduli, stee-to-concrete) Having established the required percentage of longitudinal steel, the steel area may be computed by the formula. (22-4) ‘where: Bie, ans 100 ces where: _Ag= total cross-sectional area of longitudinal steel, 6q in ‘= width of slab, in slab thickness, in. steel area ratio, percent 2, Size and Spacing. Size and spacing of longitudinal steel members are interrelated and dependent on a number of factors. The minimum size should be such that the spac- ing between the bars will be large enough to permit easy placement of concrete. The minimum size should be that which will provide a clear space between bars of at least twice the size of the aggregate being used, but in no case less than 4 in. ‘The mnaximum size is governed by the percentage of steel, the maximum spacing permitted, bond strength, and load transfer considerations. For good Joad transfer ‘and bond strength, it is believed that the spacing should not exceed din. Size and spacing are related by: es gle tena (22-6) where: Sy spacing, center to center, in ‘Ap = cross-sectional area of one steel bar or wire, 6 in A= slab thickness, in, ‘p= steel area ratio, percent At the locations where longitudinal steel is spliced, itis important that the lenoth of splice be adequate to resist the tensile forces caused by shrinkage of the concrete at eatly ages. Recommendations for the length of lap splices are given in Refs. 22-73 through 22-75. 3. Position of Longitudinal Steel. Since the primary function of reinforcement in continuously reinforced pave- ments is to hold transverse cracks tightly closed, its design position vertically in the slab is not extremely critical Prac- Hee has varied somewhat ia thie respect; pavements have ‘been built with the center of the longitudinal steel ranging