Structural Materials

Unit 3

APP COEP
Structural Materials

Structural materials possess a set of mechanical

properties each assuring the performance and the
specified life of the pieces bearing mechanical loading.
They should comply with interrelated technological
and economic requirements.
Their aim is to assure minimal energy
consumption during the manufacturing process and
the necessary quality of individual pieces.
The economic requirements relate to the cost and
availability of materials because it is essential for mass
production of items.
APP COEP
Self-healing materials

This class of SM has been developing intensively in recent decades

because they are capable of healing their structural damages
caused by mechanical loading.
Automatically repair damages to themselves without any
external diagnosis of the problem or human intervention
Materials will degrade over time due to fatigue, environmental
conditions, or damage incurred during operation, aging, wear,
defects etc.
Situations for usefulness:
There where repairing is difficult and costly;
In constructions which should last a long time; eg. Bridges, buildings
In places where repairs are a nuisance to people, such as roadwork;
In High-tech equipment products which may not sustain any
damage, such as glasses, smartphones etc.
APP COEP
A1B1 : Self-healing under stresses exceed the
critical value
A1B1 are the SM, the self-healing of which is initiated by feedback system
(FBS) when the stresses exceed the critical value.
First SM of this class were developed on the basis of high-strength
reinforced plastics the use of which has reached 15 % of the total in the
aerospace industry (Marsh 2002).
Their matrix is filled with microcapsules of two types: some of them
contain monomers, others contain polymerization catalysts (Fig 1).
When the stress in the material exceeds the matrix strength limit, &
micro cracks appear (the primary restructuring).
The cracks grow and microcapsules break.
The monomer and the catalyst penetrate into the crack driven by
capillary pressure, mix up and produce the healing reagent.
It adheres well to the polymeric matrix, cures by polymerization and joins the
crack walls stopping its growth (Could 2003).
The material gets stronger the more the number of healed cracks (the
secondary restructuring). APP COEP
 a – micro crack origination

polymeric matrix
crack
catalyst

b – crack destroying microcapsules

vacuum
monomer

healing agent
c – binding micro crack walls with healing agent

cured healing agent

APP COEP
Fig.1 Self-hardening polymeric composite
The feedback function is fulfilled by the process of
destruction of microcapsules and appearance of the
healing reagent.
The article in this way restores up to 90 % of its original
strength (Jacob 2002).
Techniques of computer analysis of SM have been developed;
they are provided with strength control function and
capability to self-heal damages (Balazs 2007).
This idea was completed in the 20th century by experimental
validation and industrial testing.

APP COEP
A1B5 :Internal friction parameters changes to ensure
the hardening of materials
A1B5 – the SM which internal friction parameters are expediently
changing when loading to ensure the hardening of materials.
The internal friction in solids is the property to convert heat into
mechanical energy irreversibly transferred during deformation.
The deformation dictates the primary restructuring and upsets the
thermodynamic equilibrium in the solid body.
The relaxation process occurs naturally tending to restore the
solid state to equilibrium (the feedback of deformation nature).
The dislocation theory of internal friction assumes that its source is
the dislocation deceleration (Nowick and Berry 1972).
The occurrence in the material phase inhibiting the shift of
dislocations (the secondary restructuring) augments the internal
friction.

APP COEP
A1B7 SM taxon in which deformation with surface
layer restructuring
A1B7 SM taxon in which deformation with surface layer restructuring
I Cold-hardening : It contain the feedback responding to plastic deformation by expanding the
limits of proportionally and yielding, augmenting the surface layer hardness bearing the loading
The feedback initiates the multiplication of dislocations making their shift in difficult.
The deformation resistance
where G is shear modulus, ή – density of dislocations growing together with deformation
(Belyaev 1988).
Cold-hardening is implemented in smart processes of metals treating under pressure, such as
drawing, dragging, rolling, etc.
Hardening plastics : it serve to produce articles subjected to fatigue sign-variable
stresses, such as ship masts, jumping poles, resilient boards, damping machinery
pieces, etc.
The feedback optimizes relaxation processes in the smart plastic managing the shifting of
dislocations.
Smart distribution of their concentration ensures the assigned parameters of elasticity
within the scheduled range of deformation and peak deformations (Moskvitin 1981).

APP COEP
Heat-resistant materials

Heat resistance is the stability or insignificant impairment of

deformation and strength indices of materials under effect of high
temperatures (T > 0.3 T melt).
The mechanical loading at high temperatures produces relaxation
and creep.
The temperature growth reduces the stage of creep acceleration
finishing in destruction.
The long-term strength is characterized by the time the specimen is
loaded until it destroys at the fixed stress strain state and at
given temperature.
The mechanism of materials high-temperature deformation at long-term
loading is due to the motion of dislocations.
The sliding of dislocations in the creep plane is decelerated by the
dislocation intersecting this plane.
The movement of those and other dislocations is activated thermally
The steady rate of high-temperature creep is (Rozenberg 1994)

APP COEP
where ∆H is the creep activation energy,
T > 0.5 Tmelt – temperature,
k – Boltzmann constant,
σ - stress,
T and n – constants independent on σ,
n = 4 - 5 for metals.
diffusive creep begins at the temperature close to the melting
one and the stresses σ / T < 10–6.
It is described by the equation above with n = 1.
The creep evolves without participation of dislocations due
to the diffusive transfer of atoms in the field of stresses
gradient, and determines the change in specimen shape.
APP COEP
A3B2 SM under high temperature long-term loading, cause actuation
of the feedback optimizing the material structure based on the
criterion of resistance to creep
A3B2 are the SM which under high temperature long-term loading, cause
actuation of the feedback optimizing the material structure based on the
criterion of resistance to creep
Heat-resistant steels and alloys contain dispersed carbide and intermetallic phases
which appear with participation of alloying elements.
These phases inhibit the creep dislocation mechanism augmenting the energy of
bonds between particles of solid solutions.
The hardening effect in steels and alloys on the nickel base results from formation of
secondary carbides (Me2C6, Me6C, Me7C3) and intermetallic phases (Ni3Ti, Ni3Al,
Ni3Nb).
They apply the brake to the movement of dislocations. It can be believed as a result
of action of the feedback triggered at critical temperature and deformation
values
The pieces under load operating at T = 450 - 470 °C are made from high-chrome steels.
The alloying elements (V, W, Mo, Nb, Ti) are introduced yielding the Laves phase (the
feedback) promoting steel to heat-resistance.

APP COEP
Super alloys
Super alloys (nickel, cobalt, iron and nickel) contain up to 10 -12
alloying elements and withstand temperatures 1000 -1100 °C and
higher.
The alloying elements produce with nickel in which the main hardening
is austenite phase.
The smart response of superalloys to the effect of high temperatures is
that the austinite phase strength augments as the temperature
rises.
Application of the super alloys has enabled to prolong the life of
combat aircraft jet engines to ten thousand hours.
Owing to these SM, reliable operation of turbo pumps in the liquid
fuel missiles and in the aircraft launching power unit are ensured
at the present time (Struk et al 2010).
The prospects of development of heat-resistant metallic SM are related
with the provision of the feedback which, when creep appears,
would initiate the displacement of dislocations normal to the
material sliding planes.
APP COEP
A3B10 SM which, when heated, would actuate the FBS
optimizing the material structure on the basis of strength
criterion.
A3B10 are the SM which, when heated, would actuate the FBS optimizing
the material structure on the basis of strength criterion.
Materials with elevated melting temperature are needed in nuclear power
engineering, aircraft and space engineering.
The temperature above iron T melt have Ti, Zr, Hf,V, Nb, Ta, Cr, Mo, Re, Os, Rh,
and metals of the platinum group.
The article from them are operable at T > 1000 -1500 °C, they are
characterized by low heat-resistance.
It is due to the fact that at T ~ 400 - 600 °C they undergo intensive
oxidation.
Chrome with the heat resistance up to 1000 °C corresponds to the criterion
of SM due to the formation of high melting consistent oxide film Cr2O3
on the article surface.
The development of these materials presumes creation of feedback system
promoting the surface energy and directing it at article passivation.
APP COEP
A3B8 SM which heat-resistance by FBS optimizing
material internal friction
A3B8 are the SM which heat-resistance is controlled by the FBS optimizing
the material internal friction
The heat-resistant industrial ceramics are based on oxides and oxygen free metallic
compounds (carbides, nitrides, borides and cilicides).
They contain crystalline and glassy phases as well as gas inclusions.
The melting temperature of the crystalline phase of oxide ceramics is within 2000-
3300 °C, the working temperature is 0.8 -0.9 of the melting temperature.
The main drawback of the ceramics is brittleness. When using original powders
very finely milled and optimum baking conditions, it is possible to produce ceramics
with the crystals of the size of about 0.3 µm characterized by the plasticity (Yanagida
1986).
The prospects of improvement of ceramics performance relate to the application
of nanotechnologies, in other words, to produce the structure consisting of
nanodimensional (10–9 m) particles.
The production of nanoceramics is a ‘smart’ production process in which the
functions of feedback system are fulfilled by the dispersion of nanoparticles in
the process liquid and their maximum compaction when producing and baking
workpieces. APP COEP
Cold-resistant materials
The equipment performance at negative temperature is determined largely by
the cold brittleness of materials, or by brittleness growth as the temperature
reduces.
At first this problem attracted notice at the end of 19th century due to intensive
railway construction and a large number of failures in the wintertime due to the
destruction of rails, bridges, tanks storing petroleum product, etc.
It still remains the problem today for gas and oil production, aviation and
equipment operating in the polar region where the air temperature can drop to
– 60 °C.
The bodies of space missions cool down the liquid oxygen temperature (–183
°C), the units of equipment separating liquefied gases – to the liquid helium
temperature (–269 °C).
In these conditions the materials lose plasticity and viscosity, their yield strength
intensifies and they tend to brittle failure.
The interatomic distances in the crystalline lattice reduce; the interactions
which are masked at usual temperature intensify by the thermal motion of atoms
(Solntsev et al 1999).

APP COEP
The cause of steel cold brittleness from the viewpoint of materials
science is the diffusive mobility of sulfur and phosphorus
impurities which compounds adsorbed over grain boundaries act
as concentrators of stresses.
At low temperatures, the local stresses over the concentrators
augment drastically weakening the steel cohesive strength
(Solntsev et al 1999).
To avoid it, it is desirable in operation to initiate in the steel structure
the following processes (Struk et al 2010):
– grain refinement or, at least, reducing the steel tendenc to growth
of grains;
– formation of carbide and carbonitride particles over the grain
boundaries to prevent growth of grains;
– nitrogen release from solid solutions and its transfer to the
nitride structure, etc. APP COEP
Tin pest: A2B10 SM in which temperature changes actuate the
feedback system optimizing the material structure

A2B10 are the SM in which temperature changes actuate the

feedback system optimizing the material structure.
The tin pest is the polymorphous transformation of the tin tetragonal
lattice into the cubic one at T < =12 °C.
This transformation evolves with the maximum rate at T < –33 °C and is
accompanied by abrupt tin strength change when it crumbles into
the gray powder.
This phenomenon caused the tragic death of the British Antarctic
researcher R.F. Scott and his colleagues in 1912. On the way back
from the South Pole they froze because the vessels with gasoline
sealed with tin and left on the route, turned out empty.
The feedback system should be actuated in the smart tin adjusting
the nature of chemical bonds between atoms; in other words, the
interaction of their external valence electrons.
At the crystallochemistry state-of the- art this feedback system does
not seem feasible to develop.
APP COEP
Radiation Resistant Materials
The resistance of engineering materials to radiation is their capacity to
preserve performance properties (primarily mechanical and
electrical, optical, chemical and other properties for
multifunctional materials) when exposed to the emission of high
energy (X-rays, γ-rays, α- and β-particles, accelerated electron, protons,
etc.).
The modification of properties is due to the displacement of
atoms in the crystalline lattice (the radiation-induced defects),
ruptures of chemical bonds, nuclear reactions, etc.
The electromagnetic emission (optical photons, γ- and X-ray quanta)
first excite the crystal electron system , afterwards the mechanisms
actuate atoms displacement in the crystalline lattice: atom interaction
with the high energy electron, ionized atom displacement due to
electrostatic repulsion from the similarly charged ions, shifts of the
simultaneously ionized neighboring atoms, etc.
APP COEP
The materials are very strongly damaged by the neutron and γ-irradiation.
The extent of damage depends on the neutron fluence (the number of neutrons
hitting per time unity the surface unity of the specimen) or the absorbed dose
of γ-radiation.
The appearance of single defects in the crystalline lattice causes the hardening
and reduces plasticity of metals.
The electric resistance of fine metals augments due to radiation induced
defects.
The concentration of point defects in semiconductors increases under the
radiation changing the electric and optic properties (Kostyukov et al 1979).
The inorganic glasses lose transparence due to radiation, acquire
coloring and crystallize.
The silicates experience anisotropic expansion and solid-phase
amorphization reducing the density, elasticity, and heat conductivity.
Similar, but less intensive changes are typical for oxides.
Concretes are resistant to radiation when exposed to the neutrons with the
fluence less than 3·1019 cm–2 (Sychev 1994).

APP COEP
materials of nuclear power plants
A4B13 are the SM which, when radiated, have the FBS initiating the
restructuring compensating the radiation damage
The materials of nuclear power plants, particularly those in the reactor zone, are
exposed to the cooling corrosion active media (water at T boil, liquid metals,
salt solutions), mechanical stresses, vibration, powerful stream of high
energy neutrons, temperature gradients (Todd et al 2010).
A typical damage in these conditions is that metallic pieces grow in
volume.
This effect called the ‘radiation swelling’ is the result of rupture of
metallic bonds and displacement of atoms and appearance of
primary radiation defects of the Frenkel couples type: the vacancy +
interstitial atom.
The interstitial atoms interact with the appearing dislocations, while the
vacancies combine producing microspores. The accumulation of primary
defects accelerates phase transitions in metallic alloys rendering the
brittle and inducing pieces fractures.

APP COEP
The Los Alamos National laboratory (USA) has
developed the computer model of SM capable to self-heal
the radiation defects (Bradley 2010).
The base of the SM is a copper nanocrystalline alloy.
The selfhealing mechanism is the actuation of
intergranular boundaries occupying a vast area.
The recombination mechanism of defect accumulation and
their absorption by boundaries moving during material
exposure is energy-wise more favorable than the annihilation
vacancies on diffusion mechanism.
The development of such SM is in the stage of laboratory
experimentation.
APP COEP
Corrosion-resistant materials
They possesses stronger chemical resistance, that is why
they are able to operate in the corrosion active
environments without any extra protection.
Brief of the physical and chemical mechanisms of damage by
corrosion of engineering materials.
Corrosion-resistant materials are chrome, chrome-nickel,
chrome-manganese- nickel, and chrome-manganese
steels.
Their resistance to the electrochemical corrosion is
determined primarily by the properties of passivating
surface layers on articles. When the Cl–1 ions damage
the passivating film, the pitting or slot corrosion appears,
and at T > 80 °C steels crack (the corrosion under
stress).
APP COEP
Copper is resistant to electrochemical corrosion in the air, in fresh and
seawater at slowly flowing rate.
When the liquid flows with the rate v > 1 m/s, the so-called jet corrosion
begins.
Brass is more stable to jet corrosion and not submitted to zinc loss in the
chloride aqueous solution and corrosion cracking in the ammonium
medium.
Bronze is not subjected to jet and gas corrosion.
Aluminum: The corrosion resistance of aluminum is governed by the
properties of its oxide film. It can be destroyed by halogen ions inducing the
pitting corrosion at elevated temperature.
Titanium and its alloys are passivated in the oxidizing and neutral
liquid media manifesting high resistance in the chloride aqueous solutions up
to T < 120 °C.The titanium does not tend to corrosive cracking.
Nickel is passivated in oxidizing liquids. It is the main engineering material
capable of operating in the media containing fluorine and inorganic
Fluorides.

APP COEP
The gray irons doped with Si and Al are resistant to gas
corrosion up to T ≤ 850 °C
The most resistant to the electrochemical and gas
corrosion among engineering materials are inorganic
glasses, oxides, graphite, and ceramics.
The corrosion resistance of ceramics is determined by the
chemical inertness of its base.
The oxide, carbide, nitride, silicide and other types of
ceramics are chemically resistant in aggressive liquids
and thermally stable in the air up to the temperatures
1700-1800 °C

APP COEP
A5B29 are the SM the electrochemical corrosion of which is
decelerated by the FBS adjusting the electrode reaction
The electrochemical corrosion of metals evolves due to the electrode polarization of
metallic pieces – the shift of electrode potential from the stationary value
(corresponding to the equilibrium state of the electrochemical system) to the
value which is set when the electric current flows through the system.
The polarization makes the detail as anode, and electrons are then
transferred from the electrolyte to the metal and the metal cations are
transferred into the electrolyte.
It is impossible to develop a smart metal which electrode potential
stays constant when the current flows in the electrochemical system
because this contradicts the energy conservation law.
Still, it is possible to develop a smart electrochemical system, which would
automatically maintain the electrode potential of a metallic piece within
the range of values at which the piece does not corrode.
The feedback function in the systems of metals electrochemical protection
fulfills the direct external current source or a protective element from other
metal electrically connected with this piece.

APP COEP
A7B10 SM whose swelling is adjusted by
material restructuring
A7B10 are the SM whose swelling is adjusted by the FBS initiating the
material restructuring
The swelling is the solid volume gain due to absorption of gas or liquid
from the environment.
The swelling can be considered one of the types of damage by corrosion of
structural materials as far as the performance properties of the swollen
materials deteriorating considerably.
The swelling of polymers leads to the specimen size change while its original
shape is preserved.
At constant temperature, the extent of swelling grows in time approaching to
the equilibrium value.
The amorphous unbounded polymers can swell to 2-3 times of volume.
The solid polymer specimen turns into the viscous flow state in the liquid
indefinitely compatible with this polymer, while the specimen from bonded
polymer increases the volume an order of magnitude under the same
conditions.
The crystalline polymers swell, as a rule, at the expense of the amorphous part
(Papkov 1981).

APP COEP
Therefore, the swelling of polymeric materials can be
inhibited by the feedback systems developed, according to
the following principles:
• starting the mechanism of the amorphous phase
crystallization (secondary crystallization) in partially
crystallized polymer by reducing the intermolecular
interaction of molecular chains during diffusion of low
molecular substances;
• crossing chemical bonding formation between
macromolecules (cross-link) by their activation with
diffusing particles.

APP COEP
Materials for operation at abnormal
temperatures
The SM of this class are intended for operation at high (>
500 ºC) or low (cryogenic, < 120 К) temperatures or at
significant temperature difference.
The effect of abnormal temperatures on friction and wear
of SM as well as variation of heat expansion-compaction
of pieces on the performance of smart friction units is
controlled by the feedback systems of different nature.

APP COEP
high temperature friction
A3B6 are the SM, in which tribotechnical properties
deterioration under the effect of abnormal temperatures is
compensated by the FBS initiating self-lubrication.
The high temperature friction occurs in internal combustion engines,
metallurgical process equipment, space vehicles, etc. under these
conditions Petroleum lubricating oils fail to operate: the lubricity
of their adsorption layers is limited by the range of temperatures up
to 300 °C (Matveevskii 1978).
The high temperature physical and chemical transformations of
solid lubricating coatings on bearings parts ambiguously influence
the friction.
For instance, cobalt having hexagonal shape of crystalline lattice
undergoes transformation into the cubic face-centered one at 417
°C.
This is accompanied by abrupt growth of friction coefficient of
lubricating cobalt coatings. While the weakening of van-der-waals
bonds in the nitride complex structure when heated to 1000 ºC
improves the lubricity of nitride coatings (Silin 1976).
APP COEP
Low temperature friction
The low temperature friction i.e.the friction at cryogenic temperatures, is
typical for articles of space missiles, nuclear and electronic
technology, where liquefied gases serve as working substances
or process media.
Similar conditions are observed in Arctic, Antarctic and on the
Moon, where the temperatures of soil at nighttime fall to minus 150
- 180 °C.
The triboengineering characteristics of crystalline materials are
affected significantly by the quantum effects evolving at the temperatures
lower than the Debye ones (Arkharov and Kharitonova. 1978).
A strong cooling stops the mechanisms of chemosorption so the
oxide films preventing seizure do not appear on friction surfaces
of metallic parts, but the condensate films deposit, which surface
energy grows at cooling (Silin 1976).
It intensifies the intermolecular interaction between friction
surfaces.
APP COEP
Best antifriction materials for operation at low temperatures
(down to minus 200 °C) is the bearing material DU
developed by the British company «Glassier Metal».
A bronze powder layer saturated with mixture of lead and
Teflon is baked to steel band.
The functionality of the material at cryogenic temperatures
assures the optimum combination of components, cooling
does not damage the antifriction bearing properties. These
characteristics are not self-controlled at temperature variations,
so the materials DU do not meet the criteria of smart materials.
The feedback system in the virtual SM operating in friction units at
low temperatures should direct the energy of quantum
transitions in the atomic particles of material at the
reduction of surface energy of friction surface parts setting
into contact.
NASA is developing the SM implementing this idea.
APP COEP
A3B4 SM whose tribotechnical properties controlled by
restructuring the layer on the friction surface
A3B4 are the SM whose tribotechnical properties impaired at abnormal
temperatures are controlled by the FBS optimally restructuring the layer on
the friction surface.
The high temperature oxidation of the surface layer on metallic parts can serve as the base of
such restructuring.
It should be smart because the oxidation effect is ambiguous at high temperature
friction: in some cases the oxide film lubricates, in others it undergoes to intensive wear.
For instance, the antifriction layer of oxide PbO at T = 400-500 °C oxidizes to Pb3O4 and
loses its lubricity (Silin 1976).
The oxide films on steel, as a rule, have a multicomponent composition dependent on
oxidation temperature: wurtzite FeO, hematite α-Fe2O3, spinel γ-Fe2O3, magnetite
Fe3O4.
The predominance on friction surface of the oxide Fe2O3 or the mixture α-
Fe2O3+Fe3O4 reduces the wear rate of steel articles.
The spontaneous adjustment of the composition of oxide films formed at high
temperature friction heating, serves the base of improvement of operability of friction
baked materials which can be referred to the category of smart.
They demonstrate a strong heat resistance and high temperature wear resistance at dry
friction (Fedorchenko et al 1976).

APP COEP
The high temperature (T ~1000 °C) tribochemical interaction in metallic
materials is a proven means of friction reducing (Heinicke 1984).
When sodium chloride melt is used as lubricant, the iron chloride
is generated on the friction surface of steel articles. The iron
chloride enters into the tribochemical reaction with iron oxides
producing a lubricating layer of eutectic mixture of these
substances.
The lubrication of steel parts with phosphates melt also forms at
elevated temperatures an antifriction eutectic layer on the
friction surface in which phosphides dominate.
The molybdenum disulfide enters at high temperatures into
tribochemical reactions with metals producing the metal sulfide and
molybdenum: MoS2 + 2Me = 2MeS + Mo.
The resulting molybdenum participates in the tribochemical reaction
producing a new polycrystalline lubricating layer Me + Mo at high
temperatures.
APP COEP
Powder bearing materials
A3B11 are the SM whose antifriction behavior at high temperatures
is adjusted by the FBS determining the material partly melting on the
friction surface and implementing the liquid friction.
Powder bearing materials consist of the rigid porous matrix the free volume of
which is filled up with easily melting component.
This material reacts to the heating by melting and swelling of the specific
volume of low melting inclusions. The liquid phase releases from the pores
to the specimen friction surface. The released liquid volume depends on its
viscosity and difference between capillary pressures in the matrix pores
and in the clearance in the friction couple.
The feedback system optimizes the ingress of liquid phase into the clearance of
the mobile contact adjusting the lubrication conditions in response to the load
and rate of friction.
This idea has been implemented in the SM for bearing inserts with the porous
layer from baked bronze powder (Ministr and Priester 1970), mobile electric
contacts (Braunovich et al 2007) and contact seals with adjustable tightness
(Pinchuk 1992).

APP COEP
Lubricants
Lubricating materials possess the capability, while being in the fine layer
between rubbing parts, to reduce friction and wear, prevent seizure of
friction pairs and scoring of friction surfaces.
A particular problem solved with lubrication is the friction stabilization
permitting to reduce vibration, eliminate sound effects in friction, to
assure steady motion of metallic strip when rolling, etc.
The perfect lubricating layer should separate friction surfaces, preventing
contact between surface patterns. If not, the lubricating layer is
destroyed by friction forces, removed (partially or
fully) from the friction contact by moving parts, or the properties of
the lubricating material are deteriorated by tribodestruction.
The tribological restructuring of the smart layer is checked by the control of
FBS, which eliminates the damage consequences in the layer using the friction
energy.

APP COEP
Plastic greases:
A2B4 are the SM whose corrosive-mechanical wear is controlled by
the FBS modifying the rheological parameters of the lubricating layer.
Plastic greases are greasy lubricating materials obtained by the introduction
into liquid oils of solid thickeners (soap, paraffin, silica gel, ash, etc.).
Their distinctive property is the tixotropy, (the capability to restore the
original structure destroyed by mechanical effect).
The load bearing capability of the lubricating layer of plastic grease is
characterized by the following parameters:
ή0 – the maximum effective viscosity of the virtually undamaged
structure,
ήm – the least effective viscosity of the ultimately damaged structure,
τ0 – the limiting shear stress destroying the lubricating layer structure.
The dependence on its effective viscosity h on shear stress τ is determined
by formula

APP COEP
Human natural joint
A2B6 are the smart lubricating systems in which the
lubricating effect checks the FBS adjusting the entry of
lubricating material on the friction surface in response to load
The human natural joint demonstrates the record low friction coefficient
(0.02-0.05) throughout almost all life span.
Its friction couple consists of interfaced microporous antifrictional
cartilages the free volume of which is filled up with the lubricating
synovial liquid.
When the joint is loaded, the synovia is pressed out from the
micropores and delivered to the movable contact spot, primarily there
where the contact stresses are largest.
It is the reverse process when the joint is relieved: the liquid from
the clearance between cartilages is sucked into the cartilage
microcapillary system (Pinchuk et al. 2006).
The FBS function in smart joints executes the property of its synovial
medium to establish equilibrium between the capillary pressure in the
cartilage micropores and the contact pressure on the friction surface
(Chernyakova and Pinchuk 2007).
APP COEP
Soft antifriction alloys
A2B11 are the SM the parts of which implement the liquid lubrication in the
friction units by melting (induced by frictional heating) the layer on the
friction surface
Soft antifriction alloys based on tin, lead, cadmium, etc. (babbits), developed in the
1930s are believed until now the best bearing materials due to their good running-in
ability, high heat conductivity and low friction coefficient (Bushe 1993).
After reaching the load threshold value, the bearing surface layer from this alloy melts
under the effect of friction heat forming a liquid lubricating layer.
The same category includes the materials for high and low thermal friction, on powder
aluminum or copper matrices the free volume of which is filled with the soft antifriction
alloy (Pratt 1993).
When these SM pass into the mode of liquid lubrication at 180-200 °C, the viscosity and
thickness of the lubricating layer are adjusted by the FBS which indicates the friction
heat.
However, even being smart, these materials are imperfect. The melt removal from
the friction area weakens the shaft fit in the bearing, reducing the precision and
rigidity of the friction unit.
The next generation of SM or smart friction units will be provided with the FBS
APP COEP
compensating the lubricating layer removal.
Frictional materials
Frictional materials should have a large friction coefficient (usually f ~ 0.2÷0.5) and
strong resistance to wear.
They are used in braking devices decelerating the sliding velocity of interfaced
friction units by transforming the kinetic energy of moving parts into
thermal energy and is dissipation.
The specific feature of frictional materials is that the critical factor of their availability is
the friction coefficient f stability; its drop is impermissible when the sliding
velocity and temperature augment.
The frictional materials operate at cyclically heating-cooling conditions initiating
thermal stresses, which exceed considerably the material mechanical stresses and cause
thermal fatigue of materials (reduction of thermal resistance).
The stable f values are achieved by reducing the frictional interface contact rigidity.
It reduces its inertia measured by the time of growing of the friction moment after the
load is applied or moment decrease – after the load is removed.
The time of deceleration, the sliding velocity and power changes are the initial data for
calculating temperature in the braking device with the equations of frictional thermal
dynamics (Chichinadze and Braun 1979).
APP COEP
Frictional plastics
The frictional plastics were manufactured in the 1980s using asbestos
fillers, which were later replaced with slag and mineral wool.
Caoutchouc, thermosetting resins and their combinations are used as
polymeric binding plastics. The binders are filled up with mineral
powders (ferrous red paint, chrome oxide, diatomite, etc.) reinforced
with wire, fibrous mass, cut cardboard and tissues.
The brake blocks are usually produced by saturating the reinforcing
mass with catch-up latex or phenol-formaldehyde resin followed by hot
curing in molds.
Frictional plastics when rubbing with metallic pairs obtain from 2 to 20
% of generated heat in dependence on the stationarity of friction regime
(Chichinadze 1980).
Under oxygen effect and heating, the plastic binders undergo the
thermal-oxidizing destruction.
The products of macromolecules decomposition produce the lubricating
layer on the friction surface reducing the f and augmenting the braking
device wear.
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Frictional cast irons
Frictional cast irons are gray in which a considerable portion of
carbon is in the state of graphite, as well as more strong
and thermally stable alloyed manganese-phosphor
and nickel-molybdenum cast irons.
In their operation incorporated into the braking device, there
is a risk of cracking of cast iron parts due to the cyclic
heating-cooling when the cast iron manifests the tendency
to structural transformations (ferrite content growth) at T >
400 °C, and accelerated wear of the counterbody takes place
under load p > 0.6 MPa.
Increment of ferrite concentration in the cast iron structure
reduces the friction coefficient and raises the probability
of brake shoe seizure with the steel counterbody.
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Metal ceramics
Metal ceramics are baked friction materials produced by the
techniques of powder metallurgy from dispersed solid
particles of metals and non-metals.
The typical components of metal ceramics are: the
metallic base (iron, copper, bronze), frictional additive to
prevent seizure (oxides, borides, and crushed minerals) and
solid lubricants.
The best materials of this type excel other friction materials
because they are able to add the components with various
functions ensuring availability of metal ceramics in the
composition of the braking device.

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Anticorrosive coats
Corrosion is the destruction of condensed bodies induced by chemical and
electrochemical processes of interaction with environment.
The corrosion originates on the body surface, therefore, the technique of
surface protection is extremely challenging.
The participants in the corrosion process are the material and
environment.
Therefore, to inhibit corrosion, the article surface layer should be modified,
the medium aggressiveness should be reduced (to remove all corrosive
components – deoxidizing, neutralizing; to introduce into the medium the
substances inhibiting corrosion – inhibitors, passivators, etc.) or generally the
material should be isolated from the medium.
All these methods can be implemented by multifunctional coatings, which
creates favorable prerequisites to impart them the attributes of artificial
intelligence.
The characteristics of corrosion-resistant coatings of the attractive feature is
the least materials consumption, as well as examples of smart coatings on
metallic articles are performed.

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Metallic coatings
Metallic coatings are among the most used in the engineering
of protective means against corrosion.
These coatings are multifunctional:
- they can add to articles extra hardness,
-wear resistance,
-electric conductivity,
-reflecting capability,
- improve the appearance of articles.
The metallic coatings are divided into anode and cathode
types depending on the mechanism of protective effect.

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Anode coatings
A8B18 are the smart metallic coatings containing the
FBS which, when ‘attacked’ by the environment,
electrically polarizes the metallic substrate.
Anode coatings have a larger negative electrochemical potential
than that of the protected metal.
Like all coatings, they prevent the contact of metal with
environment, but even the non-continuous anode coatings
protect the metallic substrate electrochemically: in
contact with electrolyte they become anode with the
substrate – cathode which is not subjected to dissolving until
there is electric contact of coating with substrate and there is
current between them.
The FBS function in this smart system is fulfilled by substrate
electric polarization.
The anode coatings on steel articles are made from Zn and Cd

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Cathode coatings
Cathode coatings have the electrochemical potential more
positive than the metallic substrate.
They create an impermeable barrier to corrosive medium
which operates until its continuity is upset.
If a defect appears in the coating, then a galvanic element
appears in which the substrate becomes anode and destroys
electrochemically
The defects in the substrate provoke pitting corrosion.
The cathode coatings on steel articles are the coatings from Cu,
Ni, Sn, Pb, Cr.
They need the FBS, which would ‘switch on’ the mechanism of
defects healing in the coating, for instance, by filling them up with
corrosion resistant products forming plug impermeable for the
medium.
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Thermodiffusive coatings
Thermodiffusive coatings are formed by diffusive saturation of the
surface layer of the metallic article with the atoms of other
elements: Al (aluminizing), Cr (thermal chrome-plating), Si
(thermal siliconizing).
The diffusive atoms form in the surface layer resistant to
corrosion new phases of chemical compounds or solid
solutions.
The idea of creating a FBS ‘repairing’ damages of these
phases at the expense of energy of electrochemical
interactions, so far seems utopia.

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Non-metallic inorganic coatings
Non-metallic inorganic coatings are characterized by the high chemical stability.
The most popular ones are the corrosion-resistant coatings based on the glass enamel,
cement and so-called conversion coating.
A1,3B4 are SM of deformation which FBS of rheological nature by peak
stresses in glass-enamel coatings.
The glass-enamel coatings are applied on the articles from cast iron, steel, aluminum and
alloys of light metals by the slip technique and fixed by baking.
They are characterized by strong hardness, resistance to corrosion, wear and
heat.
Though the glass-enamel coatings are applied in two stages (light-melting priming
and heat-resistant covering layer), they are very vulnerable to impact and heat
shock loading.
It is hard to imagine that in the FBS, which would heal the cracks in the coating due to
impacts.
The FBS of rheological nature is more realistic dumping the peak stresses in glass-enamel
coatings.
FBS of rheological nature is more realistic dumping the peak stresses in glass-enamel
coatings.

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Conversion coatings
A8B29 are the SM of chemical reaction FBS is
controlled by electrode reaction
Conversion coatings (phosphate, chromate, oxide) are applied to
steel articles by chemical reactions.
Their broad proliferation in mechanical engineering is due to
the produceability and good adhesion to substrates.
These adaptive coatings need a FBS which, when necessary,
would provide the protective capability with the help of
secondary chemical reactions.

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Organic coatings
Organic coatings, as a rule, possess strong chemical resistance and are
characterized by the possibility to introduce active components, which
adjust the kinetics of chemical reactions in coating defects
A1,8 B29 are the SM mechanical properties in coatings
adjustable by the FBS corresponding the chemical reaction
Rubberized coatings (rubber and ebonite) are applied to protect steel
parts from corrosion, cavitations and erosion damages of
chemical equipment, dredger parts, propelling screws, etc.
(Penkin 1977).
These coatings are quite thick (centimeters), and it is better to call
them facings.
The protective ability of multifunctional rubber facing depends
considerably on the strength and wear-resistance.
Therefore it is advisable to set up a gradient of mechanical properties in
the rubberized coatings adjustable by the FBS corresponding the class.
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Paint-and-lacquer coatings

Paint-and-lacquer coatings are intended to protect metals against

corrosion, would –against humidity, and to add special properties to
surfaces (electric and heat insulating, decorative appearance, etc.).
The barrier properties of coatings are easily added with the
mechanism of sacrificial protection.
Chromate and phosphate pigments are introduced into oil paints
and organic enamels.
They saturate the aggressive liquid diffusing into the coating with
ions, which passivate the steel substrate.
The degree of passivation in the smart coating is adjusted
depending on the kinetics of diffusion processes (the taxon
A7B29).
Similarly, the paint-and-lacquer coatings filled with powders of
metals with electrode potential less than that of the substrate (for
coatings on steel they are Zn, Al) are provided with the FBS
‘switching on’ the mechanism of sacrificial protection (A7B18).
APP COEP
Future
Magnetostrictive Nanocomposite
Ferromagnetic Shape Memory Alloy
Strain induced in FSMA
The interest in HEV and PHEV is becoming more
prominent and automakers around the globe

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