Module 4 | Logic

Lesson Objectives At the end of the lessons, you will be able to:

1. Define and recognize statements;

2. Determine the truth and falsity of statements
3. Differentiate simple and compound statements;
4. Introduce and illustrate the logical connectives used in compound
statements;
5. Find the truth value of a compound statements using logical connectives;
6. Express English statements into notation of mathematical logic;
7. Construct truth tables of compound statements;
8. Define and distinguish tautology from contradiction and contingency;
and
9. Define and distinguish logical equivalence.

Discussion Let us Begin!

I. Logic Statements

Sentences can be statements, questions and commands. For instance,

Is it raining? Is a question.
Go to the library? Is a command.
Your bag is nice. Is an opinion.
Manila is the capital of the Philippines. Is a fact statement.

A statement or proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false,

but not both true and false.

Example 1: Determine whether each sentence is a statement.

a. When is your birthday?
b. x – 5 = 4
c. Today is rainy day.
d. z - 1
e. 33 +2 is a prime number.

Answer:
a. Not a statement
b. Statement

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 c. Statement
d. Not a statement
e. Statement

II. Simple Statement and Compound Statements

Statements that express single idea is called a simple statement while statement
that express two or more ideas is called the compound statement.

Compound statement was created by connecting simple statements with words

and phrase and, or, if…then, and if and only if. For example, “I will go to the
concert or I will go to the school” is a compound statement. Composed of two
simple statements: “I will go to concert” and “I will go to the school”. The word or
is a connective for the two simple statements.

Commonly, letters p, q, r, and s are the representation of the simple statements

and the symbols ⋀, ⋁ , ~, →, 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ↔ to represent connectives. Below is the summary:

Statement Connective Symbolic Form Type of

Statement
not p not -p Negation
p and q and p^q Conjunction
p or q or pvq Disjunction
If p, then q if…then p→q Conditional
p if and only if and only if p↔q Biconditional
if q

The truth value of a simple statement is either true or false.

The truth value of a compound statement depends on the truth values of its simple
statements and its connectives.

Logical Operators

1. Quantifiers and Negation

In a statement, the word some and the phrases there exists and at least one
are called existential quantifiers. Existential quantifiers are used as prefixes
to assert the existence of something.

In a statement, the words none, no, all, and every are called universal
quantifiers. The universal quantifiers none and no deny the existence of
something, whereas the universal quantifiers all and every are used to assert
that every element of a given set satisfies some condition.
Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021
 The statement not P represented by –p is called the negation of P. It can
be expressed by “it is not the case that” or “it is false that”.

For example, the negation of “I have abandoned you” is “It is not true that
I have abandoned you.” Or “I have not abandoned you.”

The proposition “not p” is true when p is false; “not p” is false when p is true.
The rule for negation is presented on the following truth table:

p -p
T F
F T

Table below illustrates how to write the negation of some quantified

statements:

Statement Negation
All X are Y Some X are not Y
No X are Y Some X are Y
Some X are not Y All X are Y
Some X are Y No X are Y

2. Disjunction

The proposition “p or q” denoted by p v q is called the disjunction of p and

q. The proposition p and q are called disjuncts. P unless q is another
expression of disjunction.

The proposition p v q is true when at least one of the proposition p or q is

true. It is false when both p and q are false. The rule for disjunction is
presented below:

p q pvq
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

3. Conjunction

The proposition p and q denoted by p ^ q is called the conjunction of p

and q. The proposition p and the proposition q are called conjuncts.

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 Moreover, although, still, furthermore, also, nevertheless, however, yet, and
but can be used in place of “and”. A comma or semicolon between two
statements may also stand for and.

The proposition p and q is false when at least of the conjucts p or q is false.

When both p and q are true, then their conjunction is true. The rule for
conjunction is presented below:

p q p^q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

4. Conditional

The proposition p implies q denoted by p → q is called an implication or a

conditional statement. P is called the antecedent, premise or hypothesis,
whereas q is called the conclusion or consequent.
Other ways of expressing p implies q include:
1. If p then q
2. P only if q
3. P is sufficient condition for q
4. Q is necessary condition for p
5. Q if p
6. Q follows from p
7. Q provided p
8. Q whenever p
9. Q is logical consequence of p

The rule for implication is given below:

p q p→q
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T

5. Biconditional

The proposition p if and ony if q denoted by p ↔ q is called the material

equivalence or biconditional of two propositions p and q. This can be
expressed by p is a necessary and sufficient condition for q, and by p is

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 materially equivalent to q. The abbreviation iff is used for if and only if. We
note that the biconditional statements puts together the implication of p →
q and q → p in one statement p ↔ q. Thus the material equivalence can
also be written in propositional forms as (p → q) ^ (q → p).

The material equivalence of two propositions is true when these two

propositions are both true and both false. The rule for this logical operator
is shown below.

p q p↔q
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F T

The Converse, Inverse, and the Contrapositive

Every conditional statement has three related statements. They are called the
converse, the inverse, and the contrapositive.

The converse of p → q is q → p.
The inverse of p → q is -p → -q.
The contrapositive of p → q is -q → -p.

Example 1: Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of “If I get job, then I
will buy the NMAX motor”.

Solution:
Converse – If I buy the NMAX motor, then I get the job.
Inverse – If I do not get the job, then I will not buy the NMAX motor.
Contrapositive – If I do not buy the NMAX motor, then I did not get the job.

Example 2: Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of “If we have a quiz
today, then we will not have a quiz tomorrow”.

Converse – If we will not have a quiz tomorrow, then we have a quiz today.
Inverse – If we do not have a quiz today, then we will have a quiz tomorrow.
Contrapositive – If we will have a quiz tomorrow, we do not have a quiz today.

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

III. Translation of Compound Statements in Symbolic Form and Vice Versa

We will often find it useful to write compound statements in symbolic form.

Example 1:

Consider the following simple statements.

p: Today is Friday
q: It is raining
r: I am going to a movie
s: I am not going to the basketball game.

Write the following compound statements in symbolic form.

a. Today is Friday and it is raining.
b. It is not raining and I’m not going to movie.
c. I am going to the basketball game or I am going to a movie.
d. It is raining, then I am not going to the basketball game.

Solution:
a. p ^ q
b. -q ^ r
c. –s v r
d. q → s

Example 2:

Consider the following statements.

p: The game will be played in Araneta Coliseum.
q: The game will be shown in ABS-CBN.
r: The game will not be shown in GMA.
s: The UDM are favored to win.

Write each of the following symbolic statements in words.

a. q ^ p
b. -r ^ s
c. s ↔ -p

Solution:
a. The game will be shown in ABS-CBN and the game will be played in
Araneta Coliseum.
b. The game will be shown in GMA and the UDM are favored to win.
c. The UDM are favored to win if and only if the game will not be played in
Araneta Coliseum.

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

IV. Truth Table

The truth table is a table that shows the truth value of a compound statement or
proposition for all possible truth values of its simple statements. The truth value of
a given proposition is always appears in the last column of the truth table.

Proposition with 2 variables, 4 rows are necessary to construct the truth table; for
3 variables, 8 rows are necessary; and in general, for n variables, 2n rows are
required. Below are the examples:

Example 1: Construct the truth table of the proposition (-p v q) v q.

Solution: Since the given proposition has 2 variables p and q, we need 4 rows.
p q -p -p v q (-p v q) v q
T T F T T
T F F F F
F T T T T
F F T T T

Example 2: Construct the truth table of the proposition (p v q) ʌ -r.

Solution: Since the given proposition has 3 variables p, q, and r, we need 8 rows.
p q r -r (p v q) (p v q) ʌ -r
T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F T F
T F F T T T
F T T F T F
F T F T T T
F F T F F F
F F F T F F

Example 3: Construct the truth table of the proposition (p v q) ʌ (r v s).

Solution: Since we have 4 variables, we will use the 2n to determine the number
of rows required.
2n = 24 = 16 rows

p q r s (p v q) (r v s) (p v q) ʌ (r v s)
T T T T T T T
T T T F T T T
T T F T T T T

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 T T F F T F F
T F T T T T T
T F T F T T T
T F F T T T T
T F F F T F F
F T T T T T T
F T T F T T T
F T F T T T T
F T F F T F F
F F T T F T F
F F T F F T F
F F F T F T F
F F F F F F F

V. Tautologies, Contradictions and Contingency

Propositions are called tautologies if contain only True in the last column of their
truth table, in other words, they are true for any truth values of their variables.
Analogously, a propositions are called contradiction if contain only False in the
last column of their truth table or, in other words, it is false for any truth values of
its variables. Lastly, contingency is a proposition which is neither a tautology nor a
contradiction.

Example 1: Show that the proposition p v –(p ʌ q) is a tautology.

p q p ʌ q -(p ʌ q) p v -(p ʌ q)
T T T F T
T F F T T
F T F T T
F F T T T
Since the truth value of p v –(p ʌ q) is True for all values of p and q, therefore, the
proposition is a tautology.

Example 2: Show that the proposition (p ʌ q) ʌ (-p v q) is a contradiction.

p q p ʌ q (p v q) -(p v q) (p ʌ q) ʌ (-p v q)
T T T T F F
T F F T F F
F T F T F F
F F F F T F

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

VI. Logically Equivalence

Two statements are equivalent if they both have the same truth value for all
possible truth values of their simple statements. Equivalent statements have
identical truth values in the final columns of their truth tables. The notation p
≡ q is used to indicate that the statements p and q are equivalent.

Example 1: Show that –(p v –q) and –p ʌ q are equivalent statements.

Solution:

p q -q p v –q –(p v –q)
T T F T F
T F T T F
F T F F T
F F T T F

p q -p –p ʌ q
T T F F
T F F F
F T T T
F F T F

Since their truth values are equivalent, thus, –(p v –q) and –p ʌ q are
equivalent statements.

Example 2: Show that –(-p v –q) and p ʌ q are equivalent statements.

Solution:

p q -p -q -p v –q –(p v –q)
T T F F F T
T F F T T F
F T T F T F
F F T T T F

p q pʌq
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 Since their truth values are equivalent, thus, –(-p v –q) and p ʌ q are
equivalent statements.

Assessment: It is your turn!

I. Determine whether each of the following sentences is a statement or

not.

1. x2 – 9 = 0.
2. Is 2 a positive number?
3. Study mathematics in the modern world
4. If stock prices fall, then I will lose money.
5. 121 is a perfect square.
6. President Arroyo is over 5 feet tall.
7. What time is it?
8. z + 3 is a positive integer.
9. The sum of all integers from 1 to n.
10. 11 is an even number.

II. Write each symbolic statement as an English sentence. Use p, q, r, s,

and t as defined below:

p: Regine Velasquez is a singer.

q: Regine Velasquez is not a songwriter.
r: Regine Velasquez is an actress.
s: Regine Velasquez plays a piano.
t: Regine Velasquez does not play the guitar.

1. (p v r) ʌ q
2. –s → (p ʌ -q)
3. p → (q ʌ -r)
4. (s ʌ -q) → t
5. (r ʌ p) ↔ q
6. t ↔ (-r ʌ -p)

III. Write each sentence in symbolic form. Use p, q, r, and s as defined

below.

p: Rafael Eusebio is a football player.

q: Rafael Eusebio is a volleyball player.
r: Rafael Eusebio is a rock star.
s: Rafael Eusebio play for the UDM.

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 1. Rafael Eusebio is a football player or a volleyball player, and he
is not a rock star.
2. Rafael Eusebio is a rock star, and he is not a volleyball player or a
football player.
3. If Rafael Eusebio is a volleyball player and a rock star, then he is
not a football player.
4. Rafael Eusebio is a volleyball player, if and only if he is not a
football player and he is not a rock star.
5. If Rafael Eusebio plays for the UDM, then he is a volleyball player
and he is not a football player.
6. It is not true that, Rafael Eusebio is a football player or a rock star.

IV. Write the negation of each quantified statement. Start each negation
with “Some”, “No”, or “All”.

1. Some lions are playful.

2. No even numbers are odd numbers.
3. All cars run on gasoline.
4. None of the students took my advice.
5. Everybody enjoyed the lunch.

V. Construct a truth table for the given statement.

1. (-p → q)v (-q ʌ p)

2. (p ↔ q) v (q → p)
3. (r ↔ -q) v (p → q)
4. [p ↔ (q → -r)] ʌ -q

VI. Use a truth table to determine whether the given statement is a

tautology, contradiction, or a contingency.

1. p ʌ (q ʌ -p)
2. (p ʌ q) v (p → -q)
3. [-(p → q)] ↔ (p ʌ -q)

VII. Use a truth table to show that the given pairs of statements are
equivalent.

1. -p → -q ; p v –q
2. p ↔ q ; (p ʌ q) v (-p ʌ -q)

VIII. Write the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of the given statement.

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021

 1. If a and b are both divisible by 3, then (a + b) is divisible by 3.
2. If they like it, they will return.
3. If x + 4 > 7, then x > 3.

List of References:

Aufmann, R. N. et al. (2013). Mathematical Excursions, 3rd Edition. Cengage Learning.

Prepared by: Rafael J. Eusebio Jr. Universidad de Manila SY 2020-2021