1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY

Palm oil and palm kernel are very important products obtained from the fruits of the African oil

palm (Elaeis guineensis). Apart from being a common cooking ingredient in many parts of the

world (Nwalieji and Ojike, 2018), palm oil, which is extracted from the fleshy mesocarp of the

oil palm fruit (Figure 1.1) is used as an industrial raw material in manufacturing vegetable oil,

soaps, cosmetics, candles, biofuel, lubricating greases, and in processing tinplate and coating of

iron plates (Wiedemann et al, 2016). While, the palm kernel (endocarp) is processed into palm

kernel oil (PKO), which is used in manufacturing edible products like margarine, cookies, and

bread, as well as many pharmaceuticals (Mba et al, 2015). Due to the high global demand for

products processed from oil palm fruits globally, extraction of palm oil and palm kernel oil for

sale has continued to be a lucrative enterprise for many small-scale processors in countries where

oil palm trees are cultivated for economic purpose (Oosterveer, 2015).

Figure 1.1: Cross-Section of a Palm Fruit

The need to eliminate tedium and drudgery associated with the traditional (manual) method of

extracting palm oil and kernel from oil palm fruits has led to the development of several
 2

equipment and machines used in mechanized palm fruit processing (FAO, 2005). Notable among

these innovations is the model of an integrated palm fruit processing machine developed by

Nwankwojike et al. (2014). This machine comprises of a digester where sterilized/cooked palm

fruits are digested into palm fruits mash; a separator, which separates digested palm fruits mash

into nuts and pulp, and; screw press, where the separated pulp is pressed to extract its crude palm

oil content, which is later clarified to remove impurities from the oil. Introduction of this

machine in a semi-mechanized palm oil mill eliminated the need for separate unit machines for

fruit digestion, nut-pulp separation and pressing processes. However, the poor oil extraction

efficiency of the press unit of this machine, resulting from the low processing temperature of the

pulp during the pressing operation led to the need for a system that will maintain the temperature

of the pulp at the level recommended for effective oil extraction.

In response to this, Igbo (2015) modified the integrated machine by incorporating a heat

exchangers on its separator unit and pulp chamber. However, this modification did not improve

the oil extraction efficiency of the screw press as desired. This is because, the heat conducted

from the heat exchanger through the body of the separator unit and pulp chamber was not

sufficient to increase the processing temperatures of the pulp during the pressing operation. As a

result of this shortcoming, Salami et al. (2017) tested the concept of supplying steam into the

digester unit of the machine. Results of the performance evaluation of this concept revealed that

though, this system indicated its potential to increase the processing temperature in the digester

unit of the machine, but the low pressure (15 psi or 1.03bar) of the steam generated from the

pressure cooker used, reduced the thermal efficiency of the steam supplied to the digester unit.

Hence, the need for a modified mini steam boiler that will generate and supply steam at the

required pressure.
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1.2 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

Digesting the fruit at high temperature helps to reduce viscosity of the oil, destroy the fruits’

outer covering (exocarp), and completes the disruption of the oil cells which began during the

sterilization phase (FAO, 2005). Unfortunately, the steam injecting system developed by Salami

et al. (2017), for the integrated palm fruit processing machine, does not have the thermal

efficiency to maintain the temperature of the sterilized palm fruit during the digestion and

pressing operations resulting in the significant increase in the viscosity of the oil to be extracted,

thereby, reducing the extraction efficiency of the screw press and optimal oil recovery of the

machine.

Hence, despite the significant stride achieved by Salami et al. (2017) in developing the steam

injecting system for the improved integrated palm fruit digester, separator and screw press

machine developed by Nwankwojike et al. (2014), it is saddening to note the significant loss of

crude palm oil in the processing and operation of the palm oil processing machine due to the

inability of the steam generating component (pressure cooker) to work at a pressure above 15 psi

(1.03 bar), thereby, reducing the thermal efficiency of the system. This study, therefore,

addresses the issues of increasing the temperature and pressure of steam generated and

maintaining it throughout the entire system.

1. AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF STUDY

The aim of this study is to develop a modified mini steam boiler for generating pressurized steam

into the improved integrated palm fruit digester, separator and screw press machine. Specific

objectives of the study are to:

 4

i. Design a modified mini steam boiler for the improved integrated palm fruit processing

machine using locally sourced material

ii. Fabricate the modified mini steam boiler for the improved integrated palm fruit

processing machine using locally sourced material

iii. Evaluate the performance of the developed modified mini steam boiler.

1.3 SCOPE OF STUDY

This study involves the development and performance evaluation and optimization of the

modified mini steam boiler to be incorporated into the improved integrated palm fruit digester,

separator and screw press machine.

1.4 JUSTIFICATION

With continuous increase in human population worldwide, the demand for palm oil will continue

to rise due to its numerous applications both industrially and domestically. This demand growth

will provide rewarding opportunities for palm oil mills. Therefore, improving the performance of

the existing integrated palm oil extraction machine by incorporating a modified mini steam

boiler into the integrated palm processing machine for optimum oil palm recovery will be of

interest and relief to palm oil processors. More so, there will be improvement in the quality and

storage properties of the palm oil, since there is proper sterilization of the palm fruits in the

digester. Thus, the cost of quality palm oil and loss of valuable oil palm during digestion will be

reduced with the introduction of this improved integrated system. This innovation is therefore

recommended for adoption by small and medium scale palm oil processors to boost quality palm

the sector. The adoption of this innovation will also encourage the Nigeria youth to engage in
 5

palm oil processing and boost the Nigeria government economic plans in diversifying the

revenue base of the nation to agriculture.

CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 RECENT DEVELOPMENT IN MECHANIZED PALM FRUIT PROCESSING

2.1.1 Overview of the Development in Palm Oil Processing In Nigeria

In the early 20th century, palm oil production was done majorly using the traditional method

which involved stripping of the fresh oil palm fruit bunch by hand picking then sterilized by

fermenting or boiling, after which it is digested by pounding the sterilized fruit in a mortar with a

pestle. The oil is then extracted steeping the pounded fruit mash in hot water followed by hand

squeezing the pulp to release the palm oil and water mixture where the palm oil is clarified by

skimming out palm oil from the water surface. This traditional method is grossly inadequate due

to its drudgery, time consumption and low output capacity (PIND, 2011). However, the

introduction of commercial large-scale oil palm plantation farming in West Africa where oil

palm cultivation is basically subsistent and small-scale covering less than 7.5 hectares (FAO,

2005). This commercial large-scale oil palm fruit production gave rise to the need for a more

mechanized method for processing a large quantity of palm fruit into palm oil within a short

time. Therefore, a mechanized unit batch processes as shown in figure 2.1, consisting of

different stages like reception, sterilization, threshing, fruit digestion (based on the traditional

wet method process), pulp pressing(where the palm nut is recovered from the pulp), oil

clarification, oil drying and oil packing, was introduced in the late 20th century leading to an
 6

increase in the production capacity of palm oil, though, modifications to this mechanized

method were needed to improve the efficiency of the method.

Figure 2.1: A block diagram showing unit operation processes involved in the production of

palm oil

Although , NIFOR developed a mechanical digester –screw press assembly (Figure 2.2 ) which

was used mostly by small scale processing industries in Nigeria since the late fifties . This

assembly is sold together with the NIFOR sterilizer and continuous clarifier as a standard set of

machines for palm fruit processing (Ajibola, 1998). However, existing records showed that

mechanized process of extraction using the screw press without nut-pulp separation was faced
 7

with the problem of nut breakage and kernel crushing, which affected the bleachability and

oxidative conservation of the extracted palm oil (FAO, 2005; NIFOR, 2000; Nwankwojike et al,

2011). Therefore, according to Nwankwojike et al. (2014), the demand for a more integrated

system which is simple in design, yet easy to operate and maintain, with an increased efficiency.

In response to this demand an integrated palm fruit digester, separator and screw press machine

was designed, developed and patented by Nwankwojike et al. (2014) (as shown in figure 2.3).

Figure 2.2: mechanical digester –screw press assembly

Figure 2.3: Integrated palm fruit digester, separator and screw press machine

Though this integrated machine eliminated the drudgery associated with loading and discharging

of materials among the digesting, separating and pressing units of the machine (Nwankwojike et

al., 2014), but the quality and quantity of palm oil processed using this existing integrated

machine, still falls short of the one processed using the traditional technique, as a result of this,

many small scale palm oil processors still rely on the use of manual and unit operational

machines in processing the palm oil sold in Nigerian markets. Although, the machine was

simple in design and easy to operate and maintain, further strides were taken by Igbo (2015) to

increase the efficiency of integrated palm oil processing machine by incorporating a heat

exchanger onto the walls of the digester (as shown in figure 2.4 ) so as to maintain the required

working temperature of the digester (120°C) but this development did not produce the required

result, therefore, strides were taken towards this effect as Salami et al. (2017) developed a steam

injecting system which was incorporated into the integrated palm oil processing machine (figure

2.5) to inject steam directly into the digester, although, this idea showed greater potential. But
 8

due to low thermal efficiency. Therefore, the development of the modified mini steam boiler to

be assembled into the steam injecting system is to further improve the efficiency of the

integrated palm fruit digester, separator and screw press machine

Figure 2.4: heat exchanger

Figure 2.5: A diagram showing the steam injecting system which was incorporated into the

integrated palm oil processing machine

2.1.2 Steam Injection and Palm Oil Recovery

Prior to oil extraction in screw press, oil palm fruit is digested in a digester. Inside this metal

chamber, the fruit mashes undergo physical and mechanical treatment, such as stirring, rupturing,

which is performed by a number of arm blade sets. Concurrently, the temperature is elevated at

about 90 -95℃ through live steam injected into the digester. The rupture (cutting and shearing)

of oil bearing cells is caused by friction of arms blades. During the process, fruit-mashing absorb

water from surrounding steam after which immediately reaches saturated condition. At the same

time, due to decrease of viscosity and ruptured cell walls, the palm oil is inevitably released from

mesocarp of the fruit.

Digestion is very crucial stage to achieve optimum condition in facilitating oil extraction.

Owolarafe (2002) reported that properly sterilized and digested fruit will result in high oil

extraction rate. The degree of fruit maceration in digesting process greatly determines the

effectiveness of oil extraction process in screw press. Proper digestion process will also help

reduce the load on the screw press since during the process; a great amount of oil content is

extracted. The remaining oil resides in the fruit after digestion will later be pressed out in screw

press. Under elevated temperature ranging from 90-95℃, the viscosity of palm oil is reduced.
 9

Thus, flow resistance of the oil decreases and oil obtained increases during extraction (Owolarafe

and Faborode, 2008) in addition, even well sterilized fruit but not sufficiently digested will

result in increase of oil losses. This is due to the fact that digestion process ruptures the wall of

oil bearing cell, thus improves oil extraction (Owolarafe and Faborode, 2007). However, similar

study stated that over sterilized or over digested fruit mashes has led to nut cracking or kernel

breakage and thus, it increase the rate of the kernel oil losses in mills (Owolarafe and

Babatuntede, 2008), it is practically difficult to determine the sufficient degree of digestion

process since a digester is joined directly, to screw press. Since the digestion press cannot be

empirically observed directly, the current process practiced in palm oil mills is not well

understood (Noerhidajat et al., 2005). Furthermore, Noerthidajat et al (2015), describes a model

and simulation of heat transfer and mass transport phenomena during digestion process of oil

palm fruits. They observed that the measured average water diffusivity coefficients of sterilized

oil palm fruits were 3.03E-09m²/S, 2.4545-08m²/s and 9.433E-09m²/s for intact fruits, a - b axis

sliced and c - axis sliced fruits respectively. The diffusivity coefficients of oil release from

mesocarp were 1.04E-0.8m²/s, 4.5578E-0.9m²/s, and 4.083E-09m²/s respectively. They

concluded that rupturing fruits had significant impact on higher water absorption to the mesocarp

and more oil released from the oil palm fruit.

Steam boilers were introduced into the agricultural industry by the British colonial officials in

Nigeria and Ghana (Robins et al, 2018). It was used majorly to generate steam for the

sterilization of crops like palm fruit, sun flower seeds, and cereals, for the purpose of a

mechanized digestion operation and sterilization operation (Salami et al, 2017).The introduction

of steam boiler technology in palm processing was due to the high demand for maintaining the

required sterilization temperature of the digester which is a steam-heated cylindrical vessel

 10

where there is rupture of the oil-bearing cells of the fruit and release of the palm oil takes place

(Salami et al, 2017). However, the very large steam boilers were only accessible to large scale

producers due to size and cost, hence the need to develop a modified mini steam boiler which is

affordable to small scale palm oil processing industries

2.2 COMPONENT SYSTEMS OF THE STEAM BOILER

A boiler is a device used to create steam by applying heat energy to water. A boiler is an

enclosed vessel in which water is heated and circulated, either as hot water or steam, to produce

a source for either heat or power (Sugumar et al, 2016). The basic working principle of boiler is

very simple and easy to understand. The boiler is essentially a closed vessel inside which water

is stored. Fuel is burnt in a furnace and hot gases are produced. These hot gases come in contact

with water vessel where the heat of these hot gases transfer to the water and consequently steam

is produced in the boiler (figure:2.6) (Babu et al.2016).

The boiler system is made up of:

i. Feed water system

ii. Steam system

iii. Fuel system

The operation of these three (3) systems determines what happens in a boiler. Water is placed

within the boiler and a fire lighted beneath it. The heat energy generated by the fire is conducted

through the boiler plates or flues or tubes into the water and raises its temperature (Harris. 1967).

The feed water system provides water to the boiler and regulates it to meet the steam demand,

the steam system collects and controls the steam produced in the boiler while the fuel system

includes all equipment used to provide fuel to generate the necessary heat (Prasath et al.2016). In

simple words, the function of these 3 systems is to transfer the heat produced by the combustion
 11

of the fuel to water, and ultimately to generate steam. Steam produced is then used to carry out

various industrial processes.

Figure 2.6: A schematic diagram showing the working principle of the steam boiler

However, guidance for the construction, operation, and maintenance of boilers is provided

primarily by the ASME (American Society of Mechanical Engineers), which produces the

following resources, Rules for construction of heating boilers, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,

Section IV- 2007 Recommended rules for the care and operation of heating boilers, Boiler and

Pressure Vessel Code, Section VII-2007 Boilers (Sugumar et al, 2016).

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2.2.1 Classification of steam boilers

Steam boilers are classified according to the following criteria;

Table 2.1: Types of Boilers According To Different Criteria

Criterion Type I Type II Type III

Tube content Fire tube Water tube __

Axis of shell Horizontal Vertical Inclined

Location of furnace Externally fired Internally fired __

Method of circulation Natural circulation Forced circulation __

Mobility Stationary Portable __

Usage Packaged Unpackaged __

Pressure High Pressure Low Pressure __

Tubes Single-tube Multi-tubed __

However, according the “ASME boiler and pressure vessel code” boilers may be classified

mainly into Power boilers and Heating boilers. A power boiler is a boiler in which steam or other

vapor is generated at a pressure of more than 15 psi (100 kPa) for use external to itself, while a

heating boiler is a boiler in which steam or other vapor is generated at a pressures not exceeding

15 psi. Although, according the “ASME boiler and pressure vessel code (the 2007 Addenda),”

requirements for other sub categories of steam boilers like miniature boilers, electric boilers,

organic fluid vaporizers and heat recovery steam generators were made available.

Moreover, food processing application on a small scale employs the use of miniature steam

boilers which construction requirement contains special rules that do not exceed certain limits
 13

[16-in. (400 mm) inside diameter of shell, 20 ft2 (1.9 m2) of heating surface, 5 cubic feet (0.14

m3) gross volume, 100 psi (700 kPa) maximum allowable pressure (MAWP), the shell thickness

is not greater than 3/8 in. (10 mm)]. Because of this relatively small size and low pressure, many

requirements normally applicable to power boilers and heating boilers are waived. These have to

do with material, material marking, minimum plate thickness, post weld heat treatment and

radiography of welds, and feed water supply. (Mackay and Pillow, 2011).

Furthermore, the type of miniature boiler used in food production processes like the palm oil

making process will greatly depend on the choices made in the criteria listed in section 2.2.1.

Though, among these criteria, the tube content criterion most evidently influences the type of

modified mini steam boiler used. Although, water tubes boilers have high pressure capacity,

higher efficiencies and more energy used in feed water circulation than fire tube boilers, but fire

tube boilers will be preferred over the water tube boilers when considering a modified mini

steam boiler used in food production process because the fire tube boiler works at a high pressure

with less energy consumption, is easy to operate due to fewer components, has a lower initial

cost of usage and a lesser risk of explosion,(Mackay and Pillow, 2011).Thus, a much desired

approach by engineers to building a modified mini steam boiler with a fire tube orientation for

food production applications.

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Figure 2.7: A schematic diagram showing the difference between water tube and fire tube boilers

CHAPTER THREE

MATERIALS AND METHODOLOGY

3.1 MATERIALS

The materials required for the fabrication of the modified mini steam boiler are: mild steel

sheets, mild steel pipes, fiber glass sheets, mild steel tubes, , mild steel pipes, fiber glass sheets,

mild steel tubes, Thermometer, pressure gauge, control valves, water level indicator, gas

burner, refractory, and while, the materials and equipment that will be used for its performance

evaluation includes: water, palm fruit, wood charcoal, propane gas (cooking gas), stopwatch, and

the modified integrated digester nut/pulp separator-screw press machine .

3.2 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.2.1 Design Concept and Considerations

The design considerations upon which the development of this modified mini steam boiler will

be based are:
 15

i. Water at room temperature will be filled into the modified mini steam boiler and heated.

The water boils at 100°C and boiling above this temperature produces steam, hence the

water in the steam boiler will be constantly at a temperature above 100°C to generate

steam.

ii. The modified mini steam boiler should be able to deliver pressurized steam to the

digester and hot water to the screw press of the integrated palm oil processing machine,

therefore, the steam boiler will be designed to have two outlets for pressurized steam and

hot water respectively.

iii. The working temperature and pressure of the generated steam will be within the ranges

100°C to 120°C and 15psi to 30psi respectively which are safe temperature and pressure

range that can be handled, by the mild steel tube used as the steam delivery pipe to avoid

tube failure.

iv. To enable the temperature and pressure of the content of the boiler to be properly

monitored and regulated, the modified mini steam boiler will be incorporated with a

thermometer and pressure gauge.

v. To increase the effectiveness and availability of fuel used and also to reduce the cost of

purchasing fuel, the furnace of the modified mini steam boiler will run on both solid fuel

and gaseous fuel to generate the required heat for the boiler.

vi. The modified mini steam boiler will be characterized as a fire tube boiler in tube

content, vertical in axis of shell, internally heated for location of furnace, natural in mode
 16

of circulation, portable in sense of mobility, unpackaged in terms of usage, multi tubes in

tube orientation.

Based on the above considerations, the materials used for the design of the fire-tube boiler were

thus selected and tabulated below:

Table 3.1: Material Selection for Parts and Reasons Considered

Parts Material formally used or preferred Material used and reasons

and Reasons

Furnace Aluminum: good conductivity, high Mild steel; affordable, available, weld
Corrosion resistance but high melting able, malleable, strength, high
point. conductivity, and corrosion resistance

Smoke-tubes Mild steel; high thermal conductivity, Copper ; affordable, available, weldable,
better formability. malleable, strength, high conductivity,
and corrosion

Main-shell Wrought iron; toughness, malleable, Mild steel; low cost of fabrication,
and ductile. available, quick weld ability, malleable,
strength, high conductivity, and
corrosion resistance.

Lagging Alumina: high heat resistance, low Fiberglass : light weight, high air
thermal conductivity, corrosion permeability, high heat resistance, low
resistance, fire resistant. thermal conductivity, corrosion
resistance

Delivery tubes Mild steel: low cost of fabrication, Mild steel: high thermal conductivity,
available, quick weld ability, better formability.
malleable, strength, high conductivity,
and corrosion resistance.

3.2.1 Determination of Steam Boiler Dimensions

The required effective volume, V ET of the modified mini steam boiler is 0.036m3 and to ensure

the boiler system is compact enough to enhance ease in mobility of the system the total height, ht

of the steam boiler system should not exceed 1.8m, thus, the height h b of the boiler shell is given
 17

at 0.658m.The internal diameter Di was estimated at 0.413m using the relation in Equation (3.1).

Considering 50% head space above the water surface, the maximum volume V WT water occupied

by water in the steam boiler was determined from Equation (3.2) as 0.018m 3.Therefore, a

0.036m3 capacity steam boiler was selected .Furthermore, since the maximum intensity of

pressure, P in the boiler is 0.345MPa (50 psi), then the minimum thickness of the material

required for the design of the steam boiler was determined as 0.28mm, using the hoop’s stress

relation given in Equation (3.3). Thus the 6mm thick steam boiler shell is very safe for the

operation of the steam generating and steam injecting system.

V ET =V T −V FT (3.1)

V FT =n × V f (3.2)

π D2i
V T= h (3.3)
4 b

π d 2f
Vf= h (3.4)
4 f

V WT =k ×V ET (3.5)

P Di
t= (3.6)
2 σt

σ t=0.8 × σ y (3.7)

where; k (= 0.5) is the fill volume factor of the steam boiler ;h (w)is the depth of the water in the

boiler at any time; σt is the hoop stress for the material of the steam boiler ; σy is the yield point

stress of the material of the steam boiler, 350MPa for mild steel.

3.2.3 Determination of Heat Required To Produce Steam

 18

The heat energy required to heat the water and produce steam is the sum of the conductive and

convective heat used to raise the temperature of water in the steam pot to its boiling point, and

the heat constantly supplied to evaporate the boiling water as steam. The maximum volume of

water (VWT ) in the steam boiler obtained from Equation (3.5) is 0.018m3, hence, the maximum

mass of water (mw) contained in the steam boiler is obtained as 18 kg using Equation (3.8).

Thus, the heat energy consumed in boiling the water and evaporate it as steam is determined as

47.83MJ using Equation (3.9)

mw = ρV WT (3.8)

H=C pw m w ( T f −T i ) + ∆ hvap . m w (3.9)

Where, ρ, is the density of water given as 1000kg/m3 ;

C pwis the specific heat capacity of water given as 4.184kJ/kg°C;

T f and T i are final and initial temperatures of water taken as 120°C and 25°C

respectively;

∆ hvap . is the latent heat of vaporization given as 2260kJ/kg ;

The rated power of the heat source (P) which is expressed as a product of the volume of water,

temperature rise and the power factor is determined as 1.99kw using equation (3.10) given by

(Element of heating, 2017) and the rate of production of steam (ω) is determined as 8.8×10-4kg/s

using equation (3.11)

C pw m w ( T f −T i )
P= (3.10)
3600

P
ω= (3.11)
∆ h vap .

3.2.4 Determination of flow characteristics of steam

 19

The mild steel piping is expected to accommodate all combination of loading situations such a

pressure changes, thermal contraction and expansion etc. Most failures of fluid systems occur at

or within interconnection point points in the pipeline, valves and fittings. Pressure drop and head

losses is caused by friction between the pipe wall and the fluid, minor losses such as flow

obstruction, changes in direction and flow area. The diameter (d t ) of the mild steel pipe is

determined as 24 mm using equation (3.12), however a standard mild steel pipe of diameter

25.4mm(1 inch) corresponding to the size of the steam outlet bore on the steam boiler was

selected due to availability and the constraint of the steam outlet bore diameter.

4ω
dt=
√ π ρs v
(3.12)

The Reynolds number is used to determine the nature of the flow in the tube and it is determined

as 3.54×103 which signifies a turbulent flow using the relation Equation (3.10) and the friction

factor is computed as 0.04 using the relation in Equation (3.11) given by Kolmetz (2013).

Where, the dynamic viscosity of steam (μ) at S.T.P. is obtained as 1.2×10−5 kg/ms and mild steel

pipe material roughness (ε) is a factor denoting the roughness of the pipe taken as 0.0015mm

mild steel material (Jacques 2003). Also, the pressure drop in the pipeline due to its elevation,

steam velocity and pipe material is obtained as 0.96kg/m2(using equation (3.12).

d t ν ρs
ℜ= (3.13)
μ

1
f= 2
0.9
7 3.24 ε
( [( ) ( )])
2 log
Re
+
dt
(3.14)

l2 v 2
∆ P=ρs f ( 2 g dt 1
+l ) (3.15)
 20

Where; ʋ is the maximum steam velocity taken as 3m/s to avoid hammer (kolmetz 2013);l 1

and l 2 is the vertical and horizontal length of the pipeline given as 0.92m and 0.75m respectively;

gis the acceleration due to gravity given as 9.81m/ s2 ; ρ sis the steam density

The steam discharge rate or the steam flow rate (q) through the nozzle in kilogram per hour is

obtained as 8.932kg/h using equation (3.13) given by TLV (2017). Therefore it will take an

approximate two hours to completely empty the 18kg of water in the steam pot.

do 2
q=1.80 ×c × ( 4.654) .√ ʄ y. XT P 1 . ρS (3.16)

Where, fy is the specific heat ratio factor given as 1.324 for water at 100℃;

X T is the pressure differential ratio factor given as 0.72(TLV2017)

P1 is the initial pressure of the steam taken as 1 bar

∁ is the discharge coefficient taken as 3.2

d o is the diameter of the nozzle given as 4mm

3.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE STEAM BOILER SYSTEM

Firstly, a detailed assembly drawing of the steam boiler was developed and simulated with

SolidWorks software. The sizes of the components of this modified mini steam boiler was

determined based on the principles of machine elements design as outlined in Khurmi and Gupta

(2005), Sharma and Aggarwal (2006), Burr and Cheatham (2002), Harris (1967) and IS 2494-

1974, as well as the design considerations discussed in Section 3.2.1. After which, the

production drawings of the steam boiler i.e. orthographic, exploded and isometric views of all its

components, with precise specifications of the materials and dimensions was then generated
 21

from the simulated model of the steam boiler developed in the SolidWorks software. Shown in

the figure 3.1 is the 3D wireframe view of the steam boiler system with its components

identified:

Figure 3.1: The 3D Wireframe View of the Steam Boiler System Identifying Component Parts

These components consists of the feed water supply inlet (1), pressure gauge (2), thermometer

(3), pressure control valve (4), flue gas outlet (5), flue tubes (6), pressurized steam discharge

outlet (7), hot water discharge outlet (8), gas burner (11), wood charcoal stove (12). Boiling

water level indicator (9) will also be attached to the water jacket (13) of the steam boiler which

will have a lagging (10).

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Figure 3.2: The exploded view of the steam boiler system showing its components

The steam boiler shell shown in figure 3.3 was fabricated using mild steel material with diameter

of 0.413m and height of 0.686m, with 17 flue pipes fabricated using mild steel of 0.02m

diameter and height of 0.686m placed vertically in the steam boiler shell .Underneath the steam

boiler shell is a heating chamber (Charcoal stove and a gas burner) as shown as shown in figure

3.4 made from mild steel plate with small perforations at the sides to aid burning of the charcoal,

which is used as the heating element. Flow control valves (FCV) connects the mild steel pipes.

The FCV are closed when the water is at maximum water level in the boiler shell and also to

avoid steam and vapor escape into the pipeline during heating of water.
 23

Figure 3.3: The isometric view of the steam boiler system

3.3.1 Developmental procedure for the fabrication of the modified mini steam boiler

All the materials selected for the development of the modified mini steam boiler was procured

from markets within Abia State, before then commencing fabrication of the full-scale prototype

of the modified mini steam boiler at Mechanical Engineering workshop of Michael Okpara

University of Agriculture, Umudike. Though, available machine, tools, fitting, welding and
 24

measurement equipment in this workshop was adequate. Additional labor was hired to

complement the few workshop personnel. Hence, the materials procured as stated in section 3.0

are shown in figure 3.4

Figure: 3.4: Procured materials for the fabrication of the modified mini steam boiler

Therefore, the fabrication started by the construction of the of the main boiler shell and furnace

(grate) , where mild steel pipes cut into required dimensions are welded together very well to

avoid leakage in the main boiler shell. As shown in figure 3.5 the main boiler shell has a vertical
 25

plain multi –tabular orientation with flue pipes, 1 inch × 17 are welded across the vertical section

of the boiler shell. The furnace is also joined to the boiler shell by welding.

Figure 3.5: From TL-BR shows the plan view, back view, front view and bottom view, of

the boiler shell welded to the furnace

 26

Furthermore, delivery tubes were assembled onto the main boiler shell by holes of specific

diameter being drilled on the boiler shell and then welding pipes of respective diameter into

those holes drilled. This process is shown in figure 3.5.

Figure 3.6: From L-R shows the, front view and side view, of the delivery pipes welded to the

boiler shell.

Next, the boiler shell is lagged with sheets of fiberglass to reduce the heat loss of the boiler and

simultaneously increase the thermal efficiency of the boiler. The lagged boiler shell is then

covered with an outer mild steel shell and this was done by welding a mild steel sheet round the

lagged boiler shell. This is shown in figure 3.6.

 27

Figure 3.7: From L-R shows the top view of the fiberglass lagging and outer shell welded to the

boiler shell.

Furthermore, the exhaust cone and pipe were welded onto the lagged boiler shell to control the

flue gas being expelled .then the furnace also had a tripod stand welded onto it to elevate the

furnace from ground level and also give the boiler system balance on the ground. This is shown

in figure 3.7.
28
 29

Figure 3.8: From L-R shows the bottom view, back view, front view and top view of the boiler

system

Next, the two –way furnace is being prepared by welding the wood charcoal stove onto the base

of the furnace and then fabricating a detachable gas burner which will be placed just above the

mesh of the wood charcoal stove. This is shown in figure 3.8.

Figure 3.9: From L-R shows the mesh of the wood charcoal stove and the detachable gas burner

Finally, pipe fittings on the boiler system and installation of all safety devices are done carefully

and meticulously to avoid error. This is shown in figure 3.9.the boiler system is then made ready

for its performance evaluation test.

 30

Figure 3.10: From L-R shows the side and back view of the modified modified mini steam boiler

with all safety devices installed

3.4 Performance Evaluation Procedure

The modified mini steam boiler was tested after its assembly to evaluate its performance. The

experimental evaluation of the system started with the determination of the time taken to heat the

water to its boiling point and steady state temperature of 160℃ respectively. To achieve this,

0.018m3 of water at ambient room temperature of 25℃ is fed into the steam boiler at the initial

height h of water in the steam boiler is measured and recorded before the feed water control

valve is closed, hence, with the steam delivery valve locked, fuel (wood charcoal or propane gas)

is burnt to generate the heat required to heat the water in the boiler to produce steam. As the

steam boiler is constantly heated, the increase in temperature of the steam boiler and the water is

monitored every 10 minutes, till the water reaches its boiling point temperature. Once the water

reaches its boiling point temperature, steam is generated which is accommodated in the empty
 31

space inside the steam boiler. As heating continues, the pressure and temperature of the steam

inside the boiler is also monitored and recorded until the pressure reaches the allowable

maximum (25 psi).at this pressure the steam delivery valve is slowly released and the steam

discharges through the nozzle fixed at the at the end of the mild steel pipes . The valve is

adjusted in such a way that while the steam is released, the pressure in the steam boiler remains

constant and this steady state is continued till about 2 hours (120 min) during which the

following parameters are recorded.

i. Initial temperature of the steam boiler, T IB(℃)

ii. Initial temperature of the Water,T IW (℃)

iii. Initial temperature of the steam, T IS (℃)

iv. Final temperature of steam boiler wall, T FB (℃)

v. Final temperature of water, T FW (℃)

vi. Final temperature of steam , T FS(℃)

At the end of 2 hours (120 min), the final height of the water remaining in the boiler is

determined by taking the water level reading off the water level indicator. Also recorded is the

mass of fuel used during the experiment. This experiment was repeated three (3) times, from

which averages were calculated and used for the determination of other performance indicators

of the system. The performance indicators of the system evaluated include the thermal efficiency

and the steam discharge rate of the system. The thermal efficiency, ηb , of the system is defined

as the ratio of the useful heat received by the water and steam in the steam boiler to the heat

supplied to the steam boiler, and it is determined using equation (3.17). The steam discharge rate,

q s of the system, is the ratio of the volume of water evaporated as steam at constant pressure to
 32

the time taken, and it is determined using equation (3.24). Also, evaluated is the heat loss Q sp ,

through the walls of the steam boiler with equation (3.25)

Qu
ηb = (3.17)
Qs

Qu=mw C pw ( T w2 −T w1 ) +mb C pb ( T s 2−T s 1 ) + x mo ∆ h vap (3.18)

Q s =CV f ×m f (3.19)

htotal−hf
x= (3.20)
h fg

htotal =m w C pw ( T w 2−T w 1) (3.21)

m o= ρs V s (3.22)

V s =V i−V f (3.23)

Vs
q s= (3.24)
t

( T p−T w )
Qsp =
¿ ( r o /r i ) (3.25)
2 πkh

Where;

Q u= useful heat energy received by water and steam in the steam boiler. (KJ)

Q s = heat energy supplied by the fuel to heat the water and steam in the steam boiler, (KJ)

m w = mass of water filled in the steam boiler shell, (kg)

 33

m b = mass of steam boiler, (kg)

C pb = specific heat of steam boiler material (kJ/kg K)

x = dryness factor of steam

h f -= enthalpy of saturated liquid, 452.81 kJ/kg at 108℃

∆ hvap= latent heat of vaporization saturated liquid, 2235.6 kJ/kg at 108℃

m o = mass of steam generated, kg

h fg= latent heat of vaporization of water, (2260 kJ/kg)

CV f = calorific value of wood charcoal, 405 kJ/kg. (Kulla and Obi, 2005)

m f = mass of fuel utilized, (kg)

ρ s = steam density at STP, obtained as 0.59 kg/m3 from steam property table.

V s = the volume of steam discharged, (m3)

V i = initial volume of water in the steam boiler, (m3)

V f = final volume of water in the steam boiler, (m3)

t = time taken to discharge the generated steam (s)

h = depth of water in the steam boiler, (m)

k = thermal conductivity of the steam boiler material ( )

r o = outer radius of the steam boiler (m)

r i = Internal radius of the steam boiler (m),

3.5 Bill of Engineering Materials and Evaluation

The materials used in the fabrication of the various components of the steam boiler system and

the labor cost involved were quantified and presented in table 3.2. Therefore, the total cost of

producing one unit of the boiler system is Two Hundred and Four Thousand Naira Only.
 34

Table 3.2: Bill of Engineering Materials and Evaluation

S/No Description Quantity Unit price (₦) Amount (₦)

1. Boiler shell 1 100,000 100,000

2. Thermometer 1 4,000 4,000

3. Pressure gauge 1 7,000 7,000

4. Gas burner 1 4,000 4,000

5. High pressure mild steel pipes 2 4,000 8,000

6. Pipe connectors and adapters 14 500 7,000

7. Water level indicator 1 6,000 6,000

8. Flow control valves 3 1000 3,000

9. Labor cost _ _ 50,000

10. Fiber glass sheets 15 1,000 15, 000

Total 204,000

CHAPTER FOUR

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Effects of Heating Time on the Performance of the System

The effects of heating time on the pressure and temperature of the steam in the modified mini

steam boiler were measured using a pressure gauge and mercury thermometer. The result of this

evaluation is shown in figure 4.1. From the graph it was observed that the temperature and

pressure of the steam has a positive linear relationship with the heating time. As the rate of

heating increases, the pressure builds up in the steam boiler shell which is accompanied by an
 35

increase in temperature of the steam. Similarly, in about 10 minutes, the temperature of water

increased from ambient room temperature (25°C) to approximately thirty two degrees (32°C).

On further heating the Temperature of the water reached its boiling point (100°C) at about sixty

minutes (60 min).

140
120
120
100 Figure 4.1: Effects of
100
81
80 Heating Time on
62
60
Temperature and
40 32 30
25
20 15 Pressure of Steam
0 0.12 2 4.5
0
10 20 30 40 50 60
Consequently, the
time (mins)

pressure build up in the

pressure rise (psi) Linear (pressure rise (psi))
Column1
modified boiler

increased from zero (0

psi) to 0.25 psi in the first ten minutes and reached a maximum allowable pressure (30 psi) in

ninety minutes (90min). Hence, in the operation of the integrated palm processing machine, the

heating of the steam will commence at least ninety minutes (90min) prior to the digestion of the

sterilized palm fruit. Similarly, the heat loss through the wall of the steam boiler was determined

and expressed graphically in figure 4.2. As heating is sustained and the time of heating

progresses from zero to ten minutes, the heat loss through the lagged walls of the modified steam

boiler dropped significantly and the heat loss remained relatively low throughout the 120

minutes of operation time. The significant drop in heat loss through the lagged boiler wall is

desirable as it is the characteristics of a boiler to retain heat within the boiler shell. Also the

thermal conductivity of the boiler material is relatively low and the thermal conductivity of the
 36

fiberglass lagging is very low, this implies that when water is heated to its boiling point, the low

thermal conductivity of these materials ensure that the useful heat required to maintain the

temperature of the steam in the modified steam pot is not lost to the environment.

16
14
12
Figure 4.2: Heat
heat loss (W)

10
8
Loss during
6
4
Heating Process
2
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
4.2 Effect
time (min)
of Discharge

Time

The rate of discharge obtained graphically using Figure 4.3 indicates a significant drop in

volume of water in the steam boiler as the discharge time increases. The decrease in volume of

water in the steam boiler is characteristic of the quantity of steam discharged during the time

interval when the Flow control valve is fully opened and the steam injection commenced. For

the first 11 minutes, the volume of water in the steam boiler reduced by 0.4×10 -3consequently, it

can be inferred that the steam discharges at the rate of 6.1×10 -3 Liters per sec which implies that

it will take approximately 8.2 hours to discharge 18 liters of generated steam. Also, when the

valve is fully opened, the pressure of steam drops and this is highlighted in the graph of pressure

drop against the discharge time in figure 4.4

 37

20
18
16
14
Volume ×10-3

12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Discharge time (hrs)

Figure 4.3: Effects of Steam Discharge Rate on Volume of Water

As the valve is opened during the injection and the discharge time progresses from four minutes

to twenty minutes it was recorded that the pressure dropped significantly from25 psi to10 psi.

However it is not desirable for the pressure of the steam to drop less than 12 psi during steam

injection, hence an evaluation of the required valve opening to maintain the steam pressure

within 12psi to 25psi at the boiling temperature was carried out.

30

25
pressure drop (psi)

20 Figure
15
4.4: Effects
10

5 of Discharge
0
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 Rate on
Discharge time (min)
Steam

Pressure
 38

Preliminary evaluation of the valve opening reveals that it takes quarter revolution to completely

open and close the valve. Hence when the valve is fully open the steam drops significantly. The

evaluation table for the number of turns with respect to pressure drop is given in table 4.1 and it

can be seen from the table that when the valve is opening the pressure of the steam leaving the

steam boiler is maintained at12psi to12.8psi. Which is sufficient for proper steam injection into

the digester unit of the integrated oil palm processing machine

Table 4.1: Effects of valve opening on steam pressure drop

Valve opening(degrees) 90 75 60 45 30 15
Pressure drop(psi) 0 1.5 2.7 3.5 5.9 12.8
Operating time (seconds) 70 126 192 264 330 459

4.3 Thermal Efficiency of the Boiler System

The useful heat energy received by the water and steam in the boiler and the heat energy

supplied to heat the water and steam in the steam pot, respectively determined from equation.

(3.18) and (3.19) as14834 kJ/kg and17400 kJ/kg Consequently the thermal efficiency of the

modified mini steam boiler was determined from equation (3.17) As 85.3% This shows that

about 15.7% of the heat supplied to the system is lost to the surrounding.
 39

CHAPTER FIVE

5.1 CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE OF STUDY

This reasearch establishes a framework for effective production of palm oil in the small scale

and medium scale palm oil industries which will use the integrated palm oil processing machine.

5.2 POSSIBLE APPLICATION OF THE PROPOSED RESEARCH

This resarch could be applied in the power industry where the modified mini steam boiler can

be used as a component to develop a mini steam turbine for power generation in resident homes .

This modified mini steam boiler could also be used in the textile industry for dyeing and heating
 40

operations. It could also be used in food processing industry to generate pressurerized steam for

cleaning cooking products, sterilizing foodstuff and canning operations.

5.3 CONCLUSION

A modified mini steam boiler which can be incorporated in the operation of the the integrated

palm oil processing machine for processing palm oil is developed in this study. This boiler

generates steam at temperature and pressure that will be within the ranges of 100℃ to 120℃ and

15psi to 25psi respectively. At the allowable maximum pressure of 25psi, the control valve will

be opened to 15° to enable the pressurized steam flow into the digester unit of the machine and

hot water flow into the screw press unit of the machine to improve the extraction efficiency of

the screw press and oil recovery of the integrated palm oil processing machine.

5.4 RECOMMENDATIONS

I strongly recommend that this modified mini steam boiler be optimized to further increase the

discharge rate at pressures above 15 psi, thus, enhancing the steam quality and increasing the

total efficiency of the integrated palm oil processing machine.

 41

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