98 Chapter2 Modeling in the Frequency Domain 9. What function do gears perform? 10. What are the component parts of the mechanical constants of a motor's transfer function? 11. The motor’s transfer function relates armature displacement to armature voltage: Tow caus the Wanisfer funstivu diat iclates load displace aud armature voltage be determined? 12, Summarize the steps taken to linearize a nonlinear system, GEE ©) er: 1. Derive the Laplace transform for the following time functions [Section: 22] 2. u() b. u(t) . sinaru() a. coset ut) 2. Using the Laplace transform pairs of Table 2. and the Laplace trans- form theorems of Table 22, derive the Laplace transforms for the fol lowing time functions: (Section: 22] a. e-Msin ax u(t) wb. e-Mc0s at u(t) &. Paulo) Repeat Problem 18 in Chapter 1, using Laplace transforms. Assume that the forcing functions are zero prior to 1 = 0. [Section: 22] 4. Repeat Problem 19 in Chapter 1, using Laplace transforms. Use the following initial conditions for each part as follows: (a) x(0) = 4, (0) = 4: (©)x(0) 4, (0) = 1:(6) (0) = 2, ¥(0) = 3, where x0) i} ‘Assume that the forcing functions are zero prior to ¢ = 0. [Section: 22] Use MATLAB and the Symbolic Math Toolbox to find the Laplace transfornof the following tine functions :[section: 2.2 a f(t) = 8etoos(3t +45") b. tle) = 3ee"#sin(de + 60°) 6. Use MATLAB and the Symbolic Math Toolbox to find the inverse wey an slatians 3 . Laplace transform of the following frequency functions: { Section: 2.2) os) = [st 38+ 10)(s+ 5) (ar ala + Ae" + 25+ 100) 4s? 420 ane respaiettseF7) 7. A system is described by the following differential ‘equation: b. 6(s) = 73058 yt ht oft wea ‘eta Find the expression forthe transfer function of the system, ¥(5)/X(). [Section: 23] 8, For each of the following transfer functions, write the corresponding differential equation (Section: 23) X@)_ 7 & Fis) Pa 5s510 X@)_ as » Fi ~GFiNG +1) « XO), 543 * F(s) "SH Tie + O54 18 9. Write the differential equation for the system shown in Figure P2.1. (Section: 2.3] sym ath ne) [epteata ta] Fetteae tears FIGURE P2.1 ‘ymtoicusth 10, Write the differential equation that —_wlepuus is mathematically equivalent to the QZ Cont Statinsblock diagram shown in Figure P2.2. Assume that r= Am Feats 30+ 2843097 FIGURE P2.2 LL. A system is described by the following differential equation: [Section 2.3] @x e with the initial conditions x(0} Show a block diagram of the system, giving. its transfer function and all pertinent inputs and out- puts. (Hint: the initial conditions will show up as added inputs to an effective system with zero initial conditions.) 12, Use MATLAB to generate the transfer function: [Section: 2.3] dr +25 438-1 nares 8(5415)(5 + 26)(5 +72 M0) = TSF BBYla? +58 + 30s + S6)e? +27S+ SA) in the following ways: a, the ratio of factors; b. the ratio of polynomials. 13, Repeat Problem 12 for the following wal transfer function: (Section: 2.3] sf +255) +208? + 15s +42 G(s) = ¥isst +98) 4 31s! + 355+50 14, Use MATLAB to generate the partial- fraction expansion of the following function: [Section: 2.3} 108(s + 5){s-+70) #08) = Sep aBlev Sse 79 + Oe Tee TS) 1. IS, Use MATLAB and the SymbolicMath — synbolcah ‘Toolbox to input and form LTT ob- jects in polynomial and factored form for the following frequency function: (Section: 2.3] aisle bre eye 5282? + 329416 Os) = Ga aaheretnet 20+ 100)le ae ree TTA b. G(s) Sele is)le 40002 462253) = Fa + Tea 65Her + 6bse IONS FEST T 20. Problems 99 16. Find the transfer function. Gls) = Vo(s)/Vi(s). for each network shown in Figure P2.3. (Section: 2.4] (a) - oy < FIGURE P2.3, Find the transfer function, G(s) = V1(s)/V(s). for each network shown in Figure P2.4, (Section: 2.4] 20 20. + oa + 21S wo veh nS un o 2H 20 UF 20 @ FIGURE P2.4 eyes ‘et Stations Find the transfer fumction, G(s) = Vo(s)/ Vi(s). for each network shown in Figure P2.5. Solve the problem using ‘mesh analysis. (Section: 2.4] 1H —~Ti-— iH 1a. OO A eh 2M | 3H 1 ARIF LFS w @ FIGURE P2.5, Repeat Problem 18 using nodal equations. (Section: 24] Write, but do not solve, the mesh and nodal equations for the network of Figure P2.6. [Sec- tion: 2.4] b. Use MATLAB, the Symbolic Math symbole Wah ‘Toolbox, and theequations found Anpartatosolveforthetransfer function, G(s) = Vo(s)/¥(s). Use both the100 Chapter? Modeling inthe Frequency Domain mesh and nodal equations and show that either set yields the sane transfer oka uF function. [Section: 2.4] Pw no FIGURE P2.6 21. Find the transfer function, G(s) = Vo(8)/Vi(s), for each operational amplifier circuit shown in Figure P27 (Section: 2.4] 00 Ks zur | eu 0 009 2yF a @ o 00RD 2ye FIGURE P2.7, 22 Find the transfer function, G(s) = Va(s)/Vi(s) for each operational amplifier circuit shown in Figure P28, (Section: 2.4] a 00K setts o FIGURE P2.8, 23. Find the transfer function, G(s) = X1(s)/F(s), for the translational mechanical system shown in Figure P29. [Section: 2.5] Naim — pte sie |UD 10 FIGURE P29 24, Find the transfer function, G(s) = X2(s)/F(s), for the translational mechanical network shown in Figure P2.10. (Section: 2.5] peso feswn Frictions FIGURE P2.10Problems 101 28. Find the transfer fiction, Gis) = us Xa(s)/F(s), for the translational = ED mechanical system shown in Figure canals P21. (Hint: place a zero mass at 43(0) (Section: 2.5] Sel sean Friones 1 HG. ow H | a 2Nm — SNia ——— 20m LI eee igure P2.11 26. For the system of Figure P2.12 find the transfer 29. Write, but do not solve, the equations of motion for function, G(s) = X1(s)/F(s). (Section: 25] the translational mechanical system shown in Figure 2.15, [Section: 2.5] sn I— a fiy= 2 Nesta FIGURE P2.12 | Ky=4Nim 21, Find the transfer function, Gls) = X(3)/F(s), for the translational mechanical system shown in Figure 2.13. (Section: 2.5] [fetes sw te ww Nm apenas FIGURE P2.15 30. For each of the rotational mechanical systems shown in Figure P2.16, write, but do not solve, the equations of motion. (Section: 2.6] FguRE F213 eremargg 40 1 Natns TR 28. Find the transfer function, Xs(s)/F(s), for each U ‘oNmed 3N-mind system shown in Figure P2.14. [Section: 2.5] (a) > al 0 AME 2 ma o a FGuRE 2.46 31. For the rotational mechanical system wieyrus shown in Figure P2.17, find the transfer function G(s) = 6(s)/T(s) (Section: con seatins 2.6)102 Chapter? mrad TO nw eT = 1 Nash FIGURE 2.17, 32. For the rotational mechanical system with gears shown in Figure P2.18, find the transfer function, G(s) = 6s(s)/T(s). The gears have inertia and bear- ing friction as shown. [Section: 27] mH nw |M ees U JuDt Ms Ms JuDa JnPs aay My FIGURE P2.18 33. For the rotational system shown in Figure P2.19, find the transfer function, G(s) = 6,(s)/7(s). [Section: 2.7] no, nes (Y= 2k YD, = Nem snd ye 22N nana EH | FIGURE P2.19 34. Find the transfer function, G(s) = #2(s)/T(s}. for the rotational mechanical system shown in Figure 2.20, (Section: 2.7] Nyu2s FIGURE P2.20 Modeling inthe Frequeney Domain 35, Find the transfer function, G(s) = #4(3)/T(s), for the rotational system shown in Figure P2.21 {Section: 2.7] PS 26 str {LE eur 8 [co ] 2Nankad FIGURE P2.21 740 UN [sens M0 36. For the rotational system shown in Figure P2.22, find the transfer function, G(s) = 6: (s)/T(3). [See- tion: 2.7] 2Neawsiad 3Nmind EW —"= 50 = Tien neue \ 041 msi | FIGURE P2.22 [37 For the rotational system shown in eyes Figure P2.23, write the equations of motion from which the transfer func- corel sons tion, G(s) = 0(s)/7(s), can be found. [Section: 2.7] Ny HONE HLA FIGURE P2.23 38. Given the rotational system shown in Figure P2.24, find the transfer function, G(s) = G(s)/6(s) {Section: 2.7]FIGURE P2.24 39. In the system shown in Figure P2.25, the inertia, J, of radius, , is constrained to move only about the station- ary axis A. A viscous damping force of translational value f, exists between the bodies J and M. If an extemal force, (9, is applied to the mass, find the transfer function, G(s) = 6(s)/F(s) (Sections: 25;2.6] z es FIGURE P2.25 40. For the combined translational and rotational sys- tem shown in Figure P2.26, find the transfer fune- tion, G(s) = X(s)/T(s). [Sections: 2.5; 2.6; 2.7] J=3kem mtd =| 103 nm a FIGURE P2.27 42. For the motor, load, and torque-speed curve shown in Figure P2.28, find the transfer function, G(s) = 6:(s)/Ba(s). (Section: 28] % m=90 cao N-mastad au) ov ats) 1 FIGURE P2.28 43, The motor whose torque-speed characteristics are shown in Figure P2.29 drives the load shown in the diagram. Some of the gears have inertia. Find the transfer function, G(s) = 6(8)/Ea(s). (Section: 2.8] FIGURE P2.26 41, Given the combined translational and “wileyPtus rotational system shown in Figure @i P2.27, find the transfer function, contol solutions G(s) = X(9/7().[Seetions: 2.5.2.5] 609] Mowe ||" "" Jit ken? % Me juazegatl 2h? N= a2 Nama Ce Tm) 5 sv Row 2 rguRe P2.29104 Chapter 2 Modeling in the 44, A de motor develops 55 N-m of torque at a speed of 600 rad/s when 12 volts are applied. It stalls out at this voltage with 100 N-m of torque. If the inertia and damping of the armature are 7 kg-m? and 3 N-m-sirad, respectively, find the transfer function, G(s) = 6,(s)/Ea(s), of this motor if it drives an inertia load of 105 kg-m* through a gear tlm, so shown In igure P20 (Secon 29 45 nis chapter, ve derived thes transfer function of a de motor Rinlog the angiar depice: oe ment output to the armature voltage input. Often we want to control the out- put torque rather than the displacement. Derive the transfer function of the motor that relates, output torque to input armature voltage. [Section: 2.8] 46, Find the transfer function, G(s) = X(s)/Ea(s), for the system shown in Figure P2.3. [Sections: .5-2.8] re Weal iets i st Nino a Boe oe Nava fizarasacs | rice 231 47. Find the serics and parallel analogs for the transla tional mechanical system shown in Figure 2.20 in the text. (Section: 2.9] Frequency Domain 48. Find the series and parallel analogs for the rota- tional mechanical systems shown in Figure P2.16() in the problems. [Section: 2.9] A system's output, cis related to the system's input, 1, by the straight-line relationship, c = Sr +7. Is the system linear? (Section: 2.10] 50, Consider the differential equation fe af cae where f(x) is the input and is a function of the output, x. If f(x) = sing, linearize the differential ‘equation for small excursions. (Section: 2.10] ax-0 bxox 51. Consider the differential equation wey ma = ‘Control Solutions #01 300 = 709) where f(x) is the input and is a function of the output, x. If flx) —e~% linearize the differential equation for x near 0. (Section: 2.10] 2. Many systems are piecewise linear. That is, over a large range of variable values, the system can be described linearly. A system with amplifier satura- tion is one such example. Given the differential equation @x jgdk Gating + sr = fla) assume that f(x) is as shown in Figure P2.32. Write the differential equation for each of the following ranges of x: [Section: 2.10] a -00 0. $7. The circuit shown in Figure P2.35(a) is excited with the pulse shown in Figure P2.35(b). 2a + 5 BV ota (7 SFR we [Smee @ ® FIGURE P2.35 ‘The Laplace transform can be used to calculate v6(¢) in two different ways: The “exact” method is per- formed by writing v(t) = 3[u() — u(t —0.005)], from which we use the Laplace transform to obtain Vinks) (Hint; look at Item 5 in Table 2.2, the time shift theorem) In the second approach the pulse is approxi mated by an impulse input having the same area (energy) as the original input. From Figure P2.35(6): Vin(t) © (3 V)(S msec) 6(¢) = 0.0156(0). In this case, V,,(5) = 0.015. This approximation can he msed as long as the width of the pulse of Figure P235(0) is ‘much smaller than the circuit's smallest time constant (Here, r= RC = (20)(4F) = 8sec > S msec.) . Assuining the capacitor is initially discharged, obtain an analytic expression for ve(t) using both methods. b. Plot the results of both methods using any means available to you, and compare both outputs. Discuss the differences. ‘58, In a magnetic levitation experiment a metallic ob- ject isheld up in the air suspended under an electro- ‘magnet. The vertical displacement of the object can ‘Modeling in the Frequency Domain bbe described by the following nonlinear differential equation (Galvao, 2003) @H mS = mg —k where ‘m= mass of the metallic object = gravity acceleration constant k= apositive constant H = distance between the electromagnet and the metallic object (output signal) 1 = electromagnet’s current (input signal) 4 Show that a system's equilibrium will be achieved when Ho = Toya b Linearize the equation about the equilibrium point found in Part a and show that the resulting transfer function obtained from the linearized differential equation can be expressed as He) ___a ‘aT(s) ee with a > 0, Hint:to perform the linearization, define 8H = H(t) — Ho and 81 = I(t) — Io: substitute imo the original equation. This will give & (Ho + 5H) o+an? 2 te Now get a first-order Taylor’ series approximation on the right-hand side of the equation, Namely, calculate 5H ea 81-0, 51-0 till _ Oy "Gt ~ OH 0,300 59, Figure P2.36 shows a quarter-car model commonly used for analyzing suspension systems. The car's tire is considered to act as a spring without damping, as, shown. The parameters of the model ate (Lin, 1997) My = car's body mass wheel's mass trut’s spring constant K, = fire's spring constant ‘fy = strut’s damping constant r = road disturbance (input) Xs = car's vertical displacement Je = wheel's vertical displacementObtain the transfer function from the road disture XG bance to the car's vertical displacement 22°) Ris) carBody FIGURE P2.36 _ Quarter-car model used for suspension design. (© 1997 IEEE) 60. Enzymes are large proteins that biological systems use 10 increase the rate at which reactions occur. For example, food is usually composed of large mole- cules that are hard to digest; enzymes break down the large molecules into small nutrients as part of the digestive process. One such enzyme is amyla: contained in human saliva. It is commonly known that if you place a piece of uncooked pasta in your ‘mouth its taste will change from paper-like to sweet as amylase breaks down the carbohydrates into sugars. Enzyme breakdown is often expressed by the following relation: SHEsCHP In this expression a substrate (S) interacts with an enzyme (E) to form a combined product (C) at a rate kj, The intermediate compound is reversible and gels disassociated at a rate Ks. Simultaneously some of the compound is transformed into the final ‘product (P) at a rate ks. The kinetics describing this reaction are known asthe Michaelis-Menten equations and consist of four nonlinear differential equations However, under some conditions these equations can be simplified. Let Eo and Sy be the intial concentra- tions of enzyme and substrate, respectively. Itis gener- ally accepted that under some energetic conditions or when the enzyme concentration is very big (Ey > So), a. Problems 107 ‘the kinetics for this reaction are given by as F = ktKC-S) dc x G7 KelS— Ru) ap ae = hC where the following constant terms are used (Schnell, 2004) and 1a, Assuming the initial conditions for the reaction are $(0) = So, E(0) = Eo, C(0) = P(O) = 0, find the Laplace transform expressions for S, C, and P: £{S}, L{C}, and L{P}, respectively. b. Use the final theorem to find S(o0), C(co), and P(co). Humans are able to stand on two legs through a complex feedback system that includes several sensory ‘nputs—equilibrium and visual along with muscle ac- tuation. In order to gain a better understanding of the ‘workings of the postural feedback mechanism, an individual is asked to stand on a platform to which sensorsare attached atthe base. Vibration actuators are attached with straps to the individual’s calves. As the vibration actuators are stimulated, the individual sways ‘and movements are recorded. It was hypothesized that the human postural dynamics are analogous o those of cart with a balancing standing pole attached (inverted pendulum). In that cas, the dynamics can be described by the following two equations: a 2 = melsin 90) + Toa + Tal) Thai(t) = —megi sin 6(t) + K/0(0) — nO(0) ats where m is the individual's mass; is the height of, the individual's center of gravity; g is the gravita- tional constant; J is the individual's equivalent ‘moment of inertia; n, p. and k are constants given by the body’s postural control system; 6(¢) is the108 a. a Chapter 2 individual’s angle with respect to a vertical line; Toai(t)is the torque generated by the body muscles to maintain balance; and T¢(t) is the external torque input disturbance. Find the transfer func- tion 2 Johansson, 1988). Tas) Figure P2.37 shows crane hoisting a load. Al though the actual system’s model is highly non- linear, if the rope is considered to be stiff with a fixed length L, the system can be modeled using the following equations: mukta= mgd mrkr = fp~migd male where m, is the mass of the load, my is the mass of the cart, xr and x; are displacements as defined in the figure, @ is the rope angle with respect to the vertical, and f is the force applied to the cart (Marttinen, 1990). ‘a. Obtain the transfer function from cart velocity to (5) Vrs) 1b. Assnme that the cart is driven at a constant velocity Vo and obtain an expression for the resulting ¢(). Show that under this condition, rope angle the load will sway with a frequency ap = VE ¢. Find the transfer function from the applied force Xz(s) Fri)" d. Show that if a constant force is applied to the cart, its velocity wll increase without bound as + oo. to the cart’s position, FIGURE P2.37 (© 1990 IEEE) Tn 1978, Malthns developed a model for human growth population that is also commonly used to ‘model bacterial growth as follows. Let N(A) be the population density observed at time t Let K be the Modeling in the Frequency Domain rate of reproduction per unit time. Neglecting pop- ulation deaths, the population density at a time 1+ At (with small At) is given by N(c+ Ae) = (0) + KN(OAt which also can be written as, N+ Ad) - NO at = KN) Since N(#) can be considered to be a very large number, letting At — 0 gives the following differen- tial equation (Edelstein-Keshet, 2005): ante) = KN) a. Assuming an initial population N(0) = No, solve the differential equation by finding (0). b. Find the time at which the population is double the initial population. (64, Blood vessel blockages can in some instances be diagnosed through noninvasive techniques such as the use of sensitive microphones to detect flow acoustic anomalies. In order to predict the sound properties of the left coronary artery, a model has ‘been developed that partitions the artery into 14 segments, as shown in Figure P2.38(@) @FIGURE P2.38 (© 1990 IEEE) Each segment is then modeled through the anal- ‘ogous electrical circuit of Figure P2.38(b), resulting in the total model shown in Figure P2.38(c), where eight terminal resistances (Z) have been added. In the electrical model, pressure is analogous to volt- age and blood flow is analogous to current. As an example, for Segment 3 it was experimentally veri- fied that Rs = 41760, C3 = 0.98uF, Ls = 140.6H, and Zs = 308, 163.9 (Wang, 1990). a. For Segment 3, find the transfer function from Qos(s) Pals) b, It is well known in circuit analysis that if a constant input is applied to a circuit such as the one of Figure P2.38(), the capacitor can be substituted by an open circuit and the inductor can be substituted by a short circuit as time approaches infinity. Use this fact to calculate the flow through Zs after a constant unit pres- sure pulse is applied and time approaches infinity {input pressure to blood flow through Zs, Problems 109 ©. Verify the result obtained in Part b using the transfer function obtained in Part a and applying the final value theorem. 8. In order to design an underwater vehicle that has the characteristics of both a long-range transit vehi- cle (torpedo-like) and a highly maneuverable low- speed vehicle (boxlike), researchers have developed a thruster that mimics that of squid jet locomotion (Krieg, 2008). It has been demonstrated there that the average normalized thrust due to a command Tog step input, U(s 1 is given by: T(t) = Tyg(l =) + asin(2aft) where Ty, is the reference or desired thrust, & is the system's damping constant, ais the amplitude of the oscillation caused by the pumping action of the actuator, f is the actuator frequency, and T(0) is the average resulting normalized thrust. Find te ser ante feon £2) 66. The Gompertz growth model is commonly used to model tumor cell growth, Let (2) be the tumor's volume, then Show all steps. av(0) dt where 4 and @ are two appropriate constants, (Edelstein-Keshet, 2005). a Verify that the solution to this equation is given by vit) = veel“), where vp is the initial tumor volume b. This model takes into account the fact that when nutrients and oxygen are scarce at the tumor's core, its growth is impaired. Find the final pre- dicted tumor volume (let -+ 0c) ©. For a specific mouse tumor, it was experimen- tally found that = 2.5 days, a = 0.1 days with vp = 50 x 10 mm? (Chignola, 2005). Use any method available to make a plot of v(2) vs. 4. Check the result obtained in Part with the results from the graph from Part c. evo) PROGRESSIVE ANALYSIS AND DESIGN PROBLEMS 67. High-speed rail pantograph. Problem 21 in Chap- ter 1 discusses active control of a pantograph mechanism for high-speed rail systems. The dia- gram for the pantograph and catenary coupling is shown in Figure P239(a). Assume the simplified model shown in Figure P2.39(b), where the catenary is represented by the spring, Kyy. (O'Connor, 1997)110 Chapter 2 Pantograph shoe ty | Head mass et ap | Fem nae Frome & Ft suspension Dizection of travel a. Find the transfer function, Gy(s) = Yea(s)/ F p(s), where Y(t) isthe catenary displacement and fyp(t) is the upward force applied to the pantograph under active control. b. Find the transfer function Ga(s) = ¥x(8)/Fip(s), where y,(¢) is the pantograph head displacement. ©. Find the transfer function, G(s) = (Ya(s)— Yeu(s))/Fup(s). 68. Control of HIV/AIDS. HIV inflicts its damage by infecting healthy CD4 + T cells (a type of white blood cell) that are necessary to fight infection. As the virus embeds ina T cell and the immune system produces more of these cells to fight the infection, the virus propagates in an opportunistic fashion. As ‘we now develop a simple HIV model, refer to Figure 2.40, Normally T eells are produced ata rate s and ie at a rate d. The HIV virus is present in the bloodstream in the infected individual. These viruses in the bloodstream, called free viruses, infect healthy T cells at a rate p. Also, the viruses repro- duce through the T cell multiplication process or otherwise at a rate k: Free viruses die at a rate c. Infected T cells die at a rate ‘Modeling in the Frequency Domain =] BB kes 1.535% 105Nin i 3 x-m3x108Nm My=9.18, Ky 710 Nim Llerwmee a aye | fig =30-m o simplified representation showing the ative-control force (Reprinted eee] 3. le te |. FIGURE P2.40 (© 2004 IEEE) ‘A simple mathematical model that illustrates these interactions is given by the following equa- tions (Craig, 2004): aT de wr dt dy a69, where T = number of healthy T cells T* =number of infected T cells » =number of free viruses a, The system is nonlinear; thus linearization is necessary to find transfer functions as you will do in subsequent chapters. The nonlinear nature Of this model can be seen from the above equa- tions, Determine which of these equations are linear, which are nonlinear, and explain why. b. The system has two equilibrium points. Show that these are given by (To, T= ($,0.0) and Hybrid vehicle. Problem 23 in Chapter 1 discusses the cruise control of serial, parallel, and split- power hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). The func- tional block diagrams developed for these HEVs indicated that the speed of a vehicle depends upon the balance between the motive forces (developed by the gasoline engine andior the electric motor) and running resistive forces. The resistive forces include the aerodynamic drag, rolling resistance, and climbing resistance. Figure P2.41 illustrates, the running resistances for a car moving uphill (Bosch, 2007). FIGURE P2.41 Running resistances Problems am ‘The total running resistance, Fx is calculated as Fy = Fro + Fy + Fy, where Fp, isthe rolling resst- ance, Fy is the aerodynamic drag. and Fy is the climbing resistance. The aerodynamic drag is propor- tional to the square of the sum of car velocity x and. thehead-wind velocity, ip.OFY + Vjy. The other two resistances are funetions of car weight, G, and the gradient ofthe road (given by the gradient angle. a), as seen from the following equations: Fry = fGoosa = fmgcosa where f= coefficient of rolling resistance, ‘m = car mas, ine, g = gravitational acceleration, in m/s”. Fy, = 0.5pCyA(v + Vw)? where p= airdensity, in kg/m* Cy = coefficient of aerodynamic drag, largest cross-section of the car, in kg/t Fs = Gsina = mgsina ‘The motive force, F, available at the drive wheels is: Pies F hor where T = motive torque, motive power, (otal transinission ratio, tire radius, (otal drive-train efficiency. or ‘The surplus force, F — F,, accelerates the vehicle (or retmstwhenF, > PLetinge = a. Show that car acceleration.!® a, may be deter wherea F = fing cose + mgsina + 0.5pCyA(v + Vine)? + ky mat ‘Other quantities such as top speed. climbing ability. ee. may also be caeulated by manipulation from that equation.