ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II

Chapter 1
Introduction to Manufacturing and Production

Mechanical Engineering Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana

University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 What is Manufacturing?

Manus (hand) + Factus (make) = Manufacture

 Technologically: It is the application of  Economically: It is the transformation of

physical and chemical processes to alter materials into items of greater value by
geometry, properties and/or appearance of means of one or more processing and/or
a starting material to make parts/products assembly operations.
including assembly of multiple parts.

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 Manufactured Products and Production Quantity
Final products made by the industries can be divided into two major classes:
 Consumer goods: products purchased directly by consumers (e.g. TV, car, tires, etc.)
 Capital goods: purchased by other companies to produce goods and supply services
(e.g. aircrafts, machine tools, construction equipment, etc.)

 Production quantity: refers to the number  Production variety: refers to

of units produced annually of a particular different product designs/types
product type. The quantity of products made that are produced in the plant.
annually by a factory (Q) can be classified
into three ranges:

low production: Q < 100

medium production: 100 < Q < 10 000
high production: 10 000 < Q

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 Manufacturing is Important
Manufacturing is important: technologically, economically, and historically
 Technology can be defined as the application of science to provide society and its members
with those things that are needed or desired. Thus, manufacturing is the essential factor that
makes technology possible.
 Economically, manufacturing is important means by which a nation creates material wealth.
 Historically, the importance of manufacturing in the development of civilization is usually
underestimated. However, throughout history, human cultures that were better at making
things were more successful.

Production vs Manufacturing
 The words PRODUCTION and MANUFACTURING are often used interchangeably.
 The difference is the raw material: In production, raw material is not procured from outside.
In manufacturing, company procures raw material from outside and makes the final product.
 Production has broader meaning than manufacturing: Every manufacturing is production,
but every production is not manufacturing.
 For example, “oil production” seems better than “oil manufacturing”.
On the other hand, we can usually use both terms for metal parts and automobiles.
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Classification of Manufacturing Processes Solidification Processes

Particulate Processing
Shaping Processes
Deformation Processing

Material Removal

Processing
Property Enhancing Processes Heat Treatment
Operations

Cleaning and Surface Treatments

Surface Processing Operations
Coating and Deposition Processes
Manufacturing
Processes
Welding

Permanent Joining Processes Brazing and Soldering

Assembly Adhesive Bonding
Operations

Threaded Fasteners
Mechanical Fastening
Permanent Fastening Methods

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 Manufacturing Process Selection
Manufacturing process selection depends upon several criteria:
- Geometric features of the parts to be produced
- Dimensional tolerances
- Surface texture
- Workpiece material
- and so on…

Examples:
- Flat parts and thin cross sections can be difficult to cast.
- Complex parts generally cannot be shaped easily and economically
by such metal working techniques.
- Dimensional tolerances and surface finish in hot-working operations
are not a fine as compared to cold working.

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 Near-shape and Near-net shape Manufacturing
 Net-shape and near net-shape manufacturing together constitute an important methodology
by which a part is made in only one operation at or close to the FINAL desired dimensions,
tolerances, and surface finish.

 The difference between them is a matter of degree (i.e. how close the product is to its final
dimensional characteristics).

cast or forged gear crankshaft forging die

a part produced by
connecting rod additive manufacturing
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 Precision and Ultra-Precision Manufacturing
 Micromechanical (MM) and microelectromechanical (MEM) device fabrication needs highly
sophisticated technologies and highly accurate equipments.
 Micromachining uses cutting tool nose of 250 µm.
 The equipments (or machines) used in precision or ultra-precision manufacturing should be
highly specialized, with very high stiffness (to minimise deflection as well as vibration and
chatter during machining) and should be operated in a temperature-controlled environment
in order to avoid thermal distortions.

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 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
 CIM integrates software and hardware needed for computer graphics, computer-aided
modelling/design (CAD) and computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) activities, from initial
product concept through its production and distribution in the market place.

Machining a mold cavity for making sunglasses

(left) Computer model of sunglasses as designed and viewed
on the monitor.
(right) Machining of the die cavity, using a computer numerical-
control milling machine.
Source: Courtesy of Mastercam/CNC Software, Inc.
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 Computer Integrated Manufacturing (CIM)
Elements of CIM:

1. Computer Numerical Control (CNC): Multiple-axes computer-controlled machines

2. Adaptive Control (AC): adjustment of process parameters using sensors

3. Industrial robots

4. Automated materials handling

5. Automated assembly systems

6. Computer-Aided Process Planning (CAPP): improving productivity and product quality

7. Group Technology (GT): grouping and manufacturing similar parts together

8. Just-in-Time Production (JIT): delivering everything in time

9. Cellular Manufacturing (CM): different operations made in different cells

10. Flexible Manufacturing Systems (FMS): re-arranging factory layout for different parts

11. Artificial Intelligence (AI): imitating/simulating human brain for learning/optimising features

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 Production Systems

TYPES OF PRODUCTION

CONTINUOUS MASS & BATCH GROUP SINGLE

FLOWLINE TECHNOLOGY ONE OFF

Continuous Production
 Material/product to the same specification is produced continuously for 24 hrs throughout
the year except for maintenance or seasonal variation of raw material supply.

 Highly automated and specialised process that uses special machinery and equipment
(if the process is stopped even for a short time, damage of materials/equipment will occur)

 Typical examples are: oil refineries, iron and steel production, etc.

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 Production Systems
Mass and Flowline Production
 It covers mechanical items to be manufactured one after the other to the same specifications
throughout the year in 1, 2, or 3 shifts until the model changes.
 The demand must be in large quantities.

 Highly automated transfer facilities and special purpose machines are used (involving
heavy capital expenditure on plant).
 Manufacture of motor cars is an example.

Batch Production (Job Lot or Intermittent)

 It processes items when and as ordered. Small lot of items is ordered, and once the lot is
completed it is likely that it will never be manufactured again.
 Flexibility of operations is very important.
 General purpose automatic machines are used.
 Degree of automation depends on production volume (generally small volume items).
 Same product may be produced several times a year at different dates.
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 Production Systems
Group Technology (GT) or Cellular Production
 It is the definition of identifying and bringing related or similar parts together in a
production process in order to utilize the inherent economy of flow production methods.
 GT in manufacturing is the replacing of traditional job lot manufacture by analysis and
grouping of work into families (size, shape, material, tolerance, surface finish and required
production operations) and formation of groups of machines to manufacture these families
on a flowline principle with the object of minimizing setting times and throughput times.

One Off (Single) Production

 Single or few machinery, equipment or vessels are manufactured to a specified design.
 General purpose machine tools for specific sizes are used.
 Automation is generally not considered (except welding).
 Production of marine gearboxes, ship building are typical examples.

Production for Repair and Maintenance

 No new end product except that the present one is repaired.
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 Organization of Production (Plant Layout)
 Plant Layout is the act of planning to obtain the optimum arrangement of industrial facilities
(including personal, operating equipment, storage space, material handling equipment) and
all other supporting services with the design of the best structure to contain these facilities.

 In practice, most factories are laid out using a combination of different layouts.

THE BEST
Men LAYOUT Materials

Supporting
Machine activities

TYPES OF LAYOUT

FIXED POSITION PROCESS CELLULAR PRODUCT

LAYOUT LAYOUT LAYOUT LAYOUT

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 Fixed Position Layout

Characteristics Tools
– The least important today Labour
– e. g. shipbuilding, house building, Materials
large assembly works
Product remains
in a fixed position
Advantages
– Allows worker to identify with a particular product resulting in high job satisfaction
and high quality standards
– Flexible (allows frequent product or design changes)
– May reduce investment in mechanical handling equipment
– Adaptable to changes in demand

Disadvantages
– High degree of skill required. This can limit flexibility and put up cost of labour.
– May cause scheduling problems where more than one group of workers is involved.
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 Product Layout

Raw Material C D T M G Finished product

Characteristics
– Only one type of product is produced. Machines are arranged in the order of operation.
– The product must be standardized and manufactured in large quantities.
Advantages
– high through-put
– usually less skilled labour required
– lower total material handling cost
– lower total production time
– less work-in-progress
– high level of performance due to greater incentive for group of workers
– less floor area required per unit of production
– simple production control, fewer records and lower accounting cost
Disadvantages
– Inflexible to design, processing and volume changes
– High initial capital investment required
– Susceptible to absenteeism, breakdown and dispute
– Difficult to balance lines 18
 Process (Functional) Layout
Characteristics
– groups all identical operations together
– workpiece passes from dept. to dept. C C M M T T G G
according to sequence of operations
C M M T T G G
Advantages
– flexible (a wide variety of products, frequent design changes and varying demand)
– easy to maintain continuity in case of breakdown by transferring work to another machine
– less duplication of equipment, hence lower total investment in equipment
– better and more efficient supervision possible through specialization
– high level of performance
– better control of process
Disadvantages
– high cost of material handling
– lower through-put
– high work-in-progress
– skilled labour is required
– extensive scheduling and control required 19
 Product Layout vs Process Layout

WHEN TO USE PRODUCT LAYOUT WHEN TO USE PROCESS LAYOUT

One or few standard product Many types or styles of products
Large volume of production of each item Relatively low volume of individual product
Possibility of motion and time studies to Adequate motion and time studies difficult
determine rate of work or impossible to make
Possibility of good labour and equipment Difficult to achieve labour and equipment
balance balance
Minimum of inspection required during Many inspection required during sequence
sequence of operations of operations
Minimum of very heavy equipment High portion of very heavy equipment
requiring special facilities requiring special facilities
Materials and products permit bulk or Materials and products are too large or too
continuous handling by mechanical means heavy to permit bulk or continuous handling
by mechanical means
Little or no need to use the same machine Frequent need to use same machine work
or workstation for more than one operation station for more than one operation
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 Group Technology (Cellular Layout)

C G C G M T C G

T M M T M T

Characteristics
– groups together similar parts
– mass and flowline principle is applied to each cell

Which Layout to Use?

Production System Layout Type
Single (one-off) Fixed position
Batch Process
Mass/flowline/continuous Product
GT Cellular
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 Manufacturing Costs
 The economics of manufacturing has become even more important with:
– ever-increasing global competition
– the demand for the high quality products

 Typically, the manufacturing cost of a product represents about 40% of its selling price,
which is often the overriding consideration in a product marketability and general customer
satisfaction.

 Total cost of manufacturing of a product generally consists of following components:

 Materials: raw material costs
 Tooling: cutting tools, dies, molds, work-holding devices, and fixtures
 Fixed: Cost of energy, rent for facilities, insurance and real-estate taxes
 Capital: production machinery, equipment, buildings, and land
 Labor: Direct and indirect costs. Direct labor is productive labor which directly related to
the production. Indirect laboring is for servicing of the total manufacturing operations.

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 Product Design
 Product design involves creative
and systematic definition of shape
and characteristics of an artifact to
achieve specified objectives while
simultaneously satisfying several
constraints.

(a) Chart showing various steps involved in traditional

design and manufacture of a product. Depending on
the complexity of the product and the type of materials
used, the time span between the original concept and
the marketing of the product may range from a few
months to several years.
(b) Chart showing general product flow in concurrent
engineering, from market analysis to marketing the
product.
Source: After S. Pugh.
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 Concurrent Engineering
 Concurrent (Simultaneous) Engineering refers to the applications of tools, techniques,
methodologies, and behavioral initiatives that are used to minimize the product development
timescales by maximizing the degree of overlap of design activities.

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 Green Design and Manufacturing
 Millions of cars, tires, lamps, plastic products, etc. are discarded every year.
 From manufacturing viewpoint; manufacturing operations generally produce waste such as:
– chips
– slag
– additives (sand casting operations)
– hazardous waste
– lubricants and coolants
– processed liquids
– solvents
– smoke and pollutants

 Green design concerns with selection of environmentally-friendly materials and processes.

 Green manufacturing is now concerning to reuse the waste products and recycle them in
an effective way.

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ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 2
Foundry Processes

Mechanical Engineering Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana

University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Introduction – Some Terminology
 Foundry processes (döküm prosesleri) consist of making molds (kalıp), preparing and
melting metal into the molds, cleaning castings (döküm), and reclaiming the sand for reuse.

 Founding (casting) is the process of forming objects by putting liquid or viscous material
into a prepared mold or form. Solidification generally takes place by cooling (in case of
metallic materials) although it may not be necessary in case of some plastics.

 A casting (döküm) is a part (an object) formed by allowing the material to solidify. In other
words, casting is the product of foundry, which may vary from a fraction of a gram to several
tons. Almost all metals and alloys can be cast.

 A foundry (dökümhane) is a collection of all necessary material and equipment to produce

a casting.

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 Introduction – Advantages & Disadvantages
Advantages Disadvantages
 Complex shapes  Poor accuracy
 Net-shape ability  Poor surface
 Very large parts  Internal defects
 Variety of metals  Mechanical properties
 Mass production  Environmental impact

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 Introduction – Casting Nomenclature
 Casting technology involves the following steps:

Mold Preparation Metal Heating Pouring Cooling Processing

 The figure below shows the nomenclature of mold and castings in sand casting:
Kalıp boşluğundaki dökme metal
Döküm ağzı

Maça
Besleyici
Üst derece
Düşey yolluk

Ayırma yüzeyi
Yatay yolluk
Derece
Kalıp Alt derece

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 Introduction – Casting Nomenclature
 Pouring cup, downsprue, runners and others are known as mold gating system, which
serves to deliver the molten metal to all sections of the mold cavity.

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 Introduction – Elements in Casting
 To understand the foundry process, it is necessary to know how a mold is made and what
factors are important to produce a good casting.

 The following elements that are necessary for the production of sand casting will be
considered throughout this chapter:
1. Mold
2. Pattern
3. Core
4. Molding procedure
5. Sand
6. Properties of cast liquid
7. Behavior of cast material

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 Molds
 A mold (kalıp) is the container that has the cavity of shape to be cast. It is made of metal,
plaster, ceramics, or other refractory substances. Good castings can not be produced
without good molds.

 There are two types of molds:

1. Permanent Mold: A mold that is used more than once. They are generally produced
from metallic materials such as heat resisting (Ni-Cr) steels.

2. Expendable Mold: A mold that is used only once, then destroyed to separate the part.
They are generally produced from sand. For casting of ferrous materials, we have to
use this type of mold since their melting points are very high.

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 Molds
 There are several types of expendable molds, but we will deal with sand molds only:

a) Green Sand Mold: The most common type consisting of forming the mold from damp
molding sand (silica, clay and moisture).

b) Skin-dried Mold: It is done in two ways: (1) Sand around the pattern to a depth of
about 1/2 inches (10 mm) is mixed with a binder so that when it is dried it will leave a hard
surface on the mold. (2) Entire mold is made from green sand, but a spray or wash, which
hardens when heat is applied, is used.

c) Dry Sand Mold: It is made entirely from fairly coarse molding sand, mixed with binders
such as linseed oil (bezir yağı) or gelatinised starch (nişasta). They are baked before
being used. A dry sand mold holds its shape when poured, and it is free from gas problems
due to moisture.

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 Molds
 A mold should have the following characteristics:

 The mold must be strong enough to hold the weight of metal.

 The mold must resist the erosive action of rapidly flowing metal during pouring.

 The mold must generate the minimum amount of gas when filled with molten metal.

 The mold must be constructed in such a way that any gas formed can pass through body
of the mold itself (i.e. permeability).

 The mold must be refractory enough to withstand high temperature of the metal.

 The mold must collapse easily after the casting solidifies.

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 Patterns
 A pattern (model) is a form used to prepare and produce a mold cavity. It is generally
made from wood (which has the disadvantage of humidity absoption). Therefore, it can be
produced from materials like aluminum alloys (which are low in density).

 Designer of a casting must look forward to the pattern to assure economical production.
The design should be as simple as possible to make the pattern easy to draw from the
sand and avoid more cores than necessary.

 The pattern may be permanent, so that it may be reused repeatedly. Alternatively, it may
be expendable (disposable), made up of a material that is melted out before or burnt up
during casting.

 The pattern has some dimensional variations from the real component (i.e. casting). These
variations are called pattern allowances.

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 Patterns
 One major requirement is that patterns (and therefore the mold cavity) must be oversized:
– to account for shrinkage in cooling and solidification
– to provide sufficient metal for the subsequence machining operation(s)

 Types of patterns used in sand casting:

(a) solid pattern (b) split pattern (c) match-plate pattern (d) cope-and-drag pattern

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 Patterns

Solid pattern for a pinion gear

Split pattern showing the two sections

together and separated. Light-colored
portions are core prints.

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 Pattern Allowances
1. Shrinkage Allowance: Shrinkage takes place in a volumetric way, but it is given linearly.
Each dimension is measured with a shrinkage rule, which automatically gives shrinkage
allowance (expressed as in/ft). When metal patterns are to be cast from an original master
pattern, double shrinkage must be given.

Cast Iron Steel Al Brass Bronze

in/ft 1/8 1/4 5/32 3/36 1/8-1/4
% 1.04 2.08 1.30 2.0 1.04-2.08

2. Draft: The taper placed on sides of pattern on parting line. Allows pattern to be removed
from the mold without damaging sand surface. Added to dimensions on the parting line:
Exterior dimensions: 1/8 - 1/4 (in/ft), 1.04 - 2.08 (%)
Interior dimensions: As large as 3/4 (in/ft), 6.25 (%)

3. Machining Allowance: It is given on the working areas of part where further machining
will be performed. In value, it is equal to the shrinkage allowance.

4. Shake: Negative allowance is given by making pattern slightly smaller to compensate for
rapping (takalama) of the mold.
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 Pattern Allowances
 The following figure shows pattern allowances for a cast connecting rod:

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 Cores
 A core (maça) is a body of material, usually sand, used to produce a cavity in/on a casting.
A core must have sufficient strength to support itself and should not fracture when liquid
metal is approaching to it.

 Cores are classified as below:

a) Green-sand cores: formed by the pattern and made from the same sand as rest of mold.
b) Dry-sand cores: made separately to be inserted after the pattern is drawn, but before
mold is closed. They are usually made of clean river sand (40 parts) which is mixed with
a binder (1 part) and then baked to give the desired shape.

 The most commonly used binder

is linseed oil (bezir yağı), which
forms a film around sand grain
and hardens when baked at
180-2200 °C for 2 hours. Others
are wheat flour, dextrin, starch
and some thermoset plastics.

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 Cores
 A core box (maça kutusu)
is the box in which the cores
are formed to proper shape.
They are made of foundry
sand with addition of some
resin for strength by means
of core boxes.

 The figure shows a core box

(two core halves ready for
baking, and the complete
core made by gluing the two
halves together).

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 Cores
 In some cases, cores are supported by chaplets (maça desteği) for stable positioning.

(b) chaplet design

(a) Core held in place in the mold cavity by chaplets (c) casting with internal cavity

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 Production Sequence in Sand Casting
Pattern making

Preparation of sand Mold making

Core making (if necessary)

Raw material Melting Pouring

Solidification and cooling

Removal of sand mold

Cleaning & Inspection

Finished casting
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Sand Casting Procedure www.technologystudent.com/equip1/found1.htm

Place model on a base Sprinkle parting powder Shake the sand Pack the sand
plate, and locate the drag on the model through a sieve using a ram
1 2 3 4

Level off the sand using Turn over the drag Locate the cope on the drag
a straight steel bar using locating pins
6
5 7
Sand Casting Procedure www.technologystudent.com/equip1/found1.htm

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Position the sprue pins in
the cope, add the sand,
pack and level off
(notice small depressions
at the top of pins)

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10
Remove the cope and cut a small gate on the drag surface
Remove the pattern using a spike
(this will help the molten metal flow into the cavity)
(end of spike can be threaded for
easier removal of pattern)
Sand Casting Procedure www.technologystudent.com/equip1/found1.htm

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Make some vents in the cope
(for allowing gases to escape
during pouring of metal).
Then, place the cope on top of
the drag using locating pins.

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12
Once removed out of sand, cut away
Pour the molten metal carefully through pouring basin riser and runner; and then the casting
(the excess metal will rise through riser) will be ready for machining
Sand Casting - An Example with Core Manufacturing Engineering and Technology (S. Kalpakjian, S.R. Schmid)
 Sand
 Silica sand (SiO2) is well suited for molding since it can withstand high temperatures without
decomposition. It is cheap, has longer life, and available in wide range of grain sizes and shapes.
 Pure silica sand is not suitable in itself for molding as it lacks binding qualities. The binding
qualities can be obtained by adding 8-15 % clay (kil).

Silica (SiO2) + Binders  Green Sand Mold

Moisture 5-10% (used in castings of cast iron
Clay 8-15% and non-ferrous alloys)

Silica (SiO2) + Binder  Dry Sand Mold

(40 part) Linseed Oil (1 part) (used in castings of steels)
Dry it first and then bake at 180-2200 °C for 2 hours.

 Synthetic molding sands are composed of washed, sharp grained silica to which 3-5 % clay is
added. Less gas is generated with synthetic sands since less than 5 % moisture is necessary
to develop adequate strength.
 The size of sand grains will depend on the type of work to be molded. For small and intricate
castings, fine sand is desirable so that all details of the mold are brought out sharply. Sharp,
irregular-shaped grains are usually preferred as they interlock and add strength to the mold.
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 Sand
 Foundry sands: Typical foundry sand is a mixture of fresh and recycled sand, which
contains 90% silica (SiO2), 3% water, and 7% clay.

 Size and shape of grains are very important since they define the surface quality of casting
and the major mold parameters such as strength and permeability:

 Smaller grain size results in better surface finish


Irregular-shaped grains produce stronger mold


Larger grain size ensures better permeability

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 Sand Quality Tests
 Periodic tests are necessary to determine the essential qualities of foundry sand. Various
tests are designed to determine the following properties of molding sand:

a) Hardness Test (Mold Hardness): A spring-loaded (2.3 N) steel ball (5.08 mm in diameter)
is pressed onto surface of the mold, and the depth of penetration is recorded as hardness.
Medium hardness is about 75.

b) Fineness Test: It is used to obtain the percentage distribution of grain sizes in the sand.
Sand is cleaned and dried to remove clay. Then, it is placed on graded sieves, which are
located on a shaker. Standard sieve sizes (mesh) are: 6,12,20,30,40,50,70,100,200,270.
Shaking time is 15 minutes.
6
12
c) Moisture Content: Measure weight of the given .
sand sample. Dry it around 1000 °C, and then .
weigh it again. Calculate the percentage. .
270

vibrator

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 Sand Quality Tests
d) Clay Content: A sample of sand is dried and weighed. Then, clay is removed by washing
the sand with caustic soda (NaHO) that will absorb the clay. Sand is dried and weighed
again. The percentage gives the clay content.

e) Strength Test: The most commonly used compression test. A universal strength tester
loads a specimen (50 mm long & 50 mm in diameter) by means of dead weight pendulum
with a uniform loading rate.

f) Permeability: It is measured by the amount of air that passes through a given sample of
sand in a prescribed time under standard pressures.

g) Refractoriness Test: High-temperature

withstanding ability of sand is measured. piston

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 Properties of Cast Liquid
 Properties of castings depend on foundry skin as well as other material properties. Under
similar foundry conditions, the properties will be affected by:
a) Viscosity of liquid metal: It is a function of superheat that is the degree of overheating
above the melting temperature. Lower viscosity is beneficial.
b) Surface Tension: It affects the wetting of inclusions and also limits the minimum radius that
can be filled without pressure (typically to 0.1 mm in cavity casting).
c) Oxide Films: Surface of liquid metal quickly oxidizes, and metal act as if it is flowing in an
envelope. Aluminum produces many problems due to quick formation of strong oxides.
d) Fluidity: Both material and mold property. It is a measure of the capability of a metal to flow
into and fill the mold before freezing. It defines, to the great extend, the quality of casting.

 Fluidity is affected by: pouring temperature,

composition of metal, heat transfer to the
surroundings, and viscosity of liquid metal.
 In the foundry practice, fluidity test is carried
out for each ladle just before pouring the
molten metal into the mold.
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 Heating the Metal
Heat energy required Heat for raising temp. Heat for fusion from Heat for raising temp.
for heating the metal = to melting point + solid to liquid + for pouring
(Htotal) (Hmelting) (Hfusion) (Hpouring)

H  V Cs (Tm  To )  H f  Cl (Tp  Tm )

H : Total heat required (J)
 : Density (g/cm3)
V : Volume of metal being heated (cm3)
Cs : Weight specific heat for solid metal (J/g-°C)
Tm : Melting temperature of metal (°C)
To : Ambient (room) temperature (°C)
H f : Heat of fusion (J/g)
Cl : Weight specific heat of liquid metal (J/g-°C)
Tp : Pouring temperature (°C)
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 Pouring Analysis
 Bernoulli’s theorem: the sum of the energies (head + pressure + kinetic + friction)
at any two points in a flowing liquid are equal:
1
P1 
2
P2  2
*
h1   1
 F1  h2   2
 F2
 2g  2g

P1  P2  0 Atmospheric pressure

F1  F2  0 Neglected
*2
h2  0 Base (Datum) point h : Head (cm)
1  0 Speed at the beginning of pouring
 : Density (g/cm3)
P : Pressure on the liquid (N/cm2)
 : Flow velocity (cm/s)
g : Gravitational acceleration (981 cm/s2)
 2
h1  2
 2  2 gh1 F : Head loss due to friction (cm)
2g 28
 Pouring Analysis
 Continuity Law: the volume rate of flow remains constant
(The sprue is tapered, and thus the flow rate at top and bottom
of the sprue are the same) A1
Q : Volumetric flow rate (cm3/s)
Q  1 A1  2 A2  : Flow velocity (cm/s) A2
A : Cross-sectional area of liquid (cm2)

 We also assume that the runner from the base of sprue to the mold cavity is horizontal
(i.e. the head is the same as at the sprue base). Thus, the flow rate through the gate and
into the mold cavity remains constant.

 Therefore, the time required to fill a mold cavity of volume is estimated:

TMF : Mold filling time (s)

V
TMF  V : Volume of mold cavity (cm3)
Q Q : Volumetric flow rate (cm3/s)

29
 Riser Design (Solidification and Cooling)
 As mentioned before, the riser must remain molten until the casting solidifies.

 Possible types and positions for risers in sand casting are illustrated below:

30
 Riser Design (Solidification and Cooling)
 Chvorinov’s Rule gives
n TTS : Total solidification time (min)
time required for casting V 
to solidify after pouring: TTS  Cm   Cm : Mold constant (min/cm2)
 A (based on experimental data)
V : Volume of the casting (cm3)
A : Surface area of the casting (cm2)
 Chvorinov’s rule is used to obtain the riser n : An exponent (usually equals to 2)
dimensions. The following figure shows typical
cooling curve for a pure metal during casting:

increase in V/A increase in TTS

TTS (casting) < TTS (riser)

Lower V/A is located away from risers

(so that riser remains liquid until the casting solidifies)
31
 An Example – Riser Design
A cylindrical riser (having equal diameter and length)

riser
will be designed for the casting, as shown in the figure.
Previous observations showed that the total solidification
time for this casting is 1.6 min. Determine the dimensions 5 cm
of riser so that its solidification time will be 2 min.

Solution: First, determine mold constant

(Cm) based on the casting data:
n
Vc  15 10  5  750 cm 3 V 
TTS  Cm   Cm  0.86 min/cm 2
Ac  2 15 10  15  5  10  5   550 cm 2  A
TTS c  1.6 min & n2

Next, determine the riser dimensions (note that D = h):

Vr    D 2   h   D 3 4
2
Vr D
 D  h  9.15 cm
Ar  2   D 2     D  h  3 D 2 2
2
Ar 6
 
TTS r  2 min & n  2 & Cm  0.86 min/cm 2 32
 Casting Quality
 In casting operations, there are possibilities for different defects to appear in cast product.
Some of them are common to all casting processes:

a) Misruns: Casting solidifies before filling the mold completely. Causes are insufficient
fluidity of molten metal, low pouring temp, slow pouring, and thin cross section of casting.

b) Cold shuts: Two portions of metal flow together without fusion due to premature freezing.
Causes are similar to those of a misrun.

c) Cold shots: When splattering occurs during pouring, solid globules of metal are entrapped
in the casting. Proper gating system designs could avoid this defect.

33
 Casting Quality
d) Shrinkage cavity: Voids resulting from shrinkage. The problem can often be solved by
proper riser design, but some changes may also be required in the part design.

e) Microporosity: Network of small voids distributed throughout the casting. This occurs
more often in alloys due to the manner that they solidify.

f) Hot tearing: Cracks caused by low mold collapsibility. They occur when the material is
restrained from contraction during solidification. Proper mold design can solve the problem.

 Some defects occur only for particular casting processes (e.g. many defects occur in
sand casting as a result of interaction between the sand mold and the molten metal).
Defects found primarily in sand castings are: gas cavities, rough surface areas, shift of
two halves of the mold, shift of the core, etc. 34
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 3
Special Casting Processes

Prof. Dr. Omer EYERCIOGLU

Mechanical Engineering Doc. Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana
University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Introduction
 The process used for making a casting depends upon the quantity to be produced,
the metal to be cast, and the complexity of part.

 Sand molds are single-purpose molds, and are completely destroyed after the metal has
solidified. Obviously, use of a permanent mold provides considerable saving in labor cost.

 A summary of various special casting methods

to be discussed in this chapter is as follows:
– Casting in metallic molds

– Centrifugal casting

– Precision (investment) casting

– Continuous casting

– Shell molding

1
 Casting in Metallic Molds
 Permanent molds must be made of metals capable of withstanding high temperatures.

 Due to their high cost, they are recommended only when many castings are to be produced.

 Although permanent molds are impractical for large castings and alloys of high melting
temperatures, they can be used advantageously for small and medium-sized castings that
are manufactured in large quantities.

 Die casting is the most common type. Other methods are: low-pressure permanent mold
casting, gravity permanent mold casting, slush casting, and pressed casting.

Die Casting
 In this process, molten metal is forced by pressure into a metal mold (known as a die).
 The usual pressure is from 100 to 125 atm.
 It is the most widely used method of permanent mold processes.
 There are two methods employed:
1. Cold-chamber die casting
2. Hot-chamber die casting
2
 Die Casting Methods
1. Cold-chamber die casting: Material to be cast is molten outside the machine. Used for
metals of high melting temp. (above 550 °C) such as brass, aluminum, and magnesium.
2. Hot-chamber die casting: Materials to be cast is molten inside the machine. Used for
metals of low melting temp. (below 550 °C) such as zinc, tin, and lead.
 The main distinction is determined by the location of melting pot. In hot-chamber, the pot
is included in the machine whereas the pot is separate from the machine in cold-chamber
(i.e. metal is introduced into injection cylinder by other means).

Hot-Chamber Die Casting Cold-Chamber Die Casting

3
 Cold-Chamber Die Casting
Cycle in cold-chamber die casting:

1. With die closed and ram withdrawn,

molten metal is poured into the chamber.

2. Ram forces the metal to flow into die,

maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
3. Ram is withdrawn, die is opened, and
the part is ejected.

4
 Hot-Chamber Die Casting
Cycle in hot-chamber die casting:
1. With die closed and plunger withdrawn,
molten metal flows into the chamber.
2. Plunger forces the metal to flow into die,
maintaining pressure during cooling and
solidification.
3. Plunger is withdrawn, die is opened, and
the part is ejected.

5
 Features of Die Casting
Advantages:
☺ Rapid process (since both dies and cores are permanent)
☺ Good surface quality (smooth surface improves appearance and reduces work
required for other operations)
☺ Good dimensional tolerances as compared to sand casting (the size is so accurately
controlled that little or no machining is necessary)
☺ Low scrap loss (since sprue, runners, and gates can be remelted)

Disadvantages:
 Shape restriction (part geometry must allow for removal from die cavity)

Production quantities and materials in die casting:

 The optimum production quantity ranges from 1,000 to 200,000 pieces.
 Maximum weight of die castings are about 2 kg for brass and over 50 kg for aluminum.
 Small to medium size castings can be made at cycle rates of 100 to 800 die fillings per hour.
 Die life depends on metal cast, ranging from 10,000 fillings (brass) to several million (zinc).
 Use of single-cavity die (big & complex parts) & multiple-cavity die (small & large quantity).
6
 Die Casting Alloys
 Wide range of nonferrous alloys can be die-cast.
 The principal base metals are: zinc, aluminum, magnesium, copper, lead, and tin
 They are classified in two groups:
1. Low-temperature alloys (casting temp. below 550 °C)
2. High-temperature alloys (casting temp. above 550 °C)

Zinc-Base Alloys
 Over 75% of die castings are produced from zinc-base alloys.
 Melting point is around 400 °C, thus they are cast by hot-chamber die casting.
 Alloying elements: Aluminum improves mechanical properties; copper improves tensile
strength and ductility; magnesium makes casting stable in microstructure.

 Zinc-base alloys are widely used in: automotive industry, washing machines, refrigerators,
business machines, etc.
ASTM No. Al Cu Mg Zn
AG40A(XXIII) 4.1 0.1 (max) 0.04 Remainder
AC41A(XXV) 4.1 1.0 0.04 Remainder
7
 Die Casting Alloys
Aluminum-Base Alloys
 They are preferred due to their lightness in mass and resistance to corrosion.
 Compared to zinc alloys, they are more difficult to cast (melting point of around 550 °C).
 Molten aluminum will attack steel if kept in continuous contact, so cold-chamber process
generally is used.

 Alloying elements: Silicon increases hardness and corrosion resistance; copper increases
mechanical properties; magnesium increases lightness and resistance to impact.

 They are generally used in: aerospace industry and production of pistons.

ASTM No. Cu Si Mg Al Uses

S12A&B - 12 - Rem. Large intricate castings
S5C - 5 - Rem. General purpose
G8A 3 - 8 Rem. High strength, corrosion resistance
SG100A&B - 9.5 0.5 Rem. General purpose, excellent casting characteristics
SC84B 3.5 9 - Rem. Good machinability and castability
8
 Die Casting Alloys
Copper-Base Alloys
 Die casting of brass and bronze present greater problems due to their high casting temp.
(around 870 to 1040 °C), which needs heat-resisting die material.
 Copper alloys are cold chamber die-cast.
 They have extensive use in: miscellaneous hardware, electric-machinery parts, small gears,
marine, automotive and aircraft fittings, chemical apparatus, and other small parts.
ASTM No. Cu Si Sn Pb Zn Uses
Z30A 57 (min) - 1.5 1.5 30 (min) Yellow brass, good machinability
Z5331A 65 1 - - Rem. General purpose, corrosion res., good castability
Z5144A 81 4 - - Rem. High strength, hardness, wear res., difficult to mold

Magnesium-Base Alloys
 Mainly alloyed with aluminum, containing small amounts of other elements.
 They have the lowest density.
ASTM No. Al Zn Mn Si Cu Ni Mg
 Cold-chamber die casting is
B94 9 0.5 0.13 0.5 0.3 0.03 Rem.
suitable (casting temp. is around
9
 Centrifugal Casting
 It is a process of rotating the mold while the metal solidifies so as to utilize centrifugal
force to position the metal in the mold.

 Castings of symmetrical shapes are naturally suitable for this method, although many
other types of castings can be produced.

 It is often more economical than other methods. Cores in cylindrical shapes and risers or
feed-heads are eliminated. The castings have a dense metal structure with all impurities
forced back to the centre where frequently they can be machined out.

10
 Centrifugal Casting
 Piston rings (50-100 grams) to paper mill rolls (over 42
tons) have been cast in this manner. Aluminum engine
block uses centrifugally cast iron liners.

 In casting of some alloys, the heavier elements tend to

be separated from the base metal, which is known as
gravity segregation. The metal is forced against walls
on the mold with a centrifugal force of approximately
70 g, which is 70 times greater force than the force of
gravity alone on the casting. Forces as high as 150 g
have also been used, but they are unnecessary unless
very thick-walled cylinders are being cast.

11
 Semi-Centrifugal Casting
 In this method, centrifugal force is used to produce solid
castings rather than tubular parts.
 Density of metal in the final casting is greater in the outer
sections than at the center of rotation.
 The process is used on parts in which center of the casting
is machined away (such as wheels and pulleys).

12
 Precision (Investment) Casting
 Very smooth, highly accurate castings can be made from ferrous and nonferrous alloys.
 Useful in casting of unmachinable alloys and radioactive metals.
 There are a number of processes employed, but all of them incorporate sand, ceramic,
plaster (alçı), or plastic shell made from an accurate pattern into which metal is poured.
 Patterns are produced from wax (mum) or plastics which are subsequently melted from
mold, leaving a cavity having all the details of the original pattern.

Advantages:
☺ intricate forms with undercuts can be
cast
☺ very smooth surface with no parting line
☺ dimensional accuracy is good
☺ unmachinable parts can be cast
☺ may replace die casting for short runs
Disadvantages:
 expensive
 not suitable for big parts 13
 Precision (Investment) Casting
1. First step requires a replica (kopya) of the part to be cast (made from steel or brass). From this
replica, a split mold (bismuth or lead-alloy) is made. After wax is poured into the mold and
solidification takes place, the mold is opened and the wax pattern is removed.

2. Several patterns are assembled together (wax tree) with necessary gates and risers by heating
the contact surfaces (wax welding) with a hot wire.
3. This cluster is molded (coated) by silica sand, plaster or ceramic slurries.

4. After the mold material gets sufficient strength, the mold is placed upside down and heated in
an oven for several hours to melt out the wax and to dry the mold.
5. Casting can be produced by gravity (as in figure), vacuum, pressure or centrifugal casting.

6. When the solidification finished, the mold is broken away and gates with risers are cut-off.

(1) (2) (3) (3) (4) (5) (6) 14

 Continuous Casting
 It consists of pouring molten metal into one end of a metal mold (open at both ends), cooling
rapidly, and extracting the solid product in a continuous length from the other end.
 Copper, brass, bronze, aluminum, cast iron, and steel can be cast.
 It is suitable for any shapes of uniform cross-section (round, square, rectangular,
hexagonal, fluted, gear toothed, and many other forms; solid or hollow).
Advantages:
☺ It yields 10% more than rolling from ingots.
Ingots have a porous end, which returns
back to furnace. This waste is eliminated.
☺ A hollow center occurs from shrinkage
during continuous casting, but it is welded
shut after several rolling passes. Thus,
continuous cast structure is more uniform
and dense.
☺ Physical properties and surface finish are
comparable to those obtained in other
metal mold processes.
15
 Continuous Casting
 A growing use is to produce blooms, billets, slabs for rolling structural shapes (cheaper
than rolling from ingots).

 A bloom has square cross-section

with min. size of 15 x 15 cm.

 A billet (smaller than bloom) has

square cross-section from 4 cm up
to the size of a bloom.

 Slabs with rectangular sections

(min. 25 cm wide & 4 cm thick) are
rolled from either ingot or bloom.
The width is always 3 to 4 times
the thickness. Plates, skelp and
thin strips are rolled from slab.

 Other shapes are produced from

slabs, blooms, and billets.

16
 Shell Molding
1. A metal pattern is heated and placed over a box containing
sand mixed with thermosetting resin.
2. Box is inverted so that sand and resin fall onto the hot
pattern, causing a layer of hard shell.
3. Box is repositioned so that loose uncured particles drop
away.
4. Sand shell is heated in oven for few minutes to complete (1)
curing.
5. Shell mold is stripped from pattern.
6. Two halves of shell mold are assembled, supported by sand
or metal shot in a box, and pouring is accomplished.
(2)
7. Finished casting with sprue is removed.

(7) (6) (5) (4) (3) 17

 Shell Molding
Advantages:
☺ Good surface finish (up to 2.5 µm)
☺ Good dimensional accuracy (± 0.25
mm)
☺ Suitable for mass production
Disadvantages:
 Expensive metal pattern

Application Area:
 Mass production of steel
castings of less than 10 kg

Two halves of a shell mold pattern

18
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 4
Welding and Joining Processes

Prof. Dr. Omer EYERCIOGLU

Mechanical Engineering Doç. Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana
University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Introduction
 Manufacturing processes are operations for producing a single part (i.e. a part made
from single piece of metal). However, in real life, very few parts consist of a single
component.
 A product can be an assembly (a composition of single parts) or a subassembly
(groups of single parts combined to serve certain purpose and forming part of a larger
assembly).
 For instance, a simple ballpoint pen is an assembly that is composed of three single
parts: a plastic tube and two caps, and one subassembly (a cartridge, which can be
 The processes for joining and assembling can be divided into two major classes:
considered as an assembly of few more single parts).
1. Non-permanent combining (multiple assembly/disassembly of single parts are
allowed)
2. Permanent combining of single parts and/or subassemblies (eventual disassembling
would result in severe damage to components in the assembly)
 Further classification is possible with respect to the operational methods used as
follows:
1. Mechanical Assembly: involves use of various fastening methods to mechanically
attach parts by permanent assembly (riveting, press fitting, shrink fitting) or non-
permanent assembly (assembly with threaded fasteners such as screws, bolts,
studs, nuts ). 1
 Mechanical Assembly
Threaded Fasteners (non-permanent assembly)
 They are components that have external or internal threads for assembly of parts:
 Bolt: an externally threaded fastener that is inserted through holes in the parts and
screwed into a nut on the opposite side.
 Screw: an externally threaded fastener that is usually assembled into a blind threaded hole
and no nut is required.
 Stud: an externally threaded fastener without the bolt head. Studs can also be used to
assemble two parts using a nut. They are available with threads on one end or both.
 Nut: an internally threaded fastener having standard threads.

(a) bolt & nut (b) screw (c) stud & nut
2
 Mechanical Assembly
Head styles in threaded fasteners

 Threaded fasteners come in a variety of sizes, threads, and shapes. Also, numerous head
styles are available on bolts and screws, some of which are illustrated in the figure.

 The geometries of these heads, as well as the variety of sizes available, require different
hand tools for the operator.

 In addition to these, other types of threaded fasteners and related hardware are available.
They include screw thread inserts, captive threaded fasteners, and washers.

3
 Mechanical Assembly
Tightening of threaded fasteners

 For threaded fasteners, amount of torque for tightening is significant. Once the fastener is
rotated until it is seated against the part surface, additional tightening increases amount of
tension in the fastener (and also amount of compression in the parts being held together).
 Various methods are employed to apply the required torque:
– operator feel (not very accurate, but adequate for most assemblies)
– torque wrenches (more powerful for easier tightening)
– powered wrenches (designed to stall when the required torque is reached)
– torque-turn tightening (initially tightening to low torque, then to specified additional amount)

 An important issue in case of tightening multiple

threaded joints is to select the proper sequence
of tightening. In the figure shown, tightening is
typically done in three steps:
– first, initial tightening with 1/3 torque
– then, more tightening to 2/3 of the max. torque
– finally, tightening to the full amount of torque 4
 Mechanical Assembly
Riveting (permanent assembly)
 A rivet is an unthreaded, headed pin used to join parts by passing the pin through holes in
the parts and then forming (upsetting) the second head in the pin on the opposite side.
 Deforming operation can be performed hot or cold and by hammering or steady pressing.
Once the rivet was deformed, it cannot be removed except by breaking one of the heads.

 Five basic geometries that affect how the rivet will be upset to form the second head:

 Riveting offers high production rates, simplicity, and low cost. Despite these, its applications
have declined recently in favor of threaded fasteners, welding, and adhesive bonding.
 Riveting is used as one of the primary fastening processes in aircraft and aerospace
industries for joining skins to channels and other structural members.
 Much of the equipment is portable and manually operated. Automatic drilling and riveting
machines are available for drilling the holes and then inserting and upsetting the rivets.
5
 Mechanical Assembly
Press Fits and Shrink/Expansion Fits (permanent assembly)
 Assembly methods based on mechanical interference between mating parts being
joined.

Press Fitting
 In press fit assembly, two components have an interference fit between them. The typical
case is when a pin with diameter Dp is pressed into a hole (collar) of a slightly smaller
diameter Dc (as given in figure).

 Applications of press fitting include locating and locking

the components such as assembly of collars, gears,
pulleys, and similar components onto shafts.

 The major limitations are the necessity of a substantial

press force and possible damage to the surfaces of
components during press fitting. These limitations are
eliminated in the process of shrink fitting.
6
 Mechanical Assembly
Shrink Fitting & Expansion Fitting
 In shrink fitting, external part is heated to enlarge by thermal expansion while internal part
either remains at room temperature or cooled to contract its size. The parts are then
assembled and brought back to room temperature so that the external part shrinks and the
internal part (if previously cooled) expands to form a strong interference fit.

 A modification of the shrink fitting method is so called expansion fitting that occurs when
only the internal part is cooled to contract it for assembly. Once inserted into the mating
component, it warms to room temperature, expanding to create the interference assembly.

 Various methods are used to accomplish heating and/or cooling of the workparts.
Heating equipment includes torches, furnaces, electric resistance heaters, and electric
induction heaters. Cooling methods include conventional refrigeration, packing in dry ice,
and immersion in cold liquids (including liquid nitrogen).

 The change in diameter resulting from heating/cooling depends upon the coefficient of
thermal expansion and the temperature difference that is applied to the parts.
 These methods are used to fit gears, pulleys, sleeves and other components onto solid and
hollow shafts. However, the most popular application is to fit bearing onto shafts.
7
 Welding
 Welding is a permanent joining process where coalescence (unite of Common welding processes:
microstucture) is obtained by heat and/or pressure. It also refers to ● Soldering & Brazing (F)
metallurgical bonding due to attracting the forces between atoms. ● Forge welding (S)
Assemblage of parts is called weldment. ● Oxyfuel gas welding (F)
● Resistance welding (F)
 Many welding processes were developed, which differ in manner of
– Spot welding
applying heat/pressure and equipment used. They are classified
– Seam welding
according to the state of base material during welding:
– Butt welding
▪ Liquid-state (fusion) welding (F): Coalescence is done by melting – Projection welding
the surfaces to be joined (in some cases, filler metal is added to joint).
– Induction welding
▪ Solid-state welding (S): Coalescence is achieved by heat/ pressure, ● Arc welding (F)
but no melting of base metal occurs and no filler metal is added. – Carbon & metal electrodes
– Gas metal arc welding
 Coalescence is improved by cleanliness of surfaces to be welded.
– Submerged arc welding
 Surface oxides must be removed as they are entrapped in solidifying – Plasma arc welding
metal. Fluxes are used to remove oxides in fusible slag protecting
● Friction welding (S)
weld surface from atmospheric contamination.
● Cold roll welding (S)
 Arc welding uses coated electrodes. In gas/forge welding, a powder ● Diffusion welding (S)
form is used, e.g. borax or NH4Cl (ammonium chloride - nışadır). ● Explosion welding (S) 8
 Types of Joints & Welds

Types of Joints:
1. Butt joint
2. Corner joint
3. Lap joint
4. Tee joint
5. Edge joint

Types of Welds:
1. Fillet weld
2. Groove weld
3. Plug and Slot weld
4. Spot and Seam weld
5. Flange weld
6. Surface weld

9
 Soldering & Brazing
 Soldering (yumuşak lehim) and brazing (sert lehim) are processes that unite metals
with a third joining metal (filler metal) which is introduced into the joint in a liquid state and
allowed to solidify. These processes have wide commercial use in the uniting of small
assemblies, in repair work and electrical parts.

Soldering
 Lead and tin alloys (with melting range of
180-370 °C) are mainly used in soldering.
 Commonly used composition is 50% Pb &
50% Sn that melts at 220 °C. In order to
lower price or increase properties, alloying
elements (Cd, Ag, Cu, Zn) can be added.
 Although any heating method can be used
(dipping, torch, electrical resistance), it is
usually done with soldering iron.
 Strength is low. Thus, commonly used in
electronic industry.
10
 Soldering & Brazing
Brazing
 This is similar to soldering, but temperature is above 430 °C (should be lower than melting
points of parent metals). Non-ferrous filling metal is distributed by capillary attraction.
 Brazing metals and alloys are as follows:
– Copper: melting point of 1083 °C
– Copper alloys: brass and bronze (melting point from 870 °C to 1100 °C)
– Silver alloys: melting points from 630 °C to 845 °C
– Aluminum alloys: melting point from 570 °C to 640 °C

 In addition to dipping, furnace, electric; oxyacetylene torch provides an excellent source

of heat for many applications. Borax is the commonly used salt as flux.
 Brazing is used for the assembly of pipes to fittings, cemented carbide cutting tips to
holders, radiators, electrical parts, etc. It is quite strong as compared to soldering.

Brazing and Braze Welding

Dipping Furnace Torch Electric Welding

Metal Gas Oxyacetylene Resistance Torch
Chemical Electric Oxyhydrogen Induction Arc
11
 Forge Welding
 It is the oldest welding process, usually done in
coal or coke-fired forge.

 The pieces are formed to correct shape before

heating. Borax alone or in combination with NH4Cl is
commonly used as flux.

 Generally low carbon steels or wrought irons are

welded by this technique. Heated pieces are
hammered to form weld.

 Process is rather slow, and there is considerable

danger of an oxide scale forming on the surface.

 Considerable skill is required by the craftsmen who

practices it to achieve a good weld. The process has
historical role in development of welding technology.
However, it is of minor commercial importance.

12
 Oxyacetylene Welding
 Oxyfuel gas welding is the group of fusion operations that burn various fuels mixed
with oxygen to perform welding or cutting.

 Oxyacetylene Welding (OAW) is a fusion welding process performed by use of high-

temperature flame from combustion of acetylene and oxygen.

 The flame is directed by a welding torch while a filler metal is added.

 Composition of filler material must be similar to that of the base metal.

13
 Oxyacetylene Welding
 Oxygen is obtained by liquefying air CaC 2 + 2 H 2O  Ca (OH ) 2 + C2 H 2
and separating oxygen from nitrogen.
calcium water slaked lime acetylene
 Acetylene gas is obtained by dropping carbide (sönmüş kireç) gas
lumps of calcium carbide in water. (karpit)

 OAW equipment is relatively inexpensive

and portable. It is economical, versatile
process that is well suited to low-quantity
production and repair jobs.

 Although OAW can be mechanized, it is

usually performed manually. Thus, it is
highly dependent on the skill of welder to
produce a high-quality weld joint.

14
 Oxyacetylene Welding
 The proportion of gases is of extreme importance for the characteristics of flame:
1. Neutral flame: the widest application in welding and cutting
operations. Bright core requires one-to-one mixture. Oxygen
for the other envelope comes from atmosphere. The maximum
temperature obtained is from 3300 °C to 3500 °C.
2. Reducing (carburizing) flame: If excess acetylene is used,
the flame is longer than neutral flame. Too much acetylene
causes sootiness (is, kurum). It is used in welding of monel
metal, nickel, certain alloy steels, hard-surfacing materials.
3. Oxidizing flame: If the torch is adjusted to give excessive
oxygen, a flame similar in appearance to the neutral flame is
obtained, but bright cone is much shorter. This flame is
generally used in flame cutting.

15
 Oxyacetylene Torch Cutting
 Cutting torch differs from welding torch in such a way that it
has several small holes for preheating the flames surrounding
a central hole through which pure oxygen passes.

 The principle on which flame cutting operates is that oxygen

has an affinity for iron and steel. At high temperatures, this
action is much more rapid. Oxidation is instantaneous and
steel is actually burn into iron oxide.

 About 2.25 m3 of oxygen is required to burn 1000 cm3 of iron.

Low carbon and low alloy steels (up to 760 mm thick) can be
cut by this process. However, cast iron, nonferrous alloys and
high mangenese alloys are not readily cut by this process.

 Underwater cutting torches are provided with an extra

pressurized air hose that provides bubble around the tip of
the torch to displace water. There are automatically operating
machines to cut parts from steel straps of varying thickness.
16
 Resistance Welding
 In this process, a heavy electric current is passed through the metals causing local heating
at the joint, and the weld is completed by pressure.

 A transformer reduces the alternating current voltage from 220 V to around 4-12 V, and
raises the amperage to heat the sample. Heating takes place at the point of great
resistance in the path. The amount of current necessary is 50-60 MVA/m2 of the area to be
welded for 10 s. The necessary pressure will vary from 30 to 60 MPa.

 Typical resistance welding processes are:

– Spot welding
– Projection welding
– Seam welding
– Butt welding
– Induction welding

17
 Spot Welding
 Two or more sheets of metal can be welded:
1. Sheets are positioned between electrodes.
2. Electrodes contact the sheets under pressure
before current is applied (squeeze time).
3. Low-voltage current of sufficient amperage is
passed through the joint, which heats metals
to welding temperature (heat time).
4. Pressure between electrodes squeeze sheets
together and completes the weld (weld time).
5. While pressure is still on, current is shut off
for a period (hold time) during which metal
regains some strength.

 For welding sheets with different

thicknesses, different electrode size or
conductivity may be used to obtain the
weld nugget at the center. 18
 Projection Welding
 It is a process similar to spot welding.

 Projection welds (weld nuggets) are produced at localized points in embossed workpieces
that are held under pressure between suitable electrodes.

 Electrode lives are long since flat surfaces are used.

19
 Seam Welding
 Seam welding is the continuous version
of spot welding.

 Electrodes are rotating, and the current

is regulated by a timer.

 Depending on speed of feeding, various

layouts of weld nuggets (i.e. individual,
overlapping, continuous) are obtained.

individual overlapping continuous

20
 Butt Welding
 Welding is done by gripping together of two parts with the same cross-section (e.g. tubes).
 Heat is generated along the contact surface by electrical resistance through applied power.
Pressure (about 15-55 MPa) is also applied.

21
 Induction Welding
 Heat is generated from resistance of weldment to the flow of an induced electrical current.

 Pressure is frequently used to complete the weld. The inductor coil is not in contact with
the weldment. Frequencies (ranging from 200 to 500 kHz) are used.

22
 Arc Welding
 Heat is generated from an electric arc between the work and an electrode. Contact is first
made between electrode and work to create an electric circuit. After that, by separating
conductors, an arc is formed. Temperatures of up to 5500 °C are possible.

 A pool of molten metal, consisting of base metal(s) and filler metal (can be more than one),
is formed near the tip of the electrode. In most arc welding processes, filler metal is added
during the operation to increase volume and strength of the weld joint.

 Electrode movement relative to work

is accomplished either by a human
(manual welding) or by mechanical
means (machine welding, automatic
welding, or robotic welding).

 In manual welding, quality of weld

joint is very dependent on skill and
experience of the welder. The weld
quality is much better in machine,
automatic, and robotic welding.
23
 Arc Welding
 AC or DC current can be used for arc welding. AC
welders are simple, and their efficiencies are high.
AC welding is generally above 200 A. DC welding is
used when polarity of the electrode is important.

 For welding of non-ferrous metals, carbon electrode

is connected to negative terminal (straight polarity).

24
 Arc Welding
 There are two types of electrodes used in arc welding:
1. Carbon Electrodes: Only used as a heat source (as in the case of oxyacetylene welding).
Filler metal rods are also used if additional metal is necessary.

2. Metal Electrodes: Produces arc and supplies filler metal as well. There are three types:
– Bare: Used for mild iron and wrought iron. Straight polarity is used.
– Fluxed: Fluxing materials remove any present oxide on metal and prevent their formation.
– Heavy Coated: Over 95% of the electrodes used are coated. Electrode provides a gas
shield around the arc to eliminate oxidation, and also it forms a slag layer on top of the weld
to prevent oxidation during cooling.

25
 Arc Welding
Electrode Coatings:
1. Slag-forming constituents: SiO2, MnO2 and FeO
2. Constituents to improve arc: Na4O, CaO, MgO and TiO2
3. Deoxidizing constituents: Graphite, Al, and wood flour
4. Binding material: Sodium silicate, potassium silicate, asbestos
5. Alloying constituents to improve strength: V, Co, Mo, Al, Cr, Ni, Mn, W.

Useful Functions of Electrode Coatings:

1. Provide a protective atmosphere
2. Provide slag to protect the molten metal
3. Stabilize the arc
4. Add alloying elements to the weld
5. Slow down cooling rate of the weld

26
 Gas Metal Arc Welding
 There are two types: Metal Inert Gas (MIG) Welding & Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG) Welding
 In these processes, heat is produced from the arc between electrode and work. Atmosphere
is shielded by the supply of an inert gas (e.g. Ar, He, CO2).
 In MIG welding, a consumable metal wire electrode is used. In TIG welding, electrode is
tungsten (non-consumable) and a filler rod is used as supply material.
 There is no flux or coating on the electrodes. Either AC or DC can be used.

MIG TIG 27
 Submerged Arc Welding
 This process uses a continuous, consumable bare wire electrode. Arc shielding is provided
by a cover of granular flux. The electrode wire is fed automatically from a coil into the arc.
The flux is introduced into the joint slightly ahead of the weld arc by gravity from a hopper.
 The blanket of granular flux prevents sparks, spatter and radiation. The portion of flux closest
to the arc is melted, mixing with molten weld metal to remove impurities, and then solidifying
on top of the weld joint to form a glasslike slag. It provides good protection from atmosphere
and good thermal insulation for weld area. This results in slow cooling and a high-quality weld
joint. The infused flux remaining after welding is recovered and reused.

 Submerged arc welding is widely

used for automated welding of
structural shapes, longitudinal and
circumferential seams for large-dia.
pipes, tanks, and pressure vessels.
Due to gravity feed of the granular
flux, the parts must always be in
horizontal orientation.

28
 Plasma Arc Welding
 This is a special form of TIG welding, in which a plasma arc is directed at the weld area.

 Tungsten electrode in a nozzle gives a high-velocity stream of inert gas (Ar, Ar-H mixture, or helium)
into arc zone to produce a high-velocity plasma jet of small diameter with very high-energy density.

 Temperatures are up to 30,000 °C or greater, which is hot enough to melt any known metal.

 Arc is obtained by the electrode and either workpiece (transferred arc process) or water-cooled
constricting nozzle (nontransferred arc process). The latter can be used for cutting electrically
conductive metals (including tunsgten) at quick cutting rates, resulting in good surface quality.

 As a substitute for TIG welding, it is used in applications such as in automobile subassemblies, metal
cabinets, door and window frames, and home appliances.

transferred nontransferred
29
 Friction Welding
 Coalescence is achieved by heat of friction generated
by rotating one piece against other under axial pressure.

 Two mating surfaces are heated to melting temperature,

and the adjacent material becomes plastic. The relative
motion is stopped, and a forging pressure is applied
which upsets the joint slightly.

 1500 rpm and 10 MPa are needed for 25 mm steel bar.

 Machines used for friction welding have the appearance

of an engine lathe. They require a powered spindle to
turn one part at high speed and a means of applying an
axial force between rotating part and non-rotating part.

 With its short cycle times, the process is suitable for

mass production. It is applied in the welding of various
shafts and tubular parts of similar or dissimilar metals.
One typical application is to weld medium-carbon steel
shanks to carbide tips in producing twist drills.
30
 Cold Roll Welding (Cladding)
 This is a solid-state welding process accomplished by applying high pressure by means of
rolls between clean contacting surfaces at room temperature.

 Metals to be welded must be very ductile and free of work hardening. Contact surfaces must
be exceptionally clean.

 Metals such as soft aluminum, copper, gold and silver can be readily cold-welded. For small
parts, the forces may be applied by simple hand operated tools. For heavier work, powered
presses are required to exert the necessary force.

 Applications include cladding stainless steel to mild

steel for improving its corrosion resistance, making
bimetallic strips for measuring their temperature, and
producing sandwich strips for coins.

31
 Diffusion Welding
 It is a solid-state welding process resulting from
application of heat and pressure, in a controlled
atmosphere, with sufficient time allowed for solid-state
diffusion and coalescence to occur.

 Temperatures are well below the melting points of

metals, and the plastic deformation at the surfaces is
only minimal.

 Similar and dissimilar metals can be joined. In latter

case, a layer of different metal (filler) is sandwiched
between base metals to promote diffusion.

 The process is used for joining of high-strength and

refractory metals in aerospace and nuclear industries.

 A limitation of the process can be the time required for

diffusion to occur between the faying surfaces, which
may range from seconds to hours.
32
 Explosion Welding
 This is a solid-state welding process in which rapid coalescence of two metallic surfaces is
caused by the energy of a detonated explosive.
 Two plates in a parallel configuration, separated by a gap, with the explosive charge above
the upper plate (flyer plate). A buffer layer (e.g. rubber or plastic) is used between explosive
and flyer plate to protect its surface. The lower plate (backer metal) rests on an anvil for
support. When detonation is initiated, the explosive charge propagates along the flyer plate.
The resulting high-pressure zone propels the flyer plate to collide with the backer metal
progressively at high velocity, so it takes on an angular shape as the explosion advances.
 It is commonly used to bond two dissimilar metals, in particular to clad one metal on top of
a base metal over large areas. Applications include production of corrosion-resistant sheet
and plate stock for making processing equipment in the chemical and petroleum industries.
 The term explosion cladding is also used in this context. No filler metal is used in
explosion welding, and no external heat is applied.

33
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 5
Metal Working Processes

Mechanical Engineering Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana

University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Introduction
 Metal forming involves large group of manufacturing processes in which plastic deformation is used to
change the shape of metal parts.
 Deformation results from the use of a tool (a die) that applies stresses exceeding the yield strength of
metal. Thus, the metals deforms to take a shape defined by the geometry of die.
 To be successfully formed, the metal must have certain properties. Desirable properties for forming are
low yield strength and high ductility, which are affected by temperature. Ductility is increased and
yield strength is reduced when the work temperature is raised.
 Usually compressive stresses are applied to plastically deform the metal. Depending upon purpose,
forming processes are used to stretch, bend, or shear the metal.

 Plastic Deformation Processes: Operations that induce shape change on the workpiece by plastic
deformation under forces applied by various tools and dies.
 Bulk Deformation Processes: Operations with large amount of plastic deformation. Cross-sectional
change without volume change. Ratio of cross-section area to volume is small. Mostly hot or warm
working conditions are preferred although some operations are carried out at room temperature.
 Sheet Forming (Sheet Metal Working) Processes: No cross-sectional change, but only shape
change. Ratio of cross-section area to volume is high. Always performed as cold working operations,
they are performed on thin (less than 6 mm) sheets, strips or coils of metal by means of a set of tools
(punch & die) on machine tools (stamping presses).
1
 Metal Forming

Bulk Deformation Sheet Metal Working

Rolling Forging Extrusion Drawing Bending Drawing Shearing

(Wire, Bar) (Deep, Cup)

2
 Material Considerations
 In plastic region, material behaviour is defined by 
flow curve (as shown in figure). f
0
 Flow stress (the instantaneous stress required to
continue deformation) can be obtained as follows flow curve
y
(K and n are given in material property tables or   K n
calculated from material testing curves):
 f : flow stress
 f  K n
K : strength coefficient
n : strain hardening coefficient f 
 Strain or work hardening (cold working):
 Sometimes, analysis is based on average (mean)
It refers to strengthening of metals by plastic
stress over strain-stress curve from beginning of
deformation due to dislocation movements
strain to the final (max.) value during deformation:
within the crystal structure. It is a significant
 0 : average (mean) flow stress
___ K  nf material characteristic defining both material
0   f : max. strain during deformation properties and process power, and it can be
1 n removed by annealing. 3
 Temperature in Metal Forming
 Flow curve is valid for an ambient (room) temperature. For any material, K and n depend on
the temperature. Thus, material properties change with the work temperature.

 Thus, metal forming processes can also be classified

log σ

temperature
increase in work
according to working temperature of the metal:
(Ta : ambient temperature, Tm : melting temperature) n
cold working warm working hot working K

Ta 0.3 Tm 0.5 Tm 0.75 Tm Tm

log ε

 The effect of temperature gives rise to distinctions between cold working, warm working, and
hot working. Hot and cold working of metals is of great importance in engineering production.
Certain processes (e.g. forging, rolling, drawing, and extrusion) predominate in the primary
stages of production, and they have been perfected through developments.

4
 Temperature in Metal Forming
Cold Working
 It is performed at room temperature (or below the recrystallization temperature of metal).
 better accuracy and surface finish, increase in strength and hardness, no heating required.
 high forces and power required, decrease in ductility of metal, limitations on amount of
forming, additional annealing required for some materials, not suitable for some materials.
Warm Working
 Performed at between room temperature and the recrystallization temperature.
 lower forces and power required, more complex part shapes, no annealing required.
 some investment in furnaces is needed.
Hot Working
 Being performed at above the recrystallization temperature, it is the initial step in mechanical
working of most metals and alloys.
 high amount of forming possible, lower forces and power required, forming of materials with
low ductility, no work hardening (so no additional annealing) required.
 surface oxidation and decarburisation due to high temperatures, lower accuracy and surface
finish, higher production costs, shorter tool life. 5
 Friction Effect
Homogeneous Deformation
 If a solid cylindrical part is placed between two V
flat platens and the load (F) is increased until
F  A 0   0
h
reaching the flow stress (σo) of material, then its
height will be reduced (from ho to hf).

 Under ideal conditions (i.e. in absence of friction

between platens and part), any height reduction
causes uniform increase in area (from Ao to Af).

Inhomogeneous Deformation
V  D 
 However, in practice, friction between platens F  0 1  
h  3h 
and part cannot be avoided.
 The change in part geometry is not uniform, and
the final part takes a “barrel” shape.
 The load required can be estimated based on
friction coefficient (µ).
6
 Forging
 Forging is the working of metal into a useful shape by hammering or pressing.
 It is the oldest metal working process. Most forging operations are carried out hot although
certain metals may be cold forged.

 Two broad categories of forging processes are open-die forging and closed-die forging.
Closed-die forging uses carefully machined matching die blocks to produce forging to close
dimensional tolerances.

 According to the degree to which flow of the metal is constrained by the dies, there are three
types of forging processes: open-die, impression-die, and flashless

open-die forging impression-die forging flashless forging

7
 Open-Die Forging
 Known as upsetting, it involves compression of a work between two flat dies or platens.

forging of a large turbine shaft

(1)

forging of a pressure vessel cylinder

(2)

(3) 8
 Impression-Die Forging
 In impression-die forging, some of the material flows radially outward to form a flash (çapak).

(1)

(2)

Hot impression-die forging of Impression-die forging of

(3) a crankshaft (bottom to top) a connection rod (top to bottom) 9
 Flashless (Precision) Forging
 Work material is entirely surrounded
by die cavity during compression
(i.e. no flash is formed).

 In this operation, the most important

requirement is that the work volume
must equal the space in die cavity to
a very close tolerance.
(1) (2) (3)

Closed-die forging with flash Flashless (precision) forging

10
 Coining
 This is a special application of flashless forging in which fine detail in the die are impressed
into top and bottom surfaces of the workpiece. There is a little flow of metal in this process.

(1) (2) (3)

11
 Forging Equipment
Forging (Drop) Hammers (Şahmerdan)
PE  Wh  mgh
 Force is aplied by means of a falling weight.
PE : potential energy ( Nm)
 They are energy-restricted machines since
deformation results from dissipating kinetic m : mass of the ram (kg )
energy of the ram. g : gravitational acceleration (m / s 2 )
 Their capacity is expressed with energy units. h : drop height (m)

12
 Forging Equipment
Hydraulic Presses
 They are load-restricted machines due to pressure in oil.
 Their capacity is expressed with load.

13
 Forging Equipment
Mechanical Presses
 They are stroke-restricted machines as the length of stroke and available load at positions
of stroke represent their capacity.
 Their capacity is expressed with load.

Crank Press

Knuckle-Joint Press

Eccentric Press Screw Press Rack & Pinion Press 14

 Forging Load
 For simplicity in determination of the forging load for free upsetting
(open-die forging), two assumptions can be made: 
1. Material is perfectly plastic (i.e. the flow stress remains constant). 0
2. No friction between part and die surfaces (i.e. radial flow of material
is uniform throughout height). Thus, true strain is: ε′ = ln (h0 / hf) 
V
Volume  A0 h0  Ah A

Load (P)
h
Work (W)
 0V
P0  A0 0 & P  A 0 P Stroke
h
P
h0 ___  h0  ___
W  Pdh   0 V ln     0 V  
hf h hf
 f  h0
15
 Forging Load
 If the friction is taken into account  For closed-die forging, the forging load
in open-die forging, then Schey is estimated by:
Equation is used:
P  c  0 AT
 0V  D 
P 1   AT : total cross-section area
h  3h 
c = 1.2  2.5 (for open-die forging)
 In such case, the work done can c = 3.0  8.0 (for simple shape closed-die forging)
be calculated proportionally:
c = 8.0  12.0 (for complex shape closed-die forging)

P P
W  without  W  with
friction friction

16
 Rolling
 It is a metal deformation process where t0  t f A0  Af
thickness of a metal plate is reduced by Reduction ratio ( r ) : 100 or 100
t0 A0
successive passes from rolls:

 Work (metal plate) exits from rolls at a higher speed than it enters: V f  V0

 The grains are elongated after cold rolling, and grain size is reduced after hot rolling.

Hot Rolling A0 : cross-sectional area before rolling

Cold Rolling (fine grains after
(elongated grains) recrystallization) Af : cross-sectional area after rolling
Vr
A0 t0 : plate thickness before rolling
P
Af t f : plate thickness after rolling

t0 tf P : rolling load
V0 : speed of work at entering into rolls
Vf
P V f : speed of work at exiting from rolls
V0
Vr Vr : rotational speed of rolls

17
 Rolling
 Various configurations of rolling mills are available in cold rolling and hot rolling:

HOT ROLLING COLD ROLLING

Two-high mill Planetary roll

Three-high mill (for high reduction)
Cluster mill
Four-high mill (for stronger metals)

18
 Steel Rolling
 First, steel is cast into ingots and stored
in such shape.

 Soaked ingots (preheated at 1200 °C)

are then rolled into intermediate shapes:
blooms, slabs, or billets.

 A bloom (rolled from ingot) has a square

section of larger than 150x150 mm.

 A billet (rolled from bloom) has a square

section of 40x40 mm up to size of bloom.

 A slab (rolled from ingot or bloom) has a

rectangular section with min. width of
250 mm and min. thickness of 40 mm.

 Finally, these intermediate shapes are

rolled into different products as illustrated
in figure.
19
 Steel Rolling
 Other versions of steel rolling are as follows:
 Shape rolling: The work is deformed by gradual reduction into a contoured cross section
(such as I-beams, L-beams, U-channels, rails, round, squire bars and rods, etc.).

 Ring rolling: Thick-walled ring of small dia. is rolled into a thin-walled ring of larger dia.
 Thread rolling: Threads are formed on cylindrical parts by rolling between two thread dies.
 Gear rolling: Similar to thread rolling with three gear rolls forming gear profile on the work.

Gear
Rolling

Ring Rolling

Thread Rolling

20
 Mechanics of Rolling
 Roling takes place throughout the arc of contact, V0  Vr  V f
Vf
which is defined by angle of contact (angle of bite).
Roll velocity
Vr
 At neutral (no-slip) point, speed of work is equal to
speed of rolls. Before/after this point, slipping/friction V0
Work velocity
occur between rolls and work.
Neutral (no-slip) Point L
 Plane-strain conditions are valid (i.e. assuming no
change in width of work). Thus, volume rate of work
metal is constant at any point throughout rolling: α
R
Vr
bt0V0  btV  bt f V f
N
N : neutral (no-slip) point V0 Vf
t0 tf
 : contact (bite) angle
R : radius of rolls L
L : length of arc contact Vr
b : width of work
21
 Limiting Conditions for Rolling
 Friction force (F) depends on the coefficient of friction (µ) between rolls and work: F   Pr

 At arbitrary point (A), horizontal

F sin 
components of rolling force (Pr) F cos   Pr sin    tan    tan 
Pr cos 
and friction force (F) are related:

 The amount of slip (s) can also be measured by means of forward slip: s  V f  Vr  V r

 Draft (d) is sometimes used as reduction ratio: d  t0  t f

α
 In practice, max. draft (dmax) is: d max   R
2
R
Vr
A
 0 no draft (no rolling ) N
V0 Pr F Vf
t0 tf
Cold Rolling Warm Rolling Hot Rolling
L
µ ≈ 0.1 µ ≈ 0.2 µ ≈ 0.4
Vr

22
 Rolling Force
 The following parameters should be considered in rolling force calculations:
– Roll diameter (affects rolling force and contact length)
– Flow strength of work material (affected by strain rate and temperature)
– Friction between rolls and work (varies in cold, warm, or hot rolling)
– Presence of front and/or back tension (related with work material behaviour)

 Rolling load (P) based on plane strain condition with friction:

2 ___  1 Q 
P  0   e  1 bLp  α
3 Q  Vr
R
A
N
 Lp L p  R  t0  t f   Rt V0 Pr F Vf
Q t0 tf
t
___
L
 0 : mean flow stress
Vr
L p : projected arc length Lp
t : mean thickness
t : reduction in thickness 23
 Rolling Force (Simplified Calculation)
 The rolling force calculations can be simplified as follows:
___
 Rolling force: F   0 bL  Length of contact: L  R  : angle of contact (rad )

 Arc length (L) and projected length (Lp) are close: L  Lp

 Torque: T   F 2 L

 Power (on each roll):

P  T    0.5 FL   R
α
Vr
A
 Power (on two rolls): N
Pr F
P  2  0.5 FL     FL
V0 Vf
t0 tf

 : rotational speed of roll (rpm)

L
Vr
Lp

24
Example:
A strip (300x25 mm) is fed through rolling mill with two powered rolls (each of 250 mm radius).
The work thickness is to be reduced to 22 mm (in one pass) at a roll speed of 50 rpm. The flow
stress of work material is 180 MPa, and the coefficient of friction between roll and work is 0.12.
– Determine whether the friction is sufficient to permit rolling operation to be accomplished.
– If so, calculate roll force, torque and horsepower.
Solution:
 Determine angle of contact (α):  For limiting rolling conditions:
R cos   R   t0  t f  2    tan  d  d max

250 cos   250  12.5  11 0.12  tan  6.28  d  25  22  3 mm

d max   2 R   0.12   250  3.6 mm
2

  6.28 0.12  0.11

α Rcosα feasible
feasible

12.5
11
Solution (Cont’d):

  
 Calculate arc length of contact (L): L  R   250 mm    6.28  rad   27.4 mm
 180 

___
 N 
 Calculate rolling force (F): F   0 bL  180   300 mm  27.4 mm   1.4796  10 6
N
 mm 
2

 1m 
 
 Calculate torque (T): T  0.5 FL  0.5 1.4797 106 N  27.4 mm 
10 mm 
3
 20.270  10 3
Nm

 Calculate power (P):

 1 m  rev 1 min 2 rad 
P  FL  1.4796 10 N   27.4 mm 3
6
 50   212.27 kW
 10 mm  min 60 s 1 rev 

 Power in hp:

1 kW  1.341 hp  212.27 kW  1.341 P  284.65 hp

 Extrusion
 It is a process in which the work is forced to flow through a die opening to produce a desired
cross-sectional shape. In other words, a block of metal is reduced in cross-section by forging
it to flow through a die under pressure.

 It can be used to produce cylindrical bars or hollow tubes, as well as irregular cross-sections.

 Lead, tin, aluminum alloys can be cold extruded.

 Horizontal type presses are used.

 Speed of extrusion depends on temperature and

type of material used.

27
 Types of Extrusion
 Extrusion is performed in different ways, and hence different classifications are available:
direct or indirect; hot or cold; continuous or discrete

Process Direct (Forward) Extrusion Indirect (Backward) Extrusion

Principle The work is forced to flow through a die opening. The work flows in the reverse direction of ram.

Solid
Parts

Hollow
Parts

28
 Extrusion Force and Energy
 Figure shows a typical plot of ram pressure vs ram stroke (and the remaining billet length).
 The higher values in direct extrusion result from friction at the container wall.
 Shape of initial pressure build-up depends on die angle (higher the angle, steeper the build-up).
 The increase in pressure at the end of stroke is related to butt formation (a small portion of billet
that cannot be forced through die opening).

 Ram force (F) and ram power (W) can be

calculated in a similar way of forging:

 A0   hf 
F   0 A0 ln 
A  W   0V ln  
 f   h0 

F
D0 Df

h0 hf
29
 Drawing (Rod, Bar, Wire)
 It involves pulling the metal through a die by
means of a tensile force applied to the exit side.

 The end is grasped by tongs on a draw bench

and pulled through.

 There may be few successive drawing dies on

continuous drawing.
 : die angle (half angle) Lc : contact length

 Drawing load can be obtained as

(assuming that there is no friction): Die

 A0 
F   0 Af ln   Fback Ffront
A Drum Drum
 f  Die

 The number of dies varies from 4 to12, and the maximum possible reduction per pass is 0.63.
 In practice, draw reductions per pass are well below the theoretical limit. Reductions of 0.5 for
single-draft bar drawing and 0.3 for multiple-draft wire drawing seem to be the upper limits.
30
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 6
Special Forming Applications

Mechanical Engineering Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana

University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Shape Rolling
 Figure shows stages in
shape rolling of I-beam.

 Various other structural

sections (e.g. channels
and rails) are also rolled
by this kind of process.

1
 Roll Forging (Cross Rolling)
 It is a deformation process used to reduce the cross-section of a cylindirical (or rectangular)
workpiece by passing it through a set of opposing rolls with grooves matching the desired
shape of the final part.

 Tapered leaf springs and knives can be made by this process.

2
 Thread Rolling
 Threaded fasteners are made economically by thread rolling at high rates of production.

 Thread rolling with reciprocating flat dies:  Thread rolling with two rotary dies:

3
 Thread Rolling vs. Machining
 Unlike machining (cuts through the grains of metal),
rolling of threads gives improved strength due to
cold working and favorable grain flow.

 Rolled thread has good surface finish without loss

of material (scrap).

 Thread rolling induces compressive residual stresses

on the work surface, which improves the fatigue life.

4
 Cold Heading (Upsetting)
 It is used for forming the heads on fasteners
(e.g. bolts, screws, nails, rivets).

 Highly automated, high production rates, noisy.

 Tendency of the bar to buckle if its unsupported
length to diameter ratio is more than 3:1.

5
 Rotary Swaging (Rotary Forging)
 A solid rod or tube is subjected to radial impact forces by a set of reciprocating dies.

Schematic illustration of Forming internal profiles on a tubular workpiece

rotary swaging process

Forming of a stepped shaft using a die-closing

swaging machine Typical parts
6
 Coining
 Coining is used for minting
coins and jewelry.

 Completely closed dies and

high pressures (5-6 times
the workpiece strength) are
used to obtain fine details.

 Lubricants cannot be used

as they are incompressible.

7
 Impact Extrusion

forward backward
extrusion extrusion

forward &
backward
extrusion

8
 Impact Extrusion
 Schematic illustration
of impact extrusion.

 Extruded parts are

stripped with stripper
plate as they tend to
stick to the punch.

 Typical products shown below: a) collapsible tube (Hooker process) b & c) other examples

 These parts may also

be made by casting,
forging, or machining.
 The choice of process
depends on material,
part dimensions, wall
thickness, and desired
properties.

9
 Steel Balls
 Production of steel balls by skew rolling:  Production of steel balls by upsetting:

 Note the formation of flash.

 The balls made by these processes
are subsequently ground and polished
for use in ball bearings.

10
 Stepped Pin
 Manufacturing steps for a stepped pin:
1. A solid cylindrical blank
2. Extrusion (stage I)
3. Extrusion (stage II)
4. Upsetting (conical section)
5. Impression-die forming
6. Piercing (for boring)

1 2 3 4 5 6
11
 Spark Plug
 The figure below shows the production steps for a cold-extruded spark plug:

12
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 7
Sheet Metal Working Processes

Prof Dr Ömer EYERCİOĞLU

Mechanical Engineering
Doç.Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana
University of Gaziantep
www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Introduction
 Sheet metalworking includes cutting and forming operations performed on thin sheets of
metals (with thickness of 0.4 – 6 mm).

 The tooling used to perform sheet metalwork is called punch and die. Most sheet metal
operations are performed a stamping press, which differs from the one used for forging and
extrusion. The sheet metal products are called stampings.

 The commercial importance of sheet metalworking is significant. Consumer and industrial

products that include sheet metal parts are: automobile and truck bodies, airplanes, railway
cars and locomotives, farm and construction equipment, small and large appliances, office
furniture, computers and office equipment, and more.

 Sheet metal parts are characterized by high strength, good dimensional tolerances, good
surface finish, and relatively low cost.

1
 Sheet Metalworking Processes
 The major categories are: cutting (shearing, blanking, piercing), bending
bending, and drawing.

 Cutting is used to separate large sheets into smaller pieces,

to cut out a part perimeter, or to make holes (cavities) in a part.

 Bending and drawing are used to form sheet metal parts into
their required shapes. drawing

shearing

2
 Sheet Metalworking Processes
 The variations of sheet metalworking processes are illustrated below:

3
 Sheet Metal Cutting
 Blanking and punching are similar sheet
metal operations involving cutting the metal
along a closed outline.

 If the part to be cut out is the desired (final)

product, the operation is called blanking and
the product is called blank.

 If the remaining stock is the desired (final)

part, the operation is called punching.
 Both operations are illustrated below within
A commonly used piercing-blanking die set
the example of producing a washer:

4
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Engineering Analysis
 Cutting of sheet metal is accomplished by a shearing action between two sharp edges.
 In an ideal cutting operation, punch penetrates the material to a depth of about 1/3 of its
thickness before fracture occurs, and forces an equal portion of material into die opening.

(1) Just before punch (2) Punch pushes into (3) Punch penetrates (4) Fracture is initiated
contacts work work, causing plastic into work, causing at opposing cutting
deformation smooth cut surface edges to separate
the sheet
t : stock thickness c : clearance
5
 Sheet Metal Cutting
 Cutting of metal between die components is shearing process in which the metal is stressed
in shear between two cutting edges to point of fracture, or beyond its ultimate strength.

 Metal is subjected to both tensile and compressive stresses; stretching beyond the elastic
limit occurs; then, plastic deformation and reduction in area take place; and finally, fracturing
starts and becomes complete.

6
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Clearances
 Clearance is the space between the mating members (i.e. punch and die) of a die set.
 For optimum finish of cut edge, proper clearance is necessary which is a function of type,
thickness, and hardness of the work material:

c = a t t : stock thickness a : allowance (0.075 for steels, 0.06 for Al alloys)

 Most die clearances are linear (usually  Insufficient clearance causes excessive
2-5% of the material thickness). forces & improper fracture, while excessive
clearance causes oversized burr.
 Angular clearance is given to the hole in
the die, such that the material will easily
be removed (usually 0.25-1.5° per side).

insufficent clearance excessive clearance

7
 Sheet Metal Cutting
 The calculated clearance must be subtracted from blanking die diameter for blanking
operations whereas it must be added to punching die diameter for punching operations:

Blanking die diameter = Db Hole punch diameter = Dh

Blanking punch diameter = Db − 2c Hole die diameter = Dh + 2c

blanking
punch punching

c
D
c

die

8
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Cutting Force
 Pressure (stress) required to cut (shear) work material is:

P = S  t  L ( for any contour ) S : shear strength of material ( kg / mm 2 )

t : material thickness ( mm)
P = S  t  ( D ) ( for round hole)
L : shear length ( mm)
D : hole diameter ( mm)

Example:
 Calculate the force to produce a pocket (20 mm x 15 mm) within a material (1.5 mm thick)
having shear strength of 40 kg/mm2.

Solution: 20 mm
1.5 mm
 L = ( 2 15 + 2  20 ) mm = 70 mm

( )
 P = 40 kg mm 2  (1.5 mm )  ( 70 mm ) = 4200 kg

9
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Tools and Dies
 Simple dies: Designed to perform a single operation (e.g. cutting, blanking, or punching)
with each stroke of the press.

10
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Tools and Dies
 Multi-operational dies: More complicated press working dies for multi operations:
– Compound die: to perform two or more operations at a single position of metal strip.

Method of making a simple washer in a compound blanking and punching die

11
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Tools and Dies
 Multi-operational dies: More complicated press working dies for multi operations:
– Progressive die: to perform two or more operations at two or more positions of metal strip.

Progressive blanking and punching die for making a washer

12
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Center of Pressure
 When sheet metal part to be blanked is of irregular shape, summation of shearing forces on
one side of the center of ram may greatly exceed forces on the other side. This results in
bending and undesirable deflections.
 Center of pressure is a point at which the summation of shearing forces will be symmetrical.
In other words, it is the center of gravity of the perimeter of blank (NOT the area of blank).

 Procedure to find center of pressure:

– divide cutting edges into line elements (1,2,3, ...)
– find length of each element (l1, l2, l3, ...)
– find center of gravity of each element (x1, ... & y1, ...)
– calculate the center of pressure from given formulas: a
l x + l x + l x + ....
x= 1 1 2 2 3 3 =
 lx h
l1 + l2 + l3 + .... l α

l y + l y + l y + ....  ly
b
2r 2r
y= 1 1 2 2
= 3 3 y= x= y= r sin  a+b h
 
l + l + l + ....
1 2 l
3
x=

x=
3
&y=
3
Example:
Find center of pressure and required cutting force for
y 1.5
the given blank (S = 40 kg/mm2 and t = 2 mm). 2

Solution:

2.5
Element l x y l *x l *y 3
1
1 4.00 0.00 6.25 0.00 25.00
2 4.71 1.50 9.20 7.05 43.33 4 1.5
3 3.20 4.00 7.00 12.80 22.40 5
4 2.50 4.00 5.00 10.00 12.50 3.0 2.0
5 3.00 1.50 4.25 4.50 12.75
6 1.57 1.00 0.00 1.57 0.00 All dimensions are in cm.
4.25
 18.98 35.92 115.98
1.0
 Center of pressure:  Cutting force: 0.5

x=
35.92
= 1.89 cm P = S t  L x
6
18.98
115.98
y=
18.98
= 6.10 cm P = ( 40 kg mm2 )  ( 2 mm )  (189.8 mm ) = 15184 kg
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Reducing Cutting Forces
 Since cutting operations are characterized by very high forces exerted over very short
periods of time, it is sometimes desirable to reduce the force and spread it over a longer
portion of the ram stroke.

 Two methods are often used to reduce cutting forces and to smooth out the heavy loads:
1. Step the punch lengths: the load may be reduced approximately 50%.
2. Taper the punch: grind the face of punch or die at a small shear angle with the horizontal.
This has the effect of reducing area in shear at any time, and may reduce cutting force up to
50%. The taper angle should provide a change in punch length of about 1.5 times material
thickness. It is usually preferable to double cut to prevent setup of lateral force components.

0.25+t 15
 Sheet Metal Cutting
Scrap-Strip Layout for Blanking C L
B
 In designing parts to be blanked
t
from strip material, it is very H W

important to achieve economical B

strip utilization (at least 75%): C B

Scrap
Scrap (%) = 100 t : thickness of stock
Total
W : width of stock
Util.
Utilization (%) = 100 B : space btw part and edge of stock (1.5t)
Total
C : lead of die (L + B)
 Thus, locating the part for L & H : dimensions of part
maximum economy must
be accomplished by trying
various configurations.

16
Example:
Calculate scrap & strip utilization (in percentage) for a rectangular blank (10 x 20 mm) to be
produced from a strip (width of 25 mm and thickness of 1 mm).

Solution: C
L
 Given dimensions:
B
L = 10 mm
t
H = 20 mm blank B H W

W = 25 mm B
t = 1 mm

 Calculated dimensions:  Strip utilization:

B = 1.5  t = 1.5 mm Utilization (%) =
Ablank
100 = 69.6
C = L + B = 11.5 mm Astrip

 Areas of blank & strip:  Scrap:

Ablank = L  H = 200 mm 2 Ascrap Astrip − Ablank

Scrap (%) = 100 = 100 = 30.4
Astrip Astrip
Astrip = C W = 287.5 mm 2
17
Example:
Calculate scrap & strip utilization (in percentage) for a rectangular blank (10 x 20 mm) to be
produced from a strip (width of 25 mm and thickness of 1 mm).

Solution 2:
 Given dimensions:
L = 10 mm
H = 20 mm
W = 25 mm
t = 1 mm

 Calculated dimensions:  Strip utilization:

B = 1.5  t = 1.5 mm Utilization (%) =
Ablank
100 = 74.42
69.6
C=H+B=21.5 mm
Astrip

 Areas of blank & strip:  Scrap:

Ascrap Astrip − Ablank
Ablank = L  H = 200 mm 2 X 2 Scrap (%) = 100 = 100 = 30.4
25.58
Astrip Astrip
Astrip = C W = 287.5
537.5 mm
2

18
 Sheet Metal Bending
 Bending is defined as the straining of sheet metal
around a straight edge (i.e. a straight length is
transformed into a curved length).

 It is a very common forming process for changing

sheets and plates into channels, tanks, etc.

 There are two types of bending:

1. V-Bending: Sheet metal is bent along a straight line between a V-shape punch and die.
2. Edge Bending: Bending of the cantilever part of sheet around the die edge.

V-Bending Edge Bending

19
 Sheet Metal Bending
Bend Radius
 For a given bending operation, bend radius (R) cannot be made smaller than a certain
value; otherwise the metal will crack on the outer tensile surface. Thus, the minimum bend
radius (Rmin) must be used for a safe bending operation.
 In practice, it cannot be less than 1 mm, and expressed in multiples of sheet thickness.
(for high strength alloys: Rmin ≥ 5t)
 Rmin can also be predicted from reduction of area (Ar) measured by tension test:

Ao − Af Rmin (1 − Ar )
2
Rmin 1
Ar = = − 1 ( for Ar  0.2) = − 1 ( for Ar  0.2)
Ao t 2 Ar t 2 Ar − Ar2

t : thickness of sheet metal

W : width of sheet metal
R : bending radius
 : bend angle
BA : bend allowance
20
 Sheet Metal Bending
Length of Blank
 Final length of blank (Lb) can be
determined based on summation of
length of straight sections (L) and
bend allowances (BA):

Lb =  L +  BA

Bend Allowance
 Bend allowance (BA) can be calculated based on bend angle (α), sheet thickness (t),
and stretching factor (Kba):
Kba = 0.33 ( for R  2t ) 
Kba = 0.50 ( for R  2t )
BA = 2 ( R + Kba  t )
360

21
Bend Allowance

Bend allowance (BA) can be calculated

based on bend angle (α), sheet
thickness (t), and stretching factor
(Kba):

BA = 2 ( R + Kba  t )
360
Kba = 0.33 ( for R  2t )
Kba = 0.50 ( for R  2t )
22
 Sheet Metal Bending
Springback
 It is the elastic recovery leading to dimensional
change in the metal after pressure is removed.
It is expressed by springback ratio (Ks):
 f Ro + ( t 2 )
Ks = =
o R f + (t 2)
 Springback can be compensated by bending the part to a smaller radius of curvature than
desired so that the part will have the proper radius after springback. This is done in two ways:
– Overbending: using smaller punch angle and radius
– Bottoming: squeezing the part at the end of stroke

Overbending Bottoming

23
 Sheet Metal Bending
Bending Force
 The force required for bending a length (L) about a radius (R) may be estimated based on
mean flow stress ( σo ), angle of bending (α), and sheet thickness (t):

o  L t2
P= tan ( 2 )
2  R + ( t 2 ) 

 The maximum bending force is:

Kbf  Sut W  t 2 Die opening dimension (D)

Pmax =
D
t : thickness of sheet metal
W : width of sheet metal
Sut : tensile strength of material
D : die opening dimension
K bf : force coefficient
V-Bending
1.33 (for V - bending)
0.33 (for edge bending) Edge Bending
24
 Sheet Metal Bending
Bending Equipment
 Various bending operations can be performed in a press brake:

A press brake

Various bending operations

25
 Deep Drawing
 Deep drawing is used for shaping flat sheets into cup-shaped products such as bathtubs,
shell cases, and automobile fenders.
 In general, a pressure (hold-down) pad is required to press the blank against the die to
prevent wrinkling. Optional pressure pad from the bottom may also be used.

26
 Deep Drawing
Engineering Analysis
 During deep drawing of a cup, the metal is
subjected to different types of deformations:

– Flange region: As the metal is being drawn,

the original circumference of blank (πDb) will
continuously decrease to the circumference
of finish cup (πDp). Due to tensile strain in
radial direction and compressive (hoop)
strain in circumferencial direction, increase in
thickness occurs as the metal moves inward.

– Die (wall) region: The metal is first bent and

then straightened as it is subjected to tensile
stress. This plastic bending under tension
results in considerable thinning.

– Punch region: Very low tensile stresses act

in radial and circumferencial directions.
27
 Deep Drawing
Clearance
 It is the distance between punch and die: c = 1.1( t )
 If it is less than the thickness produced by thicknening,
the metal will be sequeezed (ironed) between punch
and die to produce a uniform wall thickness.

Holding Force
 The improper application of holding force would cause
severe defects in the drawn parts:
– wrinkling (if holding force is underestimated)
– tearing (if holding force is overestimated)

c : clearance
Fh : holding force
Fp : drawing force
D p : punch diameter
Flange wrinkling Wall wrinkling Corner tearing Db : blank diameter
28
 Deep Drawing
Drawing (Punching) Force
 The force to produce a cup is summation of ideal force of deformation, frictional forces,
and the force required for ironing. Appproximate calculation of drawing force is as follows:
  Db   D p   (   o : mean flow stress


( )
Fp =  D p t 1.1 o  ln 
D  +   2 Fh  e
Db  
2)
+ Fb Fh : holding force
 p   Fb : force for bending
 For practical purposes, this force may be calculated based on  : friction coefficient
Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR): Db : blank diameter

Fp =  o D p t ( for LDR  2) D p : punch (cup) diameter

Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR)

 The drawability of a metal is defined by Limiting Drawing Ratio (LDR), which represents
the largest blank that can be drawn through a die without tearing.
 LDR is the ratio of blank diameter to cup diameter, which is related to efficiency term (η):
D η = 1.0  no frictional loss (for ideal conditions)  LDR ≈ 2.7
LDR  b  e
Dp η = 0.7  frictional loss accounted (for practical purposes)  LDR ≈ 2.0
Deep Drawing

30
 Deep Drawing
Redrawing
 If the required change in shape of drawn part is too severe (i.e. LDR is too high or not
sufficient to form the desired cup), then the complete forming of part will require more than
one drawing step. The second drawing step (and any further drawing steps if needed) are
referred to as redrawing.

 Redrawing is done in decreasing ratios

as given below (where the throat angle
is 10-15°):

Redrawing Steps
1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
Db / Dp 1.43 1.33 1.25 1.19 1.14 1.11

 If these steps are not enough to reach

the required cup diameter, annealing
is required, and then redrawing can be
performed.

31
Example:
A Ø200 mm blank is to be drawn to a Ø50 mm cup. Step 1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th 6th
Estimate the minimum number of draws required for
Ratio 1.43 1.33 1.25 1.19 1.14 1.11
this operation using the given drawing ratios.
Solution:
Db 200
 Determine if redrawing is required: = = 4  LDR = 2 Redrawing is necessary
Dp 50
Db 200 D3 84.13
 Step 1: = 1.43 D1 = = 139.86  Step 4: = 1.19 D4 = = 70.69
D1 1.43 D4 1.19
D1 139.86 D4 70.69
 Step 2: = 1.33 D2 = = 105.16  Step 5: = 1.14 D5 = = 62.01
D2 1.33 D5 1.14
D2 105.16 D5 62.01
 Step 3: = 1.25 D3 = = 84.13  Step 6: = 1.11 D6 = = 55.86
D3 1.25 D6 1.11

 Desired diameter still cannot be achieved after 6th step. Thus, annealing must be applied.
 It might be better to anneal the blank before 6th draw to reduce number of redraws.
 If annealing is performed after 3rd draw, 84.13
= 1.68  LDR = 2 # of steps: 4
the ratio to reach required cup diameter is: 50
 Other Sheet Metal Operations
Guerin Process (Rubber Pad Forming)
 It involves the use of a thick rubber pad
to form metal over a positive form block.
 Advantages: low tooling cost, using same
rubber pad with different form blocks
 Limitations: for relatively shallow shapes
 Application area: small-quantity production

33
 Other Sheet Metal Operations
Hydroforming (Fluid Forming)

 Instead of a rubber pad in Guerin process,

a rubber diaphragm filled with fluid is used.

 Advantages: low tooling cost

 Limitations: for simple shapes

 Application area: small-quantity production

(1) Press closed and (2) Punch pressed (3) Punch and press
cavity pressurized into blank pulled back and
with hydraulic fluid part produced
34
 Other Sheet Metal Operations
Stretch Forming

 The metal is stretched and bent to achieve

the desired shape.

 Advantages: low tooling cost, production of

large parts

 Limitations: for simple shapes

 Application area: small-quantity production

35
 Other Sheet Metal Operations
Spinning
 An axially symmetric part is gradually shaped over
a mandrel by means of a rounded tool or roller.
 Advantages: low tooling cost, production of large
parts (up to diameter of 5 m)
 Limitations: only axially symmetric parts
 Application area: small-quantity production
In a lathe, tool is forced against a rotating
disk, gradually forcing the metal over chuck
to conform to its shape. Chucks and follow
blocks are usually made of wood.

36
 High Energy Rate Forming (HERF)
 These are forming processes in which large amount of energy is applied in a very short time:

Explosive Forming

 It involves use of an explosive charge placed in

water to form sheet into the die cavity.

 Advantages: low tooling cost, large parts

 Limitations: skilled and experienced labour

 Application area: large parts in aerospace industry

(1) Setup pf process

(2) Explosive detonated
(3) Part formed by
shock waves
 High Energy Rate Forming (HERF)
Electrohydraulic Forming
 The shock wave is generated by discharge of electrical energy between two electrodes
submerged in water.
 Similar to explosive forming, but applied only to small part sizes.

38
 High Energy Rate Forming (HERF)
Electromagnetic Forming
 The sheet metal is deformed by the mechanical force of an electromagnetic field induced
in workpiece by a coil.
 Advantages: can produce shapes which cannot be produced easily by the other processes
 Limitations: suitable for magnetic materials
 Application area: most widely used HERF process to form tubular parts

39
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 8
Pipe and Tube Manufacturing

Prof. Dr. Omer EYERCIOGLU

Doç. Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana
Mechanical Engineering
www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
University of Gaziantep
 Introduction

Pipe & Tube Manufacturing

Manuf. Welded Seamless
Method
– Butt or electric welding of – Extrusion
cold forged or rolled sheet – Continuous casting
– Centrifugal casting
– Piercing (Mannesmann, Stiefel, Ehrhardt)
– Röckner
– Spinning
– Swaging
Area of Low & Medium Pressure Applications High Temp. & High Pressure Applications
Use
– Pipeline constructions – Hydraulic equipment
– General purpose – Boiler pipes
1
 Welding of Rolled Sheets

straight-welded pipe

spiral-welded pipe

2
 Impact Extrusion

forward backward
extrusion extrusion

forward &
backward
extrusion

3
 Tube Extrusion

Extrusion
from solid
billet

Extrusion
from hollow
billet
4
 Rotary Tube Piercing
 Rotary tube piercing process is the starting stage for
seamless pipe and tube manufacturing.

 It is about making a void at the core of a solid round bar

(max. Ø12′′) by applying compressive and tensile forces
in reverse directions, and enlarging it between two rolls.

 Rotational speeds of rolls are not equal: N1 ≠ N2

 Cross angle is about 6°.

(1) Void initiation in (2) Cavity formation by (3) Rotary tube piercing using
solid round bar enlarging the void two rolls and mandrel
5
 Plug-Mill Process (Mannesmann Method)
 This is a standard process for making large quantities of thin-wall stainless steel tube or
pipe of uniform size and roundness throughout its entire length:

1. Piercing: The billet is pierced in two hot rotary piercers for the greater reduction.

2. Plugging: The pierced billet is placed in a plug-mill to reduce diameter by rotating the tube
over a mandrel.

3. Reeling: Having some ovality, the tube is inserted between rolls of reelers that provide for
dimensional correction and burnish inside and outside diameters of the tube.

4. Sizing: Finally, after reheating, the tube reenters a reeler and sizing rollers to provide for
greater dimensional uniformity.

6
Plug-Mill Process (Mannesmann Method)

7
Tube Drawing

8
Tube Spinning

9
 Other Tubing Methods

Röckner Method Ehrhardt Method

Used for increasing the inner diameter Pressing into a hot billet with a punch to
of thin-walled tubes by means of helical enlarge the billet up to die walls (the inner
motion of rollers (Ø800 to Ø1800 mm). diameter of tube is punch diameter).
10
ME 333 – Manufacturing Processes II
Chapter 9
Powder Metallurgy Processing

Prof. Dr. Omer EYERCIOGLU

Mechanical Engineering Doç. Dr. A. Tolga Bozdana
University of Gaziantep www.gantep.edu.tr/~bozdana
 Definitions
 Powder Metallurgy (PM) is the art of making commercial products from metallic
powders by means of pressure. May or may not be used, heat must be kept at a temp.
below the melting point of powder.

 PM is an additive manufacturing process as the parts are produced from metallic

and/or nonmetallic powders.

 Metal powders may be mixed with other powders for lubrication or binding purposes.

 Metal powders and machines & dies are expensive. However, high cost is justified by
the unusual properties obtained (some products cannot be made by other processes).

 PM is suitable for mass production of parts to net/near-net shape, and thus eliminating
or reducing the need for subsequent machining.

1
 Metal Powder Characteristics
1. Shape: Shape of powder particles
depends upon its production method
(spherical, dendritic, flat, or angular).

2. Fineness: The powders are sized

with standard sieves of 36-850 μm.
The particle size distribution affects
flowability and apparent density.

3. Flowability: It is the ability of a powder to flow and fill a die cavity. In other words, it refers to
the rate of flow through fixed orifice.

4. Compressibility: It is the ratio of volume of initial powder to volume of pressed compact,

which varies considerably with the particle size distribution. Green strength of a compact
(i.e. the strength before sintering) is dependent on compressibility.

5. Apparent Density: It is the weight of powders occupying a certain volume (in g/cm3).

6. Sintering Ability: Sintering is the bonding of particles by application of heat. Temperature

range should be smaller than melting temperature of powder.
2
 Powder Production
Due to individual physical and chemical characteristics, metal powders are manufactured in
different ways. The procedure varies considerably resulting in different particle characteristics:

1. Machining: Results in coarse particles and used in production of magnesium powders.

2. Milling: Uses various types of crushers,

rotary mills, etc. Brittle materials may be
reduced to irregular shapes of almost any
fineness. This process is also used for
pigment production from ductile materials.
Generally, oil is used as carrier medium. roll crushing ball mill hammer milling

3. Shotting: Pouring the molten metal through an orifice slowly, and cooling by dropping into
water. Spherical or pear-shaped particles are obtained. Particle size is too large for PM.

4. Electrolytic Deposition: Common method for producing iron, silver, tantalum and several
other metals. For producing iron powder, steel plates are placed as anodes in electrolysis
tanks and stainless steel is used as cathode. Direct current is passed through circuit, and
iron powders are deposited on cathode. Being brittle in this condition, annealing is needed.
3
 Powder Production
5. Direct Reduction: Reduces metal oxide mines to metal powder. Minerals are crushed to
powder size, and reduced to metal powder under reducing atmospheres (rich in H or C).
For producing iron powder, crushed iron oxide is fed into a rotating kiln along with crushed
coke. Being heated up to 1050 °C, carbon combines with oxygen and pure iron powder is
obtained. It looks like a sponge, and so called as “sponge iron”.

6. Atomization: The most common

metal powder production
method. A metal stream is
atomized by a pressurized fluid.
It is very much in use for gas atomization
water atomization
producing alloy steel powders.
Powder size and shape can be
controlled by controlling metal
flow rate and pressure of
atomizing jets.
centrifugal
atomization with
atomization with rotating
spinning disk
consumable electrode
 Stages in PM
After the metallic powders have been produced and classified, the conventional PM
process sequence consists of three major steps:
1. Blending & mixing of powders
2. Compaction
3. Sintering (and optional secondary
and finishing operations)

Blending & Mixing Compacting Sintering

5
 Blending & Mixing
 Blending: Mixing powder of the same chemical composition but different sizes.
 Mixing: Combining powders of different chemistries.
 Blending and mixing are accomplished by mechanical means (as illustrated below).
 Apart from powders, some other ingredients are usually added:
– Lubricants: to reduce the particles-die friction (stearates of zinc & aluminium)
– Binders: to achieve sufficient strength before sintering (contain epoxy resin)
– Deflocculants: to improve the flow characteristics during feeding

rotating drum rotating double cone

screw mixer blade mixer

6
 Compaction
 High pressure is applied to powders to
form them into required shape.

 Powders of different sizes are mixed

for better compressibility.

 Then, they are blended with lubricants.

Common lubricants are stearic acid,
zinc stearate and powder graphite.

 Finally, they are compacted to shape

under pressures of 20-1400 MPa.

 The part after compaction is called

a green compact (a green), meaning
that the part is not yet fully processed.

 Green compact is not very strong.

Final strength is obtained by sintering.

7
 Compaction

Left: The press for compaction

of metallic powders.
Right: The removable die set
allowing press to produce
parts by one die set while
another is being fitted to
produce a second part.

8
 Compaction
 The density of part after compaction
(green density) is much greater than
the starting material density, but is not
uniform in the green.
 So, density and mechanical properties
vary across part volume and depend
on pressure in compaction:
(1) initial loose powders after filling
(2) repacking
(3) deformation of particles

Metal Pressure (Mpa)

Aluminum 70-275
Brass 400-700
Bronze 200-275
Iron 350-800
Tantalum 70-140
Tungsten 70-140
9
 Compaction
 Die cavity must be very smooth and must have a slight draft to facilitate removal of part.
 Wall friction prevents much of the pressure from being transmitted to the powder.
 Thus, there are two ways to minimize pressure loss and to improve the density distribution:
– Application of double acting press and two moving punches in conventional compaction
– Cold isostatic pressing (pressure applied from all directions to powder in a flexible mold)

Double Acting Press Cold Isostatic Pressing

compaction with
a single punch
(non-uniform double acting press with
density) two moving punches (1) Powders are placed (2) Hydrostatic pressure is (3) Pressure is
(density distribution in the flexible mold applied against mold to reduced to
obtained) compact the powders remove part
 Sintering
 This is the operation of heating a green compact to an elevated temperature.

 Solid powders are welded together, and generally solid state diffusion takes place.

 There is shrinkage during sintering, which results in densification.

 Temperature is generally below the melting point of powders. However, one of the elements
might melt (liquid phase sintering), which is commonly used in cemented carbide tool
production.

 Steels are sintered at about 1100° C for about 20-40 minutes.

 To prevent reduction or oxidation of the powders, sintering furnaces are atmosphere

controlled. Sintering of steel is done under dissociated ammonia (rich in nitrogen).

11
 Sintering
 Compressed metal powder is heated in a controlled-atmosphere furnace to a
temperature below its melting point, but high enough to allow bounding of the particles.

Top: Typical heat treatment

cycle in sintering
Bottom Schematic cross section
: of continuous sintering
furnace

12
 Sintering
 Primary driving force for sintering is formation and growth of bonds between the particles.

 Microscopic-scale sketches show the changes occuring during sintering of metallic powders.

(1 Particle bonding is initiated at contact points

)
(2 Contact points grow into "necks"
)
(3 Pores between particles are reduced in size
) 13
 Finishing Operations
 A number of secondary and finishing operations can be applied after sintering.

 Among those, the most common process is hot forging.

 Porous sintered products have limited mechanical properties. By hot forging, full density
products with equivalent mechanical properties to cast-rolled products can be produced.

 Other secondary and finishing operations are:

– Sizing (cold pressing to improve dimensional accuracy)
– Coining (cold pressing to press details into surface)
– Impregnation (oil fills the pores of the part)
– Infiltration (pores are filled with a molten metal)
– Heat treating
– Plating
– Painting

14
 Applications of PM
 PM has become competitive with: casting, Typical applications (but not limited to):
forging, and machining, for relatively complex  Metallic Filters: Better strength than ceramic
parts with high strength and hard alloys. filters. Up to 80% porosity.
 Although large-size parts (up to 20 kg) can be  Cemented Carbides: WC is mixed with Co
produced, most products are less than 1-2 kg. powder, pressed to shape and liquid-phase
sintered. Used as cutting tools and metal
 The largest tonnage of metals for PM is steel deformation die materials.
and alloys of aluminum. Others are: copper,
 Gears & Pump Rotors: Produced from iron
nickel, tungsten, ceramic materials, etc.
powder mixed with graphite. About 20%
porosity. After sintering, pores are infiltrated
with oil for quiet operation.
 Porous Bearings: Made of copper, tin, and
graphite powders. After sintering, sized and
impregnated with oil. No need for lubrication
during working (self-lubricated bearings).
 Magnets: Excellent small magnets (ferrites).
Superior to cast magnets.
 Contact Parts: Must have wear resistance,
refractoriness, good electrical conductivity.
Combinations are: W-Cu, W-Co, W-Ag. 15
 PM Application – Cemented Carbides
 The cemented carbides Production of tunsgten carbide (WC) cutting tool by PM:
used in making cutting
Tungsten Oxide
tools and drawing dies
Reduced by H2
consists of carbides of:
Tungsten
– tungsten (W)
Grinding
– titanium (Ti)
Tungsten Powders
– tantalum (Ta)
Mixing with Carbon
– molybdenum (Mo)
Heating (at 1500 °C for 2 hrs)
that are bounded with: Mixing with Co & Paraffin Wax
– ductile cobalt (Co) Compaction
– nickel (Ni)
Sintering (at 850-1000 °C)

Final Sintering (at 1350-1550 °C for 90 min)

WC Tool
16
 Pros & Cons of PM
Advantages of PM Disadvantages of PM
☺ PM parts can be mass produced to net/near-net shape  High tooling and equipment costs.
(eliminating/reducing subsequent processing).
 Expensive metallic powders.
☺ PM involves little waste (about 97% of the starting powders
converted to product). Superior to casting processes in  Difficulties with storing and handling
which sprues, runners, risers are wasted in production cycle. metal powders.
☺ Owing to the nature of starting material in PM, parts with  Limitations on part geometry since
a specified level of porosity can be made. This feature lends metal powders do not readily flow
itself to the production of porous metal parts (e.g. filters, oil- laterally in the die during pressing.
impregnated bearings, gears). Allowance must be given for ejection
☺ Certain metals that are difficult to fabricate by other methods of the part from die after pressing.
can be shaped by PM. Tungsten is an example (tungsten
filaments used in incandescent lamp bulbs are made using  Variations in density throughout the
PM technology). part may be a problem (especially
for complex part geometries).
☺ Certain metal alloy combinations and cermets that cannot be
produced by other methods can be formed by PM.
☺ PM is favorable to most casting processes in dimensional
control of product. Tolerances of ±0.13 mm are held.
☺ PM production methods can be automated for economical
production. 17
 Design Considerations in PM
The following design requirements are essential:
– Part shape must be as simple as possible.
– Parts should be made with the widest tolerances
(larger than 0.1 mm is possible).
– Holes and grooves must be parallel to direction of
ejection (i.e. no undercuts on the side).
– Sharp corners, radii, thin section must be avoided. Permissible part features
– Minimum wall thickness is 1.5 mm.
– Radii and chamfers at corners are still possible,
but certain rules should be observed.

Not recommended
(part ejection is impossible)

Rules for chamfers and corner radii

18