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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person

Quarter 1
Module 2: Methods of Philosophizing

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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person-Grade 11
Quarter 1 Module 2: Methods of Philosophizing

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Regional Director: Gilbert T. Sadsad

Assistant Regional Director: Jessie L. Amin

Development Team of the Module

Writer: MARLON B. NACUA

Editors: MARISSA D. NARTE, HT / JOVELYN A. FLORECE, TIII

Reviewer: DARIO I CABANELA, EPS / DARCY GUY Y. MAÑEBO, EPS

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Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person-Grade 11

Quarter 1 Module 2: Methods of Philosophizing

I-Introduction

In today’s society, we encounter a lot of information from various sources such

as the media and our interactions with friends, family, and members of the community.
Most of the information we receive is helpful, but some may lead us or may even be
utterly false. These kinds of information often have negative impact in our lives.

II-Objectives

By the end of this lesson you will be able to:

1. Distinguished opinion from truth. (PPT11/12-Ic-2.1)

a. Define opinion and truth
b. Compare and contrast between opinion and truth

2. Realize that the methods of philosophy lead to wisdom and truth.

(PPT11/12-Id-2.3)
a. Discuss the methods of philosophy
b. Compare and contrast between wisdom and truth.

3. Evaluate truth from opinions in different situations using the methods of

philosophizing. (PPT11/12-Ie-2.4)

a. Read an article and evaluate opinion regarding the issue discussed

III-Vocabulary List

Expanding Your Word Wealth

Read the following words to enhance your vocabulary.

 Opinions- are statements that go beyond providing facts.

 Conclusion- is a judgment based on certain facts.
 Beliefs- are statements that express convictions that are not easily and
clearly explained by facts.
 Explanations-are statements that assume the claim to be true and provide
reasons why the statement is true.
 Arguments-are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince the
reader or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful.

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IV- Pre-Test

Directions: Identify what is asked in each given item. Write your answer in your
module notebook.

1. It is the clear awareness and understanding of something.

2. These are statements which are observed to be real or truthful.
3. These are statements which need to be examined to determine whether
they are true or false.
4. These are arguments based of faulty reasoning.
5. These are tendencies or influences that affect the views of people.

V- Learning Activities

Read the allegory of the cave by Plato (Answer the following questions in your module
notebook)

The Allegory of the Cave

1. Plato realizes that the general run of humankind can think, and speak, etc.,
without (so far as they acknowledge) any awareness of his realm of Forms.
2. The allegory of the cave is supposed to explain this.
3. In the allegory, Plato likens people untutored in the Theory of Forms to
prisoners chained in a cave, unable to turn their heads. All they can see is the
wall of the cave. Behind them burns a fire. Between the fire and the prisoners
there is a parapet, along which puppeteers can walk. The puppeteers, who are
behind the prisoners, hold up puppets that cast shadows on the wall of the cave.
The prisoners are unable to see these puppets, the real objects, that pass
behind them. What the prisoners see and hear are shadows and echoes cast
by objects that they do not see. Here is an illustration of Plato’s Cave:

From Great Dialogues of Plato (Warmington and Rouse, eds.) New

York, Signet Classics: 1999. p.316.

4. Such prisoners would mistake appearance for reality. They would think the
things they see on the wall (the shadows) were real; they would know nothing
of the real causes of the shadows.

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5. So when the prisoners talk, what are they talking about? If an object (a book,
let us say) is carried past behind them, and it casts a shadow on the wall, and
a prisoner says “I see a book,” what is he talking about?

He thinks he is talking about a book, but he is really talking about a shadow.

But he uses the word “book.” What does that refer to?

6. Plato gives his answer at line (515b2). The text here has puzzled many editors,
and it has been frequently emended. The translation in Grube/Reeve gets the
point correctly:

“And if they could talk to one another, don’t you think they’d suppose that the
names they used applied to the things they see passing before them?”

7. Plato’s point is that the prisoners would be mistaken. For they would be taking
the terms in their language to refer to the shadows that pass before their eyes,
rather than (as is correct, in Plato’s view) to the real things that cast the
shadows.

If a prisoner says “That’s a book” he thinks that the word “book” refers to the
very thing he is looking at. But he would be wrong. He’s only looking at a
shadow. The real referent of the word “book” he cannot see. To see it, he would
have to turn his head around.

8. Plato’s point: the general terms of our language are not “names” of the physical
objects that we can see. They are actually names of things that we cannot see,
things that we can only grasp with the mind.
9. When the prisoners are released, they can turn their heads and see the real
objects. Then they realize their error. What can we do that is analogous to
turning our heads and seeing the causes of the shadows? We can come to
grasp the Forms with our minds.
10. Plato’s aim in the Republic is to describe what is necessary for us to achieve
this reflective understanding. But even without it, it remains true that our very
ability to think and to speak depends on the Forms. For the terms of the
language we use get their meaning by “naming” the Forms that the objects we
perceive participate in.
11. The prisoners may learn what a book is by their experience with shadows of
books. But they would be mistaken if they thought that the word “book” refers
to something that any of them has ever seen.

Likewise, we may acquire concepts by our perceptual experience of physical

objects. But we would be mistaken if we thought that the concepts that we grasp
were on the same level as the things we perceive.

Source: https://faculty.washington.edu/smcohen/320/cave.htm

or watch

Source: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1RWOpQXTltA

Allegory of the Cave-Alex Gendler

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 Process Questions:

1. What is truth based on the allegory of the cave?

2. How do we know the truth based on the allegory of the cave?
3. What is an opinion? How do we get our knowledge?

What comes into your mind when you hear the word opinion and truth? (Answer the
concept map in your module notebook)

Opinion

Truth

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 Based on your answers write your own definition of opinion and truth (answer in
your module notebook)

Before we discuss truth, it is important to clarify knowledge, since it is through

knowing that we are able to determine what is true. Knowledge is the clear awareness
and understanding of something. It is the product of questions that allow for clear
answers provided by facts. Our knowledge is comprised of ideas and beliefs that we
know to be true.

Let’s explore your knowledge by completing the following statements:

I know that…

I know why…

I know how…

These statements correspond to one important aspect of knowledge-that is based

on reality. This simply means that what we know is what is observable or evident in
the real world. For example, we say that “I know fish lived in water” because fish do
live in water. Propositions or statements which are observed to be real or truthful are
considered facts.

There are statements, however, that are not evidently or immediately known to
be true. For example, we can say that “I know that my school is the best school in the
city”. This statement, however, cannot be taken as true since it is simply not
immediately evident. This statement is a claim, and further examination is required to
establish whether it is true or false. You may know why reading is a better activity than
playing basketball, but the truth of your statement will be contested by other people.

Truthful statements, therefore, can be considered as based on facts. Science

considers truth as something observable and empirical. This means that any claim can
be proven by verification and experimentation. Philosophy has various views which
can help tackle the concepts of knowing the truth, and arrive at a reasonable
assessment if a statement, idea, or event is believable.

Take look at the following statements and determine and determine which one
states fact or opinion. (Answer in your module notebook)

1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from my home to school.

2. Living near the school is better because we don’t have to spend much for
transportation.
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza pie.
4. My sister is a selfish person because she ate the last piece of pizza pie and did
not share it with me.
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 5. The policeman firmly pushed the suspect to his knees and placed him in
handcuffs.
6. The aggressive manner by which the policeman arrested the suspect is an
example of the brutality that characterizes our police force.

Analyzing these statements, you will be able to identify statements that are
similar.

1. It takes me 30 minutes to walk from 2. Living near the school is better

my home to school. because we don’t have to spend much
3. My sister ate the last piece of pizza for transportation.
pie. 4. My sister is a selfish person because
5. The policeman firmly pushed the she ate the last piece of pizza pie and did
suspect to his knees and placed him in not share it with me.
handcuffs. 6. The aggressive manner by which the
policeman arrested the suspect is an
example of the brutality that
characterizes our police force.

Which column has statements that are more factual? If you answered the first
column, then you are correct. Analyzing closely the statements in that column using
the philosophical tools, we can confidently say that they fit into the category of facts
since they contain ideas or informations that are easily verifiable.

For example, verifying the number of minutes it takes for one to walk from home
to school is possible. The second and the third statements speak of actions that can
be verified by recalling an experience or providing evidences such as eyewitness
accounts.

The second column, on the other hand, has statements that could be considered
opinions. These statements go beyond providing facts. They also provide conclusions
or perspectives regarding certain situations. Some of the statements even advance a
belief about a certain thing or person. Opinions are also the bases for making
arguments and convincing people that a certain claim is a fact.

A conclusion is a judgment based on certain facts. The facts that form the bases
of a conclusion may not be disputed but the conclusion itself could still be contested
or questioned. Meanwhile, beliefs are statements that express convictions that are
not easily and clearly explained by facts. If a person states “I believe that God put me
on this earth to spread His message of love”, we will find it difficult to prove his or her
statement as truthful if we rely merely of facts. To judge the truthfulness of belief, we
must also consider things such as a person’s experiences and views.

We should also be aware when statements go beyond the facts and provide additional
ideas and information. For instance, statement 4 provides details or explanation in
order to support the idea “my sister is selfish”. Explanations are statements that

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assume the claim to be true and provide reasons why the statement is true. Statement
4 asks the readers to simply accept the fact that “the sister is selfish”. Arguments,
meanwhile, are a series of statements that provide reasons to convince that the reader
or listener that a claim or opinion is truthful. Arguments are made with the assumption
that the truth of the claim or opinion is still to be determined. You often encounter
arguments in a formal debate, where participants explain two sides of a proposition,
and judgment regarding the truthfulness of the proposition is made after hearing the
arguments of both sides.

Think

A. Imagine that you are part of the conversations below, how will you react to the
statements given. (Copy and answer in your module notebook)

Friend 1: Did you hear Martin say that Ma’am Gonzales will not give a test today?

Friend 2: Really? I heard Martin is pretty close with Ma’am. Maybe he is right.

Friend 3: Remember when he said last Monday that classes will be suspended in the
afternoon because it was the principal’s birthday? Well, that didn’t happen. I don’t
think we should believe what he says.

You:_______________________________________________________________

Friend 1: Did you hear about what happened between Clarisse and her boyfriend

Friend 2: What happened?

Friend 1: They got in a huge fight last night. Clarisse called me up. She was crying
and she said that Roger hit her.

Friend 3: Wait, what? That’s not right. Roger came by my place last night and he
was pretty shaken up. He had scratch marks on his arms and a bite on his left hand.
He said Clarisse just attacked her and was accusing him of seeing another girl.

Friend 1: No! Clarisse said it was Roger who started to hit her and she had to
defend herself!

You:_______________________________________________________________

How do we know if something is true?

There are several views regarding truth. Philosophers emphasize the importance of
belief as a basis for determining truth. But what kind of belief is truthful? How do we
know that what we believe is true?

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Ancient Greek philosophers approached the problem of truth by looking at the nature
of knowledge and how we know what we know. We assume that everything we know
about this world is true. But philosophers who pondered upon the origins of knowledge
doubted everything that there is to know about themselves and the world. In doing so,
they were able to better understand the means by which humans gain knowledge and
determine the truth about everything. It is said that there are instances when we have
to unlearn something so that we may learn anew. Philosophers questioned what they
knew and even analyzed their methods of knowing in order to understand themselves
and the world much better.

Let’s embark on our own investigation on the nature of knowledge. Let’s start by stating
the very obvious things we know about ourselves.

I am alive

I have a body

I can breathe

Do you believe that these statements apply to you? “But of course!” you will say. But
remember, as philosophers, we do not assume that every statement is true. Doubt has
very important purpose in philosophy as it drives our desire to discover truth. In
philosophy, systematic doubt is employed to help determine the truth. This means that
every statement, claim, evidence, and experience is scrutinized and analyzed. Nothing
is taken as true unless there is sufficient reason and evidence to prove that it is indeed
true. Let’s assume therefore, that the truthfulness of these statements have yet to be
determined.

Using doubt as our starting point, let’s revise the statement to make them easier to
scrutinize and analyze. Let’s rewrite the statements as questions so we can review
and examine them further.

Am I alive?

Do I have a body?

Can I breathe?

Now, how will you figure out the answers to these questions? The obvious answer
would be to examine yourself to determine if indeed you are alive, that you have a
body, and you can breathe. Do you have a pulse? Can you feel your heartbeat? Do
you have hands, arms, legs, feet, and a head? Try to take a deep breath, and then
exhale. Were you able to do it? If you answered “yes” to all these questions, then you
can conclude with certainty that the previous statements about yourself are true. You
can say:

I am alive!

I have a body!

I can breathe!
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This one perspective on truth-that a belief is true if it can be justified or proven
through the use of one’s senses.

Let’s tackle another statement and see how philosophy can help us determine if it is
true.

I am a Filipino

Let’s apply systematic doubt and revise the statement for further examination.

Am I Filipino?

Are our senses sufficient means to determine the truth of the statement? If not, what
others means can we use to determine the truth?

We can use facts to guide us in our search for truth. If you look up the word “Filipino”
in a dictionary, you will come across the following definitions:

Filipino (noun)

1. A native of the Philippine Islands.

2. A citizen of the Republic of the Philippines
3. The Tagalog-based official language of the Republic of the Philippines

Which of these definitions applies to you? Definitions 1 & 2 are the ones that best
apply to you, since they refer to Filipinos as persons. Based on the definitions outlined,
you can say that you and everyone in your community are Filipinos because 1) you,
your classmates, your teachers, your family members, and other people in your
community were born in the Philippines and are thus natives; and 2) you are all citizens
of the Republic of the Philippines, which means you were born of Filipino parents and
are recognized as citizens by the government. Definitions 3 cannot be used in this
case since it refers to the Filipino language and not to Filipinos as persons.

This is another basis for determining truth: a belief or statement is true if it is based on
facts. We applied this perspective when we looked up the meaning of the word
“Filipino” in a dictionary. We assumed that what is stated in the definition is the actual
meaning of the word.

Are you now convinced that you call yourself a Filipino? If not, what additional proof
should you look for to prove, without a doubt, that you are a Filipino? You can try doing
the following:

1. Ask your parents and other relatives

2. Look for official documents that prove you are a Filipino.

When you survey your family regarding your question, all of them may answer with
resounding “Yes” Getting a consensus or having people agree on a common
belief is another way of determining what is true. But this approach has certain
limitations. Getting everyone to agree on something may not make that belief true. For
example, if you can get your classmates to agree that you do not need to study to
become successful in life, it does not make that belief true. Also, if one of your families
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says “NO” to your enquiries, it would frustrate your efforts to find the truth. Therefore,
you have to use other means to really answer the question.

Looking at the official documents, particularly a birth certificate is one recommended

way of proving that you are a Filipino. Your birth certificate shows factual information
regarding your birth. Since it is issued by an institution that has authority such as the
government, you are sure that the document and the facts it bears are truthful.
Reliance on evidence and facts, however, also has limitation. Evidence, especially
documents, can be forged or falsified. Even the content of genuine document may be
doubtful if there are mistakes in the information. A person may be issued an official
birth certificate but it may contain wrong information or typographical errors. If your
name is misspelled in your birth certificate, does your identity change?

Imagine that in your search to figure out if you are a Filipino, you find out the following:

1. All your parents and relatives agree that you are Filipino.
2. Your birth certificate proves that you were born in the Philippines

With these facts in mind, you can now be confident in calling yourself a true Filipino.
You can now proudly say:

I am a Filipino!

Finally, let us explore the following statements about what you can do:

I can play basketball

I can fry an egg

I understand the lesson.

Let’s revise the statement so we can analyze them further.

Can I play basketball?

Can I fry an egg?

Do I understand the lesson?

Looking back at the approaches we applied in the previous statements, you realize
that using your senses and experiences, acquiring supporting facts, or getting other
people’s views are insufficient to fully determine the truth of these three statements.
You will have to combine various approaches in order to arrive at a correct judgment.

It is true that in your mind you may have figured out the answers to these questions.
For this exercise, however, let us exhaust all means to determine the truth. For
instance, how will you really prove that you can play basketball? The obvious answer
would be to actually play it. Imagine if one of your friends brags that he or she can
successfully shoot the ball from the half-court line. You will not take your friend’s word
for it and you will be satisfied only when he or she actually shoots the ball from the
half-court line. The same is true with cooking. To prove that you know how to fry an
egg, you will have to go to the kitchen and fry an egg. Some would argue that the proof
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is not only in the act but also in the product. This means that you should not only show
that you can fry an egg but that you can make delicious fried eggs. Determining the
truth is this case requires a person to prove a statement through an action. These
statements, therefore, are only true if they can be applied in real life.

The final statement also requires proof of action. The best means to determine
whether you have understood the lesson is to take a test and get a good score.
Philosophers also believe that claims and beliefs should also be subjected to tests to
determine truth. Any claim therefore, should be subjected to tests to prove their
validity.

All these approaches can help you determine whether the statements are true or
applicable in your case. The enquiry would result in any of the following realizations:

I can play basketball

I cannot play basketball

I can fry an egg

I cannot fry an egg

I understand the lesson

I do not understand the lesson

Discovering truths about oneself is merely the first step toward exploring knowledge
and truth. As we encounter varied ideas and knowledge in our everyday interactions,
philosophy can help us determine which information we encounter is believable and
acceptable, and which needs to be examined more closely to determine its truth.

Think

Apply systematic doubt in analyzing the following statements. Describe how you will
determine their truthfulness. (Answer in your module notebook)

1. Our classroom is tidy.

2. Our school is big
3. I am a good student
4. We live in a safe community.

How can an understanding of the difference between truth and opinion lead us to
wisdom?

An understanding of opinions and facts and the means to distinguish one from the
other can further improve our understanding and appreciation of varied views and
ideas. The ability to determine truth goes hand in hand with the holistic perspective
and enables us to make wiser decisions, especially in choosing the ideas and views
which we find acceptable.

An individual cannot live his or her life just agreeing with everybody he or she meets.
A critical mind aided by philosophy can help us form our own personal point of view
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that can guide is in making decisions and actions when faced with problem. Each
individual’s point of view is unique but it should be based on sound and reasonable
ideas and views. Philosophy can help us determine ideas that are truthful and
acceptable, which we can then use to form our own views regarding certain matters.

Imagine several individuals reacting to news on the television and radio about the
recent killings of drug pushers and addicts throughout the country. Analyze the
opinions of these individuals.

Mang Antonio: the drug addicts had it coming. It is good that these pieces of trash are
dealt with. In our barangay, the addicts have been committing crime for years! Now
that this is happening and addicts are being killed left and right, they have been
surrendering to the police or have disappeared. I say that we should keep killing them
until none are left.

Attorney Macaraig: as a lawyer and a citizen, I am deeply disturbed by these events.

Yes, drug addicts are a danger to society. But these killings are done outside of the
due process that is guaranteed by our justice system and laws. Anybody can just point
a finger at anyone and say that he or she is an addict. Are the people committing these
murders exercising due process in determining if the people they are killing are indeed
addicts? The killings are also a violation of human rights which are guaranteed for all
citizens, whether they are law-abiding or accused of a crime. What I am saying is that
these drug addicts have rights too. Aside from that, these acts are nothing but
vigilantism, which has no place in a law-abiding society. These killings may lead to
more crime which may affect not only those who are said to be guilty, but also innocent
citizens.

Mrs. Lopez: I really do not care about the issue. These killings make me nervous, but
at least I am not affected by this. My family are decent people and we live in a peaceful
community that has no drug addicts. As long as these criminals are dealt with and
peace and order are maintained in our community, I couldn’t care less about what is
happening to these addicts.

Father Gomez: it is the Catholic Church’s stand that life is sacred. We have long
opposed capital punishment since it violates the sacredness of life. The killing of the
suspected addict is a violation of God’s law and goes against human rights and the
rule of law. We call on the government to put a stop to these senseless murders. It is
every Christian’s duty to take a stand against murder and the prevailing culture of
death and join our call to respect life and the rule of law.

Mr. Tolentino: anybody who says that these criminals deserve human rights is an idiot!
What about the victims of these addicts who never stood a chance against them? My
daughter was raped and murdered by addicts and they deserve to die in the worst way
possible! It’s about time that these pieces of filth get what they deserve. If I had my
way, I would kill them all myself!

Mrs. Alonzo: I am very distressed by this news! These drug addicts are people too.
My son is a drug addict and we have been exerting every effort to help him clean up

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and reform himself. But it is a very hard process. I am afraid that one day I will hear
news that one of the drug addicts killed is my son.

Looking carefully at these opinions, we can see various claims, views, biases, and
possible fallacies embedded in them. Examine these statements to make sense of the
various ideas they wish to convey.

In figuring out bias, you have to at the background of the persons who made the
statements. Many of the individuals do not explicitly state their background, but we
can gather clues from their words and the given context.

Mang Antonio-a citizen who lives in a barangay where the presence of drug addict is
a problem.

Atty. Macaraig-a lawyer and a citizen

Mrs. Lopez- a housewife whose family lives in a peaceful community.

Father Gomez-a priest

Mr. Tolentino- a father whose daughter was raped and murdered by drug addicts

Mrs. Alonzo-a mother whose son is a drug addict

Figuring out the backgrounds of the people who made the statements allows us to
understand the context by which they formed these views and opinions on the issue.
For instance, you can understand Mr. Tolentino’s very emotional response to the issue
because his daughter was raped and killed by an addict. On the other hand, Mrs.
Lopez’s indifferent attitude is influenced by the fact that she and her family have not
experienced the problems brought about by drug addiction. Mrs. Alonzo also has an
emotional response to the issue because her son is a drug addict. Going back to the
statements, do they make sense given the backgrounds of the people who uttered
them? What bias can you see in the statements now that you have figures out the
backgrounds of these individuals?

Take a look at their views regarding drug addicts:

Mang Antonio-drug addicts are criminals and “pieces of trash”

Atty. Macaraig-“…drug addicts have rights too.”

Mrs. Lopez-drug addicts are criminals and she “couldn’t care less about what is
happening” to them.

Father Gomez-drug addicts have human rights and their lives are sacred

Mr. Tolentino-drug addicts are “pieces of filth”

Mrs. Alonzo-“these drug addicts are people too. My son is a drug addict.”

On their views on the killing of drug addicts:

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Mang Antonio-the killings have led to the surrender of addicts or their disappearance.
“We should keep killing them until none are left.”

Atty. Macaraig-“These killings are violation of human rights…these acts are nothing
but vigilantism, which has no place in law-abiding society. These killings may lead to
more crime…”

Mrs. Lopez-“I really do not care about this issue… as long as these criminals are dealt
with peace and order are maintained in our community, I couldn’t care less about what
is happening to these addicts.”

Father Gomez-“The killing of suspected addicts is a violation of god’s law and goes
against human rights and the rule of law.

Mr. Tolentino- “It’s about time that these pieces of filth get what they deserve. If I had
my way, I would kill them all myself!”

Mrs. Alonzo- “I am very distressed by this news… I am afraid that one day I will hear
news that one of these drug addicts killed is my son.”

Go over the various views on this issue and decide which opinion has the most number
of verifiable claims and arguments. If an opinion is more truthful, does it immediately
mean that it is most acceptable to you? Understand that you have your own bias and
perspective which play a huge influence in your decisions. Which among the opinions
is most similar to your own personal bias regarding the issue of drug addicts? To
determine this, ask yourself the following questions:

Do you consider drug addicts as human persons or as criminals?

Do you know a drug addict or a drug user? Do you consider that person or criminal or
a person?

Have you ever been affected by problems related to drug addiction? And how did it
make you feel?

Do you believe that killing drug addicts is an effective way of solving the problem of
drug addiction?

Do you believe that drug addicts deserve to die for being drug addicts?

Philosophize further and come up with philosophical questions about the issue. Start
with these:

If drug addiction is a crime and drug addicts are criminals, does this mean that any
form of addiction is also a crime? Can people addicted to coffee be considered
criminals?

If we get rid of the drug addicts but not the drug manufacturers and pushers, do we
solve the problem of addiction? Are we just getting rid of the symptoms but not causes
of the problem?

What other philosophical questions can you come up with regarding this issue?
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You own reflection on your thoughts and ideas regarding the issue, together with an
objective evaluation of opinions on the matter will enable you to make wise decision
regarding the most acceptable view. This is important since your views will define your
actions regarding the issue. If you believe that killing drug addicts is not the best means
of solving the problem of drug addiction, what will you do? If, on the other hand, you
support the killing of drug addicts, how will this affect your actions?

Continue philosophizing on other issues that you encounter everyday as this will help
you define your thoughts, actions, and behavior. This will hopefully enable you to be
more discerning and lead you to actively involve yourself in discussing and clarifying
issues and taking appropriate actions to address them.

Questions: (Answer in your notebook)

1. How can philosophy help identify things that are truthful?

2. What traits and values can help us in determining the truth?
3. How will knowing truth help you become more wise and discerning individuals?

What should we consider when looking at arguments or opinions?

Arguments often take the form of statements that are either claims of facts and
are phrased in such a way that they seem reasonable. However, a number of
arguments may be based of faulty reasoning. These kinds of arguments are called
fallacies. Some of these fallacies may be intentional, as the person making the claim
is desperate to convince you to accept his or her argument. The following are
examples of fallacies.

Fallacy Characteristics Example

Ad hominem Attacking the person presenting “of course he believes that

the argument instead of the the government is flawed,
argument itself he is a rebel and a
Communist”
Appeal to force Using the threat of force or an “if this peace agreement
undesirable event to advance an will not be signed by the
argument government, then we will
have no recourse but to go
to war.”
Appeal to emotion Using emotions such as pity or “All these charges are
sympathy baseless; this is just plain
harassment-can’t you see
how this is affecting my
family?”
Appeal to the The idea is presented as “Every boy your age
popular acceptable because a lot of already has a girlfriend,
people accept it you should find one!”
Appeal to tradition The idea is acceptable because .“Marriage should be
it has been true for a long time between a man and
woman. It has been so for
a long time in this country;

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 it should remain so today
and in the future.”
Begging the Assuming the thing or idea to be “I have a right to free
question proven is true; also known as speech, therefore you
“circular argument” cannot stop me from
talking”
Cause and effect Assuming a “cause and effect” “Ever since you brought
relationship between unrelated that sweater, everything
events has been going wrong in
your life. You should get
rid of it.”
Fallacy of Assuming that what is true of a “These cases of robbery in
composition part is true for the whole this district have
convinced me that the city
has become a den of
thieves and criminals.
Fallacy of division Assuming that what is true for the “You come from a family of
whole is true for its parts doctors and intellectuals!
Surely you can do better in
this course!”

When looking at an opinion, be aware of bias or the personal views of the person
presenting it. Biases are not necessarily errors in reasoning, but refer to tendencies or
influences which affect the views of the people. Bias cannot be avoided in any
discussion or debate. What is important is that the people engaging in the discussion
are aware of their personal biases and have open but critical attitude toward other
views which conflict with their own.

The most common biases are enumerated below.

Bias Characteristics Example

Correspondence The tendency to judge the “These soldiers who fought in
person’s personality by his or
bias or attribution the war all bloodthirsty
effect her actions, without regard murderers!”
for external factors of
influences
Confirmation bias The tendency to look for and “How can I accept his view that
readily accept information there is no God? I am a
which fits one’s own beliefs Christian!”
or views and to reject ideas
or views that go against it
Framing Focusing on certain aspect of “Preliminary evidence has still
a problem while ignoring not pointed out the actual cause
other aspects of the plane crash, but
investigators are currently
focusing on the possibility of
pilot error.”
Hindsight The tendency to see past “Magellan’s assault on Mactan
events as predicable, or to Island was a foolhardy venture,
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 ascribe a pattern to historical made by an overconfident,
events careless man who
underestimated the valor of the
native Filipinos.”
Conflict of A person or group is “as a daughter of the accused, I
interest connected to or has vested believe I have the right to
interest in the issue being express my opinion on the issue
discussed of his alleged corrupt practices.”
Cultural bias Analyzing an event or issue “I do not agree with this Western
based on one’s cultural practice of placing aged parents
standards in retirement homes. We
Filipinos take care of our family
members.”

VI-Practice Tasks

Practice Task 1

1. Read the article and evaluate the following opinions regarding the issue
discussed.

Philippines wins arbitration case vs. China over South China Sea

By Matikas Santos, July 12, 2016

It has finally been decided that the Philippines has exclusive sovereign rights
over the West Philippine Sea (in the South China Sea) and that China’s “nine-dash
line” is invalid, according to the United Nations (UN) Arbitral Tribunal.

The Tribunal issued its Award Tuesday after several months of hearings and
submission of documents. China was absent throughout the proceedings, refusing to
recognize the case.

“The Tribunal concluded that there was no legal basis for China to claim historic rights
to resources within the sea areas falling within the “nine-dash line,” the statement
released to the media said. “Having found that none of the features claimed by China
was capable of generating an exclusive economic zone, the Tribunal found that it
could-without delimiting a boundary-declare that certain sea areas are within the
exclusive economic zone of the Philippines, because those areas are not overlapped
by any possible entitlement of China,” it added.

The Tribunal also said that China has violated Philippine sovereign rights. “Having
found that certain areas are within the exclusive economic zone of the Philippines, the
Tribunal found that China had violated the Philippines’ sovereign rights in its exclusive
economic zone by (a) interfering with Philippine fishing and petroleum exploration, (b)
constructing artificial islands, and (c) failing to prevent Chinese fishermen from fishing
in the zone,” the Tribunal statement said.

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“The Tribunal further held that Chinese law enforcement vessels had unlawfully
created a serious risk of collision when they physically obstructed Philippine vessels,”
it said

The Spratly Islands and its many reefs are being claimed by China under its “nine-
dash line” claim that covers nearly the entire South China Sea including the parts of
the Philippines’ Exclusive Economic Zone (EZZ). China insists it has “historic rights”
in asserting its ownership of the region believed to be rich in natural gas resources
and also vital trade route for international cargo ships.

The Philippines files its case in January 2013 following a tense standoff between
Chinese and Philippines ships at Scarborough shoal in April 2002. Since the initiation
of the arbitration of the case, China has conducted several massive reclamation
projects to turn submerged reefs into artificial islands capable of hosting military
structures and equipment.

China’s reclamation activities have alarmed other Southeast Asian nations,

particularly Vietnam, that also have competing claims in the South China Sea.

Source:PhilippineInquirer website http://globalnation.inquirer.net/140358/philippines-

arbitration-decision-maritime-dispute-south-china-sea-arbitral-tribunal-unclos-itlos

Opinion 1:

Filipinos should rejoice that the UN Tribunal has upheld their right to the islands and
waters of Spratlys. It is but right that the Philippines has gained this victory over a
known superpower not through force of arms , but engaging the global community and
appealing to the rule of law. The Tribunal’s decision both upholds the UNCLOS as the
primary basis for determining matters related to territorial waters and provides nations
an example of how rule of law and due process, when properly observed, can bring
about a fair solution.

With this victory, the Philippines can now confidently face China in negotiating the
rights to the territorial waters in Spratlys. Armed with the conviction that the Filipino
people and its government are in the right, Filipino negotiators will now be able to ask
for more equitable terms regarding access to and use of resources in the disputed
area. International opinion can also be used to convince China to scale back on its
activities in the Spratly islands, and this hopefully will put a stop to the construction of
facilities and their increasing military presence in the disputed islands. The decision
has made diplomacy the only option to resolve the issue regarding the Spratlys. The
region and the world will not benefit if the Philippines and China, along with the other
claimant countries it, abandon dialogue and resort to force to push their respective
claims. With the support of its international partners, the Philippines can now justly
assert its rights and enjoin all involved parties to uphold respect for international.

Opinion 2:
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China will never recognize the UN Tribunal decision and will continue its activities in
the disputed Spratly islands. Ever since the Philippines filed its case against China at
the United Nations, the Chinese government has dismissed the proceedings and has
not participated in any of the hearings of the Tribunal. This shows China’s utter
disregard for international rule of law and its lack of respect for the UNCLOS, a
document to which China is a signing party. The military and economic ambitions of C
more China will continue to fuel its desire to occupy more territory. If China does not
give way despite the decision and the overwhelming international pressure, what will
stop it from occupying islands that actually belong to the Philippines?

The continued presence of Chinese forces in the islands is a disaster waiting to

happen. Given that they have control over many islands and have been harassing
Filipino fishermen who go into its nearby waters, what will stop the Chinese from using
destructive and deadly force on any ship that dares to trespass in their so-called
territories? Nothing short of a war will convince China that its territorial ambitions have
already exceeded the tolerance of the world.

Questions: (Answer in your module notebook)

1. What are the merits of the opinions given?

2. Which among these is most acceptable?
3. How will these opinions guide your views and actions as citizens of the
Philippines?

Practice Task 2 (Answer in your module notebook)

1. What are the things that you consider real, true, and unchanging in your life?
2. Have you experienced a situation where what you believe to be true turned out
to be untrue? How did this experience affect you?

Practice Task 3 (Answer in your module notebook)

Give five examples of fallacies and how they occur in life

Example:

Mr. Domingo is not afraid of the dark, but, Mr. Domingo is a UP professor. Thus, all
UP professor are not afraid of the dark. (Fallacy of Composition)

1. ______________________________________________________________
2. ______________________________________________________________
3. ______________________________________________________________
4. ______________________________________________________________
5. ______________________________________________________________

VII-Post-test

1. It is the clear awareness and understanding of something.

2. These are statements which are observed to be real or truthful.

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 3. These are statements which need to be examined to determine whether they are true or
false.
4. These are arguments based of faulty reasoning.
5. These are tendencies or influences that affect the views of people.
6. These are comprised of statements that provide views on certain matter.
7. This is a judgment based on facts.
8. These are statements that express convictions that are not easily explain by facts.
9. These are statements that assume a claim is true and provide reasons to support them.
10. This is a series of statements that provide reasons to convince a person that a claim or
opinion is truthful.

VIII-Assignments

1. Copy an article from the internet, a newspaper, or magazine. Identify the facts and opinions
presented in the article. Determine how you will verify the facts and opinions stated.
2. Research on any idea or claim that is currently circulating in media and on the internet. Analyze
it and determine if it is true or false.

IX-Answer Key

1. Knowledge
2. Facts
3. Claims
4. Fallacies
5. Biases
6. Opinions
7. Conclusion
8. Beliefs
9. Explanations
10. Argument

References:

Abella, Roberto D. Introduction to the Philosophy of the Human Person. Quezon City. C &
E Publishing, Inc.

Ramos, Christine Carmela R. 2016. Introduction to the philosophy of the Human Person.
Manila. Rex Bookstore Inc.

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