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Mexican Bioethics Review ICSa
Biannual Publication, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2019) 1-7

Bioethics and Genetically Modified Foods

Bioética y alimentos transgénicos
Jaaasai Gomez-Otamendi a

Abstract:

Currently, the genetic modification of plants, animals and other organisms has intensified and has allowed the development of
increasingly advanced methods. The creation of transgenic foods, their use and distribution have generated various positions, since
there is no certainty about their effects on human health or the environment. The objective of bioethics is then to question what is the
best environment for the development of new food technologies and balances the ideas of the sectors that support or reject the
production and use of genetically modified organisms, and in this way promotes clear and free knowledge of the information contained
in these products.
Keywords:
Genetically Modified, foods, production, development

Resumen:

En la actualidad la modificación genética de plantas, animales y otros organismos se ha intensificado, permitiendo desarrollar métodos
cada vez más avanzados. La creación de alimentos transgénicos, su uso y su distribución han generado diversas posturas, pues no se
tiene certeza sobre sus efectos en la salud humana o el medio ambiente. La bioética viene, entonces, a cuestionar ¿cuál es el mejor
ambiente para el desarrollo de nuevas tecnologías en alimentos? y pone en la balanza las ideas de los sectores que apoyan o rechazan
la producción y el uso de organismos genéticamente modificados, y de esta forma promueve el conocimiento claro y libre de la
información que encierran estos productos.
Palabras Clave:
Transgénico, alimentos, producción, desarrollo

The advance of biology in the last few years has been

INTRODUCTION
spectacular. The 20th century has been especially
Since a few years ago, common language has introduced important regarding these accomplishments regarding the
terms like, “transgenic” or “transgenic foods”, which knowledge of living beings (animals or microorganisms) in
convey suspicion by only mentioning them, and frequently their natural habitats. Above all, it has been clear that all
they lead to a social debate with controversial opinions 1. living beings have in common a type of organic
There is no doubt that any scientific advance that takes macromolecules named nucleic acids (deoxyribonucleic
humankind to produce more food with better quality, acid-DNA- and ribonucleic acid -RNA-) which are the main
always with safety conditions, must be well taken, as we element, the molecular unit of biology. Both host the
should not forget that today, millions are suffering and essence of life and its projection from parents to children
starving in very large regions of the world. According to in a way of inheritance4. This great discovery, made in the
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), it is expected middle of the 19th century, curiously from experiments
that agriculture allows feeding humankind (constantly made out of bacteria, shown the crucial role of DNA in the
increasing) increasing approximately 8 million people by transference of information and inheritance. Since then,
2020. Among these, more than 840 million people are the availability of biological tools (each time more tools and
starving and about 1.300 million have no clean water, each time more useful) has allowed advances leading to a
same number of people earning less than 1 dollar per day2. new branch of Biological Science called Genetic
Biotechnology, science that generates genetically Engineering or Recombinant DNA Technology with the
modified foods, other organisms, and microorganisms, objective of recombining to originate the so-called
influence directly and indirectly to counteract these “Genetically Modified Organisms”, from which the
effects3. “Genetically Modified Foods” arise4.

________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

a Jaaasai Gómez Otamendi. Universidad Autónoma del Estado de Hidalgo, Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud. Email: [email protected]
 Biannual Publication, Mexican Bioethics Review ICSa, Vol. 1, No. 1 (2019) 1-7

antihemophilic, etc.), or to accelerate their growth

by introducing genes of other species allowing to
DEVELOPMENT
duplicate or triplicate that rate. A special type of
Genetically Modified Foods genetically modified animals are the ones called
knockout animals (KO animals) where the gene
These are foods obtained from living beings (plants, that codifies the animal itself for a certain
animals or microorganisms) that have been genetically character has been inactivated, transferring to it
manipulated by incorporation, inactivation or suppression the gene of a man or another animal species,
of genes (modifying their genome). In the first case, behaving as “models” to study human diseases,
coming from the same or different species5. or “experimental models for animal diseases”.
According to the Biosafety Work Group of FAO (1998), These animals are also produced to serve as
GMO includes chromosome manipulations, genes potential organ donors for humans
transference, fusion or reordering, gene destruction, (xenotrasplants), although this is still an
inactivation or loss, transplant of cellular organelles, experiment and a very polemic social and
cellular fusion, nuclear transplants or clonation of medical topic7.
multicellular organisms through cell cultivations or
transferred embryos with new genes2.
3. Genetically modified microorganisms:
The techniques of genetic modification (production of
transgenic) were used for the first time in animals in 1981, normally, they are yeasts and bacteria of
and shortly after in plants. The first tests with genetically industrial interest that through a genetic
modified cultivations were carried out almost modification technique are modified to eliminate
simultaneously in France and the United States in 1986. industrial inconveniences or even just to produce
A few years later, in 1992, a genetically modified tobacco something (for example a drug, a protein o just a
plant started to be cultivated in China, resistant to a vaccine antigen)7.
certain virus, commercialized since 19936.

Types of Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO)

Normally, there are three groups of GMO, depending on

the biological group they are part of: plants, animals or
microorganisms7.
1. Genetically modified plants: these are basically
vegetables whose genome (its DNA) has been modified
with different objectives:

• The obtention of a new plant from a perspective

of its use as a food; that means, that it is expected
the obtention of a new plant-based type of food
or the modification of the plant in order to be more
useful as a food (they are going plant-based
genetically modified foods)
• The production of genetically modified foods that
are useful as biological fuels (bio-fuels), by
fermentation. The reason is that such plants have
a high concentration of carbohydrate polymers.
• The production of GM plants where genes with
therapeutic proteins have been introduced to Fig. 1. 1.1: Genetically modified vegetables (tomato, carrot,
(drugs) or vaccine antigens, represents an option broccoli).
of genetic modification with a high practical utility,
as it can be useful to the plant itself to get
resistances or make a useful product to men (e.g. 1.2 GM cruciferous plants useful to depollute the soil
edible vaccines)7. 1.3 GM plant used as bio-fuel
1.4 GM mouse
2. Genetically modified animals: they are 1.5 GM pigs
animals that have been genetically modified to 1.6 GM yeasts
improve their production (more meat production,
more milk, etc.) or simply to get new production
(a protein, for example), directly used by men (it
is the case of some animals that have been
modified to produce human lactoferrin,

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Expected characters in GM of plants to 10% of the world’s crops are lost because of their
contamination with bad weed. There is also a loss of
Resistance (to infections, insects, chemical compounds,
significant amount of money in combating and controlling
etc.) is one of the chapters with a higher interest in these
the weed (according to some authors, more than ten
proceedings, as well as the modifications to certain
million dollars per year, only for chemical herbicides), with
processes in the biological cycle of the fruit and its seed,
the added inconvenience that the majority of these
or other changes that produce an added value to the
products do not distinguish between good crops and bad
crop8.
weed, leading to unavoidable “collateral” damages9.
Plants resistant to virus: the strategy typically followed Given these facts, for years, the recombinant DNA
has been to transfer a gene (or several genes) to the technology suggested to obtain GM plants resistant to the
attacking virus itself that it is expected to be resistant to or active substances of some chemical herbicides. So it is
even to other related viruses (for example a gene that expected that, through genetic manipulation, genes are
codifies for a protein of viral capsids) acting like a vaccine. transferred from other sources capable of providing the
That is how, plants like tobacco, tomato, alfalfa, potato or plant with resistance to herbicides; although other
rice have been transformed making them resistant to strategies have also been applied9,1.
certain studied virus3.
Plants resistant to fungus: The same strategy is
Plants resistant to bacteria: Just like before, the followed and genes from different sources capable of
transformation of vegetable cells caused by the transfer expressing proteins, are introduced (they are called
of genes from other plants and even from insects or response proteins, RP) with enzymatic activity (chitinases
animals, allows the expression of proteins (of defensins or glucanases) degrading the fungus wall causing its
type or equivalent substances like cercopine B or death. Trials with genes capable of producing proteins
sarcotoxin, etc.) that give resistance to some type of with a toxic activity for the fungus, as it is the case of
bacteria9. tionines or osmotines, have also been performed8.
Plants resistant to insects: Insects attacks represent Controlled maturation by GM fruits
one of the most important aspects to cultivate vegetables.
There are many types of plagues in all types of plants The process of maturation of the majority of fleshy fruits
produced by larvae or adult insects. There is a great depends on the production of hormones (ethylene gas)
interest for them from an economic perspective (there are inducing, therefore, the production of enzymes (like the
annual losses of millions of dollars including not just a polygalacturonase), pigments and scents that are
crop loss but also the expenses for its control and characteristic of ripe fruit. Ethylene gas is used for the
prevention, normally of a chemical type). Also, the social artificial maturation of fruits collected green because of
effect must not be forgotten as there is a reduction in food the time imposed by trading channels and the shelf life of
supply for citizens, particularly in developing countries9. the fruit itself1. Through a technique that uses a synthetic
Some of the obtained results through the use of these antisense RNA (a sequence of RNA in opposite direction-
techniques have been incorporated and traded by big 3’-5’- that pairs up with the normal sequence and prevents
multinational companies. Bacteria genes that express its translation into ribosomes), it has been possible to
proteins toxic for insects have been used. Plant genes suppress the expression of polygalacturonase, delaying
expressing proteins that inhibit digestive enzymes of the natural softening of tomatoes (the enzyme is the one
insects (generally proteases and amylases), have also responsible for the softening and senescence of the ripe
been used7. A good example of this type of resistance to fruit). The first commercialized GM tomato, the Flavr-Savr
insects is mediated by a protein produced by the Bacillus tomato (MacGregor tomato), belongs to this group and its
thuringiensis bacteria, called δ-toxina or toxina Bt, which commercialization was the first one authorized by the FDA
results toxic, selectively, for many insects. There are in the United States, in May of 19948. This same
different variants and each one has a different action, like technique has also been used to get soy that contains
the Cry I, which is only toxic for lepidopterous (butterflies), 80% or even more oleic acid (the normal one contains
the Cry III for coleopterous (beetles) or the Cry IV for 20%) by inhibiting the oleate desaturase enzyme8.
dipterous (flies). Genetically modified plants that
incorporate these genes are called Bt Plants. A variety of
Bt corn resistant to “drills” is one of the examples known
around the world7.
Plants resistant to herbicides: Unwanted weed
represent a negative factor in vegetable production with a
great economic impact, as it has been estimated that up

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Fig. 2. 2.1: Tomatoes Flavr-Savr rapeseed and kidney beans. Nevertheless, the initial
2.2. GM melons of controlled maturation advantages resulted in inconveniences related to their
inclination to hypersensibility (generation of allergies),
Also, other variants of GM interventions have been
making them exclusive for animal use. Genes that codify
described, acting on the synthesis of the hormone that
for other proteins rich in amino acids such as lysine,
induces maturation (ethylene), controlling the
tyrosine, and cysteine, also of great nutritional relevance,
suppression of 1-aminocyclopane- 1-carboxylate
have also been described6.
synthase or oxidase (ACC-synthase or ACC-oxidase)
enzymes with similar effects. This is how GM tomatoes In the case of lipids, genes that modify the composition
and melons of controlled maturation have been obtained9. of fatty acids that are part of triacylglycerols and
phospholipids, two of the most biologically important fatty
Foods with vitamins and hypoallergenic foods
acids, have been incorporated. The same happens in the
It is well known that there no complete foods, valid case of some polysaccharides like starch, modified by
statement particularly in the case of vegetables. transgenesis, both its quality and quantity, on behalf of
Therefore, its intake has to be necessarily supplemented some plants7.
to meet the needs of the living being (proteins, lipids,
Modifications to quality affecting clinical situations of
carbohydrates, vitamins, minerals, etc.). The possibility of
the consumers
introducing genes that express some of the lacking
elements of specific food can solve traditional problems GM foods can help to prevent or correct critical situations
linked to large geographic areas of the planet. This is what of certain patients, particularly kids under not very
happens, for example, with rice, which is the basic diet (if favorable environmental and familiar conditions. In this
not the only diet) of millions of people all over the world. sense, it is important to point out that recently, a team of
Its traditional deficiency is vitamin A causing serious Brazilian researchers achieved to transform corn plants
health problems, particularly sight problems making them produce human growth hormone (HGH).
(blindness)4,2. It has been described the obtention of GM Today, the price of producing HGH, used to treat children
rice with genes that express ß-carotene (provitamin A) with growth disorders, can reach the $20,000.00 per
solving this problem. Rice gets a brown tone explaining its gram, while by using transgenesis techniques in
name of “brown rice”. It has also been explained the vegetables, the costs decrease drastically (the first
production of tomatoes with a gene that triplicates its estimations calculate that from a ton of GM corn it can be
content of ß-carotene7. This type of “reinforced” foods are obtained no less than 250 gr of HGH) 9. The same team
also called “functional foods”3. shared the success on the obtention of other GM corn
Some people cannot consume some products due to their plants that contain a gene that codifies a viral protein
hypersensibility to some components that make them capable of eliminating the agent that causes avian
have allergic reactions. In this sense, in the case of rice, coccidiosis (Eimeria spp), which leads to an interesting
it has been described the obtention of a variant for genetic way of preventing avian coccidiosis by feeding these
modification that drastically reduces the expression of animals1.
albumin (protein) of 16 kDa (kilodaltons), a very allergenic
Methods to detect GM foods
one, which causes hypersensibility in some people. Also,
in the case of soy, a protein called P34, known for its Two general systems can be considered that show the
allergizing capacity, has been suppressed by inactivating GM condition of suspicious food. On one hand, there are
the gene codifying for. For that purpose, a process called procedures that detect new expressed proteins because
“gene silencing” consists of introducing extra copies of the of the introduced transgenes, and that is why there are
gene that codifies for the P34 protein, having the plant methods that identify the DNA that corresponds to the
responding with its suppression when interpreting it is an gene or genes that were introduced3.
excessive replication originated by a viral infection3.
Methods that detect new proteins
Modification of Nutritional Quality
In the first place, one of the most common study
There are several studies that have helped to improve the procedures is the ELISA technique, a type of enzyme
composition of some traditional foods. They generally immunoassay where a known antibody facing a GM
refer to one or some immediate principles (carbohydrates, protein under investigation, get stuck to (get adhered to)
proteins or fats) 2. For example, when referring to the microplate where the analysis is been performed15.
proteins, there is the case of the albumin 2S gene of The sample is added to the plates and if there is a GM
Brazil nut, particularly rich in methionine (one of the main protein it will be recognized and detected by the specific
sulfur-containing amino acids) which has been used as a antibody. By washing the material, any element not
donor to transfer it by genetic modification to soy, specified that has not been recognized by the antibody will

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be erased4. Afterward, a new antibody (secondary) will be

added and linked to the first one to which an enzyme is
fixed to. The last stage will consist of adding the specific
substrate of the enzyme, that linked to the other will
develop color and fluorescence, measured with a special
spectrophotometer8.

Fig. 4 Thermal cycler for PCR and Southern Blot

Current situation of transgenic plants cultivation

As it was mentioned before, since 1992, when the first GM
Fig. 3 ELISA plate cultivations of tobacco in China were made, it has been a
long path. According to available data, which started to be
The lateral flow assay method is a procedure executed
public in 1996, by 2002 the whole amount of GM
on a long rectangular glass plate, where the specific
cultivated surface was almost 58,7 million hectares,
antibody that recognizes the GM protein (capture
certainly an extension larger than our country, increasing
antibody) is fixed in one of the edges, while the secondary
12% more than the previous year and the sixth
antibody (marked) is placed in the opposite edge 3. The
consecutive year with an increase of two numbers4.
sample is added in this last edge and is forced to flow in
the opposite direction. In a positive case, when the Today, practically 70% of the cultivated surface with
capture antibody coincides with the marked one in the genetically modified plants belongs to the United States,
presence of the GM protein, a colored band is formed. A followed by Argentina with more than 23%, placing
second band of capture antibody that serves as reaction Canada in third place with 7% of the surface. An additional
control, is placed, is arranged6. 1% corresponds to China and the rest is distributed in
descending order among South Africa, Australia,
A method that detects GM genes
Rumania, Mexico, Bulgaria, Spain, Germany, France, and
The polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is useful to directly Uruguay. If the set is divided into developed and
detect the transgene. Primers (oligonucleotides) can be developing countries, the ratio would be 3:1,
used for any of the elements that are part of the sequence. approximately (75%:25%)2.
The use of a thermal cycler helps to get the amplification
The most common GM cultivations are soy, corn, cotton,
of the fragments, separated in an agarose gel according
and rapeseed; set that represented more than 20% of the
to their size. Dyeing with a fluorescent compound allows
total cultivated surface dedicated to these four products.
to easily identify the DNA fragment that is searched for 5.
In a relative form, around 40% of all the cultivated soy ys
A Southern Blot is also a very useful technique to detect genetically modified, almost 10% of corn is GM, 16% of
weird genes. For that purpose, after extracting all the DNA cotton is GM and about 11% of rapeseed is GM
of the plant where the transgene is searched, it is (cultivations in the year 2000, include 72 million hectares
fragmented with restriction enzymes and separated in a of soy, 140 of corn, 34 of cotton and 25 of rapeseed)4.
gel because of its molecular size2. Afterward, the Depending on the type, the percentage of the total surface
transference to a nylon membrane (or something similar) dedicated to the cultivation of GM products was 58% in
is made, and then, the only thing thas hs to be done is to the case of soy, 23% in the case of corn, 12% in the case
reveal the presence of the gene that is searched, using a of cotton and 6% in the case of rapeseed4. Finally, if it is
complementary sequence specially designed for that the character the parameter used, the cultivations
purpose, already marked with a radioactive isotope. resistant (tolerant) to herbicides have the most relative
Finally, the only thing left to do is to detect the radioactive representation, with about 74% del total, followed by the
compound that remains in the membrane if the cultivations resistant to insects with a 19% and an
problematic gene is present because otherwise it will be additional 7% where characters are overlapped in the
eliminated1. same cultivations7. The GM products were approved for

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human consumption for the first time in the United States flufflier and tastier bread1. Also, strains of GM S. cerevisae
in 1994. It has been mentioned that 60% of the food have been obtained through the incorporation of an
offered in American stores has been produced using Aspergillus oryzae gene that is capable of expressing the
ingredients that come from GM cultivations. Until now, α-amylase enzyme. This is translated in the obtention of
there are no specific health problems related to the intake a product with better organoleptic characteristics4.
of foods derived from these crops7.
In the case of wine, yeasts have been modified by
Current situation of GM animals inserting the gene that codifies for L-lactate
dehydrogenase (from Lactobacillus casei), capable of
In the case of animals, the situation admits no comparison
producing lactic and alcoholic fermentation allowing to
with plants, as the approaches and objectives are
obtain wines with more acidity.
completely different. In this case, apart from the scientific
and technical problems (in mammals, the genes have to In the case of beer production, genes from Trichoderma
be injected directly into the nucleus of the fertilized ovule, reesei or Tr. longibrachiatum have been inserted
entering in the chromosomes, then the zygote implants in expressing a β-glucanase enzyme that solves an
receptive females), there are other ethical, social and important problem in brewing like the one represented by
sanitary problems which are particularly complex5. colmatation and an accumulation of β-glucans from
barley, demanding to clean the tanks and a significant
Until now, the list of animals used for successful GM
expense for technical aspects1. Also, strains of beer yeast
experiments includes the mouse, the rat, the rabbit, cattle,
have been obtained which have a S. diastaticus gene that
the pig, the sheep, and the goat amount the mammals;
expresses a glucoamilase, characterized for degrading
while birds include the chicken (the hen) and the quail.
dextrins and starch, responsible for the great energetic
Among the successfully harvested fish, there are the
load of beer (some types of them specifically) obtaining a
salmon, the trout, the tilapia, the carp, the catfish, the
low-calorie beer.
medaka and the Sparus aurata 5. Like in the case of
vegetables, among the animals, the genetic modification The genetically modified microorganisms (GMM) have
has as its important objectives: the improvement of been an important source for vaccine alternatives different
productive characters and of the production’s quality from classic products. The genetic modification of the
(particularly their growth), the resistance to diseases microbial structure that means a reduction of wild, viral
(specially mastitis in ruminants) and, of particular interest, strains of the tested microorganism, is a procedure that
the development of animal models to study human has been researched for several years with the purpose
diseases or to study the diseases of domestic animals or of obtaining more efficient and safer antigens 9. The
useful animals of great value, the development of GM European Union has been, until now, very rigorous and
animals as organ donors in practices of transplants restrictive regarding the authorization of GM, demanding
(xenotrasplants) and, finally, the development of GM a thorough control until assuring there is no risk for the
animals with the purpose of producing “therapeutic” environment and the possibility of identifying its use
proteins of high value for humans; in one word, use through detectable changes in the laboratory, as it
“pharmaceutical of molecular farms” from animals with happens, for example, in the case of vaccine against the
modifications that allow them to produce substances that Aujeszky’s disease and few more cases5.
can only be substituted by a very complex and expensive In the case of humankind, clinical experiences have been
chemical synthesis9. informed about a vaccine against diarrhea produced by E.
coli based on mitigated microorganisms that maintain
Current situation of GM microorganisms
their intestinal colonization capacity but they do not have
In the fabrication of bread, the traditional strains of yeast a pathogenesis of their own1.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae degrade carbohydrates
present in flour dough in an order starting from sacarose,
after glucose and fructose1. Only when those sugars have
been used, the degradation of maltose starts, which, on
the other hand, represents the main principle. This
means, in terms of time, a significant expense. To reduce
these costs, different GM yeast strains have been
obtained which are capable to start the degradation of
carbohydrates in bread dough caused by the maltose,
resulting in a substantial increase of the fermentation
capacity and of the production of CO2, which represents
not only a faster fermentation, but also the obtention of a Fig.5 Different images of Sacharomyces cerevisae

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CONCLUSION
The introduction of this type of food into the market has
been very controversial among environmental
organizations which have generated a great number of
arguments against them. On the contrary, there are many
scientists including molecular biologists, engineers and
other technicians, for whom the tools available today
guarantee, more than ever, the genetic modification
process that leads to new characters in traditional food.
On the other hand, its introduction to ordinary levels of
cultivation would allow increasing the production capacity
up to the necessary levels to supply the globally growing
demand, above all, for the people living in less fortunate
countries. In the third angle of this hypothetical triangle
there are the multinational companies, for whom the main
interest (although not the only one) is, naturally, to benefit
their stockholders. Probably, all the parties are right; in
either case, as it was previously stated, today, the United
States control over this field is favored when the research
about new GM products or their development in Europe is
brought into question. The following lines try to collect the
most evident benefits of this technology, as well as the
main inconveniences highlighted by (but not only)
environmental organizations that were mentioned before.
Whatever the case, even when there is a suspicion of one
negative effect on any aspect previously mentioned, the
question must be solved through rigorous analysis of the
product, whatever its result may be. Ideally, the consumer
must have the opportunity to know what he/she is
consuming, so it is necessary to develop and adapt
methods and procedures that allow showing the
transgenic character of food for human consumption and
that such information is shown in the product’s label.
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