15

MEASUREMENT
ERRORS
 OBJECTIVES

After completing this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Understand the concept of an error in the instruments.
2. Explain the different types of errors.
3. Understand the difference between accuracy and precision.
4. Explain the significant figure and resolution.
5. Describe the statistical analysis of errors.
6. Understand the arithmetic mean, deviation mean, average
deviation, standard deviation and variance.
INTRODUCTION

An instrument is a device for determining the

value or magnitude of a quantity or variable. As
technology expands the demand for more
accurate instruments increase and produces new
developments in instrument design and
application. On the other hand, measurement is a
process by which one can convert physical
parameters to meaningful number.
METHODS OF
MEASUREMENT
The methods of measurements may be classified
according to following types:
1. Direct Methods
In the direct method of measurement, we compare
the unknown quantity directly with the primary or
secondary standard.
2. Indirect Methods
There are number of quantities that cannot be
measured directly by using some instrument. In this
method the unknown quantity to be measured is
converted into some other measurable quantity.
Then we measure the measureable quantity.
CLASSIFICATION OF INSTRUMENTS

The instruments may be classified according to the following types:

1. Electrical and Electronic Instruments. The measuring instrument that uses
mechanical movement of electromagnetic meter to measure voltage, current,
power, etc. is called electrical measuring instrument.
2. Analogue and Digital Instruments. An analogue instrument is the instrument
that uses analogue signal to display the magnitude of quantity under
measurement. The digital instrument uses digital signal to indicate the results of
measurement in digital form.
3. Absolute and Secondary Instruments. In absolute instrument the measured
value is given in term of instrument constants and the deflection of one part of the
instrument e.g. tangent galvanometer.
CHARACTERISTICS
OF MEASUREMENT
SYSTEM

The characteristics of measurement

systems are classified in to the following
two types:

1. Static Characteristics
2. Dynamic Characteristics
STATIC CHARACTERISTICS

The static characteristic of The static characteristics are of the following

a measurement instrument types:
is the characteristics of the 1. Sensitivity
system when the input is 2. Linearity
either held constant or 3. Reproducibility
varying very slowly. 4. Range and Span
5. Static Error
6. Loading Effects
7. Accuracy and Precision
8. Resolution
ACCURACY AND PRECISION

Accuracy is a closeness with

Precision is a measure of the
which the instrument reading
reproducibility of the measurement
approaches the true value of the
i.e., its measure of the degree to
variable under measurement.
which successive measurements
Accuracy is the degree to which
differ from one other. It is the
instrument reading match the true
degree of agreement within a group
or accepted values. It indicates the
of measurements or instruments.
ability of instrument to indicate
The precision is composed of two
the true value of the quantity.
characteristics
Accuracy refers to how closely the
1. Conformity
measured value of a quantity
2. Significant Figures
corresponds to its “true” value.
CONFORMITY AND SIGNIFICANT FIGURES

Conformity Significant Figures

For example that a resistor, whose For example, if a resistor is specified as
true resistance is 3,385,695 W is having a resistance of 65 W, its
measured by an ohmmeter. This resistance value should be closer to 65 W
consistently and repeatedly than to 64 W or 66 W. If the value of
indicates 3.4 MW. The observer resistor is described as 65.0 W, it means
cannot read the true value from that its resistance is close to 65.0 W than
the scale. He estimates from the it is to 64.9 W or 65.1 W. In 65 W there
scale reading consistently a value are two significant figures 6 and 5, while
of 3.4 MW. in 65.0 W there are three significant
figures 6, 5 and 0.
RESOLUTION
Resolution is the smallest Example:
amount of input signal change A digital voltmeter has a read-out reading from 0 to 9999
that the instrument can detect counts. Determine the resolution of the instrument in
volt when the full scale reading is 9,999 V.
reliably. If the input is slowly
increased from some arbitrary
input value, it will again be
found that output does not
change at all until a certain
increment is exceeded. This
increment is called resolution
or discrimination of the
instrument.
DYNAMIC CHARACTERISTICS

The dynamic Following are the main types of dynamic

characteristics of a characteristics:
measurement instrument 1. Speed of Response
describe the behavior of 2. Measuring lag
the instrument when the (a) Retardation Lag.
desired input is not (b) Time Delay Lag.
constant but varies rapidly 3. Fidelity
with the time. 4. Dynamic Error
MEASUREMENT ERROR

No measurement can be made with

perfection and accuracy, but it is important to
Errors come from different
find out what the accuracy actually is and
sources and are classified in
how different errors have entered into the
three types:
measurement. Error occurs due to several
1. Gross Error
sources like human carelessness in taking
2. Systematic Errors
reading, calculating and in using instrument
3. Random Errors
etc. Some of the time error is due to
instrument and environment effects.
STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

The statistical analysis of “measurement data” is important because it allows an

analytical determination of the uncertainty of the final test result. To make
statistical analysis meaningful, a large number of measurements are usually
required. The systematic and random errors are evaluated and studied by
statistical procedures. The systematic errors should be small as compared to
random errors, because statistical data cannot remove fixed bias contained in all
the measurements.
The mathematical analysis of
the various measurements is
called statistical analysis of
data. For statistical analysis,
the same reading is taken
number of times by using The analysis of data is done by different
different instruments in method as listed below:
different ways. 1. Arithmetic Mean
2. Deviation from the Mean
3. Average Deviation
4. Standard Deviation
5. Variance
Example:

By using a micrometer screw, the following readings

were taken of a certain physical length:
1,34; 1,38; 1,56; 1,47; 1,42; 1,44; 1,53; 1,48; 1,40; 1,59 mm

Calculate the following:

a. Arithmetic mean
b. Average deviation
c. Standard deviation
d. Variance
Thank You

L. Endah Cahya Ningrum, S.Pd., M.Pd.

[email protected]
Contact: 081333406103
orcid.org/0000-0002-4742-4383