EARTH SCIENCE NOTES

I. The Universe
- totality of existence
- includes galaxies, stars, planets, comets, natural satellites, nebulae, etc.
- universe is expanding

A. Composition of the Universe

Galaxies
- massive systems consisting of stars, stellar remnants, and interstellar medium of gases bound by
gravity
- types of galaxies:
a. Elliptical - lines of equal brightness made up of concentric and similar ellipses
b. Spiral - spiral shaped arms that spread from the nucleus outward to the edge
(ex. Milky Way)
c. Irregular - grainy, highly irregular assemblages of luminous areas, with no distinct
symmetry or central nucleus

Stars
- self-luminous celestial body
- mass of gas held together by its own gravity
- stars change in size, temperature, and luminosity
- classifications rely on temperature, mass, radius, luminosity, and lifetime
- types of stars:
a. Giant Stars - low mass, near the end of their lives
b. White Dwarfs - dying remnant of an imploded star (implode = inward explosion)
c. Supergiant Stars - high mass, hotter temperatures, brighter luminosities, much closer to
the end of their lives
*Sirius - brightest star system in the earth’s night sky; (looks like only 1 huge star, but actually
made up of several stars)

Planets
- does not produce its own light; illuminated by sun & other stars
- Solar System: terrestrial and jovian (see part II)

Natural Satellites/Moons
- revolves around a planet
- reflects the light of a star
*Galilean moons - 4 moons of Jupiter, discovered by Galileo, largest out of Jupiter’s 67 moons

Nebula
- interstellar (between stars) cloud of dust, hydrogen, and plasma that come from exploded stars
- essential for the formation of new stars

*Birth of Galaxies:
Nebula —> Galaxy —> Stars —> Planets —> Satellites
- Gravity binds dust & other particles in nebulae together to form the galaxy
B. Sources of Light in the Universe

Stars
- produces light through Nuclear Fusion (different from nuclear fission)
- Hydrogen atoms fuse into Helium atoms (H + H —> He)
- Core: the part hot enough to drive hydrogen atoms together, resisting forces of electromagnetic
repulsion
- Pulsar: magnetized rotating star that emits electromagnetic radiation that can be observed as
pulses of light.
- colors of stars indicate their surface temperatures:
Blue (hottest) - White - Yellow - Orange - Red (coolest, close to dying)

Planets/Comets/Moons
- incapable of producing their own light; illuminated by stars
- “tail” portion of a comet is a vapor trail as it orbits a star

Meteor
- aka “falling star”
- visible boulder-sized debris
- light emitted from a meteor is due to its friction with the particles of a planet’s atmosphere
- meteoroid: small piece of rock traversing across outer space
- meteor: meteoroid upon reaching a planet’s atmosphere, falling towards a planet’s surface
- meteorite: meteor upon reaching planet’s surface
*most meteors do not reach the planet’s surface

*Astronomical Distances (used to cover distances in space)

- Light years: distance that light can travel within a year
- Astronomical Units (AU) = 149.5 million km

C. Origin of the Universe

Big Bang Theory

- “Big Bang” is the single dense point that had a high temperature, high density, but low volume
- Key Events:
a. Explosion - a huge explosion at a single dense point initiated the existence of the
universe; simple atoms like hydrogen and helium came to existence
b. Cooling down - temperatures rapidly drop, accompanying an expansion of matter into
space; coincides with the formation of galaxies, stars, and other heavenly bodies
c. Continuing expansion - Several heavenly bodies appear further from us than in the past (a
sign that the universe is getting bigger).

*Cooling down: temperature decreases

*Continuing expansion: volume increases
*Ideal Gas Law
II. The Solar System
- systems: planets revolve around the stars

A. The Sun
- star at the centre of the Solar System
- primary energy source of the Solar System

Layers of the Sun

- Core: where nuclear fusion (energy production)
happens; heat is then transported outward by
convection
- Solar Envelope: located just outside the core
- 2 heat transferring zones: radiation zone and
convectional zone
- Chromosphere: located outside the solar envelope; red
in color due to an abundance of oxygen
(“chromo” = color)
- Photosphere: where visible light is emitted
(“photo” = light)
- Corona: diffuse region located around the
chromospheres; seen as a halo during a full solar eclipse

Solar Activities
- Sun Spots:
- dark spots observed on the sun’s surface
- difference in color is manifested by a cooler temperature (spots are 1000ºC cooler)
- Solar Winds:
- streams of plasma released from the sun’s atmosphere
- particles behave under the influence of the sun’s magnetic field
- particles escape from the sun’s gravity due to their immense energy
- Aurora Borealis: when these particles ejected by the sun reach the earth, they affect Earth’s
magnetic field - the solar winds stream back towards the planet’s magnetic poles, causing the
beautiful display
- Solar Flares:
- flashes of sudden brightness over the sun’s surface
- these flares eject clouds of particles through the corona of the sun into outer space

B. The 8 Planets

Terrestrial Planets (aka Inner Planets)

- small, dense, light, consists of rocky and metallic substances (with very little gas and ice), shorter
revolutions, higher surface temperatures, fewer moons

1.) Mercury
- large temperature difference between day and night (day - very hot; night - very cold)
- no atmosphere, no water, surface is similar to that of earth’s moon
- lack of geologic activities (such as active volcanoes) indicate that Mercury’s core is cooler than
that of the Earth
2.) Venus
- thick atmosphere (around 100 atm and 95% CO2) and surface temperature of around 500ºC
- 3rd brightest celestial body observable from the Earth
- has a clockwise rotation (Earth has a counterclockwise rotation)

3.) Earth
- atmosphere of 1 atm, only planet that supports life
- Earth’s moon: Luna

4.) Mars
- thin atmosphere (around 0.01 atm and 95% CO2) and surface temperature of around -123ºC
- “red planet” because of its abundance in iron (Fe2O3 - rust)
- a lot of huge volcanoes; Mons Olympus: biggest volcano in the solar system

Jovian Planets (aka Outer Planets)

- much bigger but less dense, heavier, longer revolutions, lower surface temperatures, more moons,
contain large amounts of gases (hydrogen and helium) and ice (mostly water, ammonia, methane)

5.) Jupiter
- atmosphere composed of mainly H and He
- biggest planet, has 67 confirmed natural satellites (some of which are bigger than Mercury)
- Great Red Spot: giant storm that persisted in Jupiter for centuries, seen in its surface

6.) Saturn
- known for its complex rings (although Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune also have rings); rings made
up of rocks, dust particles, colliding moons, etc.
- has at least 30 natural satellites (one is bigger than Mercury)

7.) Uranus and Neptune

- “twin gas giants” (they only have 1% difference in diameter)
- similar atmospheres: bluish because of methane
- denser than Jupiter and Saturn (because they contain heavier elements)
- Uranus: aka “the sidewards planet” because its axis of rotation is nearly parallel with the plane of
the orbit; has 15 natural satellites
- Neptune: has a windy and dynamic atmosphere (similar to Jupiter & Saturn)
- Great Dark Spot: massive rotating storm in Neptune

C. Minor Members of the Solar System

Asteroids
- aka “microplanets”, smaller bodies consisting of rocks & metals
- Asteroid belt: between Mars & Jupiter

Comets
- icy small body that heats up and begins to outgas when passing near the sun
- has a bright outer sheath called coma and a long tail
- Halley’s Comet: the only comet that can be seen with the naked eye from the Earth; seen every
75-76 years
Minor/Dwarf Planet
- planetary masses which are neither planets nor natural satellites
- celestial bodies in direct orbit to the sun
- Pluto: made up of ice and rocks, has 5 known natural satellites
- does not have its own orbit, thus cannot be a planet (demoted in 2006)
- thought to be a satellite of Neptune that pulled out of its orbit

Kuiper Belt
- similar to the asteroid belt, situated beyond the planets
- home to at least 3 dwarf planets: Pluto, Haumea and Makemake

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III.The Earth and the Moon

A. Essentials of a Living Planet

- balance of conditions:
- components of atmosphere: 78% N2, 20-21% O2
- pressure of atmosphere: 1 atm
- distance from the sun: 92.96 million miles
- surface temperature: -13 to 37ºC
- presence of water

B. Evolution of the Planet Earth

Years Ago Significant Events
4.5 Billion Start of the pre-Cambrian super eon, the Earth started out as a massive molten rock. The
iron core started to form the Earth’s magnetic field.
4 Billion Water vapour, H2, CO2, O2, and N2 were expelled into the surface, forming the oceans.
3.5 Billion First organisms came into existence. These are the prokaryotes that do not photosynthesise
and depend on other chemicals for nutrition.
2.5 Billion Evolution of blue-green cyanobacteria, a unicellular photosynthetic organism that lived in
the water. (Life was only in water, because water was the only thing that protected
organisms from the sun’s UV rays.)
2 Billion Formation of the ozone layer. (Protects life from UV rays)
700 Million Evolution of the first multi-cellular organisms such as segmented worms and arthropods.
400 Million Evolution of fishes; first sign of life in land, the land plants.
100 Million Age of dinosaurs
3 Million Australopithecus, the first man-like mammal, came into existence.

Geologic Timelines

1.) Precambrian Eon - 4600 to 549M years ago

- makes up 7/8 of earth’s history; little is known about this eon
2.) Paleozoic Era - 550 to 250M years ago
- sudden burst of biological diversity as a result of spike in oxygen levels
- appearance of invertebrates, bony fishes, amphibious organisms (transitioning to land)

3.) Mesozoic Era - 250 to 65M years ago

- age of the dinosaurs
- 3 periods: Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous
- extinction of dinosaurs: theorized to be caused by an asteroid colliding into Earth, covering
the atmosphere with soot and toxic gas

4.) Cenozoic Era - 65M to 10,000 years ago

- largest land mammals have begun to evolve; evolution of Man and primates
- Ice Age

C. Movement of the Earth

- 3 kinds of motion: rotation, revolution, precession

Rotation
- spinning of the earth around an imaginary line called the axis
- Earth’s axis: 23.5º
- direction of rotation: west to east (view from equator); counter clockwise (view from north pole)
- 1 full rotation: one daytime and one nighttime (24 hour rotation - regulates temperature)
- makes the earth oblate spheroid in shape

Revolution
- movement of the earth along its orbit
- speed: around 18 m/s
- direction: counterclockwise
- period: 365.25 days
- Solstice: day and night are unequal in length
- Winter Solstice: North Pole leans farthest away from the sun (longer nights in NH: sunrise
at 7, sunset at 5); sun strikes directly at the Tropic of Cancer (23.5º N of equator)
- Summer Solstice: North Pole leans nearest towards the sun (longer days in NH: sunrise at 5,
sunset at 7); sun strikes directly at the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5º S of equator)
- Northern & Southern Hemispheres: opposites
- Equinox: day and night are equal in length
- Vernal and Autumnal
- Sun strikes directly at the
equator
- Sunrise and sunset both at 6
Precession
- movement of the Earth involving an alteration in the orientation of its rotational axis

D. Revolution of the Moon

- moon revolves around the earth (Period: 1 month or 29.53 days)
- lesser mass, lesser gravitational pull (weight on moon = 1/6 weight on earth)

Phases of the Moon

- New Moon: illuminated part faces
away from the earth; the moon
appears dark
- First Quarter: half of the
illuminated part can be seen
- Full Moon: illuminated part can
fully be seen
- Third Quarter: half of the
illuminated part can be seen
- Waxing: shape of the moon
(illumination) is increasing
- Waning: shape of the moon
(illumination) is decreasing
- Crescent: un-illuminated part > illuminated part
- Gibbous: illuminated part > un-illuminated part

Eclipses
- phenomenon where the earth,
moon, and sun fall in the same
line
- Solar Eclipse: Sun-Moon-
Earth position
- Lunar Eclipse: Sun-Earth-
Moon position
- Total Eclipse: the celestial
body is completely within the
umbra
- Partial Eclipse: the celestial
body is partially in the umbra
and extends into the penumbra

Tides
- rise and fall of sea levels influenced by the combined gravitational forces exerted by the moon,
the sun, and the rotation of the earth
- Spring tide: gravitational pull of sun & moon combine
- results in high high-tides and low low-tides
- happens during full moon and new moon
- Neap tide: sun and moon work at right angles, causing the bulges to cancel out
- results in smaller difference between high and low tides
- happens during the moon’s quarter phases
IV. The Atmosphere, The Hydrosphere, and The Lithosphere

A. The Atmosphere
- blanket of gas that covers the earth’s surface
- protects the earth from excess UV rays and objects from outer space

Functions of the Atmosphere

- Protection from radiation: ozone layer filters out harmful UV rays from the sun
- Protection from meteors: atmosphere disintegrates meteors that fall into Earth (w/o the
atmosphere, the earth’s surface would look like the moon’s - many craters from asteroids)
- Weather Activity: atmosphere is a medium for weather activity, regulates temperature
- Respiration: oxygen for respiration; carbon dioxide for photosynthesis
- Allows sound to be heard: sound waves depend on matter (the air) to be propagated

Layers of the Atmosphere

- Dispersion: particles of air nearer the surface of the earth are denser, and they gradually disperse
with increasing altitude (due to decreasing gravity as altitude increases)

1.) Troposphere (around 10 km high)

- gets colder as one goes higher
- where weather activities occur
- where birds, clouds, balloons, etc. are found

2.) Stratosphere
- gets warmer as one goes higher
- where the ozone layer is located (around 40-50 km high)
- Ozone layer absorbs 97-99% of medium frequency UV light (harmful UV)
- some airplanes can reach up to this layer

3.) Mesosphere
- gets colder as one goes higher
- where most meteors disintegrate due to its freezing temperatures

4.) Thermosphere
- gets hotter as one goes higher

5.) Exosphere
- continuous with outer space

* “Pauses” signify change in temperature behavior ; signify beginning & end of each layer
- 4 Pauses: Tropopause, Stratopause, Mesopause (coldest temperature: -100º C), Thermopause

Composition of the Atmosphere

- 78% N2, 20.1% O2, 0.9% Ar, less than 1% other gases
B. The Hydrosphere
- around 75% of earth’s surface is covered with water (mostly oceans)
- Hydrosphere: water that flows above and below the surface

Distribution of Water
- Salt Water: 93% of all Earth’s water
- Oceans: cover around 70% of earth’s surface
- Ocean water has NaCl, making it too salty to drink (MgCl2 also makes it bitter)
- Freshwater - 7% of all Earth’s water
- Snow/Glacier: largest source of freshwater (too far to reach)
- Groundwater: located underground; man’s primary source of water
- Hot Springs (geothermally heated groundwater): often acidic due to sulfuric acid;
sometimes alkaline
- Rivers & Lakes: man’s most convenient source of water
- Cloud: rainwater

The Hydrologic Cycle

- Evaporation: sun’s heat converts water to water vapor; water vapor can also come from
transpiration that occurs on the surface of plant leaves
- Condensation (Cloud Formation): water vapor/ice releases heat, returning to droplet form
- Precipitation: water falls back to the Earth’s surface (as rain, snow, sleet, etc.)

Movement of Water
- Ocean water is always moving; movement caused by:
- Waves: caused by wind blowing across the water’s surface; can shape the shoreline
- Tides: strongest forces that move the ocean cause tides. (See lesson III D.)
- Currents: continuous movement of sea water in a particular direction
- responsible in balancing Earth’s energy and regulating climate
- Gyre: circular paths that open ocean currents follow
- Northern Hemisphere Gyre = clockwise direction
- Southern Hemisphere Gyre = counter clockwise direction

C. The Lithosphere
- solid part of the earth
- outer 100 km of the earth (covers crust and part of upper mantle)
- made up of granite continental crust, basaltic oceanic crust, and peridotite mantle
- rests on a semi-solid bed, called the asthenosphere

Parts
- Crust: 10-20 miles deep; divided into basaltic oceanic crust and granite continental crust
- Mohorovicic Discontinuity (Moho): boundary that separates crust from mantle
- discovered by observing speed differences of traveling seismic waves from earthquakes
- Mantle: thickest layer; divided into asthenosphere, upper mantle, and lower mantle
- Outer Core: made up of liquid iron and nickel
- Inner Core: made up of solid iron and nickel; densest part of the earth’s interior
Soil
- accumulation of loose, weathered material that covers much of the lithosphere
- primarily composed of weathered rock

Types of Soil (Different soil types = different sediment size)

- Clay: fine particles, settle well together, can hold water well
- Silt: larger than clay but smaller than sand, feels smooth when wet (not as sticky as clay)
- Sand: largest particles, feels rough because of its sharp edges, doesn’t hold much nutrients
- Loam: combination of clay, silt, and sand (around 40-40-20 ratio)
- mixture of bacteria, water, and humus (decayed plant & animal material) - makes soil rich
in nutrients
- best soil for plants (retains water well and gives plants room to “breathe”)

Properties of Soil
- Color: based on composition (ex. brown - organic content; red - iron oxide)
- Porosity: amount of air spaces within a soil (more porous = less compact)
- Permeability: capacity of soil to let fluids seep through
*Flood prone soil: low porosity & permeability (rainwater cannot seep through the soil)

Minerals
- Naturally occurring: formed because of natural processes
- Inorganic matter: non-living (tree resins, fossil fuels, etc. are not minerals)
- Have a chemical formula: they are either elements or compounds
- Have a crystalline form: atoms/molecules are the same throughout the material

Physical Properties of Minerals - innate to the mineral, used for identification

1.) Color: most noticeable, but unreliable in identifying minerals (colors of minerals vary)
2.) Streak: color of the fine powder left when a mineral is rubbed against a hard, rough surface
*Streak color of a mineral is always the same
*Streak Plate - piece of unglazed porcelain used to create a streak
3.) Luster: the way light reflects from the mineral’s surface; either metallic or non-metallic
4.) Specific Gravity: density of the substance ÷ density of water
5.) Cleavage: tendency of a mineral to break parallel to atomic planes (from crystalline structure)
6.) Parting: tendency to break along surfaces that follow a structural weaknesses caused by factors
such as pressure, or along zones of different crystal types
7.) Fracture: breaks that do not follow a particular direction when they break
8.) Hardness: a mineral’s resistance to being scratched
*Moh’s Hardness Scale:
Mineral Hardness (1-softest) Mineral Hardness (10-hardest)
Talc 1 Orthoclase 6
Gypsum 2 Quartz 7
Calcite 3 Topaz 8
Fluorite 4 Corundum 9
Apatite 5 Diamond 10
- Rocks with the same hardness will scratch each other
V. Plate Tectonics

A. Origins of Plate Tectonics

- Plate Tectonic Theory: combination of Continental Drift & Seafloor Spreading Theories
- describes the larges scale motions of the lithosphere
- tectonic plates: made up of the oceanic lithosphere and the thicker continental lithosphere
- heat causes the asthenosphere to become fluid and “flow” under the lithosphere, making the
tectonic plates move

Continental Drift Theory

- proposed by Alfred Wegener on 1912
- 2 billion years ago, there was a supercontinent called Pangea (which separated into continents)
- Evidences:
- Matching Shorelines: coasts of Africa and South Africa fit together
- Fossils and Contemporary Organisms: Southern Africa and South America have fossils of
identical land animals; contemporary organisms show a similar pattern of distribution
- Geological Structures: same structures on the 2 sides of Atlantic Ocean (ex. Sierras near
Buenos Aires and Cape Mountains in South Africa have same succession of beds)
- Past Climates: similarities in glacial striations and direction of ice flow on South America,
Southern Africa, India, and Australia. This suggests that a common ice sheet covered these 4
continents (and Antartica) 300 million years ago.

Seafloor Spreading Theory

- proposed by Harry Hess on 1962
- explains how continents move apart
- Lava wells out of a mid-ocean ridge (underwater mountain range) without ceasing.
- It then cools to form a new ocean floor.
- Over time, it spreads apart or diverges to the two sides of the ridge.
- Older rocks are farther from the ridges, younger rocks are nearer
- Evidences:
- Mid-Ocean Ridges: ocean basins (thought to be flat) contain undersea mountains; the under-
sea terrain are split by deep rifts and have many faults (suggesting movement)
- Young Rock: rocks beneath the ocean are younger than rocks of the continents (the age of
the rocks on the ocean bottoms increases with distance away from the mid-ocean ridges)
- Paleomagnetism: When lava is extruded from the mid-ocean rifts, crystals of minerals
affected by magnetism align with the Earth’s magnetic field while lava cools. The resulting
rock has a record of the Earth’s magnetic field in its crystals.
- Trenches: deep crevices in the ocean floor where it bends downward sharply. This is where
the ocean floor moves downward and is destroyed by subduction (sideways and downward
movement of a plate from the crust into the mantle beneath another plate)
- Volcanoes: land equivalent of mid-ocean ridges

B. Plate Movement
- Lithosphere: solid rock; brittle and prone to cracks; made up of plates; crust + upper mantle
- Asthenosphere: molted rocks; more plastic and quite viscous; movement due to heat convection;
covers upper mantle
- Plate Motions: spreading, subduction, and lateral sliding
- Plate motions cause plate boundaries (how boundaries of lithosphere plates are classified)
Divergent Plate Boundary
- places where adjacent plates move apart
- create tension stresses, causing rocks to fracture
- fracture results into earthquakes and open rifts through
which magma can rise
- Plate Motion: spreading/expansion
- Heat Convection (from asthenosphere): upward/ascending
- Formations: mid-ocean ridges/rifts, valleys
- ex. Mid-Atlantic Ridge

Convergent Plate Boundary

- places where adjacent plates move and collide towards each other
- collision causes compression and shear stress
- this causes rocks to fold, fracture, and move along faults
- Plate Motion: compression/subduction
- Heat Convection (from asthenosphere): downward/descending
- Oceanic Crust vs Continental Crust: the denser oceanic crust
plunges deeper
- Formations: subduction zones (where 2 plates
subduct) and trenches
- Continental Crust vs Continental Crust: both plates
crumple and fold
- Formations: mountains
- Oceanic Crust vs Oceanic Crust: similar to formation
of mountains, but at the ocean floor
- Formations: islands
- ex. Marianas Trench, Himalayan Mountains
*volcanic eruptions (not volcano formation) are commonly found along converging plates

Transformational Plate Boundary

- places where plates move past each other in strike-slip
motions
- Plate Motion: cutting/lateral sliding
- Heat Convection: level
- causes earthquakes
- ex. San Andreas Fault

Causes of Plate Movement

- Convection Currents: Hot, molten, rocky material floats up within the asthenosphere, then cools
down as it approaches the surface. As it cools, the substance becomes denser and begins to sink
again, moving in a circular pattern.
- Gravity: Tectonic plates stir primarily as an effect of their own weight. Since plates are denser
than the asthenosphere below, they have a tendency to be submerged. Their mass causes them to
drop down gentle gradients to the lower subduction zones.
- Thermal Plumes: Upright columns of molten material rise up through the asthenosphere and
appear on the surface of the earth as hot spots.
C. Earthquakes
- rapid motion or trembling of the ground when rocks in the Earth’s interior break or slide past
each other due to sudden, unexpected release of stored elastic energy in the rocks

Causes of Earthquakes
- primary cause: faulting
- faults: planes of weaknesses along rock formations
- earthquakes: sudden movements along these faults
- some earthquakes are caused by volcanic eruptions (also human activity such as explosions)
- Elastic Rebound Theory: Forces push and pull the rocks inside the earth, and the rock bends
under this stress. When the rock can bend no further, the edges whip back/rebound, creating the
force from which earthquakes originate.

Parts of an Earthquake
- Focus/Hypocenter: site along the rupturing fault
where earthquakes and waves originate
- Epicenter: position of the Earth’s surface directly
above the focus
- location of epicenter: common intersecting point
of three perimeters from each seismograph
station; distance between first P and S wave
- Depth: distance between focus and the earth’s surface
- Seismic Waves: vibrations caused by moving rocks
(detected by seismographs)
- Body Waves: transverse through the earth’s interior; faster and higher frequency
- Primary Waves (P waves): faster and compressional/longitudinal (motion of particles is
parallel to the direction of the wave); can move in solids and liquids
- Secondary Waves (S waves): slower and transverse (motion of particles form a right
angle with the direction of the wave); can move through solids only
- Surface Waves: transverse only through the earth’s surface; responsible for most of an
earthquake’s damage (ex. long wave and Rayleigh wave)

Measurements of Earthquakes
- Seismograph: equipment to record/measure how strong an earthquake is
- Richter Scale: quantifies motion of the ground 100km from the epicenter
- Scale: logarithmic (+1 in scale = x10 increase in the motion of the ground)
- Modified Mercali Scale: scores ground shaking based on its observable effects, human reaction,
and structural damage
- intensities are from I to XII; subjective because intensity of an earthquake depends on
observer’s distance from the center
- Moment Magnitude Scale: measures the seismic moment (intensity) of an earthquake
- moment magnitude = area x displacement in the slip
VI.Geologic Forces
- contribute to the changing of the Earth’s surface

A. Internal Forces
- Plate Tectonics
- primary driving force of earth’s interior: Heat
- process by which heat circulates: Convection
- Convection: the actual motion of a volume of hot fluid from one place to another
- Effects of Internal Forces:

Folding
- Fold: bend in a rock layer caused by forces within the crust
- Cause: from small changes in pressure on the crust up to clashing of crust’s tectonic plates
- Types of folds:
- Anticline: arch-shaped; oldest rocks are in the core; formation of mountains
- Syncline: trough-shaped; youngest rocks are in the core; formation of valleys
- Significance:
- geologists can conclude when the earth’s crust in a specified region was compressed
(through establishing the age of a fault)
- direction of fold gives information about the direction of forces inside the crust
- anticlines create crude traps for oil and gas
- synclines form crude traps for water

oil

Faulting
- Faults: breaks in the crust of the Earth along which there has been travel of the rocks on either
flank of the fracture
- Cause: tectonic forces that fractured the rocks (rocks on opposite sides of a fracture slide past
each other to form a fault)
- Parts of Faults:
- Hanging Wall: the side
overhanging the fault plane
- Foot Wall: the side underlying the
fault plane
- Net Slip: the total distance that the
two sides have moved relative to
each other
- Fault Plane: plane or surface found
at the interface of the two walls
- Types of Faults:
- Normal Fault: hanging wall moves
below footwall; expansion
- Reverse Fault: hanging wall moves
above footwall; compression
- Strike-Slip Fault: the net slip is entirely
horizontal; cutting
- ex. San Andreas Fault (largest
fault in the world)

External Forces
- Primary external forces: water and wind
- Water: flowing rivers & oceans
- Wind: strong wind currents (ex. cyclones, tornados) and weak currents (ex. breezes)
- Other forces: plant growth, salt composition of water, gravity, chemical processes (ex. oxidation)
- Effects of external forces:

Weathering
- changes the physical and chemical composition of rocks and minerals
- Physical Weathering: breakdown of rocks without altering chemical compositions
- Frost Wedging: water collects in the crevices of rocks - freezes - expands - pushes parts of
the rock apart
- Salt Cracking: salt water seeps into the holes of a rock - water evaporates - remaining salt
crystals force the rock apart
- Abrasion: grinding of rock surfaces against each other
- Plant Growth: roots grow between cracks in a rock and push the rock apart
- Chemical Weathering: decomposition of rock upon exposure to air, water, or chemicals
- Oxidation: rock’s iron reacts with oxygen in the air
- Weathering by Solution: certain minerals rapidly dissolve in water and separate to form ions
- Acids and Bases in rainwater: these react with rocks and minerals (ex. acid rain corrodes
marble gravestones)

Erosion
- removal of soil and weathered rocks from their original places
- Natural Soil Erosion: due to wind, flowing water, gravity
- Artificial / Induced Soil Erosion: due to livestock raising, improper farming, illegal logging

Sediment Deposition
- sediments in a body of water settle to the bottom and accumulate
- Alluvial Fan: cone-shaped deposited sediment caused when a stream comes out of a canyon
- Delta: sediment deposited at the mouth of a river when its current slows as it enters another body
of water
- Floodplain: broad piece of land formed by sediment deposition at the sides of a river when it
overflows and floods its banks
VII.Rocks and Rock Layers

A. Rocks
- classification is based on the process by which they are formed

Rock Cycle
- dynamic transitions of 3 rock types
through geologic time
- each type of rock is altered or
destroyed, forming the next type of rock
- rocks are maintained in a specific set of
conditions (most important: pressure
and temperature)
- when a rock is exposed to conditions
different from the set conditions, it
breaks and transforms

Igneous Rocks
- formed by the cooling and solidification of molten rock
- Magma: molten rock beneath the earth’s surface (below)
- Lava: molten rock that has already escaped onto the surface (above)
- Intrusive Igneous: plutonic rock; formed from the solidification of magma
- ex. Granite (light colored, big crystals, slow cooling - more time to form big crystals)
- Extrusive Igneous: volcanic rock; formed from the solidification of lava
- ex. Basalt (dark colored, small crystals, fast cooling - no time to form big crystals)

Metamorphic Rocks
- formed when an existing rock is altered by high temperature and high pressure
- High temperature: from the interior of the earth
- High pressure: upper rock layers pressing down against lower rock layers
- Parent rock: pre-existing rocks transformed into metamorphic rocks
- Contact Metamorphism: molten rocks come in contact with surrounding rocks; smaller scale
- Regional Metamorphism: deeply buried layers of sedimentary and igneous rocks are squeezed
and heated; larger scale

Sedimentary Rocks
- formed by lithification (conversion of loose sediments into coherent, solid rocks)
- Compaction: sediment loses porosity after adding load on top of it
- Cementation: deposition of dissolved minerals in the interstices (small spaces) of sediments
- Desiccation: process of losing moisture
- Crystallization: formation of solid crystals precipitating form a solution
*Sediments - solid fragments of material that have been transferred and then deposited by air, water,
or ice; composed primarily of rock fragments + bits of plants & animals

Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks

- formed at or near the surface of the earth at normal temperatures and pressures
- form rock layers
- may contain fossils
*Wentworth Scale - basis by which sediments are classified according to particle size
Boulder (biggest particle) - Cobble - Pebble - Sand - Silt - Clay (smallest particle)

B. Rock Layers
- Geologic laws determine history of rock formation

1.) Law of Original Horizontality

- the succession of sedimentary layers will be built on a flat/level plane
- slanted layers (result of plate movement) were once horizontal & flat

2.) Law of Superposition

- each layer of rock is older than the layer above and younger than the
layer below
- Assuming no layer is overturned, 1 is the oldest while 4 is the
youngest (overturning - follow old position)

3.) Law of Cross-Cutting Relations

- a structure that is broken/cut by another is older than the one that
cuts it transversely
- ex. Structure 4 is younger than Structures 1, 2, 3

4.) Law of Inclusions

- fragments included in a host rock are older than the host rock itself

5.) Law of Faunal Succession

- sedimentary rock layers contain fossilized flora (plants) and fauna (animals)
- these fossils succeed each other vertically in a specific order than can be used as basis in ordering
the rock layers according to age

C. Fossils
- remains of extinct creatures or marks left by their activity
- found embedded among sedimentary rock layers
- Paleontology: science of pre-historic life; study of fossils
- remains of extant (existing) creatures are NOT fossils
- Formation: plants/animals die - remains covered in sand & soil - protection from being eaten by
other animals and from decomposition - they are preserved
- Index Fossils: fossils used to identify the age of a rock layer to be used as a reference point for
other rock layers
- Properties of a good fossil:
- wide geographical distribution
- species it came from must exist only for a brief period of time
- Significance:
- indicator for determine evolutionary patterns
- give clues for the conditions of the environment when the organism existed
- indicate from which time period rock layers are formed
- Cenozoic Era (0-65M yrs. ago): early hominids, first mammals
- Mesozoic Era (66-250M yrs. ago): Dinosaurs
- Paleozoic (251-550M yrs. ago): Trilobite
VIII.Weather and Climate

A. Weather
- present condition of atmosphere at a given location
- changes because of unequal distribution of heat from the sun
- Atmospheric Variables: weather can be broken down into precise values of different variables,
such as:

Air Temperature
- amount of heat in an atmosphere
- measuring device: thermometer
- peak is around noon to 2pm; dips at around 5pm

Air Pressure
- measure of force exerted by air onto surfaces
- expressed in atmosphere (atm) or millimeter of Mercury (mmHg) or bar
- measuring device: barometer
- at sea level, air pressure is 1 atm; it decreases with altitude

Humidity
- amount of moisture in the air (mostly in the form of water vapor)
- when humidity approaches 100%, or a point of saturation, fogs
- measuring devices: hygrometer and psychrometer

Cloud Formation
- clouds: bodies of condensed water
- cloud amount: measurement of the part of the sky covered with clouds
- cloud types:
- cirrus: fine/feathery; highest in altitude
- cumulus: puffy/bulbous; formed by humid and hot air
- nimbus: dark cloud from which rain falls; (nimbus - latin for “rain”)
- stratus: flat and hazy, situated at relatively low altitudes

Precipitation
- when the accumulated water droplets in the clouds become too heavy, they fall back to the
surface of the earth as precipitation
- types of precipitation:
- rain: droplets of water up to 4 mm in diameter
- measuring device: rain gauge (measured volume of rainfall)
- drizzle: very fine droplets falling slowly (light rain)
- sleet: clear pellets of ice
- glaze: rain that forms a layer of ice on the surface it touches
- snow: hexagonal or needle-like ice crystals at very low temperatures
- hail: balls of ice ranging in size from small pellets to as large as a soft ball with an internal
structure of concentric (circular) layers of ice and snow

Air Movement (also an atmospheric variable)

- either horizontal movement of air (wind) or vertical (air current)
Wind (horizontal)
- moves from regions of higher air pressure to lower air pressure
- wind speed: measure of how fast air is travelling horizontally
- measuring device: anemometer
- wind direction: where the air is flowing or blowing into
- measuring device: wind vane

Air Current (vertical)

- hot air is generally less dense than cold air
- hot air ascends while cold air descends

Sea Breeze VS Land Breeze

- results from unequal rates of cooling and heating of bodies of land and bodies of water
- Sea Breeze: during daytime, land is hotter than water
- air above the land heats up and moves upward
- this creates a low pressure area
- air from the sea moves toward the land to replace the rising air
- Land Breeze: during nighttime, land cools faster than the sea
- cool air above the land creates a high pressure inland
- wind descends and moves toward the sea

sea breeze land breeze



Circular Wind Flow
- low pressure area surrounded by pressure of high area (or vice versa)
- Cyclone: low pressure surrounded by high pressure
- counterclockwise direction
- moves in a curved path towards the center
- Anticyclone: high pressure surrounded by low pressure
- clockwise direction
- air is blown outward from the center

Storms
- intense disturbances in the atmosphere
- Thunderstorms: begins when warm air rises very rapidly (forms cumulonimbus clouds)
- when the air becomes too heavy, they fall back as rain
- while it is raining, the continuing upward movement of air creates friction with rain
- internal friction builds up static electricity = lightning
- Hurricanes: violent air disturbances originate from oceans
- (solar) warming of air over oceans causes evaporation, creating a low pressure
- “Cyclone” - 119 kph and below (wind speed)
- “Hurricane” - 120 kph and above
- Tropical Countries:
- Typhoon: > 119 || Severe tropical storm: 89-119 || Tropical storm: 62-88 ||
Tropical Depression: < 61

B. Climate
- weather of a region over an extended period of time
- Elements of climate:
- temperature
- precipitation
- latitude: primary factor of temperature control, determines angle and duration of insulation
- distribution of land and water: unequal rates of heating and cooling bodies of land and water
- wind belts: systems of convection cells resulting from alternating low & high pressure belts
- monsoons: seasonally reversing system of surface winds (caused by temperature differences
between land and ocean); *see breeze & land breeze
- oceanic currents: transfers heat from the equator towards the poles
- vegetative cover: plays a role in water cycle
- elevation: gradual decrease in average temperature/pressure within elevation
- mountainranges: serve as barriers to outbreaks of cold air, portect inland from severe storms

Basic Climate Groups

- show dominance of special combinations of air-mass source regions
- based on different Biomes
- Low-Latitude Climates: controlled by equitorial / tropical air masses
- Rainforest (tropical moist): rainfall is heavy in all months; rains often exceed 250 cm,
summers are very warm and humid
- Savanna (wet-dry tropical): very wet season add very dry season
- Desert (dry tropical): covers 12% of the earth’s surface
- Mid-Latitude Climates: affected by 1.) tropical air-masses moving towards the poles, and 2.)
polar air-masses moving towards the equator
- Steppe (dry mid-latitude): grassland, semi-arid climate
- Chaparral (mediterranean): wet winter, dry summer
- Grassland (dry mid-latitude): dry climate (limited to North America, Eurasia)
- Deciduous Forest (moist continental): climate in the polar front zone
- High-Latitude Climates: polar and arctric masses dominate
- Taiga (boreal forest): continental climate; long, cold winters; short, cool summersc
- Tundra: found among coastal areas; winter is long and severe; no true summer
- Alpine (highland climate): cool to cold; mountains & plateaus; altitude > latitude

Climate Change
- Factors:
- changes in output of energy by the Sun
- variation in the tile of the Earth’s axis of rotation
- blocking of incoming solar radiation by pressure in atmosphere and human activity
Indicators of Climate Change
- Global Warming: natural and/or artificial fluctuations in global temperatures
- Greenhouse Effect: around 30% of light radiated towards the earth is bouced by outer
atmosphere and is scatted back into space. The remainder touches the planet’s surface and is
mirrored up again as a form of slow-moving energy called infrared radiation. Heat produced
by infrared radiation is absorbed by “greenhouse gases” such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, ozone, and methane, which decelerates its escape from the atmosphere
- Causes: fossil fuel emissions (heightens greenhouse gas concentration)
- Effects:
- earth’s average surface temperature increases
- snow melts, increasing sea level, decreasing land surface
- many organisms will lose habitat due to flooding
- Kyoto Protocol: lessening production of greenhouse gases
- El Nino & La Nina: results form a band of warm ocean temperatures that occasionally develops
off the western coast of South America and can cause climatic changes across the Pacific Ocean
- El Nino: high air surface pressure in Western Pacific. The cool nutrient-rich sea water is
displaced by warmer water which is depleted of nutrients, resultsing into a significant
decline in marine life.
- La Nina: low air surface pressure in Western Pacific

Man-Made Effects
- Human Activity: excessive use of natural resources, introduction of pollutants to nature,
production of harmful chemicals, etc.
- Air Pollution
- Sources: burning fossil fuels, emission of carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide,
sulfur dioxide, hydrocarbons, and particulate matter (automibiles & factories)
- Effects:
- reduced oxygen-carrying capacity of blood
- lung cancer
- global warming (increased greenhouse gas concentration)
- acid rain (sulfuric acid and nitric acid caused by sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxide
reacting with water)
- Ozone Hole: area of thinning ozone layer (measured every October, increases in size)
- Man-made cause: production of CFC
- Effect: health hazards (ex. skin cancer)
- Montreal Protocol: on substances that deplete the ozone layer
- Ultraviolet Index: measure of exposure to UV radiation with respect to risk in human health
- 0-2: no danger
- 3-5: little risk/harm (from unprotected sun exposure)
- 6-7: high risk/harm (from unprotected sun exposure)
- 8-10: very high risk/harm (from unprotected sun exposure)
- 11-15: extreme risk/harm (from unprotected sun exposure)