PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2017

ENGINEERING PHYSICS
LABORATORY MANUAL
By

Dr.G.Narsinga Rao
Dr.V.Prashanth
Kumar Dr.G.Srinivas
Ch.Hemalatha
N.Ramesh
Md Parvez Ahmed

Commo
n To
MEC, ECE,CIVIL, CSE , IT ,EEE

0
 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2017

Lab Manual
(B.Tech. I Year : Academic Year: 2017-18)

1
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that this manual is a bonafide record of practical work in the Enginering Physics

Laboratory in First year B.Tech programme during the academic year 2017-18. The book is

prepared by Dr.G.Narasinga Rao , Dr.V.Prashanth Kumar , Dr.G.Srinivas,

Ch.Hemalatha, N.Ramesh, Md Parvez Ahmed, Department of Freshman

Engineering.
 INDEX

PREFACE 4
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT 4
GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS 5
SAFETY PRECAUTIONS 6
INSTITUTE VISION AND MISSION 6
PROGRAMME OUTCOMES 7-8
COURSE STRUCTURE, OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES 9
EXPERIMENTS 10-51

1 Dispersive Power of the material of a prism- Spectrometer. 10-12

2 Determination of White source –Diffraction grating. 13-14
3 Newton‟s Rings –Radius of curvature of plano convex lens. 15-17
4 Meld‟s experiment –Transverse and Longitudinal modes 18-20
5 Charging, discharging and time constant of R-C circuit. 21-23
6 L-C-R circuit- Resonance & Q-factor. 24-27
7 Magnetic field along the axis of current carrying coil –Stewart and 28-31
Gees method and to verify Biot-Savart‟s law.

8 Study the characteristics of LED and LASER diode. 32-35

9 Bending losses of fibers & Evaluation of numerical aperture of a given fiber. 36-38
10 Energy gap of a material of p-n junction. 39-41
11 Tensional Pendulum- Rigidity modulus. 42-45
12 Wavelength of light, resolving power and dispersive power of a diffraction 46-48
grating using laser.

13 V-I characteristics of a Solar cell. 49-51

 PREFACE
This book entitled “Engineering Physics Lab Manual” is intended for the use of First year B.Tech
students of Marri laxman Reddy Institute of Technology and Management, Dundigal, Hyderabad. The
main objective of the Engineering Physics Lab Manual is to furnish the conceptual understanding of the
basic principles. The experiments are selected from various area of Physics like Physical Optics,
Lasers, Fiber Optics, Sound, Mechanics, Electricity & Magnetism and Basic Electronics. The book
was written as per the new syllabus prescribed by the JNTUH University in a simple language. Viva voice
questions also included in the book. These experiments will help the students to expertise in the analysis
of various concepts in Optics ,Mechanical and Electronics related topics. Hence we hope this book serve
for better understanding by the student community with all details of experiments

N.Ramesh
Asst.Professor, Department of Freshman engineering

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It was really a good experience, working in Engineering Physics lab. First I would like to thank Mr.
Dr.G.Narasinga Rao, Professor Dr.V.Prashanth Kumar,Professor,Md Parvez Ahmed,Asst.Professor,
Ch.Hemalatha, Asst.Professor Department of Freshman engineering, Marri Laxman Reddy Institute
of technology & Management for giving the technical support in preparing the document.

I express my sincere thanks to Dr.V.Prashanth Kumar,Professor, Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of

technology & Management, for his concern towards me and gave me opportunity to prepare
Engineering Physics laboratory manual.

I am deeply indebted and gratefully acknowledge the constant support and valuable patronage of
Dr.R.Kotaih, Director, Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of technology & Management. I am
unboundedly grateful to him for timely corrections and scholarly guidance.

I express my hearty thanks to Dr.K.Venkateswara Reddy, Principal, Marri Laxman Reddy Institute of
technology & Management, for giving me this wonderful opportunity for preparing the Engineering
Physics manual/. At last, but not the least I would like to thanks the entire Freshman engineering
faculties those who had inspired and helped me to achieve my goal.

By,
N.Ramesh
Asst.Professor, Department of Freshman engineering
 GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS
1. Students are instructed to come to Environmental Engineering laboratory on time. Late comers are
not entertained in the lab.

2. Students should be punctual to the lab. If not, conducted experiments will not be repeated.

3. Students are expected to come prepared at home with the experiments which are going to performed.

4. Students are instructed to display their identity cards and apron before entering into the lab.

5. Students are instructed not to bring mobile phones to the lab.

6. The glass apparatus and other instruments used in Engineering Chemistry lab should be handled
with care and responsibility.

7. Any damage to glassware and equipment during the lab session is student‟s responsibility and
penalty or fine will be collected from the student.

8. Do not throw waste such as match sticks, filter papers etc. into the sink. They must be thrown into
the waste bin.

9. Keep the water and gas taps closed except when these utilities are needed.

10. Replace the reagent bottles on the reagent shelves immediately after use. They must never be
allowed to accumulate on the bench.

11. Students should update the records and lab observation books session wise. Before leaving the lab
the student should get his lab observation book signed by the faculty.

12. Students should submit the labrecords 2/3 days in advance to the concerned faculty members in
the staffroom for their correction and return.

13. Students should not move around the lab during the lab session.

14. If any emergency arises, the student should take the permission from faculty member concerned
in written format.

15. The faculty members may suspend any student from the lab session on disciplinary grounds.

16. Never cook up the result by recording false observations or by making manipulated calculations.
17. All the data should be prettified with the relevant units.
 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS

1. While working in the laboratory suitable precautions should be observed to prevent accidents.

2. Always follow the experimental instructions strictly.

3. The laboratory apron should be worn while working in the laboratory to protect the clothing
from damage by chemicals.

4. Use the fire extinguisher (CO2 type) available in the lab in case of fire.

5. Use the first aid box in case of any accident/mishap.

6. Never work in the laboratory unless a demonstrator or teaching assistant in present.

7. All the chemicals must be carefully handled.

8. Student should know about the hazards and properties of every chemical which you are going to use
for the experiment.

9. Never taste any chemical unless instructed to do so and dont come into close contact to your skin.

10. Keep all the doors and windows open while working in the laboratory and switch on the exhaust
fans while doing the experiments

11. Even after all precautions, still if accident occurs, do not panic and inform the instructor at once
and act as per his suggestions.

INSTITUTION VISION AND MISSION

VISION

To establish as an ideal academic institutions in the service of the nation, the world and the humanity by
graduating talented engineers to be ethically strong, globally competent by conducting high quality
research, developing breakthrough technologies, and disseminating and preserving technical knowledge.

OUR MISSION

To fulfill the promised vision through the following strategic characteristics and aspirations:
 Contemporary and rigorous educational experiences that develop the engineers and managers.
 An atmosphere that facilitates personal commitment to the educational success of students in an
environment that values diversity and community.
 Undergraduate programs that integrate global awareness, communication skills and team building.
 education and training that prepares students for interdisciplinary engineering research and advanced
problem solving abilities.
 PROGRAMME OUT COMES
a) An ability to apply knowledge of mathematics, science, and engineering

Graduates should transform knowledge of mathematics, Physics, chemistry, Engineering Mechanics,

probability and statistics, and engineering drawing in solving a wide range of civil engineering problems.
b) An ability to design, implement, evaluate a system and conduct experiments, as well as
to analyze and interpret data

Graduates should show that they can make decisions regarding type, and number of data points to be
collected, duration of the experiment to obtain intended results, and demonstrate an understanding
of accuracy and precision of data
(c) An ability to design, implement and evaluate a system, or process to meet desired needs
Graduates should be able to: identify the project goal; define the project; search for alternative
possibilities; choose the best of the possible solutions; create a design drawing, design plan, or computer
simulation; evaluate the design; and justify the final design in written and oral forms.
d) An ability to function effectively on multi-disciplinary teams
Graduates should show that they can participate effectively as team members with people who bring
different skills, expertise, and perspectives to a project; and with people from different sub-disciplines of
civil engineering and interdisciplinary groups.
e) An ability to identify, formulate, analyse and solve engineering problems
Graduates should be able to describe the important components of a given problem, apply mathematical,
engineering principles and to find the unknowns and arrive at appropriate and effective solutions.
f) An understanding of professional, ethical, legal, security and social responsibilities Graduates
should be familiar with the applicable professional code of conduct for engineers. They should be able to
apply the codes, where appropriate, to particular cases in which ethical issues arise. Graduates should
also understand the importance of professionalism.
g) An ability to communicate effectively both in writing and orally
Civil engineering graduates should have the ability to speak and write effectively in various domains like
laboratory reports, technical reports, technical presentations, project reports etc.
h) The broad education necessary to analyse the impact of engineering solutions on a global
and societal context
Graduates should get exposed to the interactions among science, technology, and social values,
understand the influence of science and technology on civilizations and how science and technology
have been addressed for the betterment of humankind.
i) Recognition of the need for, and an ability to engage in continuing professional development
and life-long learning

Graduates should show that they appreciate the need for further education and self improvement,
understand the value of professional licensure the necessity of continuing professional developments, and
the value of membership in appropriate professional organizations.

j) Knowledge of contemporary issues

Graduates should have knowledge and understand selected contemporary technical and social issues
relevant to their field of study.

k) An ability to use the techniques, skills, and modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering practice
Graduates should have ability to use practical methods readily and effectively in the performance of
engineering analysis and design. Graduates should be able to select and use modern engineering tools
used by practicing engineers, including computer software such as computer aided drawing (CAD)

l) An ability to apply design and development principles in the construction of software

and hardware systems of varying complexity
Civil Graduates should have ability to design and develop principles involved in construction of different
structures like buildings, shopping complexes, roads, water structures and to analyse the stability of
structures using different softwares like stadpro. Studs etc.
 COURSE STRUCTURE, OBJECTIVES & OUTCOMES
COURSE STRUCTURE
Engineering Physics lab will have a continuous evaluation during First year First semester for 25 Internal
marks and 75 end semester examination marks.
Out of the 25 marks for internal evaluation, day-to-day work in the laboratory shall be evaluated for 15
marks and internal practical examination shall be evaluated for 10 marks conducted by the laboratory
teacher concerned.

The end semester examination shall be conducted with an external examiner and internal examiner. The
external examiner shall be appointed by the principal / Chief Controller of examinations

COURSE OBJECTIVE

This course on Engineering Physics lab is designed with 13 experiments in an academic year. It
is common to all branches of Engineering in B.Tech Ist year.

The objective of the course is that the student will have exposure to various experimental skills which
is very essential for an Engineering student.

The experiments are selected from various area of Physics like Physical Optics, Lasers, Fiber
Optics, Sound, Mechanics, Electricity & Magnetism and Basic Electronics.

Also the student is exposed to various tools like Screw gauge, Vernier Callipers, Physics Balance
, Spectrometer and Microscope.

COURSE OUTCOME

The student is expected to learn from this laboratory course the concept of error and its analysis.
It also allows the

student to develop experimental skills to design new experiments in Engineering.

With the exposure to these experiments the student can compare the theory and correlate with
experiment.
 1. DISPERSIVE POWER OF THE PRISM
AIM: To determine the dispersive power of the material of the given
prism.
APPARATUS: Spectrometer, prism, mercury vapour lamp, reading lens.
PRINCIPLE : The Refractive Index of the material of the prism is given by
𝐴 +𝐷
sin ⁡( )
μ= 𝐴
2
sin ⁡( )
2

For Red color

𝐴 +𝐷 𝑅
sin ⁡( 2 )
𝜇𝑅= 𝐴
sin ⁡( 2)

For Blue
color
𝐴 +𝐷 𝐵
𝜇𝐵= sin ⁡( 2 )
𝐴
sin ⁡( 2)

Where 𝐷𝑅 and 𝐷𝐵 are angle of minimum deviations of red and blue colors.
Dispersive power of the prism is
𝜇𝐵 −𝜇 𝑅
𝜔= 𝜇−1

Where μ = average refractive index of blue and red colors.

i.e; μ = 𝜇𝐵 +𝜇𝑅
2

Description:
Spectrometer setup
1. Check the prism table horizontally aligned or not with the help of spirit level.
2. Position the instrument so that the telescope can be pointed at some distant object and adjust
the eyepiece of the telescope, until the cross wires are in focus and focus on the distant object.
When you have apparently got the image of the cross wires located at this distance
comfortable for the eyes. Do not disturb the spectrometer adjustment.
3. Position the instrument on laboratory optical bench ensure that we can see through the -
telescope when it is at least 600 to either side of the principal axis of the collimator.
4. Position a discharge lamp close to the slit at the end of collimator and make sure the slit
is narrow, sharp and bright. Adjust the collimator only until the slit image is in focus.
5. Rotate the telescope so that it focus the collimator and observe the slit image and adjust
the slit width its image is just wider than the cross wire.
6. Determine the least count of the Vernier.
Measurement of minimum angle of deviation Dmin
1. Rotate the prism table and telescope until light will pass
symmetrically through the prism.
2. Locate the position of spectrum in the field of telescope.
3. Looking at the spectrum rotate the prism table until the
position of minimum deviation (Dmin) is achieved. Minimum
deviation is obtained by slowly moving the prism table to
one direction, the spectrum also moves in the same direction.
But at a certain point the spectrum reverses (Dmin) its direction
is called minimum deviation.
4. Fix the table in the stationary position, so that the spectrum will not deviate from its
minimum deviation position, and use the slow motion screw fitted to the telescope to set
the cross wires accurately on the centre of required color and the reading = A.
5. Take direct ray reading by making telescope in line with the collimator and record as
B. The readings (A-B) will give the angle of minimum deviation.

OBSERVATION TABLE:
Reading corresponding to Minimum
Colour minimum deviation Deviation
of the position Direct Reading
S.No. (D)
line V 1 V1
1 -
V 1 V2
2 –
[(VL)+ (VR)]/2
Vernier1(V11) Vernier1(V2 (VL) (VR)
Vernier1(V1 ) Vernier2 (V2 ) 1
)

1 Blue

2 Red
Precautions:
1. Don‟t touch polished surface of the prism with hands to avoid finger prints.
2. Use reading lens with light while taking the readings in Vernier scale.
3. The mercury light should be placed inside a wooden box.

Result: Dispersive power of the material of the given prism ω = .

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define dispersion.
2. What are the parts of spectrometer?
3. Define minimum deviation position.
4. What are the primary adjustments to be made for spectrometer.?
5. Define dispersive power.
6. Give any two examples for dispersion.
7. Define refractive index .
8. Does refractive index have units?
9. What does the word „Direct reading‟ refers to?
10. Prism is made by using which material?
11. Write the formula to calculate least count of spectrometer?
12. Calculate the least count of the given Spectrometer?
13. For what purpose reading lenses are used ?
14. Type of light source is used for this experiment?
15. Define Snell‟s law?
16. How many colours are present in a spectrum?
17. Define Wavelength ?
18. Units for Wavelength?
19. Mention the applications of dispersion.
20. Armstong is the unit for?
21. Write the formula foe Refractive index in terms of minimum deviation.
22. Purpose of Telescope in spectrometer?
23. Give two examples of Dispersion use real time application?
24. One Main scale division value is?
25. Write any two precautions be taken in doing the experiment.
26. What are the factors on which the dispersive power of a prism depends?
27. Will white LED will disperse into seven colours of rainbow when passed through a prism?
28. Why does light disperse?
 2. DIFFRACTION GRATING

AIM: To determine the wave lengths of spectral lines using diffraction grating.
APPARATUS: Plane diffraction grating, spectrometer, spirit level, reading lens, source of
light (mercury vapour lamp).
FORMULA:

wavelength of spectral line (𝜆) = Å 𝑜𝑟 𝑐𝑚

𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃
where 𝑛𝑁
n is the order of diffraction
N is number of lines per cm (15000 = 5905.5)
2.54

θ is the angle of diffraction

PROCEDURE:
After adjusting the grating in normal incidence position bring the telescope in straight line position
with the collimator. Turn the telescope towards right hand side. At some angle we get spectral lines.
This is called first order spectrum. In the case of mercury vapour lamp violet, blue,green and yellow
red lines are clearly seen. Adjust the telescope such that the vertical cross wire coincides with the red
line and note the readings in the circular scale. Next coincide the cross wire with yellow, green, blue,
violet lines in order and note the corresponding readings.Then turn the telescope to the left hand side
and note the readings corresponding to lines violet, blue, green, yellow and red in order. Half the
difference in the readings corresponding to anyone colour gives the angle of diffraction, (θ) for that
line in the first order spectrum.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Readings on the circular scale 2θ

𝐬𝐢𝐧𝜃
Colour Left Right θ 𝜆 = 𝐧𝐍
V1(R)-V1(L) V2(R)-V2(L) Average (cm)

V1(L) V2(L) V1(R) V2(R)

Yellow

Green

Blue
Voilet

RESULT:
The wavelength
of Yellow line =...................................Å

Green line =.....................................Å

Blue line =.......................................Å

Violet line =.....................................Å

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define diffraction.
2. Which Type of light source is used in this experiment?.
3. What are the applications of diffraction.?
4. Define a Fringe.
5. How do you calculate width of the fringe in diffraction pattern?
6. How many no of lines are drawn in grating plate?
7. How many colours are observed in this experiment?
8. What are the essential parts of spectrometer?.
9. What is plane transmission diffraction grating.?
10. Mention the types of diffraction .
11. Write the differences between Fresnel and Fraunhoffer diffraction?
12. Define resolving power of the grating.
13. What does mean by LPI?
14. Write the maximum condition in single slit diffraction?
15. Minimum condition in single slit diffraction?
16. Maximum condition in N-slit diffraction?
17. Write the formula for finding the wavelength ogf diffraction grating.
18. Purpose of Telescope in spectrometer?
19. Write the expression for resolving power of the grating.
20. Write the differences between interference and diffraction.
21. What is the advantage of increasing the number of lines on the grating?
 3. NEWTON’S RINGS

AIM: To determine the radius of curvature using sodium light by Newton rings
APPARATUS: Sodium lamp, condensing lens, plano convex lens, travelling microscope and glass
plate.
FORMULA:
D2 − D2
m n
R= cm
4λ(m − n)
where
Dm is diameter of the mth ring
Dn is diameter of the nth ring
λ is wavelength of sodium light (5893Å)

MODEL GRAPH:
PROCEDURE:
The setup is adjusted such that the intersection of the cross wires is at the centre of the central spot.
The microscope is moved towards left. counting (he number of rings, say upto 11 rings. There after
moving back the microscope the cross wire is set tangentially to the 10 ring. The reading on the
horizontal scale and the vernier coincidence are accurately noted. The reading of the 6th, 5th,4th,3 th
2nd and 1st rings are noted.The microscope is thereafter moved in the same direction till 1st ring is
reached on the right side and thus the readings are recorded. Thereafter the readings are noted for 1st,
2nd ,......... up to 10th ring. The readings are noted. The diameters of different rings are noted from the
differences between the corresponding readings on the right and the left side. The difference in the
squares of the diameters of the rings is found, you will find all the values to be almost constant . The
lens is removed and the radius of curvature 'R' of the surface in contact with the plane glass plate is
accurately measured using a spherometer.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Microscope reading
𝐃𝟐 − 𝐃𝟐
Number Left side Right side D 2
D 𝐑=
𝐦 𝐧
of rings (cm) (cm2) 𝟒𝜆(𝐦 − 𝐧)
(cm)
Main Main
Venire Total Venire Total
scale scale
reading reading reading reading
reading reading

10

1
RESULT:
The radius of curvature of a given planoconvex lens is...............cm.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1.How the Newtons rings are formed.

2. Compare constructive interference and destructive interference.
3. Why do the rings gets closer as the order of the rings is increased.
4. What is the purpose of glass plate incline at 450(beam splitter) in this experiment.
5. Why the centre of rings are dark.
6. Define monochromatic radiation.
7. Why are the rings are circular?
8. Define interference.
9. What will happen if few drops of transparent liquid is introduced between
the plano convex lens and glass plate.
10. Why is a sodium lamp, rather than an incandescent or fluorescent lamp, used in
the experiments?
11.On which principle Newton‟s Rings are formed.
12. What are the types of Interference?
14.What are the precautions to be taken while doing the experiment?
15.Define coherence.
16. Write the condition for Maximum intensity in thin films.
17. Write the condition for Minimum intensity in thin films.
18. Diameter of dark ring is proportional to ?
19. Bright ring diameter is proportional to?
20. Write the equation for thickness of the film in Newton‟s Rings experiment?
21. Write the property of circle,used to calculate the wavelength.
22.Why the monochromatic light is used in this experiment?
23.Spcify the reasons for not getting fringes in straight line.
24.Difference between constructive interference and destructive interference.
25.What is the purpose of maintaining glass plate at 450?
26. Why do the rings get closer as the order of the rings increases?
27.Write the formula for calculating radius of curvature?
28. What would be effect of using white light instead of monochromatic
light? 29 . Why is it necessary to use a lens of large value of R in this
experiment?
 4. MELDE’S EXPERIMENT
AIM: To determine the frequency of a vibrating bar (or) tuning fork using Melde‟s arrangement.
APPARATUS: Melde‟s arrangement, rheostat, plug keys, connecting wires, meter scale, thread,
weight box, power supply.
PRINCIPLE:
Longitudinal mode:

Frequency of tuning fork n=1 √ 𝑇 Hz

𝑙 𝑚
m - Mass per unit length (or) linear
density. T - Tension= (M+m) g.
l – Length of a single loop.
Transverse mode:

Frequency of tuning fork n= 1 √ 𝑇 Hz

2𝑙 𝑚
PROCEDURE:
Transverse mode:-
In transverse mode, the tuning fork is made to vibrate perpendicular to vibrating thread. The
vibrating thread forms many well defined loops. These loops are due to the stationary vibrations set
up as a result of the superposition of the progressive wave from the prong and the reflected wave
from the pulley. The frequency of each segment coincides with the frequency of the fork.
Set the Meld‟s experiment in transverse mode vibrations with 2-3meters length of thread
and note the number of loops and length of the thread are recorded in observations table. Repeated
the same procedure for different length and recorded is in the observation table and calculated the
frequency of the tuning fork.
Longitudinal mode:-
In longitudinal mode, the tuning fork is parallel to the vibrating thread. Set the Meld‟s
experiment in the longitudinal mode of vibrations and note the observations in observation table for
different lengths. Calculate the frequency of the tuning fork by using the formula.
OBSERVATIONS:
Mass of the thread (w) - gms
Length of the thread (y) - cm
Mass of the pan (p) - gms
Linear density μ= ( 𝑤) - gm/cm
𝑦

Transverse mode vibrations:

Length
Load applied Length of the
Tension No. of 1 𝑇
in the of the x loops √𝑇 n=2𝑙 √𝜇
S.No T=(M+m)g loops √𝑇
pan(m)gm loops l=𝑑 𝑙
(x)
(d) 𝑥

Average of n =

Longitudinal mode vibrations:

Length
Load applied Length of the
1
n= √𝑇
Tension No. of
S.No in the of the x loops √𝑇 𝑙 𝜇
T=(M+m)g loops √𝑇
pan(m)gm loops l=𝑑 𝑙
(x)
(d) 𝑥

3
Average of n =
PRECAUTIONS:
 The thread should be uniform and inextensible.
 Well defined loops should be obtained by adjusting the tension with milligram weights.
 Frictions in the pulley should be least possible
RESULT:
Frequency of the tuning fork in longitudinal mode Hz
Frequency of the tuning fork in Transverse mode Hz

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define frequency?
2. Differentiate transverse and longitudinal wave?
3. What is vibration?
4. What is the difference between electric tuning fork & normal tuning fork?
5. Define standing wave.
6. Compare standing waves and stationary waves.
7. Define linear density?
8. What are the units of linear density ?
9. What is the distance between two successive nodes or two anti nodes?
10. Explain the importance of Melde‟s experiment?
11. What are the precautions to be taken while doing this experiment?
12. If the length of the thread increases does number of loops increases or
decreases. 13.Define a node and antinode.
14. Write an equation to calculate Tension.
15. What are the units of frequency?
16. Write the equation to calculate linear density?
17. write the value of gravitational force constant in SI and CGS system.
18. Mention the equation to calculate frequency in longitudinal wave/
19. Mention the equation to calculate frequency in Transverse wave?
20. What is Wavelength?
21. Write the Units of wavelength .
22. Define resonance.
23. Write the C.G.S units for linear density.
 5. RC CIRCUIT

AIM: To study the charging and discharging of voltage in a circuit containing resistance and
capacitor and compare the experimental RC time constant with theoretical RC time constant.

APPARATUS: Power supply, Resistors, Electrolyte, capacitors, voltmeter, stop watch,

commutator, connecting wires.

Principle:
The charging voltage across the capacitor is given
V= 𝑽𝒐 (1 – e -t/RC)
The discharging voltage across the capacitor is given
V= -𝑽𝒐 e -t/RC
Where
t – Time constant
R - Resistance
C - Capacitance
Theoretical Time constant of RC circuit T =RC secs
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:
+ -

R v v

S1 +-

-E C

Fig.: Capacitor charging and discharging circuit diagram

Graph:

Discharging mode Charging mode

V V

VO
V0

V=0.63V0

V=0.37V0

T (sec) t (sec) T t (sec)

Fig. : Capacitor discharging Fig.: Capacitor charging
PROCEDURE:
This circuit is connected as shown in fig, taking one set of R and C values.
Charging:
When the terminal1 is connected to A, the capacitor will change with time. This changing in charge
is noted as a voltage across the capacitor with time. The change in charging voltage is noted for every
5sec with help of stop watch and recorded in the observation table. The graph is drawn between time
on x-axis and voltage on y-axis. The time constant is calculated from the graph by calculating the
time corresponding to 63% value of maximum value and comparing with theoretical value of time
constant(RC).
Discharging:
When the terminal1 is connected to B, the charged capacitor will be discharged with time.
The decayed voltage across the capacitor is noted with 5sec time interval upto zero voltage. The
graph is drawn between the voltage across the capacitor and time on x-axis. The time constant is
calculated at 36% of maximum voltage across the capacitor and comparing with theoretical value of
time constant (RC).
This experiment is repeated with different set of R and C values.
OBSERVATIONS:
R= C=
Charging mode Discharging mode
Time Voltage Time Voltage (Volts)
(sec) (Volts) (sec)
APPLICATIONS:
1. When a capacitor is charged by a DC Voltage, the accumulation of charge on its plates is a
method of storing energy which may be released at different rates. An example of the energy
storage application is the photoflash capacitor used in flashguns of photographic cameras.
2. The charging time and discharging time is calculated for a R.C circuit and is connected
to series of decorative bulbs.
3. Capacitors are of two types; a) fixed and b) variable, both of which are used in a wide range
of electronic devices. Fixed capacitors are further divided into electrolytic and non-
electrolytic.
RESULT:
The theoretical value of time constant is sec.
The experimental value of time constant is sec in charging mode
The experimental value of time constant is sec in discharging mode

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Charge is defined as?

2. Write the SI and CGS units of charge.
3. Define time constant?
4. Convert the value of picofarads into micro farads?
5. What are the units of resistance?
6. What are the units of capacitance?
7. Define an electric circuit?
8. What are series and parallel connections in a circuit?
9. Define ohms law.
10.Write the relation between resistance and specific resistance?
11. State four types of capacitors.
12. Define capacitance and resistance.
13.What is meant by charging a capacitor?
14.What is meant by discharging a capacitor?
15. Write the formula to determine time constant of an RC circuit?
16.Give the symbolic representation of a resistor and capacitor.
17.Write the units of current?
18. Differentiate charging and discharging modes?
19.Write the equation for energy stored in a capacitor?
20. Define electro motive force.
21.Write the formula for charging of an RC circuit in terms of Voltage.
22.Write the formula for discharging of an RC circuit in terms of
Voltage.
 6. LCR CIRCUIT

AIM: To study the characteristics of series and parallel resonance of LCR Circuit and to
find resonance frequency and quality factor.

APPARATUS: LCR Circuit board contains set of resistors, capacitors, inductors and milliammeter.

THEORY: In this LCR circuit, it consists of inductor(L), capacitance C, and resistance(R), are
connected in series with a sinusoidal frequency of e.m.f of source, electromagnetic oscillations are
set in the circuit and it behaves as an oscillator. As the circuit is driven by the external A.C. power
source, it behavior is similar to the force oscillations in spring mass system. Therefore the study of the
LCR circuit allows us to study the phenomenon of forced oscillations and hence resonance. The
conditions for resonance in the circuit can be obtained. When L and C are connected in series with R,
at a particular frequency, the capacitive reactance X C is equal in magnitude with inductive reactance
XL and they are out of phase by 180 0. At this frequency the current through the circuit is maximum,
and this frequency is called resonance frequency.

1 1
XC  X L 1
; XC  and XL  2fL → 2fL →f 
2 f 2fC

C 2LC

1
The frequency of oscillations in series is given by fseries =
2LC --------- (1)

In a parallel resonance circuit, at resonance, the circuit does not allow the current to flow and works
as a perfect choke for A.C, such a circuit is called rejecter circuit, which is shown in the figure 1. In a
parallel circuit, the impedance maximum at the resonant frequency and consequently the current is
minimum.

The parallel resonant frequency is given by

fparallel = 1
------------- (2)
2 1/ LC  (R / L)2

R C L Imax
70%Imax

Fig.: LCR series Circuit

f1 fr f2
Fig.: Series
resonance
PROCEDURE:-

SERIES RESONANCE OF LCR CIRCUIT:-

Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

Apply input signal using signal OR function generator.

-In this case the output should be 10 V only. Take the output across the resistor and set it to Ammeter
input sockets.

- Change the frequency till the ammeter readings should be a sharp rise and fall, adjust the signal such
that the maximum possible ammeter readings should be a sharp rise and fall.

-Adjust the signal such that the maximum possible Ammeter deflection is to be counted. This is the
resonant frequency of the connected combination of the circuit.

-Again adjust the amplitude of the function generator such that the full scale deflection. Now reduce
the frequency till the deflection falls in ammeter.

-After that increase the frequency in regular intervals & note down the ammeter readings.

-Plot the graph between the deflection readings and frequency and repeat the same study how
resonant frequency depends up on the different combination of L.C.R. the readings are tabulated as
follows

PARALLEL RESONANCE:-

-Connect the circuit as per the parallel resonance circuit diagram.

-Apply the input signal from a reliable signal generator. The output should be 10 V only. Take the
output across the tank circuit connect to input ammeter sockets.

-Change the frequency till the ammeter readings sharp fall and adjust the signal such that the
deflection falls down considerably then increase the frequency generator amplitude such that to get
full scale deflection.

-Now reduce the frequency till the deflection till the deflection falls down and then increase the
frequency in regular intervals and note down the deflection.

-Plot the graph between the metre deflection divisions and frequency and repeat the procedure for
different values of R and study how Q is affected & also study the how the resonant frequency
depends on different combinations of L.C.R.
LCR PARALLEL RESONANCE L

R R
A
SIGNAL

GENERATOR
fr Frequency (Hz)

Fig. Parallel circuit

Band width BW = f1 – f2 =-------------------------------Hz

Resonant frequency = fr = 1/2π LC =---------------------------------------Hz

Quality factor Q = fr/BW = -

Series resonance:-

L 1C1R1
S.No

Frequency Current

RESULT:- Series resonance of frequency of circuit (fr) =

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Write the condition for resonance.

2. Define Capacitance.
3. Define Resistance.
4. Define Inductance.
5. Difference between series resonance & parallel resonance?
6. Write the SI unit of Resistance,Capacitance and Inductance?
7. Difference between A.C & D.C?
8. Define Frequency.
9. Write the Formula for quality factor .
10. Define Resonant frequency.
11. On what factors the capacity of a capacitor depends?
12. Explain the importance of band width.
13. What are f1, f2 ?
14. What is meant by impedance in LCR circuit?
15. Define band width.
16. Write equation for resonant frequency?
17. On what factors does quality factor depends.
18. Write equation to calculate quality factor of an LCR circuit.
19. Difference between series and parallel connections in a LCR circuit?
20. The frequency at which the maximum Current occurs is known as?
21. Express the value of pico farads into micro farads.
22. Write the units of current?
23. What does a series circuit specifies?
24. Write the equation for energy stored in a capacitor.
25. Write the difference between capacitor and Resistor?
26. Write the full form of LCR.
 7. STEEWART AND GEES METHOD
AIM: To determine the field of induction at several points on the axis of a circular coil
carrying current using Stewart and Gee‟s type of tangent galvanometer.
APPRATUS: Stewart and Gee‟s galvanometer, Battery eliminator, Ammeter, Commutator,
Rheostat, Plug keys, connecting wires.
PRINCIPLE:
When a current of i-amperes flows through a circular coil of n-turns, each of radius a, the
magnetic induction B at any point(P) on the axis of the coil is given by
𝝁₀𝒏𝒊𝒂
B= 𝟐 (1)
𝟐(𝒙𝟐+𝒂𝟐)𝟑/𝟐
Where B is the magnetic induction on the axial line of the coil
𝜇₀ = 4π X 10-7
n is number of turns in the coil =
i is the current through the coil =
a is the radius of the coil (in cms) =
x is the distance from the centre of the coil(in cms)=
When the coil is placed in the magnetic meridian, the direction of the magnetic field will be
perpendicular to the magnetic meridian; i.e., perpendicular to the direction f the horizontal component
of the earth‟s field; say Be
When the deflection magnetometer is placed at any point on the axis of the coil such that the centre of
the magnetic needle lies exactly on the axis of the coil, then the needle is acted upon by two fields B
and Be, which are at right angles to one another. Therefore, the needle deflects obeying the tangent
law,
B = B etan 𝜃 (2)
B e the horizontal component of the earth‟s field is taken from standard tables. The intensity
of the field at any point calculated from equation (2) and verified using equation(1).

PROCEDURE:
With the help of the deflection magnetometer and a chalk, a long line of about one meter is
drawn on the working table, to represent the magnetic meridian. Another line perpendicular to this
line is also drawn. The Stewart and Gee‟s galvanometer is set with its coil in the magnetic meridian,
as shown in the figure. The external circuit is connected , keeping the ammeter, rheostat away from
the deflection magnetometer. This precaution is very much required because, the magnetic field
produced by the current passing through the rheostat and the permanent magnetic field due to the
magnet inside the ammeter affect the magnetometer reading, if they are close to it.
 The magnetometer is set at the centre of the coil and rotated to make the aluminum pointer
read (0,0) in the magnetometer. The key, K, is closed and the rheostat is adjusted so as the deflection
in the magnetometer is about 600. The current in the commutator is reversed and the deflection in the
magnetometer is observed. The deflection in the magnetometer before and after reversal of current
should not differ much. In case of sufficient difference say above 2 0 or 30 , necessary adjustments are
to be made.

The deflections before and after reversal of current are noted when d = 0. The readings are
noted in Table 1. The magnetometer is moved towards East along the axis of the coil in steps of 5 cm
at a time. At each position, the key is closed and the deflections before and after reversal of current is
noted. The mean deflection be denoted as 𝜽 E . The magnetometer is further moved towards east in
steps of 5cm each time and the deflections before and after reversal of current are noted, until the
deflection falls to 300.
The experiment is repeated by shifting the magnetometer towards west from the centre of the
coil in steps of 5cm, each time and deflections are noted before and after reversal of current. The
mean deflection is denoted as 𝜽 W.
It will be found that for each distance (X) the values in the last two columns are found to be
equal verifying equation (1) and (2).
A graph is drawn between X on x-axis and the corresponding Tan 𝜽 E and Tan 𝜽 W along y-
axis. The shape of the curve is shown in the figure. The points A and B marked on the curve lie at
distance equal to half the radius of the coil (a/2) on either side of the coil.
MODEL GRAPH:

Tanθw TanθE

WEST distance( x) EAST

 PRECAUTIONS:
1. The ammeter, voltmeter should keep away from the deflection magnetometer because these
meters will affect the deflection in magnetometer.
2.The current passing through rheostat will produce magnetic field and magnetic field produced
by the permanent magnet inside the ammeter will affect the deflection reading.

OBSERVATIONS:
Current through the coil i = amps. Number of the turns n =
Radius of the coil (in mts) a = µo= Be = 0.39x10-4

Distance of Deflection in the Deflection in the

B=Be tan θ
𝜇₀ 𝑛 𝑖 𝑎2
deflection magnetometer East side magnetometer West side

2(x2+a2)3/2
magnetometer

B=
2
Mean 𝜃e

S.No from centre of

Mean 𝜃w
Tan 𝜃w
the coil(X) in
meters θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4 θ1 θ2 θ3 θ4
Tan 𝜃e
 Distance from  nia 2
Sl. B 0 (Tesla)
the centre of the B  BETan (Tesla) Remarks
No. 2(x 2  a 2 ) 3/ 2
coil d (meters)
1.

2.

3.

4.

RESULT: The theoretical and calculated values are approximately same.

VIVA VOCE:
1. Define the term magnetic induction .
2. What is permeability?
3. Define magnetic meridian & magnetic field.
4. What is the use of an ammeter?
5. Define the magnetic field of induction and give its units.
6. State Biot-savarts law.
8. Write the difference between magnetic induction & earth‟s magnetic field?
9. Why is commutator used in the circuit?
10. What do you observe in this experiment related to theoretical and practical values?
11. What is the value of permeability of free space?
12. Write the equation for Biot-savarts law?
13. Define flux density?
14. What are the units of permeability ?
15. Define relative permeability .
16. Purpose of rheostat in the experiment?
17. State ampere law?
18. How to define a magnet?
19. Define dipole moment .
20. Units of Dipole moment?
21. Magnetic moment in magnetic material is due to?
22. Differentiate Soft and Hard magnetic materials.
23. What are ferrites?
24. Compare and contrast between Anti ferro magnetic and Ferri magnetic materials.
25. How many types of magnetic materials are there?
26. Write the relation between permeability and field induction?
 8.Study the characteristics of LED and LASER diode

AIM: To study V-I characteristics of LED and LASER diode.

APPARATUS: LED and LASER trainer kits, digital and multimeters.

THEORY: A p-n junction diode, which emits light in forward biasing is known as light emitting
diode.The emitted light may be in the visible range or invisible range and the intensity of light
depends on the applied potential.

In this experiment lead is represented by standard digram along with its source of resistance. The V-I
characteristics of the diode are measured by applying sweep voltage by a source V to the diode. It is
monitoring the current by ammeter. In general the V-I characteristics curve of a diode gives the
relationship by the following equation

I=Is[exp(ev/KT)-1]

where Is is the saturation current.

PRINCIPLE: In a P-N junction charge carrier recombination takes place when the electrons cross
from the n-layer to the p-layer. The electrons are in the conduction band on the p-side while holes are
in the valence band on the p-side. The conduction band has a higher energy level compared to the
valence band and so when the electrons recombine with a hole the difference in energy is given out in
the form of heat or light. In case of silicon or germanium, the energy dissipation is in the form of
heat, where as incase of the gallium-arsenide and gallium phosphate, it is in the form of light. But this
light is in the invisible region & so these materials cannot be used in the manufacture of LED. Hence
gallium-asrsenide phosphide which emits light in the visible region is used to manufacture and LED.

CONSTRUCTION: An n-type layer is grown on a substance and a p-type layer is grown over it
by diffusion process. The p-layer is kept at the top because carrier recombination takes place in it.
The terminals anode and cathode are taken out of the n-layer and p-layer respectively. The anode
connections are made at the edge in order to provide more surface area for the emission of light.
A
metal film is applied to the bottom of substance to reflect light to the surface of the device and also to
protect them from destruc

PROCEEDURE:- -Connect one end of the optical fiber cable to the output terminal of LED
and the other end is coupled to the power supply.
-It consists of P-N diode and then switch on the power supply.
- Adjust the set knob to extreme end into anticlock wise direction.
-It gives the minimum output in the power meter and observes the output power in the power
meter.
- Next slowly turn the set knob into clock wise direction then note down the current IL
.Through the LED terminals again note down the reading in the power meter(p0) then tabulate
the readings in the following table
-Repeat the same method for nothing the various of IL and power meter readings and next plot
the graph between IL and P0

V-I of LED V-I of LASER

S.NO IL(mA)
VL(mv)
 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2017

S.NO
VL(mv) IL(mA)

Procedure for V-I characteristics of a

LASER:-

- Connect one end of the optical fibre to the output terminal of the LASER and the other end is
coupled to the power meter.
- It consists of P-N diode then switch on the power supply.
- Adjust the set knob of power meter to the extreme end in the clock wise direction and it
gives the minimum output in the power meter. Observe the power in the power meter.
-slowly turn the set knob in to clock wise direction the note down the current IL across the
LASER input terminals.
-Note the readings in the power meter and tabulated following table and repeat the procedure
for finding the various values of IL and the P0.
- Plot the graph between IL and the P0 from the experiment and determine the slope before and
after the value of the threshold current.

LED graph:-

37
 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2017

CURRENT

Voltage

LASER graph:-

CURRENT

Voltage

PRECAUTIONS:
Make sure that the volt meter is measuring the voltage across the LED only.
Increase the power supply very slowly until led just starts to glow.
Continously monitor the current so that it do not exceed the maximum current, with
this the damage of the LED with high current can be avoided.

RESULT: V-I characteristics of LED and LASER diode are studied.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define n-type and p-type of semiconductors?

2. Differentiate conduction and valence band in a semiconductor?
3. What are LED materials and give some examples?
4. On which principle does LED work.
5.How are solids classified based on band theory?
6. What are majority and minority charge carriers in a p-type semiconductor?
7.What are majority and minority charge carriers in a n-type semiconductor?
8. What are the different types of lasers are?
9. What is laser? Explain?
38
 10. Write the difference between laser and convectional light
source. 11.Define the term stimulated emission .
12.Write the characteristics of lasers .
13. What are the different types of semi conductors?
14. How is a PN junction formed?
15. What is meant by forward biasing?
16. What is meant by reverse biasing?
17. Give the example of a solid state laser.
18. Write the differences between spontaneous and stimulated emission?
19. What are direct band gap semiconductor ?
20. What are indirect band gap semiconductors?
21. Define semiconductor.
22. Give examples of conductor, semi conductor and insulator.
23. Define doping.
24. Write two applications of LED.
25.Write the Laser applications in communications?

9. NUMERICAL APERTURE OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

AIM: To determine the numerical aperture and acceptance angle of the fiber cable.
APPARATUS: Optical fiber kit, Na jig, Mandrel, optical fiber.
THEORY: Numerical aperture of any optical system is a measure of how much light can be
collected by the optical system. It is the product of the refractive index of the incident medium
and the sine of the maximum ray angle.
NA=ni. sinθmax ni for air is 1

NA=Sinθmax
For a step index fiber, as in the present case, the numerical aperture is given by

ncore  ncladding
N=

For very small difference in refractive indices the equation reduces to

 N=ncore 2
where  is the fractional difference in refractive indices.
The experiment may refer to the specifications of the PMMA fiber and record the manufacturer‟s NA
, ncladding , and ncore and  .

N.A=sinα=D/(4L2+D2)1/2
Where L=perpendicular distance between the fiber end and the screen.
D=diameter of the light falling on the screen.
NA MEASUREMENT SCHEME OF DIAGRAM

Optical fibre

Power supply Connector

scale

PROCEDURE:-The schematic diagram of the numerical aperture measurement system is shown

below and itself explanatory.
The step by step procedure is given below as follows:-
Step 1:-Connect one end of the cable 1 (1-meter FI cable) to FO LED of TNS20A and the other
end to the NA jig as shown.
Step2:- Plug the AC mains. Light should appear at the end of the fiber on the NA Jig. Turn the
knob clockwise to set to maximum P0.The light intensity should increase.
Step3:- Hold the white screen with the concentric circles (10,15,20, and 25mm diameter) vertically at
a suitable distance to make the red spot from the emitting fibre coincide with the 10mm circlce.
Another method:-
In this method the experiment set up for the N.A Measurement is shown in the above figure.
First of all, one end of the optical fiber is connected to the power output LED. The other end of the
fiber is connected to N.A. Jig through the connector.
The A.C main supply is switched on. The light emitted by LED passes through the optical fiber cable
to the other end. The set knob is adjusted such that maximum intensity is observed on the screen and
it should not be further disturbed.
A screen with concentric circles of known diameter is moved along the length of the NA jig to
observe the circular spreading of light intensity on the screen.
The screen is adjusted such that the first circle from the centre of the screen is completely filled with
the light. At this position, the distance (L) from the fiber end to the screen is noted on the NA jig.
The experiment is repeated of the subsequent circles by adjusting the length L along NA jig and
the readings are noted in table. The diameter of the circles may be determined using a travelling
microscope.
Distance of the Diameter of the N.A Θ(degrees)
S.NO screen(L)mm circle D(mm)

RESULT: Numerical aperture of the fiber cable is

Acceptance angle of the fiber cable is

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define Numerical aperture .

2. What are the parts of optical fiber?
3. On what principle does an optical fiber works.
4. What is meant by attenuation in optical fibers?
5. Mention the different types of optical fibers are.
6. Define step index optical fiber .
 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2017

7. Define graded index optical fiber is what?

8. What are the types of losses in optical fiber?
9. What is total internal reflection?
10. What is critical angle?
11. Write the formula for Numerical aperature.
12. Define acceptance angle of an optical fiber.
13. Define snells law.
14. Write the formula for Numerical aperature in terms of fractional refractive index change.
15. Write the applications of optical fibers.
16. Write applications of optical fibers in medicine .
17. What is meant by scattering loss?
18. Write the unit for losses in fibers.
19. What is meant by intermodal dispersion?
20. What are the different components of fiber optic communication system?

10. ENERGY BAND GAP OF SEMICONDUCTOR

AIM: To determine the energy band gap of a given semiconductor using a diode in reverse
bias. APPARATUS: P-N diode, power supply, voltmeter, microammeter, thermometer and
heating arrangement for the diode.
FORMULA: Energy band gap of semiconductor (Eg) = slope x 2 x 1.38 x 10-23 Joule
OR
(Eg) = slope x 1.983 x 10-4 eV
y2 − y1 ln Is
[slope = = ]
x2 − x1 1 /
T
where
Is is reverse saturation current T is absolute temperature MODEL GRAPH:

42
 PHYSICS LAB MANUAL 2017

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

PROCEDURE:
The diode is connected in reverse bias as shown in the circuit diagram.
The diode is placed in an oil bath. The temperature of the oil is noted. A constant potential difference
(say 10 V) is applied and the current Is is noted. The temperature is raised to 80oC and the
corresponding current is noted. The experiment is repeated by decreasing temperature in steps of
10oC (upto 40oC). A graph is plotted between (ln Is) and 1/T and a straight line graph is obtained with
negative slope. We can also plot a graph by taking the numerical values of ln Is on Y-axis and on 1/T
the x-axis. Then we get a straight line graph with positive slope. The slope of the graph is found out.
The band gap energy is calculated using formula.
OBSERVATION TABLE:

Temperature 1/T Reverse bias ln Is

43
 (x 10-3) current (Is)
t0C T K

90 363 2.75

85 358 2.79

80 353 2.83

75 348 2.87

70 343 2.92

65 338 2.96

60 333 3.00

55 328 3.05

50 323 3.10

45 318 3.14

40 313 3.19

RESULT: The energy band gap of a given semiconductor is.......................eV.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define an intrinsic semiconductor .

2. Distinguish between an N-type semiconductor and a P-type semiconductor
3. Explain the formation of P-N junction diode.
4. What is the depletion layer in P-N junction?
5. Explain conduction band and valence band in an intrinsic semi conductor.
6. Define energy gap in an intrinsic semi conductor.
7. On what factors energy gap depends?
8. What is forward bias and reverse bias?
9. Explain the formation of covalent bonds in an intrinsic semi conductor?
10. Write the applications of P-N junction diode.
11. What are the types of semi conductors?
 12. Define Extrinsic semiconductor?
13. Give examples of an intrinsic semiconductor?
14. Where does Fermi energy lies in case of intrinsic semiconductor?
15. Define Fermi energy level.
16. What is direct band gap semiconductor?
17. What are the differences between direct and indirect band gap semiconductors?
18. In this experiment, diode is connected in which bias?
19. When temperature increases does current increases or decreases.
20. Classify the materials on the basis of energy band gap.
21.Write the range of energy band of Ge and Si semiconductor.
22.Define doping.
23.Give examples of pentavalent and trivalent impurities used in doping process.

11. TORSIONAL PENDULUM

AIM : To determine the modulus of rigidity (η) of the material of the given wire using a
Torsional pendulum.

APPARATUS: A circular brass disc provided with a chuck and nut at its centre, steel wire, a
rigid clamp, stop watch, meter scale, screwguage, and Vernier calipers.

PRINCIPLE:
4πMR 2 l
Rigidity Modulus: η= ( ) dynes/cm2
a4 T2
M - Mass of the disc.
R - Radius of the disc.
a - Radius of the wire.
l - Length of the pendulum.
T - Time period.
DESCRIPTION: The Torsional pendulum consist of a uniform circular metal disc of about 8 to
10cm diameter with 1 or 2cm thickness, suspended by a wire at the centre of the disc as shown
in figure. The lower end is gripped into another chuck, which is fixed to a wall bracket.
GRAPH:

PROCEDURE:
The circular metal disc is suspended as shown in above figure. The length of the wire between
the chucks is adjusted to 100cm. when the disc is in equilibrium position; a small mark is made on the
curved edge of the disc. This marking will help to note the number of oscillations made by slowly
turning the disc through a small angle. Care is to be taken to see that there is no lateral movement of
the disc.
When the disc is oscillating the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted with the help of a
stopwatch and recorded in the observations table in trail 1. The procedure is repeated for the same
length of the wire and again the time taken for 20 oscillations is noted and noted as trail2 in the
observation table. From trail 1 & 2 the mean time for 20 oscillations is obtained. The time period (T),
i.e., the time taken for one oscillation is calculated.
The experiment is repeated by decreasing the length of the wire in steps of10cm and the
results are tabulated in the table.
By using the Vernier calipers the radius of the disc (R) is calculated, the radius of the wire (a)
is calculated by means of screw gauge and the mass of the disc (M) is found by means of rough
balance and these values are substituted in the formula. The mean value of ( l / 𝑇2) is calculated from
the observations and hence η is determined.
A graph is drawn with „l‟ on X-axis and T2 on Y-axis. It is a straight line graph and the
value of ( l / 𝑇2) is calculated and the rigidity modulus of the material of the wire η is calculated .
PRECAUTIONS:
1.The wire should not have any bending.
2. The chuck nuts should be tight because the wire becomes loose and the oscillations may
not be perfect.
3.The time period between the oscillations must be uniform.
4.Galvanometer is an eample of making use of the Torsional
oscillations. OBSERVATIONS:
To determine the radius of the disc:
 One Main scale division
Least count of the Vernier calipers= =
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑛𝑖𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠

S.No Main scale Vernier Vernier Total

reading(a) coincidence Reading(b=L.C*V.C) Reading(a+b)cm
1
2
3

To determine the radius of the wire:

pitch of the screw
Least count of the Screw Gauge = =
𝑁𝑜 .𝑜𝑓𝐻𝑒𝑎𝑑𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑒 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠
Screw Gauge Error - Correction:

P.S.R H.S.R Total (a+b)

S.No (a) H.S.C Correction (b=L.C*H.S.C) (mm)
1
2
3

Mass of the disc (M) =

Radius of the disc (R) =
Radius if the wire (a) =

Time Period of the Pendulum:

Length Time taken for 20 Time for one

S.No of the oscillations Oscillation T2 𝑙
wire‟l‟ (Timeperiod) 𝑇2
(cm) 𝑡
T=20
trail1 trail2 Average
(t)
RESULT : The rigidity modulus of the material of the given steel wire is

dynes/cm2
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1 Distinguish between Elastic materials and plastic materials.

2. State Hooke‟s law?
3. Define Elastic limit?
4.What are the different types of modulus?
5.Write the formula for Young‟s modulus?
6. Define Rigidity modulus
7. What is the S.I. Unit of Rigidity modulus?
8. On what factors does Rigidity modulus depends?
9. Define the terms time period (T), Moment of inertia, torque and frequency.
10.Write the difference between a Simple pendulum and Torsional pendulum?
11.Write the formula for bulk modulus?
12. Write the relation between three moduli of elasticity?
13. What is the equation for energy stored in a stretched wire?
14. Define stress.
15. Define strain.
16. What are the different types of Stress?
17. Define least count.
18. What is Torsional Oscillation?
19. Write two applications of torsional pendulum.

12.Wavelength of light, resolving power and dispersive power of a

diffraction grating using laser
AIM:- To determine the Resolving power and dispersive power of a diffraction grating using laser
light .
APPARATUS: Laser diode module, grating, scale etc.
FORMULA:
sinθ
wavelength of laser λ = Å or cm
nN
Resolving power = ⋋avg /d⋋ = ⋋avg /⋋2-⋋1
Dispersive power = dƟ/d⋋ = Ɵ2-Ɵ1 / ⋋2-⋋1
where
n is the order of diffraction
N is number of lines per cm (2500 = 984.25)
2.54

θ is the angle of diffraction

PROCEDURE:
The laser diode module is mounted horizontally. A diffraction grating (2000 LPI) is placed on a stand
at the same height and adjusted normal incidence. When laser is switched on, we get diffraction
maxima on a scale placed at 0.5 m distance (D) with respect to grating. The distances between
different orders on left and right side (2x) are measured and tabulated. This procedure is repeated for
different values of D and the results are tabulated.

MODEL GRAPH:

OBSERVATION
TABLE:
 Order of Distance Distance
Distance 𝒙
between 𝒔𝒊𝒏𝜽
between diffractio between 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝜽 =
centre and 𝜽 𝝀 = 𝒏𝑵
grating and n corresponding maximum √𝒙𝟐 + 𝑫𝟐
screen (D) (cm)
(n) order (2x) (x)
1

RESULT:
The wavelength of laser source is................................Å or cm.
Resolving power of a diffraction grating is ……………………
Dispersive power of a diffraction grating is ……………………

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is interference?
2. What do you understand by diffraction of light?
3. How does diffraction differ from interference?
4. How many classes of diffraction are there?
5. What is the difference between a single slit diffraction and double slit diffraction.
6. Distinguish between Fresnel and fraunhofer diffraction.
7. Typ eof source that you are using in your experiment? how does it work.
8. Define resolving power.
9. Define dispersive power of material.
10. What is diffraction grating?
11. Define wavelength?
12. What are the units of wavelength?
13. What do you mean by LPI?
14. Write the maximum intensity condition in single slit diffraction.
15. Write the minimum intensity condition in single slit diffraction.
16. Define Dispersion?
17. Write down the formula for calculating the wavelength in this experiment?
18. What are the different types of lasers?
19. Write the acronym for LASER.
20. Write the difference between laser and convectional light.
21. Define stimulated and spontaneous emission .
22. Mention the characteristics of lasers .
23. Write the Laser applications in communications?
24. Name the light source which emits single wavelength light
25. Define population inversion.
 13. SOLAR CELL
AIM: Study V-I characteristics of a solar cell.
APPARATUS: Solar cell, Illuminator, Voltmeter, Milliammeter and Potentiometer, etc.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

230V AC
LOAD

MODEL GRAPH:

0
PROCEDURE:
Complete the idealized equivalent circuit of solar cell connections. Then place the light source S at a
distance of 15 crn from solar cell. Adjust the potentiometer R L until you obtain the zero voltage in
voltmeter and maximum current in the ammeter (if it shows out of scale then decrease the light
intensity). This maximum current is called the short circuit current Isc. Then, with the help of
potentiometer increase the voltage in equal steps and note down the corresponding current till you get
maximum voltage in the voltmeter. Now remove all the connections of the circuit and find out the
open circuit voltage (Voc) [i.e. connecting +ve of cell to the +ve of voltmeter and –ve of the cell to
the -ve of the voltmeter]. Repeat the experiment for other intensities placing the light source at 20 cm
and 25 cm, plot the graphs between V and I.

OBSERVATION TABLE:

Voltage (V) Current (I) Power

(Volts) (mA) (VI)

RESULTS: V-I characteristics of a solar cell is studied.

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1.What is a solar cell ?

2. Write the other name of solar cell.
3. On what principle does a solar works.
4. Draw the schematic symbol of solar cell?
5. Define semiconductor?
6. Write the different types of semiconductors?
7. Explain about extrinsic semiconductor?
8. Doping is defined as?
10. What type of impurities are present in extrinsic semiconductor?
11. What is the difference between solar cell and a photodiode?
12. What are the types of semiconductor materials used for solar cell?
13. How can be a PN junction is formed?
14. Define Intrinsic semiconductor?
15. What is the meaning of valence and conduction band in semiconductor? How is
the Fermi energy level in a semiconductor defined?
16. Give some practical uses of the solar cell.
17. Define direct band gap semiconductor?
18. What is the depletion region?
19. Differences between n-type and p-type semiconductors?
20. Define energy gap?
21. What are the units for energy gap?
22. Write the units of Power.
23. When will be a PN junction is said to be forward
bias? 24.What is meant by reverse bias of a PN junction?
25. In this experiment, diode is connected in which bias?
26. Creation of hole in valence band leads to?
27. Write formula to calculate power .
28 Write the condition for an intrinsic semiconductors .