Thermodynamics 2

Precious Arlene Villaroza-Melendrez

33
 Table of Contents

Module 4: Property of Vapor 34

Introduction 34
Learning Objectives 34
Lesson 1 Isothermal Process 35
Lesson 2 Adiabatic Process of Vapor 38
Lesson 3 Polytropic Process 43
Assessment 4 45
Summary 46

Module 5: System of Boiler 47

Introduction 47
Learning Objectives 47
Lesson 1. Boiler 47
Lesson 2. Condensing Boiler 51
Lesson 3. Steam Turbine 52
Assessment 5 52
Summary 53

Module 6: Rankine Cycle:

The Ideal Cycle For Vapor Power Cycles 54
Introduction 54
Learning Objectives 54
Lesson 1. Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles 55
Lesson 2. The Ideal Rankine Engine 61
Assessment 6 65
Summary 64

34
 MODULE 4
PROCESS OF VAPORS

Introduction

The work-producing device that best fits into the definition of a heat engine is the steam
power plant, which is an external-combustion engine. That is, combustion takes place
outside the engine, and the thermal energy released during this process is transferred to the
steam as heat (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the property of process of vapors; and

2. Derive and solve problems using steam table.

35
Lesson 1. Isothermal Process

Reminder: You need to provide a Steam Tables and Mollier Chart (Thermodynamics
Properties of Water Including Vapor, Liquid and Solid Phase) by Joseph H. Keenan, Philip
G. Hill and Joan G. Moore

Isothermal Process

The process on the pv and Ts planes (Melegrito, Pasamonte, Siapno & Sta. Maria, 2008).

(a) The process on the pv and Ts planes, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

p T

1
2

)
1

s
v

Figure 3.6 Reversible Constant Volume (Isometric) Process

(b) Work of a nonflow process, from simple energy equation (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(c) Transferred heat Q from the Ts plane (Melegrito et al., 2008).

And

(d) Work of steady flow process, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

36
 There are 2.27 kg/min of steam undergoing an isothermal process from 27.5 bar, 316 to 6.8
bar. Determine: (Melegrito et
al., 2008).

(a) The process on the pv and Ts planes, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

2 3

Figure 4.1 Constant Pressure Process pv Diagram

1 2

S
Figure 4.2 Constant Pressure Process TS Diagram

37
Solution:

The initial and final conditions are superheated,

Saturation temperature (Proof of phase of steam)

@ Table 2: Pressure of 2.75 MPa is 229

@ Table 2: Pressure of 0.68 MPa are 163.81

Table 4.4 Interpolation at (Table 3), (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Temperature Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

310 2774.8 3025.9 6.6321

320 2793.4 3050.1 6.6733

Table 4.4 Interpolation at (Table 3), (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Temperature Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

310 2815.6 3080.5 7.3481

320 2831.6 3101.4 7.3836

38
Lesson 2. Adiabatic Process of Vapor

The reversible process on the pv and Ts planes (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(a) The process on the pv and Ts planes, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

p

2 3

Figure 4.1 Constant Pressure Process pv Diagram

39
 T

S
Figure 4.2 Constant Pressure Process TS Diagram

A reversible adiabatic process is a constant entropy process and also known as

“isentropic process” (Melegrito et al., 2008).

In an isentropric processs, no heat is transferred (Q=0) and the change in entropy of the
substance is also zero ( (Melegrito et al., 2008).

And for steady flow process, with (Melegrito et al., 2008).

With

With

40
(b) the irreversible process on the pv and Ts planes (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(a) The process on the pv and Ts planes, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

2 3

Figure 4.1 Constant Pressure Process pv Diagram

S
Figure 4.2 Constant Pressure Process TS Diagram

41
Process 1-2 is the corresponding reversible adiabatic or isentropic process (ideal expansion)

Process 1-2 is the irreversible adiabatic process (actual expansion) (Melegrito et al., 2008).

For a nonflow process with

Where

And for steady flow process,

Efficiency of the process, n

Expansion on h-s plane.

Compression on hs plane (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Efficiency of compression,

Example

One kg of steam expands isentropically from 2.1 MPa and 374 to 93 . Find the final quality
and the work for nonflow and steady flow processes (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Solution:

The initial and final conditions are superheated,

Saturation temperature (Proof of phase of steam)

@ Table 2: Pressure of 2.1 MPa is 214.9

42
 Table 4.3 Interpolation at (Table 3), (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Temperature Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

370 2892.7 3179.5 7.0017

380 2909.8 3201.7 7.0360

Table 4.4 At 1.70 MPa, Table1, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

389.46 389.54 1.2271

2108.7 2275.4 6.2138

2498.2 2664.9 7.4409

43
Lesson 3. Polytropic Process

(b) Work of the nonflow process, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Polytropic process is defined by the equation, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(c) transferred heat ,Q (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(d) Work of steady flow process, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Also,

Example:

Expand 2kg of steam at 15 bar, 300 , into the wet region to 100 in a polytropic
process where p Determine:
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

Solution:

The initial and final conditions are superheated,

Saturation temperature (Proof of phase of steam)

@ Table 2: Pressure of 1.5 MPa is 198

44
 Table 4.3 Interpolation at (Table 3), (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Volume Internal Energy Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

(kJ/kg)

0.16966 2783.1 3037.6 6.9179

@ Table 1: 100 saturated pressure,

Table 4.4 At 100 , Table1, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

0.0010435 418.94 419.04 1.3069

1.6719 2087.6 2257.0 6.0480

1.6729 2506.5 2676.1 7.3549

45
 Assessment Task 4

Show the COMPLETE SOLUTIONS including the derivation of formula and

interpolations/extrapolations: NO Calculator Technique and Applications.

1. Steam at 228 and with a specific entropy of undergoes a poly tropic

process with n=1.81 until the pressure becomes 7.98 MPa (a) what is the final
temperature of the stem? (B) What is the work and the process?

2. 5kg of steam has an initial enthalpy of 2711.5 kJ at 0.222 MPa. Isentropic

compression gives a final pressure of 0.29 MPa. Find (a) the initial and final
temperatures and (b) the work of a steady and nonflow processes?

46
 Summary

Isothermal Process Adiabatic Process Polytropic Process

Work of a nonflow Work of a nonflow Work of a nonflow

Transferred heat Transferred heat Transferred heat

Work of steady flow Work of steady flow Work of steady flow

(Melegrito et al., 2008).

References:

Boles, Michael A. and Cengel, Yunus A., (2004).Thermodynamics an Engineering

Approach, McGraw Hill Co.. New York . 5th ed.

Melegrito, Raymundo M., Pasamonte, Nelson M., , Renato M. and, Hipolito B.

(2008). Thermodynamics 2. National Book Store. Mandaluyong City.

47
 MODULE 5
SYSTEM OF BOILER

Introduction

The Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapor power cycles because it cannot be
approximated in practice. The model cycle for vapor power cycles is the Rankine cycle,
which is composed of four internally reversible processes: constant-pressure heat addition
in a boiler, isentropic expansion in a turbine, constant-pressure heat rejection in a
condenser, and isentropic compression in a pump. Steam leaves the condenser as a
saturated liquid at the condenser pressure (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the property of process of Boiler system; and

2. Understand the function of Boiler system.

Lesson 1. Boilers

Boilers are used to produce steam. The generation part of a steam system uses
a boiler to add energy to a feed water supply to generate steam. The energy is released from
the combustion of fossil fuels or from process waste heat (Day, A., 2003).

48
 Figure 5.1 Boiler

Fire-Tube Boiler

Figure 5.2 Fire-Tube Boiler Diagram

A fire-tube boiler is a type of boiler in which hot gases pass from a fire through one or
more tubes running through a sealed container of water. The heat of the gases is transferred
through the walls of the tubes by thermal conduction, heating the water and ultimately creating
steam (Day, A., 2003).

The fire-tube boiler developed as the third of the four major historical types of boilers:
low-pressure tank or "haystack" boilers, flued boilers with one or two large flues, fire-tube boilers
with many small tubes, and high-pressure water-tube boilers. Their advantage over flued boilers
with a single large flue is that the many small tubes offer far greater heating surface area for the
same overall boiler volume. The general construction is as a tank of water penetrated by tubes

49
that carry the hot flue gases from the fire. The tank is usually cylindrical for the most part being
the strongest practical shape for a pressurized container and this cylindrical tank may be either
horizontal or vertical (Day, A., 2003).

Figure 5.3 Inside System of Fire-Tube Boiler (A)

Figure 5.3 Inside System of Fire-Tube Boiler (B)

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Water Tube Boiler Diagram

Figure 5.4 Water Tube Boiler Diagram

A high pressure water tube boiler (also spelled water-tube and water tube) is a type
of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside
the furnace, creating hot gas which boils water in the steam-generating tubes. In smaller boilers,
additional generating tubes are separate in the furnace, while larger utility boilers rely on the
water-filled tubes that make up the walls of the furnace to generate steam (Day, A., 2003).

The heated water/steam mixture then rises into the steam drum. Here, saturated steam
is drawn off the top of the drum. In some services, the steams pass through tubes in the hot gas
path, (a superheater) to become superheated. Superheated steam is defined as steam that is
heated above the boiling point at a given pressure. Superheated steam is a dry gas and
therefore is typically used to drive turbines, since water droplets can severely damage turbine
blades (Day, A., 2003).

Saturated water at the bottom of the steam drum returns to the lower drum via large-
bore 'downcomer tubes', where it pre-heats the feedwater supply. (In large utility boilers, the
feedwater is supplied to the steam drum and the downcomers supply water to the bottom of the
waterwalls). To increase economy of the boiler, exhaust gases are also used to pre-heat

51
combustion air blown into the burners, and to warm the feedwater supply in an "economizer".
Such watertube boilers in thermal power stations are also called steam generating units (Day,
A., 2003).

The older fire-tube boiler design, in which the water surrounds the heat source and
gases from combustion pass through tubes within the water space, is typically a much weaker
structure and is rarely used for pressures above 2.4 MPa (350 psi). A significant advantage of
the watertube boiler is that there is less chance of a catastrophic failure: there is not a large
volume of water in the boiler nor are there large mechanical elements subject to failure (Day, A.,
2003).

A water tube boiler was patented by Blakey of England in 1766 and was made by
Dallery of France in 1780 (Day, A., 2003).

Lesson 2. Condensing Boilers

Figure 5.5 Condenser

Condensing boilers are water heaters fuelled by gas or oil. They achieve high efficiency
(typically greater than 90% on the higher heating value) by condensing water vapour in the
exhaust gases and so recovering its latent heat of vaporisation, which would otherwise have
been wasted. This condensed vapour leaves the system in liquid form, via a drain. In many
countries, the use of condensing boilers is compulsory or encouraged with financial incentives
(U.S. Food & Drug Administration, March 2018).

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Lesson 3. Steam Turbine
A steam power plant consists of a boiler, steam turbine and generator, and other
auxiliaries. The boiler generates steam at high pressure and high temperature. The
steam turbine converts the heat energy of steam into mechanical energy. The generator then
converts the mechanical energy into electric power (Marshall and Chapman, F., December
2014).

Figure 5.6 Steam Turbine

Assessment Task 5

1. Draw the system of Boiler, put a label.

53
 Summary

Boilers are used to produce steam

 Fire-Tube Boiler- is a type of boiler in which hot gases pass from a fire through
one or more tubes running through a sealed container of water.
 WaterTtube Boiler- is a type of boiler in which water circulates in tubes heated
externally by the fire. Fuel is burned inside the furnace, creating hot gas which
boils water in the steam-generating tubes.

Condensing boilers are water heaters fueled by gas or oil.

Steam turbine converts the heat energy of steam into mechanical energy. The generator
then converts the mechanical energy into electric power.

References:

Boles, Michael A. and Cengel, Yunus A., (2004).Thermodynamics an Engineering

Approach, McGraw Hill Co.. New York . 5th ed.

Day, A. (2003). "Flues for condensing boilers". Heating systems: plant and
control. Oxford, England: Blackwell. p. 161. ISBN 0-632-05937-0.

Marshall and Chapman, F. (December 2014). A History of Railway Locomotives

down to the End of the Year 1831. BoD – Books on
Demand. ISBN 9783845712871 – via Google Books.

U.S. Food & Drug Administration. (March 2018). Steam Generation in Canneries.
U.S. Food & Drug Administration.

54
 MODULE 6
RANKINE CYCLE: THE IDEAL CYCLE FOR
VAPOR POWER CYCLES

Introduction

The Carnot cycle is not a suitable model for vapor power cycles because it cannot be
approximated in practice. The model cycle for vapor power cycles is the Rankine cycle,
which is composed of four internally reversible processes: constant-pressure heat addition
in a boiler, isentropic expansion in a turbine, constant-pressure heat rejection in a
condenser, and isentropic compression in a pump. Steam leaves the condenser as a
saturated liquid at the condenser pressure (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

The thermal efficiency of the Rankine cycle can be increased by increasing the average
temperature at which heat is transferred to the working fluid and/or by decreasing the
average temperature at which heat is rejected to the cooling medium. The average
temperature during heat rejection can be decreased by lowering the turbine exit pressure.
Consequently, the condenser pressure of most vapor power plants is well below the
atmospheric pressure. The average temperature during heat addition can be increased by
raising the boiler pressure or by superheating the fluid to high temperatures. There is a limit
to the degree of superheating, however, since the fluid temperature is not allowed to exceed
a metallurgically safe value (Boles and Cengel, 2004).

Learning Outcomes

At the end of this module, students should be able to:

1. Understand the property of process of Boiler system; and

2. Understand the function of Boiler system.

55
Lesson 1. Rankine Cycle: The Ideal Cycle for Vapor Power Cycles

Many of the impracticalities associated with the Carnot cycle can be eliminated by
superheating the steam in the boiler and condensing it completely in the condenser, as shown
schematically on a T-s diagram in Figure 5.1. The cycle that results is the Rankine cycle, which
is the ideal cycle for vapour power plants. The ideal Rankine cycle does not involve any internal
irreversibilities and consists of the following four processes (Melegrito, Pasamonte, Siapno &
Sta. Maria, 2008).

1-2 Isentropic compression in engine, s = c

2-3 Constant pressure heat rejection in the condenser, p = c

3-B Adiabatic Pumping, s = c

B-1 Constant pressure heat addition in the steam generator, p=c

1
B

Figure 6.1 Rankine Cycle

56
 1

3 2

Figure 6.2 The Simple Ideal Rankine Cycle

Water enters the pump at state 3 as saturated liquid and is compressed isentropically to
the operating pressure of the boiler. The water temperature increases somewhat during this
isentropic compression process due to a slight decrease in the specific volume of water. The
vertical distance between states 1 and 2 on the T-s diagram is greatly exaggerated for clarity. (If
water were truly incompressible, would there be a temperature change at all during this
process?) (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Water enters the boiler as a compressed liquid at state B and leaves as a superheated
vapor at state 3. The boiler is basically a large heat exchanger where the heat originating from
combustion gases, nuclear reactors, or other sources is transferred to the water essentially at
constant pressure. The boiler, together with the section where the steam is superheated (the
superheater), is often called the steam generator (Melegrito et al., 2008).

The superheated vapor at state 1 enters the turbine, where it expands isentropically and
produces work by rotating the shaft connected to an electric generator. The pressure and the
temperature of steam drop during this process to the values at state 2, where steam enters the
condenser. At this state, steam is usually a saturated liquid–vapor mixture with a high quality.
Steam is condensed at constant pressure in the condenser, which is basically a large heat
exchanger, by rejecting heat to a cooling medium such as a lake, a river, or the atmosphere.
Steam leaves the condenser as saturated liquid and enters the pump, completing the cycle. In

57
areas where water is precious, the power plants are cooled by air instead of water. This method
of cooling, which is also used in car engines, is called dry cooling. Several power plants in the
world, including some in the United States, use dry cooling to conserve water (Melegrito et al.,
2008).

Remembering that the area under the process curve on a T-s diagram represents the
heat transfer for internally reversible processes, we see that the area under process curve B-1
represents the heat transferred to the water in the boiler and the area under the process curve
2-3 represents the heat rejected in the condenser. The difference between these two (the area
enclosed by the cycle curve) is the net work produced during the cycle (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Cycle Analysis

(A) Heat added, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Figure 6.3 Steam Generator

Energy Balance

58
(B) Heat Rejected (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Condenser

Figure 6.4 Condenser Energy Balance

Energy Balance

C. Engine Work, W (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Engine
2

Figure 6.5 Tubine Energy Balance

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Energy Balance

Consideration the change in kinetic energy,

D. Pump Work, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Figure 6.6 Pump Energy Balance

Energy Balance

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2. Approximate Pump Work (Melegrito et al., 2008).

The state of feed water leaving the pump is that of a compressed liquid. Very often,
compressed liquid tables are not available, hence, the properties of a compressed liquid are not
easily obtainable. Therefore, the exact pump work is difficult to determine.

The following assumptions are made in the determination of the approximation pump work.

(A) Water is “practically” an incompressible liquid. Therefore,

(B) The change in internal energy is negligible.

*no change of volume, no additional movements of molecules that will cause of no energy
produced.

Energy balance:

(E) Net Cycle Work, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(F) Thermal Efficiency, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

(G) Steam Rate (Melegrito et al., 2008).

For the ideal Rankine Cycle (Melegrito et al., 2008).

61
Lesson 2. The Ideal Rankine Engine

The ideal rankine engine is either a steam turbine or a steam engine. The difference
between an ideal rankine engine and an ideal rankine cycle is that an ideal engine does not
include pump work since iyt is concerned only with all the processes occurring inside the
engine. On the other hand, the ideal cycle must include pump wok because the pump is needed
for the completion of the cycle. And for the engine to be ideal, the expansion processs should
be isentropic. (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Engine Analysis

A. Work, W

B. Thermal Efficiency,

The definition of thermal efficiency does not directly applies to an engine because no
heat is added to it. Instead it is charged with the enthalpy of steam entering the engine and
credited with the enthalpy of saturated liquid at the condensing temperature (Melegrito et al.,
2008).

When apllied to an engine the thermal efficiency, become where is

energy chargeable against the engine (Melegrito et al., 2008).

= Enthalpy of steam entering the engine-enthalpy of saturated liquid at the condensing

temperature (Melegrito et al., 2008).

C. Steam Rate,

D. Heat Rate, HR

Heat rate is the energy chargeable per unit of work or the rate of energy chargeable per
unit of power (Melegrito et al., 2008).

62
E. Relation between and HR.

As can be seen from the resulting equation, the thermal efficiency is inversely
proportional to the heat rate. This means that the lower the heat rate higher the thermal
efficiency and the higher the heat rate the lower the thermal efficiency (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Example:

Steam is generated at 4.10 MPa and 440 and condensation occus at 0.105 MPa
(Melegrito et al., 2008).

(A). For a Rankine engine operating between these limits, compute the thermal efficiency and
the heat rate.

(B) Considering that a Rankine cycle occurs between the same limits, determine

(C) What mass flow rate is required for a net output of 30,000 kW?

Solution:

The initial condition is superheated,

Saturation temperature (Proof of phase of steam)

@ Table 2: Pressure of 4.10 MPa is 251.9

Table 6.1 Interpolation at and T = 440 (Table 3), (Melegrito et al., 2008).

Enthalpy (kJ/kg) Entropy

3305.7 6.8911

63
Table 6.2 At 100 , Table1, (Melegrito et al., 2008).

423.24 1.3181

2254.4 6.0249

(a) Rankine Engine

Heat/rate =

(b) Rankine Cycle

64
 Or

(C) Steam flow rate =

65
 Assessment Task 6

Show the COMPLETE SOLUTIONS and DIAGRAM (pv and Ts) including the switching
of table and interpolations/extrapolations: NO Calculator Technique and Applications.

1. Consider a steam power plant operating on the simple ideal Rankine cycle. Steam
enters the turbine at 3 MPa and 350°C and is condensed in the condenser at a
pressure of 75 kPa. Determine the thermal efficiency of this cycle.

2. A steam power plant operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle between the pressure
limits of 3 MPa and 50 kPa. The temperature of the steam at the turbine inlet is 300°C,
and the mass flow rate of steam through the cycle is 35 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the
cycle and (b) the net power output of the power plant.

3. Consider a 210-MW steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine
cycle. Steam enters the turbine at 10 MPa and 500°C and is cooled in the condenser at
a pressure of 10 kPa. Show the cycle on a T-s diagram with respect to saturation lines,
and determine (a) the quality of the steam at the turbine exit, (b) the thermal efficiency
of the cycle, and (c) the mass flow rate of the steam.

4. Is it possible to maintain a pressure of 10 kPa in a condenser that is being cooled by river

water entering at 20°C?

5. Consider a steam power plant that operates on a simple ideal Rankine cycle and has
a net power output of 45 MW. Steam enters the turbine at 7 MPa and 500°C and is
cooled in the condenser at a pressure of 10 kPa by running cooling water from a lake
through the tubes of the condenser at a rate of 2000 kg/s. Show the cycle on a T-s
diagram with respect to saturation lines, and determine (a) the thermal efficiency of the
cycle, (b) the mass flow rate of the steam, and (c) the temperature rise of the cooling
water.

66
Summary

Boiler Heat added

Condenser Heat Rejected

Turbine Engine Work

Pump Pump Work

Thermal Efficiency,

Steam rate

Ideal Rankine Engine Work, W

Thermal Efficiency,

Steam Rate,

Heat Rate, HR

References:

Boles, Michael A. and Cengel, Yunus A., (2004).Thermodynamics an Engineering

Approach, McGraw Hill Co.. New York . 5th ed.

Melegrito, Raymundo M., Pasamonte, Nelson M., , Renato M. and, Hipolito B.

(2008). Thermodynamics 2. National Book Store. Mandaluyong City.

67