19 Learners 9 PProaches and method is introduction Learners OCCUPY @ Prominen in this book. At - level, thi gies recommen led in each method, ing theor r 'y th ae sud 0 make se of ceeon te ating theories dese a ating sre the roles assumed for learners language learning (Ageia en Presses learners book, also account for the kind of ‘ean Pore of meth as d rpradl withthe Bacher oflering expected of ea Cette throughout this i learners i rs, the ways th wet hanngarigenenand yon we nck Learners are, of course, at the center of the method makes use of (see i Seon i ll theor has been studied from man all theories of teachi ae of psychology, education, a en Reece, including tone we ea teeming u guage acquis isciplines A focus on learners and their contribution to ernie yo 200% Algo 21) in the 1980s with the notion of learnei ‘ng appeared in many fields of education : i-caitetenene , had a wide impact on education in the las ge ny etna hlosophy that has last 50 years i ing (Nunan 1988; 5 in both general educati teaching (Numan 1988; Breen 2001; Blumberg 2004), Ths eresene a bende eee a e contribution of learners to learning - one that " views implicit in diferent epprouches ond medhedn oe eating the the assumption of methods. One of the assumptions undesynga le eetomted eas tive is that learning is not necessarily a min ey essen aston eee, : ly a mirror image of teaching. Learners bring dispositions to language earning that may operate in tandem with the assumptions of an approach or method, or independently of it, as we have seen with the theory of Multiple Intelligences (Chapter 12). Successful leamers create their own learning pathways, and effective teachers seek to recognize learners’ approaches to learning, to help them acquire effective learning strategies and to build a focus on the learner into their lessons. In this chapter we will examine the notions of learner autonomy, learner strategies, and learning styles and how these relate to our understanding of approaches and methods. We will then consider the role of technology in supporting the learner's role in language learning. role in the d lescripti Sis seen in the lene pon ot SPPtOAch 2 mn ve and methods presented Learner autonomy The notion of learner autono learning. While approaches an role that learners can play in their own hasizes the saad prescribe the learner's role in learning,| 1d methods often 331332__ The teaching and learning environment learner autonomy emphasizes that successful learners often learn in ways that may be independent of the methods that are used to teach them or that may be important for the Success of these methods. The effectiveness of teaching can thus be enhanced by giving learners a more active role in managing their own learning as well as providing the means for learners to connect their in-class and out-of-class learning, A learner-autonomous per- spective contrasts a “top-down” teacher-managed view of learning, in which the learner is viewed as an empty vessel waiting to receive the input provided by the teacher, with more of a “bottom-up” understanding in which the learner is seen as engaged in constructing his or her own understanding of language and language learning (Benson 20015 Benson and Nunan 2005). Traditional methods such as Audiolingualism and Situational Language Teaching can be characterized as presenting a top-down approach to learning, one in which learners do not have a choice in what or how to learn. Some of the methods of the 1980s such as Silent ‘Way (Chapter 16) and Total Physical Response (Chapter 15) reflect a similar role for learners: the learner is expected to submit to the prescriptions of the method and is not consulted or involved in making decisions about how to approach learning, This could also be said to characterize the role of learners in more recent methods such as Task-Based Language ‘Teaching (Chapter 9), where the learning theory underlying the method drives the teaching process and determines the kinds of classroom activities that the teacher makes use of. ‘The notion of learner autonomy suggests a different role for learners. According to Benson (2001), this means involving learners in decisions concerning setting objectives for learning, determining ways and means of learning, and reflecting on and evaluating what they have learned. Autonomous learning is said to make learning more personal and focused and, consequently, to achieve better learning outcomes since learning is based on learners’ needs and preferences (Victori and Lockhart 1995). It contrasts with the traditional teacher-led approach in which most decisions are made by the teacher. Benson (2001) outlines five principles for achieving autonomous learning: 1. Active involvement in student learning 2. Providing options and resources 3. Offering choices and decision-making opportunities 4. Supporting learners 5. Encouraging reflection, Classes that encourage autonomous learning entail the following: ‘The teacher becomes less of an instructor and more of a facilitator. Students are discouraged from relying on the teacher as the main source of knowledge. Students’ capacity to learn for themselves is encouraged. Students are encouraged to make decisions about what they learn. Students’ awareness of their own learning styles is encouraged. Students are encouraged to develop their own learning strategies, eecoeee ‘The Council of Europe has developed the European Language Portfolio project (ELP) (Little 2002) which aims to provide a practical application of the notion of learner——————____18 Learners, approaches, and methods 333, gies = Sfarners, approg ne eines! 255: | omy. The portfolio has three com, ton’ for the learner to summarize hi xen provides an Opportunity for the whi ponents: a language Passport, which provides the S or her linguistic identity; a language biography, ing experience with the foreign | earner to describe and reflect on his or her language tf of evi hee and a dossier, in which the learner docu- different forms of evidence of how his or her proficiency ; is develop- ments ar goal setting and self. 9 Proficiency in the language is »P- ing Reel: bare ‘Onomy in language teaching (Reinders 2009) include we following: «Needs analysis. After consultation and assessment, the teacher may help the learner develop a profile of his or her strengths and weaknesses and suggest independent learn- ing approaches to address the weaknesses identified. Nunan (a995: 145) comments: “Learners who have reached a point where they are able to define their own goals and create their own learning opportunities have, by definition, become autonomous” « Learner training. This can involve short courses or training activities that seek to intro- duce strategies for independent learning, « Self-monitoring. Another aspect of autonomous learning is for learners to develop skills needed to monitor their own learning, A learning diary or portfolio can be used for this purpose, but technology offers many other options, For example, students can video record themselves performing different tasks (es 8- a recount or narrative task) and com- pare their performance on the same tasks over ti ime. « Learning-counseling. This refers to regular meetings between teachers and learners to help learners plan for their own learning, « Learning resources. The institution may provide links to online or print resources such as the ELP referred to above or other resources that foster autonomous learning. © Self-access centers, Many institutions have a facility available online or in a dedicated center where a variety of self-directed learnin; ig esources are available, both to comple- ment classroom instruction and for inde| pendent self-directed learning, Staff support is often provided to facilitate the choice and use of learning resources. © Follow-up and support. Successful implementation of the development of learner autonomy involves provision of ongoing support and encouragement. This may involve student-directed group discussion sessions as well as Opportunities for reflective review involving students and teachers. * Sdfistudy, There are a number of commercial language-learning packages presently intended entirely for self-study. These are in a sense exclusively learner-centered and teacher-free. However, all of these do involve a “Method” and are marketed with a Principal focus on “The Method” (e.g., Rosetta Stone, TELL ME MORE*, the Pimsleur* Method, Languagerou.com., etc.). In reviewing strategies for developing learner autonomy, Reinders (2009: 53) comments: Although implementing [an approach to learner autonomy] ... will not guarantee students, Gevelop autonomy, the activities do involve a shift of focus from you onto the leamers,Early dis work of Rubin seven characte! 2. They havea ing to do m: results. 1, They are willing and acc 3, They are ofte Learner strategies ‘own learning - one that may be or approach the teacher is using (Cohen 20m). The notior viewed as an aspect of learner guage teaching since cussion of Knowing that they. rted in their learning will mes the i are volun ea heidi and are supported in their learning will mean, that sheet are more likely to develop this mind set, and knowing this, teachers are ‘ore likely to consider the importance of student ownership of the learning proc 288, ‘The concept method should mater salonocny suggests that teachers using a particular approach With ochnaee vie” thel te f the method to deen Ii can be wed in cenit to manage and direct th ap autonomous learning or whether it limits the eer oe z deateiciven bork ty ion ir own learning. What types of approaches and methods might lend is tecals Ghote ten - autonomy? Essentially the more flexibility the approach provides, ectoaragiig earch ae ¢ interpreted and implemented, the more amenable it will be to switch le peratsted be nomy. ‘Therefore, ‘Communicative Language Teaching, an approach Coady ea bees it lends itself to “strong” (less traditional) and “weak” (more Srmilingiate ited as early as the 1970s as one that would be particularly suitable epomre pee ener (Chapter 5). Content-based approaches or CLIL (Chapter 6) motivation and develop an active, autonomous approach to learning. beat pelea represent another approach to considering the learner’s role in language ng: Some methods prescribe the ikinds of strategies learners are encouraged to make use of in learning. Communicative Lan; (Chapter 13), for example, encourage developing fluency in language use as wel learners to learn through the negotiation on the role of cognitive strategies in learning (see learning strategies? Cohen's term is commonly understood: “Language learning stat actions, consciously selected by learners, general, and in the completion of specific language a broader role in language learning and suggest an active role for learners in managing their ‘used in conjunction with, or independently ofthe method autonomy; however, the 1980s and can be conveniently the role of strategies in language learning is often linked to the ‘on characteristics of the good language | istics that she claimed distingui strong drive to any things to g .n not inhibited urate guess ncer communicate, or to Jearn from communication, cet their message across: and are willing to appear guage Teaching and Cooperative Language Learning the use of communication strategies as a basis for 1 as the use of interactional strategies that enable cof meaning. The Silent Way (Chapter 16) is based. below). But what exactly do we mean by (aon: 682) depiction of strategies captures the concept as the jes can be defined as thoughts and to assist them in learning and using language in tasks” However, learning strategies have nn of learning strategies is sometimes it has had an independent history in lan- reviewed in its own terms. learner, Rubin (1975: 45-8) identified ished good language learners: ers who are comfortable with uncertainty. and are will: foolish if reasonable communication9 4 re pr Learners, : jie Seanad 19 attend to §, " *PProBcheS, and methods : Li Falter rip oe Seek out ory CON SANLY looky 8 they heir ow, oppert oki Whole speech ig ce SPEECH and le to practi Paterna in the wel Peech Is being ry pene Pcie, language. they have learned, “ceived and siete of others, constant! r ‘ intly attendis _ ‘They attend to meaning, j ** thelr performance Ing to how ficient to attend only 46 thegt that inorder ‘ ce meets the standards 7 1 at © underst, she concept OF SFSERIES has attrac nace form Of ene eSARe, I Is not suf pecause Home researchers feel | ‘acted some deg iBuage, it ree pornyel (2002) give the follow), ea other ne since Rubin's work, e8 of rea 2 ng e «) With regard (0 reading habits in th ding strategies: ‘or example, Cohen and e ti a ‘arget language: fo Making a real effort to find reg 5) As basic reading strategies, "B Material that sat i OF near ones level, ext, Monitor to 5 # Planning how to read a t to see how much of it Was understood cree axe at ches aries either in one’s mi @ Making ongoing sum mi ) When encountering unknown words and strana” the margins ofthe text ructures: 7 wi eflectiveness of teaching and learning can be improved. anen ce are the citly or explicitly require the use of specific learning strategies; however ieee strategy research is on self-managed strategies that may be indepen: “lent fee muck by a particular method, ep of favored A well-known classification of strategies distinguishes four different kinds of strate- gies according to their function (Chamot 1987, 2001; Oxford 1990): cognitive strategies, metacognitive strategies, social strategies, and affective strategies. Cognitive strategies, ‘These refer to the processes learners make use of in order to bet- ter understand or remember learning materials or input and in retrieving it, such as by making mental associations, underlining key phrases in a text, making word lists to review following a lesson, and so on. © Metacognitive strategies. ‘These are ways in which learners “control their language learn- ing by planning what they will do, checking on progress, and then evaluating their performance on a given task” (Cohen 20n:: 682). For example, a student might focus on the following kinds of questions in relation to a listening text that a teacher uses during a lesson: f isteni 2” (planning) How should I approach this listening text?” (pla ) : “What parts of the text should I pay more attention to? (planning)as 338 _The teaching and leaming environment “Am L focusing on the appropriate parts of the text?” (monitoring) [Did I understand correctly the words the writer used?” (monitoring) “Did I perform the task well?” (evaluating) “What caused me to misunderstand part of the text2” (evaluating) ‘* Social strategies. These are “the means employed by learners for interacting with tater learners and native speakers, such as through asking questions to clarify social roles and relationships, asking for an explanation or verification, and cooperating with others in order to complete tasks” (Cohen 2011: 682). For example, a learner may prepare a set of questions that he or she could use when meeting speakers of English to enable hirn o her to have more opportunities to use English. © Affective strategies, These are actions the learner takes to manage the emotions they expe- Tience when learning a language or when they try out what they have learned in com- munication. For example, a learner may find it less stressful to first try out their language skills by talking to more proficient second language users than with native speakers. Research on learning strategies is useful to the extent that it leads to insights that can be used in teaching or in developing learner autonomy. Cohen (2011: 663) suggests that in order to give learners a better understanding of the nature of strategies and to help them develop effective strategy use, four issues need to be addressed: 1. Raising awareness of the strategies learners are already using 2 Presenting and modeling strategies so that learners become increasingly aware of their 3. Providing multiple practice opportunities to help learners move toward autonomous use of the strategies through gradual withdrawal of teacher scaffolding, and 4 Getting learners to evaluate the effectiveness of the strategies used and any efforts that they have made to transfer these strategies to new tasks. In teaching strategies, both direct and indirect strategies are used. With a direct approach, sra- egy training is a feature of a normal language lesson and a training session inchades five stages: preparation, presentation, practice, evaluation, and expansion. As described by Gu (201z 321): Strategies are first introduced and modeled by the teacher, before students are given tasks to practice using the taught strategies. Teachers and learners reflect along the way about the reason for choosing and the effectiveness of using the strategy in ques- tion. Learners are finally encouraged to extend the use of the taught strategies similar to language learning and language use tasks. In this way, the responsibilty for sv2- tegic decision-making shifts gradually from the teacher to the learners as ciassroom instruction moves from stage to stage, resulting in full learner responsibility in straiegy choice and use at the end of training. ‘The concept of learning strategies adds an important dimension to what we understand by “teaching.” since while approaches and methods are generally conceptualized as instrac- tional designs for second language teaching, in reality they are designs for language learning,4 appropriate strategy ys. , e Use oer ae Yasin rage BE key to oy jearning does this a an 3 ther learning se ethod dere PP*aches ra 2PBLAgE lean ther learning strategies wena Cer OP? Wh Methods th i Important to ing sagt Mould earings ee cde What given above, often combine ‘witated eS to use? oa learners use? i beyceted s an aspect of bi teaching of spores Of eading and Teenine ees here, t00 approaches autonomy i of learning strategies, In addition ™ethods will leng encourage coe interaction and a S such as Coon selves well to the development oflearning strategies, end the ace mselves \guage Learning that Learning styles Another dimension of learner. ension c -centeredn refer to specific actions lear; ess is known, . use situations, learning styles refeg ats, °© dress fea cece aes seeps hing i parviculat woe ee to a general Predisposition 28 tasks or language and defining learning styles (sce, (oes © MANY dierent ways of concerns styles as “an individual’s natural, fair 2008), Reid’s canieoaan tert ae wa ¢ | habit ion of learni and retaining new information and skille” ie ways(s) of absorbing procceing teaching. Differences in learnin 5: vii) is often used in rel 8 ‘ iB styles may b : in relation to language for particular kinds of cl sities eon ected in the pref : cm act fpr ee r the learners, for particular grouping arran, dear gements, and fo) i male and eee the classroom. The notion of learning ij ou een cee 2 are : re - sna a ak be eee classrooms and the dette a which Senate : 1ods based on their learning style preferences. These pref- ere ‘Ow learners respond to different learning situations. For example: e Some learners like to work independently, whi , ly, while others prefer working in a group. « Some learners like to spend a lot of time planning before they complete a task, wile others spend little time planning and sort out problems that arise while they are completing a task. ¢ Some people can focus on only one task at a time, while others seem to be able to do several different tasks at once. Some learners feel uncomfortable in situations where there is ambiguity or uncertainly, while others are able to handle situations where there is conflicting information and opinions. When solving problems, some people are willing to take risks and to make guesses without worrying about the possibility of being wrong, while others try to avoid situations where there is such a risk. ; - Some people learn best when they use visual cues and write notes to help them remember, while others learn better through auditory Jearning, without writing notes.358_The teaching and learning environment si bee differences are often observable over time in a teacher’ class and can Revwihlchitedshcns saa interviews, journal writing, questionnaires, and other activities iientetd o iris lore their learners’ view of learning. Many different research instru- segues ‘oe les have been used to investigate the notion of learning styles, and con- an a lere are many different lists and taxonomies of learning styles. The following are ‘monly referred to (Reid 1995; Richards and Lockhart 1994): 7 Usual learners. These learners respond to new information in a visual fashion and pee isual, pictorial, and graphic representations of experience. They benefit most from reading and learn well by seeing words in books, workbooks, and on the board. They can often learn on their own with a book, and they take notes of lectures to remember the new information, Auditory learners. These learners learn best from oral explanation and from hearing words spoken. ‘They benefit from listening to recordings, teaching other students, and by conversing with their classmates and teachers. Kinesthetic learners. Learners of this type learn best when they are physically involved in the experience. They remember new information when they actively participate in activities, such as through field trips or role plays. Tactile learners. These learners learn best when engaged in “hands on” activities. They like to manipulate materials and like to build, fix, or make things, or put things together. © Group learners. These learners prefer group interaction and classwork with other stu- dents and learn best when working with others. Group interaction helps them to learn and understand new material better. Individual learners. Learners of this type prefer to work on their own. They are capable of learning new information by themselves and remember the material better if they learned it alone. © Authority-oriented learners. These learners relate well to a traditional classroom. ‘They prefer the teacher as an authority figure. They like to have clear instructions and know exactly what they are doing, They are less comfortable with consensus-building discussion. Learning style preferences also reflect the learner's cultural background since con- ceptions of both teaching and learning differ from culture to culture (Tsui 2009). In some cultures a good teacher is one who controls and directs learners and who maintains a respectful distance between the teacher and the learners. Learners are the more or less ive recipients of the teacher's expertise. Teaching is viewed as a teacher-controlled and Frccted aa In other cultures the teacher may be viewed more as a facilitator. The abil F irre om close interpersonal relations with students is highly valued and there isa = HY eo eon individual learner creativity and independent learning. Students may even be anaes tion and challenge what the teacher says. Similarly, in some cultures cn vee willing to communicate in front of their peers in the classroom students ia) wi a ‘Wen and Clement (2003) suggest that in China, group cohesiveness phan nee grou members influence Chinese students communication patterns in and de ‘may believe that if he or she speaks up in class, this may pote Be ee students since it is judged as “showing off” and an attempt to make lu ie bits de Jook weak. Language teaching approaches ‘and methods often have built in studentsassumptions about prefe 0 ie chingy COMMU Lap, ved learning styles. ge Learn ome such as Communicative Language favor 8 group-based interactive Jearni Cather 17) and Task-Based Language Teaching stern-based view of learning Holliday Which, critics have pointed out, reflects a educational isk May Prefer teaching tet '% 1994b, 2003, 2009), Students from other a inaividas an gone based learning. 'S more teacher-led or which depends more However, researc a8 Not been abl l i efictive than others (Griffiths 2012) ana ee Peaanny that Some earning styles are more soles (Cassidy 2004). Griffiths 42080) Tesearchers question the notion of learning gs being important for success in Tengen that “no particular style can be isolated I jarers choosing ge ae which suits the ov nda Success, father depends on of the c¢ contextual needs.” sanding ofthe diversity of lernens ‘tern we gait iow can provide a better under gbove, it also accounts for the fact ther 1 ay be present in a single class, And as we noted have different learning style preferences because of thy enced in the past. In terms of how learnings *, important consideration is the following: student where the teacher plays a more dominant rol to stand out in a group, as in the example cited above i : t , from Chin: ef q veo teaching methods indunghuningae eh Teaching (Chapter 3), or even Grammar-Translation (Chapter 1). It is very important for the teacher to be sensitive to the cultural environment when choosing an approach or method. The impact of technology ‘The movement toward a learner-centered approach to teaching in recent years reflects a philosophical reorientation and change in thinking about the roles of learners as well as a response to changed opportunities for learner-initiated learning through the use of the Internet and other forms of technology. Waters (2012: 448) comments: research shows that the use of the interactive whiteboard can have a significant effect on teaching methodology, by making it possible for new kinds of learning oppor tunities to occur. There is also evidence that the increasing ubiquity of web-based teaching and learning resources has the potential to redistribute the balance between. teacher-led and learner-led interaction. In addition, many course books are nowadays. already accompanied by an ever-widening range of linked e-resources and these are likely to increase the opportunities for learners to work more independently as well ... Technology thus provides opportunities for learners to be less dependent on classroom learning and the teacher’s approach or method. It does this by: © providing a wider exposure to English, including authentic example of language use; © increasing opportunities for interaction both with other learners and with native-speakers and second language users of English worldwide;Wo The teaching and learning environment —= allowing students to find learning resources that sual or auditory styles); particular skills, such as reading or © supporting different learning styles, match their preferred way of learning (€.g» Vis © providing learners with opportunities to focus on speaking: i bling learners . provide support that is suitable for learners of diferent nee ete to choose activities that range in difficulty from ae ne roles of students that technology encouraging more active learning through changes in the 2 instractioa but evita makes possible: students are no longer the passive recipients ore-ih contol of ths engaged in furthering their own knowledge and skills and are m process and the learning outcomes; ‘aeanaes © encouraging learner autonomy through giving learné é they ies nd how they lear it, thus developing a greater sense of a sntononay © providing a stress-reduced environment, since for some learners technology" base reine is less stressful way to practice using English than classroom-based activities where they feel they are being compared with their peers; hls | © providing a social context for learning by allowing learners to join a learning community in which they interact socially with other learners; in this way technology encourages collaborative learning (with some activities students provide peer-tutoring, helping each other accomplish tasks); ‘© increasing motivation, since motivation often increases and discipline problems decrease when students are engaged in technology-based learnings © providing access to more engaging material, since through the Internet learners can access content that is often very engaging for them, such as digital games, YouTube content, and so on; * supporting learning outside of the classroom, such as through the use of mobile techno- logies that can be helpful in supporting learners to use English at the point of need, for example when traveling; © offering opportunities for more and alternative types of feedback as with programs that include immediate or relayed feedback to learners, and collaborative tools such as email and chat that allow learners to work with other learners to get peer-feedback, or to get help from a (remote) teacher. er level of choice over what Technology can also support many of the approaches and methods discussed in this book. For example, it can be used as a component of Communicative Language Teaching, Task-Based Language Teaching, Text-Based Instruction, as well as Cooperative Language Learning, by providing opportunities for authentic interactions during which learners have to employ and expand their communicative resources, supported by the ability to link sound, word, texts, and images in the Process. There are many possibilities, such as through chat rooms and discussion boards, Technology also provides easy access to a rich range of authentic materials, and it enables learners in different locations to work together on collab- orative tasks and to make use of a variety of different modes of communication — including print, audio, and visual, The classroom textbook can be enriched by making links to topics, functions, and activities that appear in the book. Similarly, students can engage in follow-up~ 10 Leamers, approaches, and methods 341 ain the media lab oF on the com transactions they practiced in puter and work with r A the classi ‘eal examples of the interactions aod Uex-Based Instruction and CLL (eee cha eo enoloRy similarly offers support fOr driven and integrates language | ‘see Chapter 6). Content-focused instruction is con- er on the Tern, peor AN conten ering, Authentic content cA yore websites, watch online Vidense cxtmPles of natural language use, Students can also eer eatnet. They may be given specific news lps and share ther eations to these with they can prepare their own materials either in casts. They can share these with other with task-based and text-based teaching, Wis or tasks that reflect real-world uses to carry out (e.g., in the form ‘of webquests), \dividually or in groups and record blog posts students, all while using the target language. technology provides many opportunities to create i il of language, that require them to integrate skills, that engage them in negotiation of meaning with other fens and that ae require a focus on form. Sea online tasks support second language acquisition through providing OPPO ie oe for noticing and for restructuring language as students engage with ie production ¢ ates fh spoken and written texts (Pellettieri 2000). Task-Based Language reaching emp! mors ene for a broad, or holistic, approach to language development and makes i. i" rs whee Feqnultes the integration of different skills. Similarly, integrative CALL provides for the integration of skills, and technology is now increasingly seen as a sgeful medium for the creation and delivery of task-based teaching. However, regardless of the support for autonomous learning available through technology, it has been pointed out that language learning and language use is primarily a srl endeavor. Nilson (201 10-11) comments reopen ‘There is no existing empirical research on learning outcomes from foreign language self-study using commercially available, stand-alone CALL materials. There is, how- ever, research from related areas that suggests the most effective leaming is not achieved by learners working alone, and that any materials designed as stand-alone, self-study solutions will have to compensate for this lack of interpersonal interaction. For example, researchers investigating learner autonomy, or “the ability to take charge of one’s own learning” (Holec, 1981, p. 3), make it clear that achieving autonomy — @ condition argued to be beneficial to the language acquisition process - does not necessarily come about as a result of self-study. In fact, according to Benson's (2007) literature review on autonomous learning, “learners do not develop the ability to self- direct their learning simply by being placed in situations where they have no other option” (p. 22). That is, autonomy is learner-internal, and not a situational condition. Conclusion While approaches and methods generally contain defined roles for learners and reflect specific assumptions about the strategies and processes learners should make use of in lan- guage learning, learners’ contributions to language learning should not be constrained by the practices of a particular teaching approach or method. A focus on learner autonomy, learning strategies, learning styles, an d the opportunities for learner-focused learning342__The teaching and learning environment _ $$. provided by technology expands our understanding of the role of learners in language learning. It reminds us that language teaching is not simply about teaching language. A learner-centered approach to teaching has as its goal to provide learners with learning resources that they can use both in and outside the classroom and ways in which learners can focus and manage their own learning. Discussion questions 1. Respond to the following statements by saying “yes” or “no” and giving reasons for your answers. Learners should always be given a choice about what to learn. Learners should always be given a choice about how to learn. All language courses should include the flexibility to meet learners’ diverse and changing needs. 2. “Learning is not necessarily a mirror image of teaching” (p. 331). Exchange experi- ences with a colleague about the mismatches you have experienced between what you intended to teach and what learners ended up learning. 3. The European Language Portfolio (ELP) embodies the concept of learner autonomy and is provided by the Council of Europe at the following website: http://www.coe int/portfolio, Look at this portfolio, or search for a similar one on the Internet, and answer the following questions: Who completes the portfolio? © Isit assessed by a teacher? What is the purpose of the portfolio? Do you think using the portfolio might work with your learners? Why (not)? 4. What are some examples of strategies for independent learning and learner autonomy? (Review pp. 332-3.) Which of these do you think might be most effective? 5. How would you respond to a teacher who asks students to set their own goals, only to have students respond that the teacher isn’t actually teaching them? Would you encour- age the teacher to change his or her teaching style? 6. Many teachers feel that their learners’ experiences and beliefs do not predispose them toward learner autonomy and that it may be a concept that works better in some, mostly Western, cultures than others. Do you think your students would be comfortable with taking more responsibility for their learning? If not, how could you gradually accustom them to this idea? 7. Review the four types of strategies: cognitive, metacognitive, social, and affective, mentioned on pages 335-6. What types of strategies are the following examples of? Using flashcards to memorize new vocabulary. Joining a sports club to meet more target language speakers. Keeping a learning diary. Creating a relaxing learning environment.— a ws ——_18 Learners, approaches, and methods 43 ‘he first stage in developing strategy use ig rac; & ney are already using. How woulg” co Tsing learners’ awareness of the strategies atean environment in which learnerg aye rout this? Specifically, how would you cre- a social, and an affective strategy St likely to use a cognitive, a metacognitive, teacher takes a ; yA om counter to the mat of learners’ preferred learning styles. However, these ths book. For example, in some co's f the approaches and methods described in tries learners are used t ing fi in control, but the teacher May want to use a more lean to teachers Lame a would you do in such a situation? ner-centered approach. it teachers aim for and 10. ue sleallaky what Say ‘what learners actually learn can be two vastly different things. a Again Ts mean and what learners understand are not necessarily Se el research project, identify one class that you have a detailed lesson plan for with we'l-worked-out goals. At the end of the lesson give your students a short questionnaire asking them the following: « What they thought they had to do during one iviti of th «Why they think they had to do this ict poe oe « What they thought the three main include a list of options), i.e., what the learning purpose was h Purposes of the overall lesson were (you can in order of importance Upto three things they learned from the class, in order of importance. How did these match with your own goals? u. Work with a colleague and observe each other's class, To what extent do each of you do the following? 1 (not at all) | How is this done? 5 (all the time) Take active involvement in student learning Provide options and resources Offer choices and decision-making opportunities ‘Support learners Encourage reflection 22, As you read in the chapter, it is important for teachers to ask the following questions in relation to approaches and methods: © What learning strategies does this method develop? © What learning strategies do my learners use? © What other learning strategies would be useful for my learners to use?344 The teaching and learning environment own teaching method and learners or for a language Answer these questions for your class where you have been a student. References and further reading arta WR Alsagoff, L. 2012. Identity and the EIL Learner. In L. Alsagoff, S. L- aeons patti Renandya (eds.), Principles and Practices for Teaching English as an Inte iguage, New York: Routledge. 104-22. y Atkinson, D. (ed.), 2011. Alternative Approaches to Second Language Acquisition. New York: Routledge. ; Benson, P. 2001, Teaching and Researching Autonomy in Language Learning. London: ne Benson. P, and D. Nunan (eds.). 2005. Learners’ Stories: Difference and Diversity in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Blumberg, P. 2004. Beginning journey toward a culture of learning centered teaching. Journal of Student Centered Learning 2(1): 68-80. Breen. M. P. (ed.). 2001. Learner Contributions to Language Learning. London: Longman. Cassidy, S. 2004, Learning styles: an overview of theories, models, and measures. Educational Psychology 24(4): 419-44. Chamot, A U8 ‘The learning strategies of ESL students. In A. Wenden and J. Rubin (eds.), Learner Strategies in Language Learning. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 71-84. Chamot. A. U. 2001. The role of learning strategies in second language acquisition. In Breen (ed.), 25-43. Cohen, A. D. 2011. Second language learner strategies. In Hinkley (ed.), 681-98. Cohen, A. D,, and Z. Dornyei. 2002. Focus on the language learner: motivation, styles, and strategies. InN. Schmitt (ed.), An Introduction to Applied Linguistics. London: Arnold. 170-90. European Language Portfolio (ELP). http://www.coe.int/portfolio; accessed May 17, 2013. Griffiths, C. (ed.). 2008, Lessons From Good Language Learners. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Gu, Y. P, 2012. Language learning strategies: an EIL perspective. In Alsagoff et al. (eds.), 318-34. Hinkley, E. (ed.). 2011. Handbook of Research in Second Language Teaching and Learning, Vol IL. New York: Routledge. Holliday, A. 1994a. Appropriate Methodology and Social Context. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Holliday, A. 1994b. The house of TESEP and the communicative approach: the special needs of state English language education. ELT Journal 48(1): 3-11. Holliday, A. 2003. Social autonomy: addressing the dangers of culturism in TESOL. In D. Palfreyman and R. Smith (eds.), Learner Autonomy across Cultures: Language Education Perspectives. Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan. 110-26. Holliday, A. 2009. The role of culture in English language education: key challenges. Language and Intercultural Communication 10(2): 165-77. Little, D. 2002. The European Language Portfolio: structure, origins, implementation and challenges. Language Teaching 35(3): 182-9. Nielson, K. 201. Self-study with language learning software in the workplace: what happens? Language Learning & Technology 15(3): 10-29. Nunan, D. 1988. The Learner-Centred Curriculum: A Study in Second Language Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press, Nunan, D. 1995, Closing the gap between learning and instruction. TESOL Quarterly 29; 133-58.L. 2009. 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