AASTU (CIVIL ENGG DEPARTMENT) ENGINEERING MECHANICS I (STATICS) FOR PRE-ENGINEERING

4. ANALYSIS OF STRUCTURES
4.1. Introduction
- An engineering structure is any connected system of members built to support or transfer
forces and to safely withstand the loads applied to it.
- In this chapter we shall analyze the internal forces acting in several types of structures,
namely, trusses, frames and simple machines.
4.2. Constraints and Statical Determinacy
Equilibrium equations, once satisfied, are both necessary and sufficient conditions to establish the
equilibrium of a body. However, they don’t necessarily provide all the information that is required
to determine all the unknown forces that may act on a body in equilibrium.
If the number of unknown forces is more than the number of independent equilibrium
equations, the equilibrium equations alone are not enough to determine the unknown forces,
possibly reaction forces at the constraints.
The adequacy of the constraints to prevent possible movement of the body depends on the number,
arrangement and characteristics of the constraints.

4.2.1. Problem Solution

It is important to develop a logical and systematic approach in the solution of problems of
mechanics, which includes the following steps:
- Identify clearly the quantities that are known and unknown.
- Make a clear-cut choice of the body/group of bodies/ to be isolated and draw its complete
FBD, labeling all external known and unknown forces and couples which act on it.
- Designate a convenient set of axes and choose moment centers with a view to simplifying
the calculations.
- Identify and state the applicable force and moment principles or equations which govern
the equilibrium condition of problem.
- Match the number of independent equations with the number of unknowns in each
problem.
- Carry out the solution and check the results.

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AASTU (CIVIL ENGG DEPARTMENT) ENGINEERING MECHANICS I (STATICS) FOR PRE-ENGINEERING

4.3. Trusses

4.3.1. Plane Trusses

A truss is a framework composed of members joined at their ends to form a rigid structure.
When the members of the truss lie essentially in a single plane, the truss is known as a plane
truss. Examples of commonly used trusses that can be analyzed as plane as plane trusses are;-
i/ Commonly Used Bridge Trusses

Pratt Howe

Warren K

ii/ Commonly Used Roof Trusses

Fink Pratt

Howe Warren

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The basic element of a plane truss is the triangle. Structures that are built from a basic triangle in
the manner described are known as simple trusses. When more members are present than are
needed to prevent collapse, the truss is statically indeterminate. A statically indeterminate truss
cannot be analyzed by the equations of equilibrium alone. Additional members or supports that
are not necessary for maintaining the equilibrium position are called redundant.

-Three bars joined by pins at their ends constitute a rigid frame.

-Four or more bars pin-jointed to form a polygon of as many sides

constitute a non rigid frame.

We can make the non rigid frame stable or rigid by adding diagonal bars. The term rigid is used
in the sense of non collapsible and also in the sense that deformation of the members due to
induced internal strains is negligible.
All members in a simple truss are assumed to be two-force members. The members may be in
tension (T) or in compression (C).

Tension Compression
Fig. Two-force members
The weight of truss members is assumed small compared with the force it supports. If it is not or
if the small effect of the weight is to be accounted for, the weight W of the member may be replaced
by two forces, each W/2 if the member is uniform, with one force acting at each end of the member.
These forces, in effect, are treated as loads externally applied to the pin connections. Accounting
for the weight of a member in this way gives the correct result for the average tension or
compression along the member but will not account for the effect of bending of the member.
When welded or riveted connections are used to join structural members, the assumption of a pin-
jointed connection is usually satisfactory if the centerlines of the members are concurrent at the
joint.
We also assume in the analysis of simple trusses that all external forces are applied at the pin
connections. This condition is satisfied in most trusses. In bridge trusses the deck is usually laid
on cross beams that are supported at the joints.

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AASTU (CIVIL ENGG DEPARTMENT) ENGINEERING MECHANICS I (STATICS) FOR PRE-ENGINEERING

Two methods for the force analysis of simple trusses will be given. The external reactions are
usually determined by computation from the equilibrium equations applied to the truss as a whole
before the force analysis of the remainder of the truss is begun.

4.3.2. Method of Joints

This method for finding the forces in the members of a simple truss consists of satisfying the
conditions of equilibrium for the forces acting on the connecting pin of each joint. The method
deals with the equilibrium of concurrent forces and only two independent equilibrium equations
are involved. ( Fx = 0 and  Fy = 0 for each joint).
We begin the analysis with any joint where at least one known load exists and where not more
than two unknown forces are present. Taking free body diagram of a joint, tension will always
be indicated by an arrow away from the pin, and compression will always be indicated by an arrow
toward the pin.
In some instances, it is not possible to initially assign the correct direction of one or both of the
unknown forces acting on a given pin. In this event we may make an arbitrary assignment. A
negative value from the computation indicates that the assumed direction is incorrect.

4.3.3. Method of Sections

On the analysis of plane trusses by the method of joints, we took advantage of only two of the
three equilibrium equations, since the procedures involve concurrent forces at each joint.

We may take advantage of the third or moment equation of equilibrium by selecting an entire
section of the truss for the free body in equilibrium under the action of a non-concurrent system of
forces. This method of sections has the basic advantage that the force in almost any desired
member may be found directly from an analysis of a section, which has cut that member. Thus, it
is not necessary to proceed with the calculation from joint to joint until the member in question
has been reached.

In choosing a section of the truss, we note that, in general, not more than three members whose
forces are unknown may be cut, since these are only three available equilibrium relations which
are independent. It is essential to understand that in the method of sections an entire portion of the
truss is considered a single body in equilibrium. Thus, the forces in members internal to the section
are not involved in the analysis of the section as a whole.

To classify the free body and the forces acting externally on it, the section is preferably passed
through the members and not the joints. In some cases, the methods of sections and joints can
be combined for an efficient solution. The moment equations are used to great advantage in the
method of sections. One should choose a moment center, either on or off the section, through
which as many unknown forces as possible pass. It is not always possible to assign the proper
sense of an unknown force when the free-body diagram of a section is initially drawn. With an
arbitrary assignment made, a positive answer will verify the assumed sense and a negative result
will indicate that the force is in the sense opposite to that assumed.

4.3.4. Space Trusses

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AASTU (CIVIL ENGG DEPARTMENT) ENGINEERING MECHANICS I (STATICS) FOR PRE-ENGINEERING

A space truss is the three-dimensional counterpart of the plane truss. The idealized space truss
consists of rigid links connected at their ends by ball-and-socket joints. We saw that a triangle of
pin-connected bars forms the basic non-collapsible unit for the plane truss. A space truss, on the
other hand, requires six bars joined at their ends to form the edges of a tetrahedron for the basic
non-collapsible unit.
P1
D D G
H
P2
C C E F
B B

A A C
D
B
(a) (b)
A (c)

In fig. a/ the two bars AD and BD joined at D require a third support CD to keep the triangle ADB
from rotating about AB. In fig.b/ the supporting base is replaced by three more bars AB, BC and
AC to form a tetrahedron not dependent on the foundation for its own rigidity. We may form a
new rigid unit to extend the structure with three additional concurrent bars whose ends are attached
to three fixed joints on the existing structure. Thus, in fig.c/ the bars AF, BF and CF are attached
to the foundation and therefore fix point F in space. Likewise point H is fixed in space by the bars
AH, DH and CH. The three additional bars CG, FG and HG are attached to the three fixed points
C, F and H and therefore fix G in space. Point E is similarly established. We see now that the
structure is entirely rigid. The two applied loads shown will result in all of the members.
-Ideally there must be point support, such as that given by a ball-and-socket joint, for the
connections of a space truss so that there will be no bending in the members. Again, as in riveted
and welded connections for plane trusses, if the centerlines of joined members intersect at a point,
we may justify the assumption of two force members under simple tension and compression.
The method of joints developed for plane trusses may be extended directly to space trusses by
satisfying the complete vector equation; Σ F = 0 for each joint.

We normally begin the analysis at a joint where at least one known force acts and not more
than three unknown forces are present. Adjacent joints on which not more than three unknown
forces act may be analyzed in turn.
The above step-by-step joint technique tends to minimize the number of simultaneous equations
which must be solved when the forces in all members of the space truss are to be determined. For
this reason, such a judicious approach is recommended.

The method of sections developed in the previous article may also be applied to space trusses. The
two vector equations Σ F = 0 and Σ M = 0 must be satisfied for any section of the truss, where the
zero moment sum will hold for all moment axes. Since the two vector equations are equivalent to
six scalar equations, we conclude that a section should in general not be passed through more than
six members whose forces are unknown. The method of sections for space trusses is not widely

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AASTU (CIVIL ENGG DEPARTMENT) ENGINEERING MECHANICS I (STATICS) FOR PRE-ENGINEERING

used, however, because a moment axis can seldom be found which eliminates all but one unknown,
as in the case of plane trusses.

4.4. Pin-ended Multi-force Structures (frames and simple machines)

A structure is called a frame or machine if at least one of its individual members is a multi-force
member. A multi-force member is defined as one with three or more forces acting on it or one with
two or more forces and one or more couples acting on it.
Frames are structures which are designed to support applied loads and are usually fixed in position.
Machines are structures which contain moving parts and are designed to transmit forces or couples
from input values to output values.

In this article attention is given for the equilibrium of interconnected rigid bodies which contain
multi force members. The forces acting on each member of a connected system are found by
isolating the member with a free-body diagram and applying the established equations of
equilibrium.
The principle of action and reaction must be carefully observed when we represent the forces of
interaction on the separate free-body diagrams.

If the frame or machine constitutes a rigid unit by itself when removed from its supports, the
analysis is best begun by establishing all the forces external to the structure considered as a single
rigid body. We then dismember the structure and consider the equilibrium of each part separately.
The equilibrium equations for the several parts will be related through the terms involving the
forces of interaction.

Rigid Non collapsible

If the structure is not a rigid unit by itself but depends on its external supports for rigidity, as in
the figure below, then the calculation of the external support reactions cannot be completed until
the structure is dismembered and the individual parts are analyzed.

P1

P2

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In most cases we find that the analysis of frames and machines is facilitated by representing the
forces in terms of their rectangular components.

It is not always possible to assign every force or its components in the proper sense when drawing
the free body diagrams and it becomes necessary for us Non rigidanCollapsible
to make arbitrary assignment.
In any event it is absolutely necessary that a force be consistently represented on the diagrams for
interacting bodies, which involve the force in question. For e.g., for two bodies connected by the
pin, in the figure below, the force components must be consistently represented in opposite
directions on the separate free-body diagrams.

Ay

A
Ax Ax
Ay

If we choose to use vector notation in labeling the forces, then we must be careful to use a plus
sign for an action and a minus sign for the corresponding reaction.

Situations occasionally arise where it is necessary to solve two or more equations simultaneously
in order to separate the unknowns. In most instances, however, we may avoid simultaneous
solutions by careful choice of the member or group of members for the free-body diagram and by
a careful choice of moment axes which will eliminate undesired terms from the equations.

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