Lug Analysis - MechaniCalc

12/4/2016 Lug Analysis - MechaniCalc
Lug Analysis
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A lug, or a lifting lug, is essentially a plate with a hole in it where the hole is sized to t a clevis pin.
Lugs are used in combination with clevis pins to transmit load between di erent mechanical
components. Common applications where lugs are used include:
strongbacks with pad-eyes, lifted with shackles and other rigging

connections between actuators and other structure (i.e. trunnion joint, clevis joint)
door hinges
Advantages of lugs over other types of connections that are used to transmit load include:
rotation between components is possible

quick and simple installation
Analysis of a lug is deceptively complex since there are several simultaneous, interacting failure
modes. These failure modes are associated with di erent areas of the lug, as illustrated in the gure
below (Note: Figure not to scale (/theory/lug-analysis#note-pin-size)):
The failure modes for the lug are listed below. The numbers correspond with the labeled sections
from the above gure:
1. Tension failure across the net section

2. Shear failure along two planes
3. Bearing failure
4. Hoop tension failure / fracture on single plane
5. Out of plane buckling ("dishing") -- (not shown in the gure)
There are several common methods of analyzing a lug:
Simpli ed analysis - This method is based on rst principles and involves making simplifying
assumptions about the nature of the failure and calculating factors of safety. This has the
advantage of being relatively easy, but it only gives an approximate determination of the
adequacy of the lug.
Air Force Method - This method considers most of the failure modes above, and uses empirical
curves to determine more accurate allowable loads. This method allows for lugs under axial
loading, transverse loading, or oblique loading. This method also accounts for the interaction
between the lug and the pin.
ASME BTH - This method considers most of the failure modes above, and uses simpli ed
equations with correction factors based on empirical data to determine more accurate
https://mechanicalc.com/theory/lug-analysis 1/27
allowable loads. This method is simpler than the Air Force Method, but it only allows for lugs
under axial loading and does not account for the interaction between the lug and the pin.
All of these methods are described in the following sections.
Simpli ed Analysis
This method is based on rst principles and involves making simplifying assumptions about the
nature of the failure. While it is relatively easy to perform, it only gives an approximate determination
of the adequacy of the lug and should not be employed for critical structure.
In the simpli ed analysis, the following failure modes are considered:
Tension failure across the net section

Shear failure along two planes
Bearing failure
A factor of safety is calculated for each of the failure modes, and as long as each factor of safety is
acceptable then the lug can be considered to pass. The gure below shows the lug in blue and the
pin in green.
The dimensions in the gure are:
Dh = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
R = edge distance (distance from center of hole to edge of lug in direction of applied load)
r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R)
a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = R − 0.5Dh
w = width
t = thickness (not shown in gure -- thickness is into the page)
Z = loss in shear plane length due to curvature at end of lug
ϕ = shear plane locating angle = 40°
Tension Failure Across Net Section

Tension failure across the net section occurs over the cross-section highlighted in red in the gure
below:
The area of the net section is given by:
At = (w − Dh )t
The ultimate tensile load is the load that would result in tensile failure across the net section, and is
given by:
Ptu = Stu At
where Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of the lug material. The equation above assumes a uniform
tensile stress over the cross-section. In reality there will be a stress concentration due to the ow of
stress around the hole.
The factor of safety is given by:
Ptu
F Stu =
Fapp
Shear Tear Out Along Two Planes

Shear tear out occurs over the two shear planes highlighted in red in the gure below:
The total shear plane area is given by:
As = 2L sp t
where L sp is the length of the shear plane and t is the lug thickness. A simple and conservative
approach is to calculate the length of a single shear plane as:
L sp = a
where a = R − 0.5Dh , as shown in the gure above. If it is desired to account for a slightly longer
shear plane, it is common practice to consider a 40 degree line extending from the center of the
shear pin. At the point where that 40 degree line intersects the pin hole, extend the shear plane
horizontally to the outer edge of the lug. In this case, Lsp is calculated as:
Dp
L sp = a + (1 − cos(ϕ)) − Z
2
where ϕ is the shear plane locating angle of 40° and Z is the loss in shear plane length due to the
curvature at the end of the lug. This loss is calculated as:
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
Dp
2
Z = r − √r −( sin(ϕ))
2
Note that if the lug end is at then r is in nity and Z is zero.
The ultimate shear load is the load that would result in shear tear out along the two planes, and is
given by:
Psu = Ssu As
where Ssu is the ultimate shear strength of the lug material.
Psu
F Stu =
Fapp
Bearing Failure
Bearing occurs between the surface of the pin and the inner surface of the hole in the lug, as shown
in the gure below:
The bearing area is given by:
Abr = Dp t
Note that since the length of the bearing surface is equal to the diameter of the pin, and since the
circumference of a circle is given by C = πD , then:
the length of the bearing surface is also equal to 1/π times the circumference of the pin
the swept angle of the bearing surface is equal to 2 radians ≈ 115°
The ultimate bearing load is the load that would result in bearing failure, and is given by:
Pbru = Sbru Abr
where Sbru is the minimum of the ultimate bearing strength of the lug material and the ultimate
bearing strength of the pin material. The ultimate bearing strength can be approximated as 1.5Stu .
Pbru
F Sbru =
Fapp
If a bushing is pressed into the lug, then bearing needs to be calculated for both sets of contact:
Pin on bushing
Bushing on lug
Air Force Method

The Air Force Method is widely used in industry and is documented in the Stress Analysis Manual of
the Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory (FDL). This method follows closely with the methods
presented in Melcon & Hoblit and Bruhn, and it relies heavily on curves generated by empirical data.
Although this method is somewhat more complex than other lug analysis methods, it is incredibly
useful because it allows for lugs under axial loading, transverse loading, or oblique loading, and
because it accounts for the interaction between the lug and the pin.
This section discusses axial loading, transverse loading, and oblique loading separately. These
sections disregard the e ect of the pin on the lug strength. A discussion of the pin and lug interaction
is given at the end.
Axial Loading
For axially loaded lugs, the Air Force method evaluates the lug for bearing failure, shear-out failure,
hoop tension failure, and failure across the net section. Three of the failure modes are actually
combined into a single failure mode -- the "bearing strength" accounts for bearing, shear-out, and
hoop tension. This is consistent with Bruhn and Melcon & Hoblit.
The dimensions of interest for an axially loaded lug are shown in the gure below:
The dimensions from the gure include:
D = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
e = edge distance
a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = e − 0.5D
w = width
t = thickness
Beari n g Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

The ultimate bearing load, accounting for bearing, shear-out, and hoop tension, is given by:
∣ Fbru.L Dt if Stu ≤ 1.304Sty

Pbru.L = ∣
∣ 1.304Fbry.L Dt otherwise
where D is the hole diameter and t is the lug thickness. Fbru.L and Fbry.L are the lug ultimate and
yield bearing stresses, respectively, and are given by the following equations:
e/D < 1.5 e/D ≥ 1.5
a
Ultimate Bearing Stress, Fbru.L : K Stu KStu
D
a
Yield Bearing Stress, Fbry.L : K Sty KSty
D
The equation for ultimate bearing load can be condensed down to:
a
∣ if e/D < 1.5
D
Pbru.L = K ⋅ min (Stu , 1.304Sty ) ⋅ Dt ⋅ ∣
∣1 otherwise
For ratios of e/D less than 1.5, the hole is close to the edge of the lug and so shear-out and hoop
tension are likely to be the most critical failure modes. For larger values of e/D, the hole is spaced
farther from the edge and so bearing is likely to be the critical failure mode.
The factor K in the equations above is the allowable axial load coe cient which accounts for the
interaction e ects between the di erent failure modes (bearing, shear-out, and hoop tension). The
value of K is read o of one of the following two plots. The rst plot is used for D/t ≤ 5, which is
the most common case. If D/t ≥ 5 then the lug is thin, and in that case the value of K is read o of
the second plot below. (Note 2) (/theory/lug-analysis#note-axial-load-coe cient-plot)
Bu sh i n g Beari n g Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

If there is a bushing in the lug, then the bearing strength for the bushing must be calculated. The
bushing ultimate load is given by:
Pu.B = 1.304Scy.B Dp t
where Dp is the pin diameter, t is the bushing thickness (assumed to be equal to the lug thickness),
and Scy.B is the compressive yield strength of the bushing material. The Air Force manual assumes
the compressive ultimate strength of the bushing material, Scu.B , to be equal to 1.304Scy.B .
If there is no bushing in the lug, then the calculation should still be performed assuming that the lug
material is the bushing material.
N et Secti on Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

The net-section ultimate load is given by:
∣ Fnu.L (w − D)t if Stu ≤ 1.304Sty

Pnu.L = ∣
∣ 1.304Fny.L (w − D)t otherwise
where w is the width and D is the hole diameter. Fnu.L and Fny.L are the ultimate and yield net-
section stresses, respectively, and are given by the following equations:
Ultimate Net-Section Stress: Fnu.L = K n Stu
Yield Net-Section Stress: Fny.L = K n Sty
The equation for net section ultimate load can be condensed down to:
Pnu.L = K n ⋅ min (Stu , 1.304Sty ) ⋅ (w − D) ⋅ t
The factor Kn in the equations above is the net tension stress coe cient which is a knock-down on
the allowable stresses. The value of Kn is determined by interpolating between the following plots:
Desi gn Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

The design ultimate load for an axially loaded lug is the minimum of the ultimate bearing load, the
ultimate bushing load, and the ultimate net-section load:
Pu.L.B = min (Pbru.L , Pnu.L , Pu.B )
Transverse Loading
Transverse Loading
The analysis for a transversely loaded lug is similar to that for an axially loaded lug. However, the
failure mode for transverse loading is more complicated than for axial loading, and di erent
dimensions are critical for determining lug strength. The dimensions of interest for a transversely
loaded lug are shown in the gure below:
where h1 , h2 , h3 , and h4 are failure planes of interest. If the lug is symmetric, then the values for
these dimensions can be easily obtained from the dimensions for an axially loaded lug:
h 2 = 0.5(w − D)
∘
h 1 = h 4 = h 2 + 0.5D(1 − cos 45 )
h3 = a
It should be noted that h3 is de ned as the smallest dimension on any radial section around the
hole, but it will typically be equal to a . From the above dimensions, the e ective edge distance is
calculated:
6
h av =
3/h 1 + 1/h 2 + 1/h 3 + 1/h 4
The equation above is simply a "reciprocal average" that gives more weighting to dimension h1 since
that section takes most of the load. (Note 3) (/theory/lug-analysis#note-reciprocal-average)
Lu g Stren gth Un d er Tran sverse Load

The ultimate transverse load is given by:
∣ Fbru.L Dt if Stu ≤ 1.304Sty

Ptru.L = ∣
∣ 1.304Fbry.L Dt otherwise
where D is the hole diameter and t is the lug thickness. Fbru.L and Fbry.L are the lug ultimate and
yield bearing stresses, respectively, and are given by the following equations:
Ultimate Bearing Stress: Fbru.L = K tru Stu
Yield Bearing Stress: Fbry.L = K try Sty
where Ktru and Ktry are the transverse ultimate and yield load coe cients and are determined
from the following plot:
Bu sh i n g Beari n g Stren gth Un d er Tran sverse Load

The bearing strength for the bushing in a transversely loaded lug is the same as for an axially loaded
lug:
Ptru.B = Pu.B
where Pu.B is the bushing bearing strength for an axially loaded lug (/theory/lug-analysis#axial-
bushing-bearing).
Desi gn Stren gth Un d er Tran sverse Load

The design ultimate load for a transversely loaded lug is the minimum of the ultimate lug load and
the ultimate bushing load:
Ptru.L.B = min (Ptru.L , Ptru.B )
Oblique Loading
In an obliquely loaded lug, the applied load has both axial and transverse components, as shown in
the gure below:
For an obliquely loaded lug, the applied load should be broken out into the axial and transverse
components, Pax and Ptr , and the strengths in the axial and transverse directions should be
calculated as discussed in the previous sections. An allowable load curve can then be de ned which
takes the form of an interaction equation, and is given below:
1.6 1.6
Pax.ult Ptr.ult
( ) +( ) = 1
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
The allowable load curve de nes the limits at which the lug is expected to fail -- it de nes the
ultimate load for a given combination of applied axial and transverse load. In the equation above,
Pax.ult is the axial component of the ultimate load, Ptr.ult is the transverse component of the
ultimate load, Pu.L.B is the design strength under axial load (/theory/lug-analysis#air-force-axial-
design-strength), and Ptru.L.B is the design strength under transverse load (/theory/lug-analysis#air-
force-transverse-design-strength). The allowable load curve is shown below:
In the gure above, the values along the y-axis are the ratios of the transverse applied load to the
transverse strength, and the values along the x-axis are the ratios of the axial applied load to the axial
strength.
Axi al Load Rati o Tran sverse Load Rati o
Pax Ptr
Rax = Rtr =
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
The point for the applied load with coordinates of (Rax , Rtr ) should be plotted. Any point that falls
within the allowable load curve has a factor of safety ≥ 1 with respect to the ultimate load. Note that if
the applied load is completely axial, then the value for Rtr is 0 and the point (Rax , Rtr ) lies along
the x-axis, and so the ultimate load is simply the axial design strength. Likewise for a completely
transverse applied load; in this case, the point lies along the y-axis and so the ultimate load is the
transverse design strength.
For an applied load with both axial and transverse components, the ultimate load is calculated by
drawing a line from the origin, through the point (Rax , Rtr ) , and then through the allowable load
curve. This is the load line, and it has a slope of:
Ptr Pu.L.B
m =
Ptru.L.B Pax
The ultimate load ratios are given by the intersection of the load line with the allowable load curve.
These ultimate ratios can then be used to calculate the ultimate load values in the axial and
transverse directions.
Ul ti mate Axi al Load Rati o Ul ti mate Tran sverse Load Rati o
Pax.ult Ptr.ult
Rax.ult = Rtr.ult =
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
It should be noted that the equation for the slope given above disagrees with the slope speci ed in
the Air Force Manual. A discussion is given in the Appendix (/theory/lug-analysis#oblique-
discrepancy).
Instead of determining the ultimate values by plotting, they can be calculated directly by noting that
the ultimate load components, Pax.ult and Ptr.ult are related by:
Ptr.ult = Pax.ult ⋅ tan (α)
where α is the angle of the applied load with respect to the axial direction. (Note 4) (/theory/lug-
analysis#note-ultimate-components-oblique) The equation de ning the allowable load curve can then be solved
for the ultimate axial load, with the relationship above substituted for the ultimate transverse load:
0.625
1.6 1.6 ⎛ ⎞
Pax.ult Ptr.ult 1
( ) +( ) = 1 → Pax.ult = ⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
1.6 1.6
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B 1 tan (α)
⎝( ) +( ) ⎠
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
The ultimate applied load can then be determined by:

−−−−−−−−−−−
2 2
Pult = √P +P
ax.ult tr.ult
The factor of safety is calculated by: (Note 5) (/theory/lug-analysis#note-factor-of-safety-oblique)
Pult
FS =
Papp
Double Shear Joint Strength
It is important for the pin in the joint to be strong enough that it will distribute the load evenly over
the lugs. Even though a weak pin will not commonly break in practice, excessive exure of the pin will
cause the load to "peak up" near the shear planes such that the outer edges of the lugs see high
loads and the inner portions of the lugs are relatively unloaded. This can cause the material around
the holes on the outer surfaces of the lugs to stretch far enough to initiate a fracture, and the lug will
fail at a lower load than predicted.
One e ect that helps the situation is that as the load concentrates near the shear planes, the bending
arm is reduced, and therefore the bending moment in the pin is reduced. However, a study cited by
Molcon and Hoblit found that this decrease in bending moment is "seldom more than 25 percent and
usually much less."
Since bending in the pin a ects the strength of the lug, it is critical to account for the pin strength
when analyzing the joint. In this section, a method for calculating the allowable load for a double
shear joint is presented. An example of a double shear joint is shown below:
In a double shear joint, there are two outer (female) lugs, a single inner (male) lug, and a pin.
The overall process of determining the allowable load is illustrated in the diagram below:
Cal cu l ate Joi n t Stren gth Ign ori n g Pi n E ects

Initially ignoring the e ects of pin bending, calculate the ultimate load of each lug in the joint using
the methods described in the previous sections (/theory/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug). Then
calculate the nominal ultimate joint load (which does not account for the pin strength):
Pu.J.nom = min (2 ⋅ Pult.F , Pult.M )
where Pult.M is the ultimate load for the male lug and Pult.F is the ultimate load for a single female
lug. Since there are 2 female lugs supporting the load, then the ultimate load with respect to the
female lugs is 2 ⋅ Pult.F .
Cal cu l ate Pi n Sh ear an d Ben d i n g Stren gth s

The shear strength and the bending strength of the pin should both be calculated.
Pin Shear Strength
The ultimate shear load is calculated by:

π
2
Pus.P = 2 ( Dp ) Ssu.P
4
where DP is the pin diameter and Ssu.P is the ultimate shear strength of the pin material.
Pin Bending Strength
The ultimate bending load is the applied load that would result in bending failure of the pin, and is
calculated by:
2Mu.P
Pub.P =
L arm
where Larm is the moment arm and Mu.P is the ultimate failing moment for the pin. If the load is
distributed evenly across the entire width of the lugs, then the moment arm is calculated by:
t1 t2
L arm = ( + + g)
2 4
where t1 is the thickness of a single female lug, t2 is the thickness of the male lug, and g is the gap
between the male and female lugs when the male lug is centered between the female lugs.
The ultimate failing moment for the pin is calculated by:

3
πD
P
Mu.P = ⋅ k b.P ⋅ Stu.P
32
where Stu.P is the ultimate tensile strength of the pin material and kb.P is the plastic bending
coe cient. According to the Air Force Manual, "the value of kb.P varies from 1.0 for a perfectly elastic
pin to 1.7 for a perfectly plastic pin, with a value of 1.56 for pins made from reasonably ductile
materials (more than 5% elongation)."
Pi n Stron g or Weak i n Ben d i n g?

Once the pin strengths are calculated, determine whether the pin is strong or weak in bending. If the
pin ultimate bending load (Pub.P ) is greater than either the pin ultimate shear load (Pus.P ) or the
nominal ultimate joint load (Pu.J.nom ) , then the pin is relatively strong and is not critical in bending.
Otherwise, the pin is weak and is critical in bending.
Yes → Strong Pin

Pub.P ≥ Pu.J.nom or Pub.P ≥ Pub.P ?
No → Weak Pin
Stron g Pi n
If the pin is strong, the joint strength will be limited by either the pin shear strength or by the
nominal joint strength. In the case of a strong pin, the pin ultimate bending load is calculated
assuming that the load distributes evenly over the full width of the lugs:
3
πD ⋅ k b.P ⋅ Stu.P
P
Pub.P =
t1 t2
16 ( + + g)
2 4
The equation above is the same as the equation presented earlier for the ultimate pin bending load,
but with the terms combined into a single equation.
For a strong pin, the pin bending does not a ect the joint strength and the ultimate joint load is equal
to the nominal ultimate joint load:
Pu.J = Pu.J.nom
Weak Pi n
If the pin is weak in bending, then the load will not be distributed evenly over the lug widths. Instead,
the load will concentrate toward the shear planes, and the inner portions of the lugs will be relatively
unloaded. Because of this, the lugs will fail at a lower load than predicted.
To account for the low pin bending strength, a "balanced design" ultimate load is calculated. The goal
is to determine the actual bearing widths over which the lugs support the load. Instead of the load
being supported over the full lug thicknesses, t1 and t2 , the load will instead be distributed over
some smaller widths, b1 and b2 , as shown in the gure below. It is assumed that the load is uniformly
distributed over these widths.
Reducing the bearing width has two e ects:
The ultimate load is reduced for the lugs (the lugs fail at a lower load).
The moment arm for the pin is reduced, which increases the pin's ultimate bending load (the
pin fails at a higher load).
The new, increased value of the pin ultimate bending load is calculated by:
3
πD ⋅ k b.P ⋅ Stu.P
P
Pub.P =
b1 b2
16 ( + + g)
2 2
where, in the equation above, b1 and 2b2 were substituted for t1 and t2 from the previous pin
bending equation.
The trick is to nd the values of b1 and b2 that result in the "balanced design" ultimate load. To
determine the balanced design ultimate load, reduce the bearing widths of each of the lugs until the
ultimate load for the lugs are equal to one other as well as equal to the ultimate bending load of the
pin. This requires an iterative process.
Once the balanced design ultimate load is found, the ultimate joint load and the pin ultimate bending
load are each equal to the balanced load:
Pu.J = Pub.P = Pbalanced
Cal cu l ate Al l owab l e Load for Joi n t

The ultimate joint load (Pu.J ) should have been calculated in one of the two previous sections,
depending on whether the pin was strong or weak in bending:
Strong pin: Pu.J = Pu.J.nom
Weak pin: Pu.J = Pbalanced
The overall ultimate load accounting for both the ultimate joint load and the ultimate pin shear load
is calculated by:
Pult = min (Pu.J , Pus.P )
The factor of safety is calculated by:
Pult
FS =
Papplied
ASME BTH Method

The ASME method of lug analysis is described in ASME BTH-1, "Design of Below-the-Hook Lifting
Devices." This method considers the following failure modes, where the numbers correspond to the
gure:
1. Tension failure across the net section

2. Shear failure along two planes
3. Bearing failure
4. Fracture on single plane
While the factor of safety on dishing (out-of-plane buckling) is not explicitly calculated, the e ective
width calculation accounts for the lug thickness in an attempt to protect against dishing failure.
The dimensions of interest for the lug analysis are shown in the gure below:
The dimensions from the gure include:
Dh = hole diameter
Dp = pin diameter
be = net width (distance between the edge of the hole and the edge of the lug in the transverse
direction)
R = edge distance (distance from the center of the hole to the edge of the lug in the direction
of applied load)
r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R )
a = distance from the edge of the hole to the edge of the lug = R − 0.5Dh
t = thickness (not shown in gure -- thickness is into the page)
Z = loss in shear plane length due to curvature at the end of the lug
ϕ = shear plane locating angle
Correction Factors
The analysis in ASME BTH is very similar to the simpli ed analysis (/theory/lug-analysis#simpli ed-
analysis), with the exception of several correction factors that are calculated based on test results.
These correction factors are discussed below.
Stren gth Red u cti on Factor

The lug strength is reduced as the t between the pin and the hole is loosened. The lug strength is
not much a ected as long as the pin and hole are a relatively tight t. ASME de nes a strength
reduction factor that can be used to account for the pin-to-hole clearance as:
∣1 if Dp /Dh > 0.9

∣ −−−−−−
Cr = 2
Dp
∣
1 − 0.275√1 − otherwise
2
∣ Dh
where Dp is the pin diameter and Dh is the hole diameter.
Sh ear Pl an e Locati n g An gl e
A shear plane locating angle, ϕ, is used to locate the two planes along which shear tear out occurs, as
shown in the gure:
A larger value of ϕ results in a larger shear plane area. Other methodologies commonly take ϕ as a
constant value (typically 40°), but ASME relates it to the ratio of the pin diameter to the hole diameter
such that a loose- tting pin has a smaller shear plane area than a tight- tting pin:
Dp
∘
ϕ = 55
Dh
E ecti ve Wi d th
The term be is referred to as the net width and is the distance between the edge of the hole and the
edge of the lug in the transverse direction, as shown in the gure:
In the tension calculations, an e ective width is calculated and is the smallest of the following:
• beff.1 = be The e ective width should not be larger than the actual net
width.
• beff.2 = 4t This limit is intended to protect against dishing failure (once

the lug thickness drops below 1/4 of the net width be , the
e ective width is driven down). This limit can be ignored if
the lug is sti ened or constrained against buckling.
−−
−
• beff.3 = 0.6be
Stu
√
Dh This equation is empirical, tted to test results.
Sty be
The e ective width is calculated as:
beff = min (beff.1 , beff.2 , beff.3 )
Desi gn Factor & Servi ce

https://mechanicalc.com/theory/lug-analysis Cl ass 20/27
Desi gn Factor & Servi ce Cl ass
A design factor (i.e. required factor of safety), Nd , is used in the strength calculations. The value for
Nd can be found from the table below:
Desi gn
Con d i ti on
Factor
Design Category A lifters (predictable loads, accurately de ned or non-severe
Nd = 2.00
environmental conditions, no more than 20,000 load cycles)
Design Category B lifters (unpredictable loads, uncertain or severe environmental
Nd = 3.00
conditions)
A service class is used to account for fatigue life and is de ned based on the table below:
Servi ce Cl ass Load Cycl es

0 0 - 20,000
1 20,001 - 100,000
2 100,001 - 500,000
3 500,001 - 2,000,000
4 Over 2,000,000
Lu g Stren gth Cal cu l ati on s

These strength calculations are only applicable for axially applied loads, as indicated by the applied
force arrow in the gure below:
To determine whether the lug has su cient strength, calculate a factor of safety for each of the
failure modes described below. As long as the applied force is within the allowable load, and as long
as each factor of safety is acceptable, then the lug can be considered to pass.
Ten si l e Stren gth

The ultimate tensile load is the load that would result in tensile failure across the net section, and is
given by:
Pt.u = Cr ⋅ Stu ⋅ At
where Cr is the strength reduction factor (/theory/lug-analysis#ASME-strength-reduction-factor) and

Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of the lug. At is the area of the net section and is calculated by:
At = 2 ⋅ t ⋅ beff
where beff is the e ective width (/theory/lug-analysis#ASME-e ective-width) and t is the lug
thickness.
The allowable tensile load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pt.u
Pt =
1.20Nd
Note that the allowable tensile load is based on the design factor multiplied by 1.20. ASME requires
the design factor for some of the strength calculations to be higher than the nominal value. The
factor of safety is given by:
Pt.u
F St =
Fapp
To meet ASME BTH, the factor of safety must be at least 1.20Nd , but the required factor of safety
may be larger depending on customer requirements or engineering judgement.
Si n gl e Pl an e Fractu re Stren gth

The ultimate single plane fracture load is the load that would result in failure along the plane
collinear with the applied load, and is given by:
Pb.u = Cr ⋅ Stu ⋅ Ab

Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of the lug. Ab is an e ective area that is calculated as:
Dh 0.92be
Ab = [1.13 (R − )+ ] ⋅ t
2 1 + be /Dh
where R is the edge distance, Dh is the hole diameter, be is the net width, and t is the lug thickness.
The allowable single plane fracture load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pb.u
Pb =
1.20Nd
Pb.u
F Sb =
Fapp
Dou b l e Pl an e Fractu re Stren gth

The ultimate double plane shear load is the load that would result in shear tear out along the two
planes, and is given by:
Pv.u = 0.70Stu Av

Stu is the ultimate tensile strength of the lug. Av is the total area of the two shear planes and is
given by:
Dp
Av = 2 ⋅ [a + (1 − cos (ϕ)) − Z] ⋅ t
2
where ϕ is the shear plane locating angle (/theory/lug-analysis#ASME-shear-plane-angle) and Z is

the loss in shear plane length due to the curvature at the end of the lug. This loss is calculated as:
−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−
2
Dp
2
Z = r − √r −( sin (ϕ))
2
Note that if the lug end is at then r is in nity and Z is zero.
The allowable double plane shear load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pv.u
Pv =
1.20Nd
Pv.u
F Sv =
Fapp
Beari n g Stren gth

The ultimate bearing load is the load that would result in bearing failure on either the lug or the pin.
This ultimate load is dependent on the number of load cycles that the connection will be subjected to,
and is given by:
∣ 1.25 ⋅ Sty.min ⋅ Ap for Service Class 0

Pp.u = ∣
∣ 0.63 ⋅ Sty.min ⋅ Ap for Service Class 1 or higher
where Sty.min is the minimum yield strength between the lug and the pin (i.e.
Sty.min = min (Sty.lug , Sty.pin ) ). Ap is the pin bearing area and is calculated by:
Ap = Dp t
The allowable bearing load is based on the design factor, Nd , and is given by:
Pp.u
Pp =
Nd
Pp.u
F Sp =
Fapp
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Appendix
Discrepancy With Air Force Manual - Oblique Loading

The Air Force Manual speci es to calculate the factor of safety for an obliquely loaded lug
(/theory/lug-analysis#air-force-oblique-lug) by drawing a line from the origin that intersects with the
allowable load curve, where the slope of the line is given by:
Pu.L
m =
Ptru.L
where Pu.L is the ultimate load for an axially loaded lug and Ptru.L is the ultimate load for a
transversely loaded lug.
The problem with using the above equation for the slope is that the intersection line is the same
regardless of the angle of the applied force. This problem is illustrated in the gure below:
If the applied force is at an angle of 5° such that it is almost entirely axial, then the point for the
applied load would lie along the blue line as shown in the gure, and the intersection point should
re ect a factor of safety that is very close to that of a pure axially loaded lug. Likewise, if the applied
force is at an angle of 85° such that it is almost entirely transverse, then the point for the applied load
would lie along the red line as shown in the gure, and the intersection point should re ect a factor
of safety that is very close to that of a pure transversely loaded lug. Based on this reasoning, the slope
of the line should re ect the applied loading condition:
Ptr /Ptru.L Ptr Pu.L

m = =
Pax /Pu.L Ptru.L Pax
Notes
N ote 1: Lu g & Cl evi s Rel ati ve Si z i n g

It should be noted that the gure showing the lug with the clevis pin (/theory/lug-analysis#plot-lug-
failure-modes) does not accurately depict the relative sizing. The clevis pin should be a relatively tight
t in the lug. Per ASME, the pin diameter should be at least 90% of the lug hole diameter to avoid a
reduction in the joint strength (/theory/lug-analysis#ASME-strength-reduction-factor).
N ote 2: Axi al Load Coe ci en t Pl ot

The variable names used in the Axial Load Coe cient plot (/theory/lug-analysis#plot-axial-load-coe -
thin) from the Air Force Manual are inconsistent with the rest of the variable names throughout the
manual. This plot originated in Melcon & Hoblit, and the variable names from the plot were not
updated to match. The Air Force Manual uses the variable e for edge distance (center of hole to edge
of lug) and a for the distance between the edge of the hole to the edge of the lug. However, the plot
uses a for the edge distance (center of hole to edge of lug).
N ote 3: Reci p rocal Average for Tran sverse Lu g Di men si on s

The e ective edge distance for a transversely loaded lug (/theory/lug-analysis#air-force-transverse-
lug) is calculated using a reciprocal average. The e ect of the reciprocal average is that the result is
dominated by the smaller terms such that a disproportionately large value will not drive up the
average much, but a disproportionately small value will drop the average signi cantly (i.e. a weak link
-- this is the same e ect seen by placing springs in series). The use of this equation for calculating the
e ective edge distance for a transversely loaded lug originated with Melcon and Hoblit. They stated
that the reason for the coe cient 3 on the h1 term was to reduce scatter on their test data, but that
it made sense because in a transversely loaded lug the h1 section will be taking most of the load.
N ote 4: Rel ati on sh i p Between Ul ti mate Load Comp on en ts for Ob l i q u e Load i n g

To calculate the ultimate load components for an obliquely loaded lug (/theory/lug-analysis#air-force-
oblique-lug), it is necessary to determine a relationship between the ultimate components. It is known
that the actual load ratios are proportional to the ultimate load ratios since these ratios lie along the
same load line:
Rtr Rtr.ult
=
Rax Rax.ult
Express the ratios in terms of the load components and simplify:
Ptr Pu.L.B Ptr.ult Pu.L.B

⋅ = ⋅
Ptru.L.B Pax Ptru.L.B Pax.ult
Ptr Ptr.ult
=
Pax Pax.ult
The load components are related by the angle of the applied load:
Ptr Ptr.ult
tan (α) = =
Pax Pax.ult
N ote 5: Factor of Safety for Ob l i q u e Load i n g

It should be noted that the factor of safety for an obliquely loaded lug (/theory/lug-analysis#air-force-
oblique-lug) can be incorporated into the allowable load curve itself by:
1.6 1.6 1.6

Pax.allow Ptr.allow 1
( ) +( ) = ( )
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B FS
The factor of safety can then be calculated directly by:
0.625
⎛ ⎞
1
FS = ⎜ ⎟
⎜ 1.6 1.6 ⎟
Pax.allow Ptr.allow
⎝( ) +( ) ⎠
Pu.L.B Ptru.L.B
References
Gen eral Referen ces:
1. ASME BTH-1, "Design of Below-the-Hook Lifting Devices," The American Society of Mechanical
Engineers, 2014.
2. Bruhn, E.F., "Analysis and Design of Flight Vehicle Structures," June 1973.
3. Melcon, M.A and F.M. Hoblit, "Development in the Analysis of Lugs and Shear Pins," Product
Engineering, June 1953.
4. "Stress Analysis Manual," Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory, October 1986.
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What are the different failure modes of a lug?

What are the different failure modes of a lug?

What are the common methods used to analyze lugs?

What are the common methods used to analyze lugs?

12/4/2016 Lug Analysis - MechaniCalc

strongbacks with pad-eyes, lifted with shackles and other rigging

rotation between components is possible

1. Tension failure across the net section

There are several common methods of analyzing a lug:

All of these methods are described in the following sections.

In the simpli ed analysis, the following failure modes are considered:

Tension failure across the net section

The dimensions in the gure are:

r = radius of curvature of edge of lug (greater than or equal to R)

a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = R − 0.5Dh

t = thickness (not shown in gure -- thickness is into the page)

Z = loss in shear plane length due to curvature at end of lug

ϕ = shear plane locating angle = 40°

Tension Failure Across Net Section

The area of the net section is given by:

The factor of safety is given by:

Shear Tear Out Along Two Planes

The total shear plane area is given by:

Note that if the lug end is at then r is in nity and Z is zero.

where Ssu is the ultimate shear strength of the lug material.

The factor of safety is given by:

The bearing area is given by:

Pbru = Sbru Abr

The factor of safety is given by:

Air Force Method

The dimensions from the gure include:

a = distance from edge of hole to edge of lug = e − 0.5D

Beari n g Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

∣ Fbru.L Dt if Stu ≤ 1.304Sty

e/D < 1.5 e/D ≥ 1.5

Bu sh i n g Beari n g Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

N et Secti on Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

∣ Fnu.L (w − D)t if Stu ≤ 1.304Sty

Ultimate Net-Section Stress: Fnu.L = K n Stu

Yield Net-Section Stress: Fny.L = K n Sty

Pnu.L = K n ⋅ min (Stu , 1.304Sty ) ⋅ (w − D) ⋅ t

Desi gn Stren gth Un d er Axi al Load

Pu.L.B = min (Pbru.L , Pnu.L , Pu.B )

Lu g Stren gth Un d er Tran sverse Load

∣ Fbru.L Dt if Stu ≤ 1.304Sty

Ultimate Bearing Stress: Fbru.L = K tru Stu

Yield Bearing Stress: Fbry.L = K try Sty

Bu sh i n g Beari n g Stren gth Un d er Tran sverse Load

Desi gn Stren gth Un d er Tran sverse Load

Ptru.L.B = min (Ptru.L , Ptru.B )

Axi al Load Rati o Tran sverse Load Rati o

Ul ti mate Axi al Load Rati o Ul ti mate Tran sverse Load Rati o

Ptr.ult = Pax.ult ⋅ tan (α)

The ultimate applied load can then be determined by:

The factor of safety is calculated by: (Note 5) (/theory/lug-analysis#note-factor-of-safety-oblique)

Double Shear Joint Strength

Cal cu l ate Joi n t Stren gth Ign ori n g Pi n E ects

Pu.J.nom = min (2 ⋅ Pult.F , Pult.M )

Cal cu l ate Pi n Sh ear an d Ben d i n g Stren gth s

Pin Shear Strength