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Physics Notes - HSSC - I

Reduced Syllabus

Name: _____________________

Class/section:______________

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 REDUCED SYLLABUS PHYSICS HSSC-I
01. MEASUREMENTS
1.2 Supplementary units (Radian, Steradians)
1.8 Precision and accuracy
1.9 Dimensions of physical quantities.
02. VECTORS AND EQUILIBRIUM
2.6 Addition of vectors by rectangular components.
2.7 Product of vectors.
2.9 Torque
2.10 Equilibrium.
2.11 Conditions of equilibrium.
03. FORCES AND MOTION
3.8 Linear momentum.
3.9 Collisions
3.11 Projectile Motion.
04. WORK AND ENERGY
4.1 Work done by a constant force, work done by a variable force.
4.2 Work done in a gravitational field.
4.6 Absolute Potential energy.
4.7 Escape velocity.
05. ROTATIONAL AND CIRCULAR MOTION
5.1 Angular Motion
5.2 Relation between angular and linear quantities.
5.3 Centripetal Force and Centripetal Acceleration
5.4 Torque and moment of inertia.
5.5 Angular momentum and torque.
5.6 Conversation of Angular Momentum
5.7 K.E of rotation.
5.8 Rolling of a Disc and hoop down the inclined plane.
06. FLUID DYNAMICS
6.1 Viscous Fluids
6.2 Fluid Friction and Stoke’s Law
6.3 Terminal Velocity
6.4 Equation of continuity.
07. OSCILLATIONS
7.4 Circular motion and S.H.M.
7.5 Simple Pendulum.
7.7 Resonance
7.9 Phase
7.10 Damped Oscillations
08. WAVES
8.4 Speed of sound.
8.8 Beats
8.9 Reflection of Waves and Phase Change
8.10 Stationary Waves.
8.11 Transverse Stationary waves in a stretched string.
8.13 Resonance of air column and organ pipes.
8.14 Doppler’s effect.
 2

09. PHYSICAL OPTICS

9.3 Huygen’s Principle.
9.4 Coherent Sources.
9.5 Interference of Light.
9.8 Michelson’s interferometer.
9.9 Diffraction of Light
9.10 Diffraction at a Single Slit
9.11 Diffraction grating.
9.12 Diffraction of x-rays by crystals.
9.13 Polarization of light, Applications of polarized light.
10. THERMODYNAMICS
10.5 Thermodynamic System.
10.6 Reversible and Irreversible Processes
10.7 First law of thermodynamics.
10.8 Molar specific heat of a gas.
10.9 Heat engine.
10.10 Second law of thermodynamics.
10.11 Carnot heat engine.
10.13 Entropy.

NOTE: All MCQs, short questions and problems

relevant to the abovementioned topics are included.

Assignments, short questions and problems relevant to the

reduced syllabus topics

Unit # Assignment SRQs Numerical

1 1.1,1.6,1.7 1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9 1,2,6
2 2.2,2.3,2.4 4-10 3-9
3 3.4,3.5,3.6 5o-12 3-7
4 4.2 6,10 3,7,11
5 5.1,5.2,5.3,5,5,5.6,5.7 1,2,3,4,5,6,8,9,11 1-12
6 6.1,6.2 1,2,3,4 1,2,3
7 7.2,7.3,7.4 1-10 1-10
8 8.1,8.2,8.3,8.5,8.6 1,3,4,6-11 4,6,7-13
9 9.2 2-11 3,5,6,7,8,9,
10 10.1,10.2,10.3 1-11 1-11
 3

UNIT # 01 MEASUREMENTS
Exercise Conceptual Questions

1. For an answer to be complete, the units need to be specified. Why?

Ans : An answer without a unit is meaningless and incomplete because measurements of

physical quantities are expressed and compared in terms of a standard units in a meaningful
way
For example: If length of a room is expressed as 7, it is not a complete answer. For an answer
to be meaningful, some unit of length need to be specified i.e. 7m or 7ft.

2. What are the advantages of using International System of Units (SI)?

Ans : Advantages of using international system of units:

i) They are accepted worldwide.
ii) It is coherent system of units i.e. a system based on certain set of fundamental
units.
iii) It is rational system of units i.e. it assigns only one unit to a particular physical
quantity.
iv) It is metric system i.e. multiples and sub-multiple of the system can be
expressed as the power of 10.
v) It is simpler system which based on the decimal system and makes arithmetic
(adding and subtracting) easier.

3. How many radians account for the circumference of a circle? How many
steradians account for the circumference of a circle?

Ans : Radians account for circumference of a circle : By definition of radian, radians account
for circumference of a circle are
Circumference of Circle
Number of radians in a circle =
Radius of same circle
2πr
Number of radians in a circle =
r
Number of radians in a circle = 2π
Steradians account for circumference of a sphere: By definition of steradians, steradians
account for a circumference of a sphere are;
Area of sphere
Number of steradians in a sphere =
Square of Radius of sphere
4π r2
Number of steradians in a sphere e =
r2
Number of steradians in a sphere = .4π

5. Why indicating more digits in an answer, does not make it more accurate?

Ans : Indicating more digits in an answer does not make it more accurate because in
measurements, precision (least count) describes the degree of exactness with which
measurement is made and stated
For example: If length of a book measured with meter rod, having least count 0.1 cm, is stated
as 23.37 cm, then this is wrong and not precise. The correct expression is 0 23.3 cm. Therefore,
indicating more digits in an answer does not make it accurate.
 4

6. What determines precision of a measurement?

Ans :The precision of a measurement is determined by the position of the last significant digit in
a measurement.
For example: The precision of the measurement 293,000 km is 1000 km because the position
of the last significant digit is in thousands place. Similarly, precision of 0.0210 s is 0.00001 s
because the position of the last significant digit is in ten thousandth place.

7. If two quantities have different dimensions, is it possible to multiply and/or divide.

Can we add and/or subtract them?
Ans :Yes, it is possible to multiply and/or divide any two quantities having different
dimensions.
For example:
dim [ ] of mass × dim [ ] of speed = [MLT-1]
It is the dimension of momentum
it is not possible to add and/or subtract any two quantities having different dimensions.
For example:
dim [] of mass + dim [] of length = [M] + [L]
It is not the dimension of any physical quantity.

8. The human pulse and the swing of a pendulum are possible time units. Why are
they not often used?
Ans : Human Pulse rate cannot be used as time standard because:
i) It is a rate per minute and not the rate per second.
ii) It depends on atmospheric pressure, hence it may change with altitude
iii) It changes with motion of body.
iv) It may also change due to age factor.
The swing of a swing of a pendulum cannot be used as a time standard because:
i) The value of gravitational acceleration changes from place to place, which
causes to effect the results when measured at different places
ii) The temperature changes of the season also change the time period of the
pendulum due to change in length of pendulum.
iii) The air resistance also effect the time period of pendulum.

9. If an equation is dimensionally correct, is that equation a right equation?

Ans : If an equation is dimensionally correct, it does not mean that the equation is a right
equation. On the other hand, when the equation is dimensionally not correct, the equation
cannot be a right equation.
For example;
Consider the following equation,
S = at2 + gt2 ---------- (1
Writing dimensions on both sides of eq (1
Dim. [ ] L.H.S = Dim. [ ] R.H.S
[L] = [LT-2T-2] + [LT-2 T-2]
[L] = [L] + [L]
[L] = 2[L] = [L]
Since it is dimensionally correct equation but it is not a right/physical equation.
 5

Assignments

1.1 A pulley of radius 0.9 m is used to lift a bucket from the well. If it took 3.6 rotations
for the pulley to take water out of the well, how deep is the water in the well?
Given data:
Radius of pulley, r = 0.9 m
Number of rotations, N = 3.6
Plane angle, Ɵ = 3.6 ×2π rad = 7.2π rad
Required data:
Depth of well, S =?
Solution:
Using formula,
S = rƟ
S = 0.9 × 7.2π
S = 0.9 × 7.2 × 3.14 = 20.3 m = 20 m

1.6 Show that the equations: (a) vf = vi + at and (b) S = vit + 𝟏𝟐at2
are dimensionally correct.
(a) vf = vi + at
Given:
Dimensions of initial speed, vi = [LT-1]
Dimensions of final speed, vf = [LT-1]
Dimensions of acceleration, a = [LT-2]
Dimensions of time, t = [T]
Required:
vf = vi + at is dimensionally correct
i.e. dim [ ] R.H.S = dim [ ] L.H.S
Solution:
dim [ ] R.H.S. = [LT-1] -----(1
dim [ ] L.H.S. = [LT ] + [LT-2][T]
-1

= [ LT-1] + [LT-2T]
= [LT-1] + [LT-2+1]
= [LT-1] +[LT-1] = = 2[LT-1]
dim[] L.H.S = [LT-1] -----(2
From eq (1 and (2, it is clear that
Dim [ ] R.H.S = Dim [ ] L.H.S.
Therefore, the equation is dimensionally correct.
(b) S = vit + 𝟏𝟐at2
Given:
Dimensions of initial speed, vi = [LT-1]
Dimensions of distance, S = [L]
Dimensions of acceleration, a = [LT-2]
Dimensions of time, t = [T]
 6

Required:
S = vit + 12at2 is dimensionally correct
i.e. dim [ ] R.H.S = dim [ ] L.H.S
Solution:
dim [ ] R.H.S. = [L] -----------(1
𝟏
dim [ ] L.H.S. = [LT-1] [T] + 𝟐
[LT-2] [T2]
= [LT-1T] + [LT-2T2]
= [LT-1+1] + [LT-2-2]
= [LT0] + [LT0] = 2[L]
dim [ ] L.H.S. = [L] -----------(2
From eq (1 and (2, it is clear that
Dim [ ] R.H.S = Dim [ ] L.H.S.
Therefore, the equation is dimensionally correct.

1.7 Find the expression for the time period of a simple pendulum. The time period
‘T’may depend upon
i) mass ‘m’ of the bob of the pendulum,
ii) length ‘l’ of the pendulum,
iii) acceleration due to gravity ‘g’ at the place where the pendulum is
suspended.
Given:
Dimensions of time period, T = [T]
Dimensions of mass, m = [M]
Dimensions of length, l = [L]
Dimensions of acceleration, a = [LT-2]
Required:
Possible formula for tine period,T =?
Solution:
Let ‘’T’ depends upon ‘m’,’l’ and ‘g’ by the following equation
T ∝ ma lb gc
T = k ma lb g- --(1
Where ‘k’ is constant of proportionality. Now, putting appropriate dimensions
[M0 L0 T1] = [M]a [L]b [LT-2]c
[M0] [L0] [T1] = [M]a [L]b=c [T]-2c
Comparing the power of similar physical quantities
For M For L For T
[M0]= [M]a [L0] = [L]b=c [T]1 = [T]-2c
a=0 , 0=b+c , -2c = 1
1
b = -c , c=-2
1
b= 2
Using values of a, b & c in eq (1, we get
T = k m0 l1/2 g-1/2
 7

l1/2
T=k×1
g1/2

𝑙
T = k√
𝑔
Dimensional analysis does not give information about value of constant,
However, from experiments it is known that k = 2π. Thus,
𝑙
T = 2π √
𝑔
 8

Numerical Questions
1. A circular pizza into 3 equal parts, one piece of pizza is taken out. Estimate the
degree measure of the single piece of pizza and convert the measure into radians.
What is the radian measure of the remaining part of pizza?
Given:
Total number of pieces =3
Total degree measure = 3600
Required:
i) Degree measure of each piece =?
ii) Radian measure of each piece =?
iii) Radian measure of two remaining =?
Solution:
3600
i) Degree measure of each piece = = 1200
3
ii) Radian measure of each piece
𝜋
As, 10 = rad
180
𝜋 2𝜋
1200 = 120 × = = 2.09 rad
180 3

iii) Radian measure of two remaining

3600 – 1200 = 2400
𝜋 4𝜋
2400 = 240 × = = 4.19 rad
180 3

2. Find the dimension of:

a) Plank’s constant ‘h’ from formula E = hf.

Where E is the energy and f is frequency
Given:
Dimensions of energy, E = [ML2 T-2 ]
Dimensions of frequency, f = [T=1]
Required:
Dimensions of plank’s constant, h =?
Solution:
As, E = hf
𝑬
h= -------------- (1
𝒇

Putting dimensions of ‘E” and ‘f’ in eq (1

dim [ ] E
dim [ ] h =
dim [ [ f

[M L2 T−2 ]
=
[𝑻−𝟏 ]

dim [ ] h = [M L2 T −2+1 ]
dim [ ] h = [M L2 T −1 ]
 9

𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐
b) Gravitational constant ‘G’ from the formula F = G 𝒓𝟐
Given:
Dimensions of force, F = [M L T-2]
Dimensions of mass, m = [M ]
Dimensions of distance, r = [L]
Required:
Dimensions of plank’s constant, h =?
Solution:
r2
As, G=F
m1 m2
[𝐌 𝐋𝐓 −𝟐 ] [𝐋𝟐 ]
[G]= [𝐌 ][𝐌 ]

{𝐌𝐋𝟏+𝟐 𝐓 −𝟐 ]
[G]= [𝐌 𝟐 ]

[ G ] = [𝑴𝟏−𝟐 𝐋𝟑 𝐓 −𝟐 ]
[ G ] = [𝑴−𝟏 𝐋𝟑 𝐓 −𝟐 ]

6 Show that,
𝟏
(a) KE = 𝟐mv2 and (b) PE = mgh
are dimensionally correct.

𝟏
(a) KE = 𝟐mv2
Given:
Dimensions of initial speed, vi = [LT-1]
Dimensions of mass, m = [M ]
Dimensions of energy, E = [ML2 T-2 ]
Required:
1
KE = 2mv2 is dimensionally correct
i.e. dim [ ] R.H.S = dim [ ] L.H.S
Solution:
dim [ ] R.H.S. = [ML2 T-2 ] -----------(1
1
dim [ ] L.H.S. = [M] [LT-1] 2
2

= [M] [L2 T-2]

dim [ ] L.H.S. = [ML2 T-2 ] -----------(2
From eq (1 and (2, it is clear that
Dim [ ] R.H.S = Dim [ ] L.H.S.
Therefore, the equation is dimensionally correct.

(b) P E = mgh
Given:
Dimensions of mass, m = [M]
Dimensions of acceleration, g = [LT-2]
Dimensions of height, h = [L]
Dimensions of energy, E = [ML2 T-2 ]
 10

Required:
PE = mgh is dimensionally correct
i.e. dim [ ] R.H.S = dim [ ] L.H.S
Solution:
dim [ ] R.H.S. = [ML2 T-2 ] -----------(1
dim [ ] L.H.S. = [M] [LT-2] [L]
= [ML1 + 1 T-2]
dim [ ] L.H.S. = [ML2 T-2 ] -----------(2
From eq (1 and (2, it is clear that
Dim [ ] R.H.S = Dim [ ] L.H.S.
Therefore, the equation is dimensionally correct.
 11

UNIT # 02 VECTORS AND EQUILIBRIUM

Conceptual Questions
4. Can a scalar product of two vectors be negative? Provide a proof and give
example.

Ans : Yes, a scalar product of two vectors can be negative if the angle between them is greater
than 900 and less than 2700 .
Explanation: Consider two vectors 𝐴⃗ and 𝐵
⃗⃗ are making an angle of180° with one another then,
their scalar product is negative i.e.

𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠1800
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵(−1) ∵ cos1800 = - 1
𝑨. 𝑩 = −𝐴𝐵
For example: In lifting the bucket up the well, the work done is negative because weight is
acting in downward direction and the displacement covered is in the upward direction, as shown
in the figure:
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝒘.𝒅 = 𝑤𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠θ d
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑤𝑑𝑐𝑜𝑠1800 as, cos1800 = - 1
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = 𝑤𝑑(−1)
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 = −𝑤𝑑
w

5. A and B are two nonzero vectors. How can their scalar product be zero? And how
can their vector product be zero?

Ans : The scalar product of two non-zero vectors be zero;

The scalar product of two non-zero vectors A and B is zero if they are mutually
perpendicular to each other i.e. angle between them is 900.

As 𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠θ
Then 𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵𝑐𝑜𝑠900
𝑨. 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵(0) ∵ cos 900 = 0
𝑨. 𝑩 = 0
The Vector product of two non-zero vectors be zero;
The vector product of two non-zero vectors A and B is zero if they are parallel to each other.
i.e. angle between them is 00.
As 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵θ sin
Then 𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵 𝑠𝑖𝑛00
𝑨 × 𝑩 = 𝐴𝐵(0) ∵ sin 00 = 0
𝑨×𝑩 = 0
 12

6. Suppose you are given a known nonzero vector A. The scalar product of vector A
with an unknown vector B is zero. Likewise, the vector product of A with B is zero.
What can you conclude about vector B?

Ans : As A is a nonzero and scalar product of vector A with an unknown vector B is zero.
Likewise, the vector product of A with B is zero. This is only possible if vector B is null vector.

Case 1: if, scalar product of given two vectors is zero.

i.e. A.B = 0

Then, either A=0, or B=0 or θ= 90°

As, A ǂ 0
So, either B=0 or θ= 90°

Case 2: Similarly, vector product of given two vectors is zero.

i.e. A×B = 0 ,

Either A=0, or B=0 or θ= 0°

As, A ǂ 0
So, either B=0 or θ= 0°

Conclusion : It is not possible to have θ= 0° and θ= 90° simultaneously. Hence, it is proved that
vector B is a null vector.

7. Why a particle experiencing only one force cannot be in equilibrium?

Ans : A particle experiencing only one force cannot be in equilibrium because the net force due
to a single force acting on the particle is not zero. While for a body to be in equilibrium minimum
number of two forces is required.
Explanation: force is a vector quantity and follows vector roles. For a particle to be in
equilibrium requires second force of equal magnitude and opposite direction to first force.
According to first condition of equilibrium if
∑𝑭 = 0
F≠0
Thus, a particle experiencing only one force cannot be in equilibrium

8. To open a door that has the handle on the right and the hinges on the left, a torque
must be applied.is the torque clockwise or counter clockwise when viewed from
above? Does your answer depend on whether the door opens towards or away
from you?

Ans : Yes, the torque depends on whether the door opens towards or away from you when
viewed from above. If the door opens towards you, the torque will be clockwise and If the door
opens away from you, the torque will be anti-clockwise.
Explanation:
Consider a door that has the handle on the right and the hinges on the left. If the door
is opened towards you torque is clockwise when viewed from above. Similarly, if the door is
opened away from you the torque is counter clockwise when viewed from above.
 13

9. `Explain the warning “never use a large wrench to tighten a small bolt”

Ans: Never use a large wrench to tighten a small bolt because there is likelihood that a bolt
might got slip.
Explanation : Torque is directly proportionality to moment arm
i.e. т𝛼𝑟
Greater the moment arm greater is the torque produced. Large wrench has large
momentum arm and if used to tighten the small bolt then there is a possibility of slipping of bolt.
So, to avoid this problem there is a warning that “never use a large wrench to tighten a
small bolt”.

10. A central force is one that is always directed toward the same point. Can a central
force give rise to a torque about that point?
Ans : No, a central force cannot give rise to a torque about a point”
Explanation; The angle between a central force and the moment arm is always 1800.
Therefore, torque about a point is zero.
By formula of torque,
т = Fd sin𝜃
т = Fd sin180
т = Fd (0) ∵ sin 1800 = 0
т=0
Example: Gravitational force is a central force and does not produce any torque on the motion
of a satellite.
 14

Assignments

2.2 A force F1 = 20N making an angle Ɵ1 = 300 with positive x-axis and force F2 = 30N
making an angle Ɵ2 = 1500 with positive x-axis, acts at appoint, calculate the
resultant force.

Given data:
Force, F1 = 20N
Force, F2 = 30N
Angle, Ɵ1 = 300
Angle, Ɵ2 = 1500
Required data:
Resultant force, F =?
Resultant angle, ƟR =?
Solution:
Using formula
F = √Fx 2 + Fy 2 -------------(1
Fx = F1x + F2x -------------(2 and Fy = F1y + F2y -------------(3
For vector F1
F1x = F1 cos Ɵ1= 20 cos 300 = 20 × 0.0866 = 17.32 N
F1y = F1 sin Ɵ1 = 20 sin 300 = 20 × 0.5 = 10 N
For vector F2
F2x = F2 cos Ɵ2= 30 cos 1500 = 20 × (-0.0866) = 25.98 N
F2y = F2 sin Ɵ2 = 30 sin 1500 = 20 × 0.5 =1N
Eq (2 implies Fx = 17.32 - 15.98 = -8.66 N
Eq (3 implies Fy = 10 N + 15 N = 25 N
Eq (1 inplies F = √(−8.66)2 + (25)2
F = 26.46 N
For determining angle, using
𝐹𝑦 25
Ɵ = tan-1 𝐹𝑥 = tan-1 8.66 = 70.890

As, Fx is negative and Fy is positive, therefore the resultant force lies in 2nd quadrant,
where
ƟR = 1800 - Ɵ
ƟR = 1800 - 70.890 = 109.110

2.3 Tow forces of 20N and 10 N are making an angle 1200 with each other. Find the
single pull that would (a) the given force system (b) balance the given force
system.

Given data:
Force, F1 = 20N
Force, F2 = 10N
 15

Required data:
(a) Resultant, F =?
(b) Balancing force, FB =?
Solution:
(a) Resultant, F =?

Let F1 is along x-axis i.e. Ɵ1 = 00 and F2 is making an angle Ɵ2 =1200 with x-axis, as
shown in figure
Now resulting the forces into x and y components
For F1
F1x = F1 cos Ɵ1= 20 cos 00 = 20 × 1 = 20 N
F1y = F1 sin Ɵ1 = 20 sin 00 = 20 × 0 = 0 N
For F2
F2x = F2 cos Ɵ2= 10 cos 1200 = 10 × (-0.5) = -5 N
F2y = F2 sin Ɵ2 = 10 sin 1200 = 20 × 0.866 = 8.66 N
Fx = F1x + F2x = = 20 - 5 = 15 N -------------(1
and Fy = F1y + F2y = 0 + 8.66 = 8.66 N -------------(2
Using formula
F = √Fx 2 + Fy 2 -------------(3
Using eq (1 and eq (2 in eq (3 i.e.
F = √(15)2 + (8.66)2 = 17.32 N

For determining angle, using

𝐹𝑦
Ɵ = tan-1 𝐹𝑥
8.66
Ɵ = tan-1 15
= 300
As, Fx and Fy are both positive, therefore the resultant force lies in 1st quadrant, where
ƟR = Ɵ
ƟR = 300
(b) Balancing force, FB =?
Now to balance the given forces, a force of same magnitude to F = FR = 17.32 N is required to
act in the opposite direction with an angle ƟR = 1800 + Ɵ
ƟR = 1800 + 300 = 2100
 16

2.4 Show that ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗

𝑨.𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗)2 + ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑨×𝑩 ⃗⃗⃗)2 = A2B2

Solution:
As, ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 . ⃗𝐁⃗ = AB cosƟ
And ⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀×𝐁 ⃗⃗ = AB sinƟ n̂

( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
A.B⃗⃗)2 + ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
A×B⃗⃗)2 = (AB cosƟ) 2 + (AB sinƟ n̂)2
= A2B2 cos2Ɵ + A2B2 sin2Ɵ (n̂. n̂)
= A2B2 cos2Ɵ + A2B2 sin2Ɵ (1) ∵ n̂. n̂ = 1
= A2B2 (cos2Ɵ + sin2Ɵ)
= A2B2 (1) ∵ cos2Ɵ + sin2Ɵ = 1
( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
A.B⃗⃗)2 + ( ⃗⃗⃗⃗
A×B⃗⃗)2 = A2B2
 17

Numerical Questions
3. A 1.84 kg school bag hangs in the middle of a clothesline, causing it to sag by an
angle of Ɵ = 3.50. Find the tension T in the clothesline?
Given:
Mass of school bag, m = 1.84 kg
Sagging angle, Ɵ = 3600
Required:
Tension in the clothesline, T =?
Solution:
Applying 1st condition of
equilibrium i.e.
∑ Fx = 0
⇒ Tx – Tx = 0
⇒ Tx = Tx
and
∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0
⇒ Ty + Ty – w = 0
2Ty = w
2Tsin Ɵ = w
𝒘
𝑻=
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 Ɵ
𝒎𝒈
=
𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 Ɵ
𝟏. 𝟖𝟒 × 𝟗. 𝟖
= = 148 N
𝟐𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝟑𝟔𝟎

4. Find the magnitude and direction of vectors represented by the following pair of
components.

a) 𝑨𝒙
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = - 2.3 cm, 𝑨𝒚
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = +4.1 cm ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = + 3.9 m,
𝒃) 𝑨𝒙 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = - 1.8 m
𝑨𝒚
Given data: Given data:
Vector along x-axis, Ax= -2.3 cm Vector along x-axis, Ax = 3.9 m
Vector along y-axis, Ay = +4.1 cm Vector along y-axis, Ay = -1.8 m
Required data: Required data:
Resultant vector, A =? Resultant vector, A =?
Resultant angle, ƟR =? Resultant angle, ƟR =?
Solution: Solution:
Using formula Using formula
A= √Ax 2 + Ay 2 -------------(1 A = √Ax 2 + Ay 2 -------------(1
Eq (1 inplies Eq (1 inplies
A = √(−2.3)2 + (4.1)2 A = √(3.9)2 + (−1.8)2
A = 4.72 cm A = 4.3 m
For determining angle, using For determining angle, using
 18

𝐴𝑦 4.1 𝐴𝑦 1.8
Ɵ = tan-1 = tan-1 = 610 Ɵ = tan-1 = tan-1 = 24.780
𝐴𝑥 2.3 𝐴𝑥 3.9
As, Ax is negative and Ay is positive, As, Ax is positive and Ay is negative,
nd
therefore the resultant vector lies in 2 therefore the resultant vector lies in 4th
quadrant, where quadrant, where
ƟR = 180 - Ɵ
0
ƟR = 3600 - Ɵ
ƟR = 1800 - 610 = 1190 ƟR = 3600 – 24.780 = 335.20

5. Vector F having magnitude 5.5 N makes 100 with x-axis and vector r with
magnitude 4.3 m makes 800 with x-axis. What is the magnitude of their dot and
cross products?
Given:
Vector F, |𝐹̅ | = 5.5 N Ɵ1 = 100
Vector r, |𝑟̅ | = 4.3 m Ɵ2 = 800
Required:
Magnitude of dot product, |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅 . 𝐫⃗| =?
Magnitude of cross product, |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅 × 𝐫⃗| = ?
Solution:
As, 𝜃 is the smaller of the angle between the two vectors.
i.e. Ɵ = Ɵ2 – Ɵ1 = 80 – 10 = 700
|⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅 . 𝐫⃗| = Fr cosƟ = 5.5 × 4.3 cos70 = 8.1 Nm
|⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐅 × 𝐫⃗| = Fr sinƟ = 5.5 × 4.3 sin70 = 22.2 Nm

6. The magnitude of dot and cross product of two vectors 𝟔√𝟑 and 6 respectively.
Find the angle between the vectors.
Given:
Magnitude of dot product, |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 . ⃗𝐁⃗| = 6√3
Magnitude of cross product, |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 × ⃗𝐁⃗| = 6
Required:
Angle between two vectors, Ɵ=?
Solution:
As, |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 .𝐁⃗⃗| = AB cosƟ
⇒ AB cosƟ = 6√3 ---------- (1
And |⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐀 × ⃗𝐁⃗| = AB sinƟ
⇒ AB sinƟ = 6 ---------- (2
Dividing (2 by (1, we get:
AB sinƟ 6
AB cosƟ
= 6√3
1
tan 𝜃 =
√3
1
𝜃 = tan−1 3
√
𝜃 = 300
 19

7. A uniform rod 1 m long with weight 6 N can be supported in a horizontal position

on a sharp edge with weight of 10N and 15 N suspended from its ends. What is the
position of point of balance?
Given:
Weight of rod, w = 6𝑁
Length of rod, L =1m
Weight attached on one side, w2 =10 N
Weight attached on other side, w2 = 15 N
Required:
Position of point of balance, x=?
Solution:

From the figure above, when rod is balanced:

Distance of weight w1, l1 = x
Distance of gravity of rod from x, l = (0.5 – x) m
Distance of weight w2, l2 = x= 1 - x
Let the axis of rotation is A.
Using 2nd condition of equilibrium, we get;
ΤA = ΤC
i.e. w1l1 = Fl + w2l2
w1x = F(0.5 –x) + w2(1 – x)
15x = 6(0.5 – x) + 10(1 - x)
15x = 3 – 6x + 10 – 10x
15x + 6x + 10x = 13
31x = 13
x = 13/31 = 0.42 m

8. A 4.0 m uniform ladder with weight of 120 N leans against a wall making 70 0 above
a cement floor as shown in figure. Assuming the wall is frictionless, but the floor is
not, determine the force exerted on the ladder by floor and by the wall.

Given:
Weight of ladder, w = 120 N
Length of ladder, l =4m
Angle of ladder with floor, Ɵ = 700
Weight attached on other side, w2 = 15 N
 20

Required:
Force exerted by the ladder on the wall, Fw = ?
Force exerted by the ladder on the ground, FG = ?
Solution:
From the figure
Moment arm of the force exerted by the wall, lw = l sin Ɵ = 4 sin70 = 3.76 m
𝑙 4
Moment arm of the weight of the ladder, lL = 2 cos Ɵ = 2 cos 70 = 0.68 m
Let the axis of rotation is A.
Using 2nd condition of equilibrium, we get;

ΤA = ΤC
Fw lw = wlL
Fw × 3.76 = 120 × 0.68
Fw = 22 N
st
Now using 1 condition of equilibrium

∑ Fx = 0

Ff – Fw = 0
Ff = Fw = 22 N
and

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

FN – w = 0
FN = w = 120 N
From figure

F = √𝐹𝑓 2 + 𝐹𝑁 2

F = √(22)2 + (120)2 = 122 N

9. A 450 kg uniform l-beam supports the load of 220 kg as shown. Determine the
reaction at the supports.

Given:
Mass of l-beam, mB = 450 kg
Weight of l-beam, wB = mBg = 450 × 9.8 = 4410 N
Mass of load, mL = 2200 kg
Weight of l-beam, wL = mLg = 2200 × 9.8 = 2156 N
Length of beam, l = 5.6 +2.4 = 8 m
Distance of the load, lL = 5.6 m
Centre of gravity of the beam, lB = 4 m
Required:
Reaction force at A, RA = ?
Reaction force at B, RB = ?
 21

Solution:

Let the axis of rotation is A.

Using 2nd condition of equilibrium, we get;
ΤA = ΤC
T 𝑅𝐵 = TL + TB
RBl = wLlL + wBlB
RB × 8 = 2156 × 5.6 + 4410 × 4
RB = 29714/8
RB = 3714 N
st
Using 1 condition of equilibrium along y-axis

∑ 𝐹𝑦 = 0

RA + RB - wA – wB = 0
RB = wA + wB – RA
RB = 2156 + 4410 – 3714
RB = 2852 N

========================================================================
 22

UNIT # 03 FORCES AND MOTION

Conceptual Questions
5. The cricket coach explains that the follow-through with the shot will make the ball
travel a greater distance. Explain the reasoning in terms if impulse-momentum
theorem.

Ans: Using a fallow-through technique with the shot produces a large impulse on the ball by a
bat which makes the ball travel a greater distance.
Explanation:
By impulse momentum theorem:

𝐽 = ∆𝑃 = 𝐹 ave × ∆𝑡
Thus by increasing the time of contact with the ball and bat, more momentum will be
transferred to the ball and ball travels a larger distance.

6. When you release an inflated but untied balloon, why does it fly across the room?

Ans: The balloon flies across the room to conserve the momentum.
Explanation: ‘
An inflated but untied balloon is an isolated system. Before its release its momentum is
zero. After releasing a balloon the escaping gas gains a momentum in one direction and the
balloon gains momentum in other direction such that total momentum is again zero.

7. Modern cars are not rigid but are designed to have “crumple zones” (irregular
fold) that collapse upon impact. What is the advantage of this new design?

Ans: The ‘crumple zones’ in the modern cars is a safety feature which reduces the impulsive
forces involved in the crash.
Explanation:
When car crashes it decelerates rapidly. Time taken to change the momentum is small
which involves greater forces and can cause injuries.

∆𝑃
As, 𝐹 ave = ∆𝑡
From the above equation, it is clear that crumple zones are designed to collapse on
impact thus increasing the time of impact to change the momentum of the car, which reduces
the impulsive forces involved and any later injuries.

8. Why we hit a long sixer in a cricket match rather than if we toss a ball for
ourselves?

Ans: We can hit a long sixer in a cricket match with bat due to imparting greater momentum to
the ball rather than if we toss a ball for ourselves.
Explanation:
When a batsman swings the bat in midair, the bat gets the momentum. That
momentum is shifted to the ball when it comes in contact with the bat and covers a larger
distance. In case of tossing a ball, we cannot shift much momentum to the ball and hence ball
cannot travel over a long distance.
 23

9. Aeroplane while horizontally drops a bomb when reaches exactly above the target,
but missed it. Explain.

Ans: The bomber misses the target on account of projectile motion of the bomb.
Explanation:
The bomb has a constant horizontal motion at the point of a drop due to
horizontal motion of an aeroplane. If bomb is dropped exactly above the target it strikes ahead
of the target due to constant horizontal motion and inertia.

10. Calculate the angle of projection for which kinetic energy is at the summit is equal
to one-fourth of its kinetic energy at the point of projection.

Ans: The angle of projection for which kinetic energy at the summit is equal to one-fourth of its
kinetic energy at the point of projection is 600.
Explanation:
Consider a projectile projected with initial velocity v0, at an angle Ɵ with x-axis.
The kinetic energy at the point of projection is given by:
1
𝐾𝐸𝑝 = 𝑚𝑣02 --------- (1
2

At summit vertical velocity is zero and projectile has only horizontal velocity.
1 2 1
Thus, 𝐾𝐸𝑠 = 2 𝑚𝑣0𝑥 = 𝑚𝑣02 cos 2 𝜃 --------- (2 ∵
2

By the given condition

1
𝐾𝐸𝑠 = 𝐾𝐸𝑝 --------- (3
4

Putting values from eq (1 & eq (2 in the above eq

1 1 1
eq (3 ⇒ 𝑚𝑣02 cos2 𝜃 = 2
( 𝑚𝑣0𝑥 )
2 4 2
1
cos2 𝜃 = 4
1
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 2
1
⇒ 𝜃 = cos −1
2

𝜃 = 600

11. For any specific velocity of projection, the maximum range is equal to four times
of the corresponding height. Discuss.

Ans: For any specific velocity of projectile v0 making an angle 𝜃 with horizontal
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
Equation of range is: 𝑅= --------- (1
𝑔

𝑣02 sin2 𝜃
and equation of height is: 𝐻= --------- (2
2𝑔

Let, R = 4H --------- (3
 24

Substituting eq (2 & eq (3 in eq (1, we get;

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 𝑣02 sin2 𝜃
= 4( )
𝑔 2𝑔
𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = 2sin2 𝜃
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 ∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = sin 𝜃
sin Ɵ
=1
cos Ɵ
tan Ɵ = 1
𝜃 = tan−1 1
𝜃 = 450
Since range of projectile is maximum for 450 then eq (3 becomes
𝑅𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 4H
i.e. for any specific velocity of projectile, the maximum range is equal to four times of the
corresponding height.

12. What is the angle for which the maximum height reached and corresponding range
are equal?

Ans: The angle for which the maximum height reached and the corresponding height are equal
is 700.
Explanation:
For any specific velocity of projectile v0 making an angle 𝜃 with horizontal
𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
Equation of range is: 𝑅= --------- (1
𝑔

𝑣02 sin2 𝜃
and equation of height is: 𝐻= --------- (2
2𝑔

By the given condition,

R = H --------- (3
Substituting eq (2 & eq (3 in eq (1, we get;
sin2 𝜃
sin 2𝜃 =
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃 = ∵ 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 = 2 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
2
𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜃
4= 𝑐𝑜𝑠 𝜃

tan 𝜃 = 4
𝜃 = tan−1 4
𝜃 = 760
Thus the angle for which the maximum height reached and the corresponding height are
equal is 760.
 25

Assignments
3.4 A girl of mass 48 kg is rescued from a building fire by leaping into a fire fighters’
net . The window from which she leapt was 12 m above the net. She lands in the
net so that she brought to a complete stop in 0.45 s. during the interval (a) What is
his change in momentum? (b) What is the impulse on the net due to the girl? (c)
What is the average force on the net due to the girl?

Given:

Mass of girl, mg = 48 kg
Height of window from net, = 12 m
Time of impact, = 0.45 s
Required:

a) Change in momentum of girl, ∆𝑝 = ?

b) Impulse on net due to girl, 𝐽 =?
c) Average force on net, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 =?
Solution:

a) Change in momentum of girl, ∆𝒑 = ?

∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 − − − (1

𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑝𝑖 = momentum of the girl just before hitting the net

= 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 ) − − − (2
vi = 0

To find vf , using 3rd equation of motion

2𝑔ℎ = 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑣𝑖2

2 × 9.8 × 12 = 𝑣𝑓2 − 𝑂

𝑣𝑓2 = 235.2

𝑣𝑓 = 15.34 𝑚𝑠 −1

eq (1 ⇒ 𝑝𝑖 = ∆𝑝𝑖 = 48(15.34 − 𝑂) = 726.14 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1

𝑝𝑓 = momentum of the girl after hitting the net

𝑝𝑓 = 0 ∵ girl comes to rest

Therefore,

eq (1 ⇒ ∆𝑝 = 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖

∆𝑝 = 0 − 726.14 = − 726.14 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1

Negative sign shows that change in momentum of the girl is in upward direction. Thus,

∆𝑝 = 726.14 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 (𝑈𝑃)

 26

b) Impulse on net due to girl, 𝑱 = ?

𝐽 = 𝐹∆𝑡 + ∆𝑝

𝐹∆𝑡 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑡 = 𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑠𝑒 𝑑𝑢𝑒 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦

𝐽 = 𝑚𝑔∆𝑡 + ∆𝑝

𝐽 = 48 × 9.8 × 0.45 + 726.14

𝐽 =947.82 𝑘𝑔𝑚𝑠 −1 (𝐷𝑂𝑊𝑁)

c) Average force on net, 𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒆 = ?

Using the relation,
𝑱 𝟗𝟒𝟕.𝟖𝟐
𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒆 = = = 2106.27 𝑁(𝐷𝑂𝑊𝑁)
∆𝒕 𝟎.𝟒𝟓

3.5 On a highway a car of mass 1500 kg is stopped at traffic signal. A pickup of mass
2000 kg comes up from behind and hits the stopped car. Assuming the collision is
elastic, the pickup stops with collision and push the car ahead into the highway at
10 m/s. how fast was the pickup going just before collision?

Given:
Mass of car, m1 = 1500 kg
Mass of pickup, m2 = 2000 kg
Required:
Velocity of car before collision, u2 = 0ms-1
Velocity of car after collision, u2 = 10ms-1
Velocity of pickup after collision, v2 = 0ms-1
Required:
Velocity of pickup before collision, v1 =?

Solution:

Using the relation;

(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) 2𝑚2
𝑣1 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2

1500 − 2000 2 × 2000

10 = ×0+ × 𝑢2
1500 + 2000 1500 + 2000
4000
10 = 0 + × 𝑢2
3500
40
10 = × 𝑢2
35
35
10 × = 𝑢2
40

⇒ 𝑢2 = 8.75 𝑚/𝑠
 27

3.6 At Arbab Niaz Stadium, Peshawar a batsman hits the shot at initial velocity of 28
m/s. if the boundary is 72 m from the batsman, will the ball cross the boundary for
a six? If the angle with the horizontal is (a) 300 (b) 450 and (c) 700. (ignore air
resistance)

Given:

Initial velocity, 𝑣0 = 28ms-1

Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 ms-2

Distance of boundary from batsman, S = 72 m

Required:

a) Range at 300 angle, Ɵ1 =?

b) Range at 450 angle, Ɵ2 =?
c) Range at 700 angle, Ɵ3 =?
Solution:

Range of projectile is given by:

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃
𝑅=
𝑔

a) Range at 300 angle, b) Range at 450 angle, a) Range at 700 angle,

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2Ɵ1 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2Ɵ2 𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2Ɵ3

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 =
𝑔 𝑔 𝑔

282 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 × 300 282 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 × 450 282 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2 × 700

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 =
9.8 9.8 9.8

784 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 600 784 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 900 784 × 𝑠𝑖𝑛 1400

𝑅1 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 =
9.8 9.8 9.8
784 × 0.866 784 × 1 784 × 0.64
𝑅1 = 𝑅1 = 𝑅1 =
9.8 9.8 9.8

𝑅1 = 69.3 𝑚 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟖𝟎 𝒎 𝑅3 = 51.4 𝑚

No, it will not cross the Yes, it will cross the No, it will not cross the
boundary 300. boundary for 450. boundary for 700.
 28

Numerical Questions
3. A car at 20m/s (72 km/h) crashes into a tree. Find the magnitude of average force
acting on a passenger of mass 70 kg in each of the following cases. (a) The
passenger is not wearing a seat belt. He is brought to rest by a collision with the
windshield and dashboard that lasts 2 m/s. (b) The car I equipped with a
passenger-side air bag. The force due to the air bag acts for 45 ms, bringing the
passenger to rest.

Given:
Initial velocity of the car, vi = 20 ms-1
Final velocity of car after crash, vf = - ms-1
Mass of passenger, m = 70 kg
Time impact without seat belt, ∆𝑡1 = 2 ms = 2 × 10−3 s
Time impact with air bag, ∆𝑡2 = 45 ms = 45 × 10−3 s
Required:
a) Average force on passenger without seat belt, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 =?
b) Average force on passenger with air bag, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 =?
Solution:
a) Average force on passenger without seat belt, 𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒆 = ?
∆𝑝
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = − − − (1
∆𝑡1
As, ∆𝑝 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 ) = 70(0 − 20) = −1400 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
−1400
eq (1 ⇒ 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = − 7 × 105 𝑁
2 × 10−3 s
Negative sing indicates that force acts on passenger. Thus, magnitude of force acting
on the passenger is;
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 7 × 105 𝑁
b) Average force on passenger with air bag, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 =?
∆𝑝
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = − − − (1
∆𝑡2
−1400
eq (1 ⇒ 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = − 3.1 × 103 𝑁
45 × 10−3 𝑠

Negative sing indicates that force acts on passenger. Thus, magnitude of force acting
on the passenger is;
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = 3.1 × 103 𝑁

4. A 0.4 kg ball travelling with the speed of 15 ms-1strikes a rigid wall and rebound
elastically. If the ball is in contact with the wall for 0.045 s, what is (a) the
momentum imparted to the wall and (b) the average force exerted to the wall?

Given:
Mass of the ball, m = 0.4 kg
Initial speed of the ball, vi = 15 ms-1
Final speed of the ball after rebound, vf = 15 ms-1
Time of contact, ∆𝑡 = 0.045 s
 29

Required:
a) Momentum imparted to the wall, ∆𝑝𝑊 =?
b) Average force on the wall, 𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 =?
Solution:

a) Momentum imparted to the wall, ∆𝒑𝒘 =?

As, ∆𝑝𝑤 = − ∆𝑝𝐵
Since, ∆𝑝𝐵 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 − 𝑣𝑖 ) = 0.4(−15 − 15) = −12 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
Therefore, ∆𝑝𝑤 = −(−12) = 12 𝑘𝑔𝑚/𝑠
b) Average force on the wall, 𝑭𝒂𝒗𝒆 =?
∆𝑝 12
𝐹𝑎𝑣𝑒 = = = 266.7 𝑁
∆𝑡 0.045

5. One ball of mass 0.6 kg travelling 9 ms-1to the right collide head on elastically with
the second ball of mass 0,3 kg travelling 8 ms-1 to the left. After collision, what are
their velocities after collision?

Given:
Mass of one ball, 𝑚1 = 0.6 kg
Mass of second ball, 𝑚2 = 0.3 kg
Velocity of one ball before collision, 𝑢1 = 9 ms-1
Velocity of second ball before collision, 𝑢2 = -8 ms-1
Required:
Velocity of one ball after collision, 𝑣1 =?
Velocity of second ball after collision, 𝑣2 =?
Solution:
(𝑚1 − 𝑚2 ) 2𝑚2
𝑣1 = 𝑢1 + 𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2
0.6− 0.3 2 ×0.3
𝑣1 = × 9 + × (−8)
0.6 + 0.3 0.6 + 0.3

0.3 2 × 0.3
𝑣1 = × 9 + × (−8)
0.9 0.9
𝑣1 = 3 − 5.3 = −2.3 m/s

Negative sign indicates that m1 moves to the left after collision with velocity 2.3 m/s
Similarly,
2𝑚1 (𝑚1 − 𝑚2 )
𝑣2 = 𝑢1 − 𝑢
𝑚1 + 𝑚2 𝑚1 + 𝑚2 2
2 ×0.6 0.6 − 0.3
𝑣2 = 0.6 + 0.3 × 9 − × (−8)
0.6 + 0.3

0.12 0.3
𝑣2 = × 9 + × (8)
0.9 0.9
𝑣2 = 12 + 2.67 = 14.67 𝑚/

Positive sign indicates that m2 moves to the right after collision with velocity 14.67 m/
 30

6. In a wedding a bullet is fired in air at a speed of 500 ms-1 making an angle of 600
with the horizontal from an AK 47 rifle. (a) How high will the bullet rise? (b) What
time would it take to reach ground? (c) How far would it go? (Ignore air resistance)

Given:
Initial velocity of bullet, v0 = 500 m/s
Angle with horizontal, 𝜃 = 600
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s
Required:
a) Maximum height reached, H =?
b) Time of flight, T =?
c) Horizontal range, R =?
Solution:
a) Maximum height reached, H = ?
Equation of height is:
𝑣02 sin2 𝜃 (500)2 × (𝑠𝑖𝑛60)2
𝐻= =
2𝑔 2 × 9.8
250000 × (0.866)2
𝐻= = 9566 𝑚
19.6

b) Time of flight, T =?
Equation of time of flight is:

2𝑣0 sin 𝜃 2 × 500 sin 60

𝑇= =
𝑔 9.8
1000 × 0.866
𝑇= = 88.4 𝑠
9.8

c) Horizontal range, R =?
Equation of range is:

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 (500)2 × sin 2 × 60

𝑅= =
𝑔 9.8
(250000) × sin 12 0
𝑅=
9.8
(250000) × 0.866
𝑅= = 22092 𝑚
9.8

7. The catapult hurls a stone of mass 332 g with a velocity of 50 m/s at a 30 0 angle of
elevation. (a) What is the maximum height reached by the stone? (b) What is its
range? (c) How long has the stone been in the air when it returns to the original
height? (Ignore air resistance)

Given:
Mass of stone, m = 332 g
Initial velocity of stone, v0 = 50 m/s
Angle with horizontal, 𝜃 = 300
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s
 31

Required:
a) Maximum height reached, H =?
b) Horizontal range, R =?
c) Time of flight, T =?
Solution:
a) Maximum height reached, H =?
Equation of height is:

𝑣02 sin2 𝜃 (50)2 × (𝑠𝑖𝑛30)2

𝐻= =
2𝑔 2 × 9.8

2500 × (0.5)2
𝐻= = 31.89 𝑚
19.6

b) Horizontal range, R =?
Equation of range is:

𝑣02 𝑠𝑖𝑛 2𝜃 (50)2 × sin 2 × 30

𝑅= =
𝑔 9.8

(2500) × sin 60 0
𝑅=
9.8
(250000) × 0.866
𝑅= = 220.9 𝑚 𝑚
9.8

c) Time of flight, T =?
Equation of time of flight is:

2𝑣0 sin 𝜃 2 × 50 sin 30

𝑇= =
𝑔 9.8

100 × 0.5
𝑇= = 5.1 𝑠
9.8

========================================================================
 32

UNIT # 04 WORK AND ENERGY

Conceptual Questions
6. Does the tension of the string of a swinging pendulum do any work? Explain.

Ans: No, the tension of the string of a swinging pendulum does not do any work.
Explanation:
In swinging pendulum, tension in the string acts upward along the string and
displacement acts perpendicular to the tension in the string i.e. angle between them is 900
Therefore, work done by the tension is zero.
Mathematically,
W = F.d
W = Fd cos𝜃
W = Fd cos 900
W = Fd (0) ∵ cos 900 =0
W=0

10. A man rowing boat upstream is at rest with respect to shore, is he doing work?

Ans: No, a man rowing boat upstream at rest with respect to shore is doing no work.
Explanation:
Since boat is at test with respect to shore, so it covers no displacement with
respect to shore. Therefore, d = 0.
Mathematically,
W = F.d
W = Fd cos Ɵ
W = F(0) cos Ɵ
W=0

QUIZ. The moon revolves around the earth in a nearly circular orbit, kept there by the
gravitational force exerted by the earth. Does gravity do (a) positive work, (b)
negative work, or (c) no work on the moon?

Ans: Gravity does no work on the moon.

Explanation:
When moon revolves around the earth in a nearly circular orbit, the gravitational
force acts perpendicular to path fallowed by the moon i.e. angle between them is 900 Therefore,
work done by the gravity is zero.
Mathematically,

W = F.d
W = Fd cos𝜃
W = Fd cos 900
W = Fd (0) ∵ cos 900 =0
W=0
 33

Assignments
4.2 How fast would the moon need to travel in order to escape the gravitational pull of
the earth. If earth has the mass of 5.98 × 1024kg and the distance from Earth to the
moon is 3.84 × 108 m?
Given:
Mass of the earth, Me = 5.98 × 1024kg
Distance from Earth to the moon, r = 3.84 × 108 m
Radius of the earth, Re = 6.4 × 106 m
Required:
Escape velocity of the moon, vesc =?
Solution:
2𝐺𝑀𝑒
Since, 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑅

2𝐺𝑀𝑒
⇒ 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑅 𝑒 +𝑟

2 × 6..673 ×10−11 × 5.98 × 1024

𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
6.4 × 106 + 3.84 × 108

𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = 1429𝑚/𝑠]

Numerical Questions
3. A man pulls a trolley through a distance of 50 m by applying a force of 100 N which
makes an angle of 300 with horizontal. Calculate the work done by the man.
Given:
Distance covered by trolley d = 50 m
Force applied on trolley, F = 100N
Angle with horizontal, Ɵ = 300
Required:
Work done on trolley, W =?
Solution:
Since, W = Fd cos Ɵ
W = 100 × 50 cos 300
W = 5000 × 0.866
W 4330 J

7. A ball of mass 100 g is thrown vertically upward at a speed of 25 m/s. if no energy

is lost, determine the height it would reach. If the ball only rises to 25 m, calculate
the work done against air resistance. Also calculate the force of friction.
Given:
Mass of ball, m = 100 g = 0.1 kg
Speed of ball, v = 25 m/s
Height due to friction, hf = 25 m
 34

Required:
a) Height gained without friction, h =?
b) Work done against air resistance, Wf =?
c) Force of friction, f =?
Solution:
a) Height gained without friction, h =?
As no energy is lost
Gain in PE = Loss in KE
1
𝑚𝑔ℎ = 2 𝑚𝑣 2
𝑣2 (25)2
⇒ ℎ = = = 31.9 m
2𝑔 2 ×9.8

b) Work done against air resistance, Wf =?

Loss in KE = Gain in PE + Wf
1
𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑔ℎ + 𝑊𝑓
2
1
⇒ 𝑊𝑓 = 𝑚𝑣 2 − 𝑚𝑔ℎ𝑓
2
𝑊𝑓 = 0.5 × 0.1(25)2 − 0.1 × 9.8 × 25
𝑊𝑓 = 31.35 − 24.5
𝑊𝑓 = 6.75 𝐽
c) Force of friction, f =?
𝑊𝑓 = 𝑓ℎ𝑓 = 6.75 𝐽
6.75 6.75
⇒ 𝑓= =𝑓 =
ℎ𝑓 25
⇒ 𝑓 = 0.3 N

11. The mass of the man is 1/80 of the mass of the earth and corresponding radius is ¼
of the earth. Calculate the escape velocity on the surface of moon.
Given:
1
Mass of the moon, Mm = 𝑀𝑒
80
1
Mass of the moon, Rm = 𝑅𝑒
4
Required:
Escape velocity on the surface of moon, 𝑣𝑤𝑠𝑐 =?
Solution:
2𝐺𝑀𝑚
𝑆𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒, 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
𝑅𝑚
1
2𝐺(80)𝑀 𝐺𝑀𝑒
𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠, 𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √ 1
𝑒
= √
𝑅 10𝑅𝑒
4 𝑒

6. .673 × 10−11 × 5.98 × 1024

𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = √
10 × 6.4 × 106
𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑐 = 2490 𝑚/𝑠 = 2.49 × 103 𝑚 = 2.49 𝑘𝑚/𝑠
 35

UNIT # 05 ROTATIONAL AND CIRCULAR MOTION

Conceptual Questions
1. Why is the fly wheel of an engine made heavy in the rim?

Ans: Fly wheel of an engine is made heavy in the rim to concentrate more mass away from the
axis of rotation due to which moment of inertia of a flywheel increases by the relation:

I =mr2.

Greater moment of inertia results a decrease in angular acceleration by the relation

т
т=I𝛼 ⇒ 𝛼= 𝐼

Due to decrease in ′𝛼’ rotation of crankshaft becomes smooth. This overcomes the
jerky motion of crank and makes its motion steady.

2. Why is the rifle barrel rifled?

Ans: The rifle barrel is rifled (grove in the interior) to increase the spin motion of the bullet
about its axis along with its translation motion. This increases the total kinetic energy of bullet
due to rotation and translation, given by the relation:
1 1
KET = KEl + KER = 2 𝑚𝑣 2 + 2
𝐼𝜔2

The spin motion due to rifling gives stability to the direction of bullet. This helps to
maintain its direction for longer distance and improves accuracy in hitting a target.

3. Is it possible for a person to distinguish between a raw egg and a hard boiled one
by spinning each on a table? Explain.

Ans: Yes, it is possible for a person to distinguish between a raw egg and a hard one by
spinning each on a table.

When raw egg is rotated on a table, its yolk moves towards the outer shell of the egg
thereby moment of inertia increases. This increases the rotational kinetic energy of the egg and
hence will continue rotating for longer period of time.
1
As, KER = 2 𝐼𝜔2

On the contrary, moment of inertia of a hard boiled egg is constant and will rotate for
shorter period of time as compared to raw egg.

4. Why is the acceleration of a body moving uniformly in a circle, directed towards

the center?

Ans: When a body moves uniformly in a circle, centripetal force acts on a body perpendicular
to the direction of velocity. Since this force is directed towards the center of a circle and from
Newton’s second law of motion acceleration is produced in the direction of force. Therefore,
acceleration is also directed towards the center of a circle, i.e.

Fc = mac
 36

5. A ball is just supported by a string without breaking. If it is set swinging, it breaks.

Why?

Ans: When the ball is just supported by a string, the tension ‘T’ in the string is equal to the
weight ‘w’ of the ball, i.e.
T=w
If it starts swinging, centripetal and centripetal force start to act along the string. Thus
tension in the string becomes greater than weight due to centrifugal force, which acts along with
the weight of the ball, i.e.
T>w
Thereby the string breaks.

6. An insect is sitting close to the axis of a wheel. If the friction between the insect
and the wheel is very small, describe the motion of the insect when the wheel
starts rotating.

Ans: If an insect is sitting close to the axis of a wheel and wheel starts rotating then due to
centripetal force an insect will start moving in a circle. As the friction between the insect and the
wheel is very small means there is lack of centripetal force, then the insect will move away from
the circle and spiral out of the wheel when wheel starts rotating.

8. Explain the significance of moment of inertia in rotatory motion.

Ans: Moment of inertia is that property where body resists change in its state of rotational
motion. The importance of moment of inertia for a body is its ability to maintain its state of
rotational motion.

Moment of inertia plays the same role for rotational motion as the mass does for
translation motion. The rotational analogue to Newton’s second law of motion is written as:
т=I𝛼

where, I =mr2

Practically, it depends upon distribution of mass (m) and position of axis of rotation (r).

9. Why does the coasting rotating system slow down as water drops into the beaker?

Ans: The coasting rotating system slows down as water drops into the beaker to conserve
angular momentum, i.e.

Iω constant ---------- (1

where, I =mr2 ---------- (2

When water drops into the beaker, its moment of inertia increases due to increase in
mass by the relation (2. Therefore, to conserve the angular momentum (L) its angular velocity
(ω), decreases according to eq (1, and hence coasting rotating system slows down.

11. When the tractor moves with uniform velocity, its heavier wheel rotates slowly
than its lighter wheel, why? Explain.

Ans: When the tractor moves with uniform velocity, its heavier wheel rotates slowly than its
lighter wheel because radius of the wheel is inversely proportional to square of angular velocity.
 37

As, v1 = v2

⇒ r1ω1 = r2ω2 ∵ v = rω
𝟏 𝟏
⇒ 𝒓𝟏 ∝ 𝝎 and 𝒓𝟐 ∝ 𝝎
𝟏 𝟐

From above relations, it is clear that heavier wheel has large radius and
rotates slowly than its lighter wheel.

==================================================================
 38

Assignments

5.1 A rotating pulley completes 12 rev in 4 s. determine the average angular velocity
in rev/s, rpm and in rad/s?

Given:
Number of revolutions, Ɵ = 12 rev
Time interval, t =4s
Required:
Angular velocity, ω =?
Solution:
Ɵ 12
As, 𝜔 = = = 3 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠
𝑡 4

𝑟𝑒𝑣
𝜔 = 3 × 60 = 180𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑚 (1 s = 1/60 min)
𝑚

𝜔 = 3 × 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 (1rev = 2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑)

𝜔 = 6𝜋 = 6 × 3.14 = 18.8 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠

5.2 An aeroplane dives along a curved path of radius R and velocity v. The centripetal
acceleration is 10ms-2. If both the velocity and radius are doubled, what will be the
new acceleration?

Given:
Radius of curved path =R
Velocity of aeroplane, =v
Centripetal acceleration, ac = 10 m/s2
Required:
/
New acceleration when v and R are doubled, 𝑎𝑐 = ?
Solution:
Equation of centripetal acceleration is given by;

𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑅

If v = 2v and R = 2R then new acceleration is given by;

/ (2𝑣)2 4𝑣 2 𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 = = =2
2𝑅 2𝑅 𝑅
/
𝑎𝑐 = 2𝑎𝑐 = 2 × 10 = 20 𝑚/𝑠 2

5.3 At what speed (in km/h) is a bank angle 450 required for an aeroplane to turn on a
radius of 60 m?

Given:
Bank angle, Ɵ = 450
Radius, r = 60 m
 39

Required:
Speed in km/h, v =?
Solution:
Using equation;

𝑣 = √𝑔𝑟 tan Ɵ

𝑣 = √9.8 × 60 tan 45 = √588 = 24.25 ms-1

3600 𝑘𝑚
Now speed ‘v’ in km/h = 24.25 × 1000 ℎ𝑟
∵ 1km = 1000 m & 1h = 3600 s

𝑣 = 87.3 𝑘𝑚/ℎ

5.5 A cord is wrapped around the rim of a cylinder that has a mass of 10 kg and a
radius of 30 cm. If the rope is pulled with a force of 60 N, what is the angular
acceleration of the cylinder?

Given:
Mass of rim, m = 10 kg
Radius of rim, r = 30 cm = 0.3 m
Force o rope, F = 60 N
Required:
Angular acceleration, α =?
Solution:
From Newton’s second law of motion;

F = ma ---------(1

Also, a = rα

Eq (1 ⇒ F = mrα
𝐹
⇒ α = 𝑚𝑟

60
α = = 20 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
10 × 0.3

5.6 A belt is wrapped around the edge of a pulley that is 40 cm in diameter. The pulley
rotates with a constant angular acceleration of 3.50 rad/s2. At t = 0

Given:
Diameter of pulley, D = 40 cm = 0.4 m
Radius of pulley, r = D/2 = 0.4/2 = 0.2 m
Angular acceleration of pulley, α = 3.5 rad/s2
Initial angular velocity, ωi = 2 rad/s
Time taken, t =2s

Required:
a) Angular displacement, Ɵ =?
b) Final angular velocity, ωf =?
 40

Solution:
a) Angular displacement, Ɵ =?
st
Using 1 equation of motion in rotational dynamics;

ωf = ωi + αt

⇒ ωf = 2 + 3.5 × 2 = 9 rad/s

b) Final angular velocity, ωf =?

nd
Using 2 equation of motion in rotational dynamics;
1
Ɵ = ωit + 2 αt2

1
Ɵ = 2 × 2 + (3.5)(2)2 = 4 +7 = 11 rad
2

5.7 A DVD disc has a radius of 0.06 m, and a mass of 0.02 kg. The moment of inertia of
𝟏
a solid disc is 𝑰 = 𝟐 𝑴𝑹𝟐 , where M is the mass of the disc and R is the radius. When
a disc in a certain machine starts playing, it has an angular velocity of 160 rad s-1.
What is the angular momentum of disc?

Given:
Radius of disc, R = 0.06 m
Mass of disc, M = 0.02 kg
Angular velocity, ω = 160 rad/s
1
Moment of inertia of a solid disc, I = 𝑀𝑅 2
2
Required:
Angular momentum of disc, L = ?
Solution:
Using relation,

L = I ω --------(1

Moment of inertia for solid disc is given by;

1
I = 2 𝑀𝑅 2

1
Eq (1 ⇒ L = 2 𝑀𝑅 2 𝜔

1
Using values L = 0.02(0.06)2 160 = 0.00576 𝐽𝑠
2

========================================================================
 41

Numerical Questions
1. If the plate microwave oven has a radius of 0.15 m and rotates at 6.0 rev/min,
calculate the total distance travelled by the fly during a 2.0 min cooking period.

Given:
Radius of microwave oven, r = 0i.115 m
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Angular velocity of plate, ω = 6 rev/min = 6 × 60 𝑠
= 0.63 rad/s
Time taken, t = 2 min = 120 s
Required:
Distance travelled by fly, S =?
Solution:
As, S = rƟ ----------- (1

Also, Ɵ = ωt

Eq (1 ⇒ S = r ωt = 0.15 × 0.63 × 120 = 11m

2. A circular drum of radius 40 cm is initially rotating at 400 rev/min. It is brought to

stop after making 50 revolutions. What is the angular acceleration and the
stopping time.

Given:
Radius of drum, r = 40 cm = 0.4 m
2𝜋 𝑟𝑎𝑑
Initial angular velocity, ωi = 400 rev/min = 400 × 60 𝑠
= 41.9 rad/s
Final angular velocity, ωf = 0 rad/s
Number of revolutions, Ɵ = 50 rad = 2π × 50 = 314 rad
Required:
a) Angular acceleration, α =?
b) Stopping time, t =?
Solution:
a) Angular acceleration, α = ?
Using 3rd equation of motion for rotational motion;

2αƟ = ωf2 – ωi2

2α (314) = (0)2 – )41.87)2

628α = - 1753

⇒ α = -2.79 rad/s2

Negative sign indicates negative acceleration.

b) Stopping time, t =?
st
Using 1 equation of motion in rotational dynamics;

ωf = ωi + αt
𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖 0 − 41.87 − 41.87
𝑡= = = = 15 𝑠
α − 2.79 − 2.79
 42

3. A string 1 m long is used to whirl a 100 g stone in a horizontal circle at a speed of 2

ms-1. Find the tension in the string.

Given:
Radius of circle, r = 1m
Mass of stone, m = 100 g = 0.1kg
Speed of stone, v = 2m/s
Required:
Tension in the string, T =?
Solution:
Tension in the string is equal to centripetal force; i.e.

𝑚𝑣 2
𝐹𝑐 = 𝑇 =
𝑟
(0.1)(2)2
Putting values 𝑇 = 1
= 0.4 𝑁

4. The moon revolves around the earth in almost a circle of radius 282400 km in 27.3
days. What is the centripetal acceleration?

Given:
Radius of circle, r = 382,400 km = 3.824 × 108 m
Time period, T = 27.3 days = 27.3 × 86400 = 2358720 s
Required:
Centripetal acceleration, ac =?
Solution:
Equation for centripetal acceleration is;
𝑣2
𝑎𝑐 =
𝑟
(𝑟𝜔)2
𝑎𝑐 = ∵ v = rω
𝑟

𝑟 2 𝜔2
𝑎𝑐 = = 𝑟 𝜔2
𝑟
2𝜋 2𝜋
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑟( 𝑇 )2 ∵ω= 𝑇
8 2×3.14 2
Using values 𝑎𝑐 = 3.824 × 10 (2358720) = 0.00271 m/s2

5. A modern F1 car can accelerate from 0 to 62 mile/h (100 km/h) in 2.50 s. What is
the angular acceleration of its 170 mm radius wheels?

Given:
Initial speed of car, vi = 0 m/s
Initial speed of car, vf = 62 mil/h = 100 km/h = 100 ×3.6 = 27.8 m/s
Time taken.t 2.5 s
Radius of wheel, r = 170 mm = 170 × 10-3 m = 0.17 m
 43

Required:
Angular acceleration, =?
Solution:
Angular acceleration is given by;
𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖
𝛼= − − − −(1
t
𝑣𝑖 0
Initial angular velocity, 𝜔𝑖 = = = 0 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑟 0.17
𝑣𝑓 27,8
Final angular velocity, 𝜔𝑓 = = = 163 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑟 0.17
163 − 0
Eq (1 ⇒ 𝛼= = 65.35 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
2.4

6. An electric motor is running at 1800 rev/min. It comes to rest in 20 s. if the angular

acceleration is uniform find the number of revolutions it made before stopping.

Given:
1800
Initial angular velocity, ωi = 1800 rev/min = 60 𝑠
= 30 rev/s
Final angular velocity, ωf = 0 rev/s
Time taken, t = 20 s
Required:
Number of revolutions, Ɵ =?
Solution:
Using 3rd equation of motion for rotational motion;

2αƟ = ωf2 – ωi2

𝜔𝑓2 −𝜔𝑖2
Ɵ= ---------- (1
2𝛼

Calculating angular acceleration;

𝜔𝑓 − 𝜔𝑖
𝛼=
t
0 − 30
𝛼= = −1.5 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠 2
20
(0)2 − (30)2 − 900
Eq (1 ⇒ Ɵ= = = 300 𝑟𝑒𝑣
2(−1.5) −3

7. What is the moment of inertia of 100 kg sphere whose radius is 50 cm?

Given:
Mass of sphere, m = 100kg
Radius of sphere, r = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Required:
Moment of inertia of sphere, I =?
Solution:
Formula for moment of inertia of sphere is;
 44

2
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
5
2
𝐼 = (100)(0.5)2 = 10 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
5

8. A rope of wrapped several times around a cylinder of radius 0.2 m and mass
30 kg. What is the angular acceleration of the cylinder if the tension in the rope is
40 N and it turns without friction?

Given:
Mass of cylinder, m = 30 kg
Radius of cylinder, r = 0.2 m
Tension in the rope, F = 40 N
Required:
Angular acceleration, 𝛼 =?
Solution:
Since torque acting on the body is;
т
т=I𝛼 ⇒ 𝛼= 𝐼

Fr
𝛼= ------ (1 ∵ т = Fr
𝐼

Also, moment of inertia of solid cylinder is:

1
𝐼 = 𝑚𝑟 2
2
1
𝐼 = (30)(0.2)2 = 6 𝑘𝑔𝑚2
2
40 ×0.2
Eq (1 ⇒ 𝛼= = 1.33 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠 2
6

9. What is the kinetic energy of 5.0 kg solid ball shoes diameter is 15 m if it rolls
across a level surface with a speed of 2 m s-1?

Given:
Mass of solid ball, m = 5 kg
Diameter of solid ball, D = 15 m
Radius of solid ball, r = D/2 = 15/2 = 7.5 m
Speed of solid ball, v = 2 ms-1
Required:
Kinetic energy of solid ball, KE = ?
Solution:
Since ball is rolling then;

KE = KEL + KER

1 1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 + 𝑚𝑣 2
2 5
 45

1 1 7
𝐾𝐸 = ( + ) 𝑚𝑣 2 = 𝑚𝑣 2
2 5 10
7
𝐾𝐸 = (5)(2)2 = 14 𝐽
10

10. A cylinder of 50 cm diameter at the top of an incline 29.4 cm high and 10 m long is
released and rolls down the incline. Find its linear and angular speed at the
bottom. Neglect friction.

Given:
Diameter of cylinder, D = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Radius of cylinder, r = D/2 = 0.5/2 = 0.25 m
Height of incline, h = 29.4 cm = 0.29 m
Required:
a) Linear speed, v =?
b) Angular speed, ω =?
Solution:
a) Linear speed, v =?
Velocity of cylinder at the bottom of incline is given by;

4
𝑣 = √ 𝑔ℎ
3

4
Putting values 𝑣 = √3 (9.8)(0.29) = √3.8 = 1.96 𝑚/𝑠

a) Angular speed, ω =?
v = rω
𝑣 1.96
⇒ 𝜔= = = 7.84 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑟 0.25

11. A disc without slipping rolls down a hill of vertical height 1000 cm. If the disc starts
from rest at top of the hill, what is its magnitude of velocity at the bottom.

Given:
Height of the hill, h = 1000 cm = 10 m
Required:
Speed at bottom of the hill, v = ?
Solution:
Speed of disc at the bottom of hill is given by;

4
𝑣 = √ 𝑔ℎ
3

4
Putting values 𝑣 = √3 (9.8)(10) = √30.7 = 11.4 𝑚/𝑠
 46

12. A motor car is travelling at a speed of 30 m s-1. If tis wheel has a diameter of 1.5 m,
find its angular speed in rad s-1 and rev -1.

Given:
Speed of car, v = 30 m/s
Diameter of wheel, D = 1.5 m
Radius of cylinder, r = D/2 = 1.5/2 = 0.75 m
Required:
Angular speed in rad/s, ω =?
Angular speed in rec/s, ω =?

Solution:
As,

v = rω

v 30
⇒ 𝜔= = = 40 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
𝑟 0.75

Angular speed in rec/s, ω =?

𝜔 = 40 𝑟𝑎𝑑/𝑠
40 40
𝜔= = 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠 ∵ 2π rad = 1 rev
2𝜋 2 ×3.14

40
𝜔= = 6.37 𝑟𝑒𝑣/𝑠
2 × 3.14

=======================================================================
 47

UNIT # 06 FLUID DYNAMCS

Conceptual Questions

1. From the top of a tall building, you drop two table-tennis balls, one filled with air
and the other with water. Which ball reaches terminal velocity first and why?
Ans: The ball filled with air will reach the terminal velocity first because it is less than the ball
filled with water.
Explanation
Equation for terminal velocity of the spherical object is given by:
2𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣𝑇 =
9𝜂
This shows that terminal velocity is directly proportional to density of density of
medium for same dimensions and viscous medium, i.e.
𝑣𝑇 ∝ 𝜌
Therefore, air filled ball due to less dense than water filled ball will reach the
terminal velocity first.

2. Why can a squirrel jump from a tree branch to the ground and run away
undamaged, while a human can break a bone in such a fall?
Ans: A squirrel jumps from a tree branch to the ground undamaged because it reaches the
ground with low terminal velocity as compared to humans.
Explanation:
By Stoke’s law drag force depends upon the size of the object by the following
relation;
FD = 6πηrvT

The squirrel exposed surface area is very large as compared to its size. With an
increase in surface area drag force also increases, so the squirrel reaches the ground with safer
terminal velocity and remains undamaged.
On the contrary, drag force on humans is less due to small exposed area. Therefore,
humans reach the ground with greater terminal velocity and get damaged.

3. How does the terminal sped of a parachutist before opening a parachute compare
to a terminal speed afterward? Why is there a difference?
Ans: The terminal speed of a parachutist before opening a parachute is greater as compared to
the terminal speed afterward. This difference is due to the considerable increase in the drag
force after opening the chute.
Explanation:
Equation for terminal velocity of the spherical object is given by:

2𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣𝑡 =
9𝜂
Before opening a chute paratrooper offers lower radius to air and has high terminal
speed. While after opening the chute he offers large radius to air and so having a sufficiently
low terminal speed. This enables him to fall on the ground without risk.
 48

4. You can squirt water over a greater distance by placing your thumb over the end
of a garden hose, than by leaving it completely uncovered. Explain how this
works?
Ans: Water is squirted over a greater distance by placing thumb over the end of a garden
hose because by doing so area of cross-section of pipe decreases, as a result speed of water
increases.
Explanation:
Area and speed are inversely proportional to each other by equation of
continuity, i.e.
Av = constant
1
⇒𝑣 ∝
𝐴
This shows that by pacing thumb over the end of a garden hose water covers a
larger distance than by leaving it completely uncovered.

========================================================================
 49

Assignments

6.1 A certain globular protein particle has a density of 1246 kg/m3. It falls through
water (having coefficient of viscosity 8.91 × 10-4 Pa s) with a thermal speed of 8.33
× 10-6 m/s. Find the radius of the particle.
Given:
Density of protein, 𝜌 = 1246 kg/m3
Coefficient of viscosity, η = 8.91 × 10-4 Pa s
Terminal velocity of protein, vT = 8.33 × 10-6 m/s
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2
Required:
Radius of protein, r =?
Solution:
Equation for terminal velocity of the spherical object is given by:
2𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣𝑡 =
9𝜂
9𝜂𝑣𝑇
𝑟2 =
2𝜌𝑔
Squaring both sides of the above equation;
9𝜂𝑣𝑇
𝑟 = √
2𝜌𝑔

Putting values;
9 × 8.91 × 10−4 × 8.33 × 10−6 6.7 × 10−8
⇒ 𝑟= √ = √
2 ×1246 × 9.8 2.4 × 104
r = 1.7 × 10−6 𝑚

6.2 The heart pumps blood into the aorta, which has an inner radius of 1.0 cm. The
aorta feeds 32 major arteries (each have an inner radius of 0.21 cm). If blood in
the aorta travels at a speed of 25 cm/s, at approximately what average speed dies
it travel in the arteries? Assume the blood can be treated as an ideal fluid.
Given:
Radius of aorta, r1 = 0.01 m
Radius of artery, r2 = 0.2 cm = 0.0021 m
Number of arteries, n = 32
Blood speed in aorta, v1 = 25 cm/s = 0.25 m/s
Required:
Blood speed in arteries, v2 =?
Solution:
From equation of continuity;
A1 v1 = A2 v2 --------- (1
As, A1 = π r21 and A2 = π r22
Eq (1 ⇒ π r21 v1 = π r22 v2
 50

𝑟12 𝑣1
⇒ 𝑣2 =
𝑟22
Using values;
(0,01)2 × 0.25 0.000025
𝑣2 = 2
= = 0.18 𝑚/𝑠
(0.0021) 0.00014
==================================================================
 51

Numerical Questions
1. Eight equal drops of oil are falling through air with steady velocity of 0,1 m/s, the
drops recombine to form a single drop, what should be the new terminal velocity?
Given:
Terminal velocity of each small droplet,, vT = 0.1 m/s
Radius of each small droplet =r
Number of droplets, n =8
Required:
Terminal velocity of one big drop, vT/ =?
Solution:
4 4
Volume of ‘n’ small droplets, V =𝑛× 𝜋𝑟 3 = 8 × 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
Let, R is the radius of one big droplet, and then its volume is given by,
4 3
𝑉/ = 𝜋𝑅
3
By the given condition:
𝑉/ = 𝑉
4 4
⇒ 𝜋𝑅 3 = 8 × 𝜋𝑟 3
3 3
𝑅 3 = 8𝑟 3

𝑅 3 = (2𝑟)3
𝑅 = 𝑟 (Cubing on both sides)
Terminal velocity of the each small droplet is given by:
2𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣𝑇 =
9𝜂
And, terminal velocity of one big droplet is given by:
/ 2𝜌𝑔𝑅 2
𝑣𝑇 =
9𝜂
/ 2𝜌𝑔(2𝑟)2
𝑣𝑇 = ∵R=r
9𝜂
/ 2𝜌𝑔 4𝑟 2
𝑣𝑇 =
9𝜂
/ 2𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣𝑇 = 4 ( )
9𝜂
/ 2𝜌𝑔𝑟 2
𝑣𝑇 = 4𝑣𝑇 ∵ 𝑣𝑇 =
9𝜂

2. Water travels through a 9.6 cm diameter fire hose with a speed of 1.3 m/s. at the
end of the hose, the water flows out through a nozzle whose diameter is 2.5 cm.
(a) What is the speed of the water coming out of the nozzle? (b) What diameter
nozzle is required to give water speed of 21 m/s?
Given:
Diameter of fire hose, d1 = 9.6 cm
Radius of fire hose, r1 = d/2 = 9.6 /2 = 4.8 cm = 0.048 m
 52

Diameter of nozzle, d2 = 2.5 cm

Radius of nozzle, r2 = d/2 = 2.5 /2 = 1.25 cm = 0.0125 m
Speed of water in fire hose, v1= 1.3 m/s
Required:
a) Speed of water in nozzle, v2 =?
Solution:
Using equation of continuity;
A1 v1 = A2 v2 --------- (1
As, A1 = π r21 and A2 = π r22
Eq (1 ⇒ π r21 v1 = π r22 v2
𝑟12 𝑣1
⇒ 𝑣2 =
𝑟22
Using values;
(1.3)2 ×0.048
𝑣2 = = 19.2𝑚/𝑠
(0.0125)2
b) Diameter of nozzle, v2 =?
Speed of nozzle, v2 = 21 m/s
Using equation of continuity;
A1 v1 = A2 v2 --------- (1
As, A1 = π r21 and A2 = π r22
Eq (1 ⇒ π r21 v1 = π r22 v2
𝑟12 𝑣1
⇒ 𝑟22 =
𝑣1

𝑟2 𝑣
𝑟2 = √ 1𝑣 1
1

Using values:

(0.048)2 1.3
𝑟2 = √ = 0.012 𝑚
21
As, d2 = 2r2
⇒ d2 = 2 × 0.012 m = 0.024 m

3. A fish tank has dimensions of 0.30 m wide by 1.0 m long by 0.60 m high. If the filter
should process all the water in the tank once every 3.0 h, what should the flow
speed be in the 3.0 cm diameter input tube for the filter?
Given:
Volume of fish tank, V = 0.3 m × 1 × 0.6 m = 0.18 m3
Time taken, t = 3 hr = 3 × 3600 = 10800 s
Diameter of tube, d = 3 cm
Radius of tube, r = d/2 = 3/2 = 1.5 cm = 0.015 m
Required:
Flow speed, v =?
 53

Solution:
As, volume flow rate is given by;
𝑉
= 𝐴𝑣
𝑡
𝑉
⇒ = 𝜋𝑟 2 𝑣 ∵ A = πr2
𝑡
𝑉
𝑣=
𝜋𝑟 2 𝑡
Putting values;
0.18 0.18
𝑣= 2
= = 0.024 𝑚/𝑠
3.14 (0.015) 10800 7.6
=============================================================
 54

UNIT # 07 OSCILLATIONS
Conceptual Questions
1. Give two applications in which resonance plays an important role.
Ans: Following are the two applications in which resonance plays an important role
i) Tuning a radio:
Tuning a radio is an example of electrical resonance. In order to tune a particular station,
natural frequency of the electrical circuit of a receiver is changed by turning the knob. When this
frequency equals the transmission frequency of the radio station resonance is produced and it
absorbs maximum energy. As a result, that frequency is clearly heard.
ii) Cooking by micro wave oven:
Resonance plays an important role I heating and cooking food by microwave oven. The
microwaves produced by oven are absorbed due to resonance by water and fats molecules in
the food. This increases the internal energy of the molecules. They get heat up and so food is
cooked.
2. What happens to the time period of a simple pendulum if its length is
doubled?

Ans: When the length of simple pendulum is doubled its time period increases √2 times of the
initial time period.
Explanation:
The time period of simple pendulum is given by:

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ − − − (1
𝑔
If l = 2l
Then new time period is:

2𝑙
𝑇 / = 2𝜋√
𝑔

𝑙
𝑇 / = 2𝜋 √2 √
𝑔

𝑙
𝑇 / = √2 (2𝜋√ ) − − − − (2
𝑔

Putting value from eq (1 in eq (2

𝑇 / = √2 𝑇 − − − −(3
Eq (3 shows that if length of simple pendulum is doubled its time period
increases √2 times of the initial time period

3. What will be the frequency of a simple pendulum if its length is ‘1 m’?

Ans: The frequency of simple pendulum if its length is 1 m is 0.5 Hz.
 55

Explanation:
Mathematically, frequency of simple pendulum is given by:
1 𝑔
𝑓= √ − − − (1
2𝜋 𝑙
If l = 1m , g = 9.8 ms-2 then eq (1 becomes;

1 9.8 1
𝑓= √ = √9.8
2 × 3.14 1 6.28

𝑓 = 0.5 𝐻𝑧
Thus, frequency of simple pendulum if its length is 1 m is 0.5 Hz.

4. Give one practical example each of free and forced oscillation.

Ans:
Free oscillations:
An object is in free oscillation, if vibrates with its natural frequency without the
interference of some external force. For examples, when a simple pendulum is set into
oscillation and is not disturbed by some external force, it will continue to do so with its natural
frequency, given by;
1 𝑔
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑙

Forced oscillations:
If a force is continuously and repeatedly applied to keep the oscillation going, the
oscillation is said to forced oscillations. Example of forced oscillation is the vibration of factory
floor caused by the running of heavy machinery.

5. How can you compare the masses of two bodies by observing their frequency of
oscillation when supported by a spring?

Ans We can compare the masses of two bodies, supported by a spring, by observing there
frequencies because there is inverse relationship between frequency and mass of the body in
mass-spring system.
Explanation:
Mathematically, frequency of mass-spring is given by:

1 𝑘
𝑓= √ − − − (1
2𝜋 𝑚
1
In eq (1
2𝜋
√𝑘 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
1
⇒ 𝑓 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
√𝑚
1
𝑓 ∝ − − − (2
√𝑚
 56

Eq (2 shows that frequency is inversely proportional to square root of mass in mass-

spring system. Thus, greater the mass, low will be its frequency as compared to smaller mass
with high frequency.

6. A wire hangs from the top of a dark high tower, so that top of the tower is not
visible. How you would be able to determine the height of that tower?

Ans The height of the tower can be determined if a wire hanging from the top of the dark night
tower is treated as a simple pendulum.
Explanation:
For this to occur, let a small bob is attached with the visible end of a wire hanging from
the tower. Vibrate the bob and calculate time period of simple pendulum by stopwatch.
Using equation of time period of simple pendulum,
𝑙
i.e. 𝑇 = 2𝜋√𝑔 − − − (1

Solving eq (1 for length of wire ‘l’

𝑔𝑇 2
⇒ 𝑙= − − − (2
4𝜋 2
Putting values of ‘T’ and ‘g’ in eq (2, length of the wire ‘l’ can be determined,

7. Why in S.H.M. the acceleration is zero when the velocity is greatest?

Ans The instantaneous velocity ‘v’ and acceleration ’a’ of a body executing SHM is given by:

𝒗 = 𝝎√𝒙𝟐𝒐 − 𝒙𝟐 − − − (𝟏

𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 𝒙 − − − (𝟐
When displacement x = 0 (i.e. at mean position), eq (1 and (2 becomes;

𝒗 = 𝝎√𝒙𝟐𝒐 − (𝟎)𝟐 = 𝝎𝒙𝟎 (𝒎𝒂𝒙𝒊𝒎𝒖𝒎)

And 𝒂 = −𝝎𝟐 (𝟎) = 𝟎 (𝒛𝒆𝒓𝒐)

Thus, it is concluded that at mean position, when velocity is maximum acceleration is
zero.

8. What is the total distance covered by a simple harmonic oscillator in a time equal
to its time period? The amplitude of oscillation is A.
Ans If the amplitude of simple harmonic oscillator is ‘A’ then the total distance covered by an
oscillator equal to its time period will be 4A.
Explanation:
Amplitude is the maximum displacement covered by an oscillator on either side
of mean position. Let an oscillator is displaced from one of its extreme position ‘E”. It oscillates
back and forth about its mean position ‘O’ and returns to ‘E’, thereby completing one vibration,
ads shown;
So the total distance covered by the oscillator is:
From E to O + from O to E/ + from E/ to O + from O to E = A + A + A + A = 4A
 57

9. What happens to the frequency of a simple pendulum as its oscillations die

down from large amplitude to small?
Ans : The frequency of a simple pendulum first increases and then become constant as its
oscillations die down from large amplitude to small.
Explanation:
The time period of simple pendulum for small amplitude remains constant and is
given by:

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑔

For large amplitude, time period increase and frequency is small because frequency is
reciprocal of time period.
As oscillations die down from large amplitude to small, period decreases thereby
frequency first increases and then becomes constant for small amplitudes.

10. A singer, holding a note of right frequency, can shatter a glass. Explain.
Ans : A singer holding a note of right frequency can shatter a glass because of resonance
phenomenon
Explanation:
Like every solid body, glass also has particular frequency of vibration. When a singer
holds a note of a particular frequency which is equal to the natural frequency of the glass,
resonance is produced and it absorbs maximum energy. As a result, particles of glass vibrate
with larger amplitude and this may shatter the glass.
========================================================================
 58

Assignments

7.2 A pendulum extending from the ceiling almost touches the floor and that its period
is 12 s. how tall is the tower?

Given:
Time period of pendulum, T = 12s
Acceleration due to gravity, g = 9.8 ms-2
Required:
Height of tower, l =?
Solution:
Using the following equation:
𝑔𝑇 2
𝑙=
4𝜋 2
9.8 (12)2 9.8 × 144
𝑙= 2
=
4 (3.14) 4 × 9.86
⇒ 𝑙 = 36 𝑚

7.3 Determine the period and frequency of a car whose mass is 1400 kg and whose
shock absorbers have a spring constant of 6.5 × 10 4 Nm2 after hitting a bump.
Assume the shock absorbers are poor, so the car really moves up and down/

Given:
Mass of car, m = 1400 kg
Spring constant, k = 6.5 × 104 Nm2
Required:
a) Time period of car, T =?
b) Frequency of car, f =?
Solution:
a) Time period of car, T =?
Equation for time period of mass-spring system is given by:
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘

1400
⇒ 𝑇 = 2 × 3.14√ = 6.28 × √0.02
6.5 × 104

⇒ 𝑇 = 0.92 𝑠
b) Frequency of car, f =?
1
As, 𝑓 =𝑇
1
⇒ 𝑓 = = 1.1 𝐻𝑧
0.92
 59

7.4 An object vibrates with an amplitude of 6 cm and a frequency of 0.490 Hz. Starring
from maximum displacement In the positive direction, when will be the first time
that its displacement is 2 cm?
Given:
Amplitude of an object, xo = 6 cm = 0.06 m
Frequency of an object, f = 0.49 Hz
Displacement of an object, x = 2cm
Required:
Time of an object, t =?
Solution:
As,
𝑥 = 𝑥𝑜 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡
𝑥
cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 =
𝑥𝑜
𝑥
2𝜋𝑓𝑡 = cos −1
𝑥𝑜

1 𝑥
𝑡= cos −1
2𝜋𝑓 𝑥𝑜
Putting values in the above equation:
1 0,02
𝑡= cos −1
2 × 3.14 × 0.49 0.06
1 1
𝑡= cos −1
176.4 3
1
𝑡= × 70.53 = 0.4 𝑠
176.4

==================================================================
 60

Numerical Questions
1. A force of 0.4 N is required to displace a body attached to a spring through 0.1 m
from the mean position. Calculate the spring constant of spring.

Given:
Force on a body, F = 0.4N
Extension in the body, x = 0.1 m
Required:
SWXSpring constant, k =?
Solution:
As, F = kx

𝐹 0.4
𝑘= = = 4 𝑁/𝑚
𝑥 0.1

2. A pendulum clock keeps perfect time at a location where the acceleration due to
gravity is exactly 9.8 ms-2, when the clock moves to a high altitude, it loses 80.0 s
per day. Find the value of g at this location.

Given:
Time period of pendulum clock, T =2s
Acceleration due to gravity at first location, g = 9.8 m/s2
Loss in time at higher altitude, t = 80s/in 24 hrs = 80/24 = 3.3 s in 1hr
Required:
Acceleration due to gravity at first location, g/ = ?
Solution:
The time period of simple pendulum is given by:

𝑙
𝑇 = 2𝜋√ − − − (1
𝑔

3600
For pendulum clock number of vibrations in 1 hr, n = 2
= 1800 𝑣𝑖𝑏

Total time taken at new location, t =3.3 s + 1 hr = 3.3 + 3600 s = 363.3 s

𝑡 363.3
Due to loss in 3.3 s, new time period, T/= = = 2.00183 𝑠
𝑛 1800

New time period of simple pendulum is given by:

𝑙
𝑇 / = 2𝜋√ / − − − (2
𝑔

Dividing (1 and (2,;

𝑙 𝑙
𝑇 2𝜋√𝑔 √
𝑔
= ⁄ = ⁄
𝑇/ 𝑙 𝑙
2𝜋√ / √ /
𝑔 𝑔
 61

𝑇 𝑙 𝑔/ 𝑔/
= √ × = √
𝑇/ 𝑔 𝑙 𝑔

𝑇 𝑔/
= √
𝑇/ 𝑔

Squaring both side,

2
2
𝑇 𝑔/ 𝑔/
( ) = ( √ ) =
𝑇/ 𝑔 𝑔

2
𝑇 2 2
𝑔/ = 𝑔 ( ) = 9.8 ( )
𝑇/ 2.00183

𝑔/ = 9.8(0.999)2 = 9.78 𝑠

Calculate
3 the length of second pendulum having time period 2 s at a place where
. g = 9.8 ms-2.

Given:
Time period of second pendulum, T =2s
Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.8 ms-2
Required:
Length of second pendulum, l =?
Solution:
Using the following equation:
𝑔𝑇 2
𝑙=
4𝜋 2
9.8 (2)2 9.8 × 4
𝑙= =
4 (3.14)2 4 × 9.86
⇒ 𝑙 = 0.992 𝑚

4. A body of mass ‘m’, suspended from a spring with force constant k, vibrates with
‘f1’. When its length is cut into half and the same body is suspended from one of
the halves, the frequency is ‘f2’. Find out ‘𝒇𝟏 𝒇−𝟏
𝟐 ’.

Given:
Mass of body =m
Force constant of complete spring =k
Frequency of complete spring = f1
Frequency of half-spring = f2
Required:
𝑓
𝑓1 𝑓2−1 = 𝑓1 = ?
2
 62

Solution:
Mathematically, frequency of mass-spring is given by:

1 𝑘
𝑓= √
2𝜋 𝑚

1 𝑘
𝑆𝑜, 𝑓1 = √ − − − −(1
2𝜋 𝑚

1 2𝑘
𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑓2 = √ − − − (2
2𝜋 𝑚

(Spring constant is doubled if spring is cut in two equal parts)

Dividing eq (1 and (2

𝑓1 1 𝑘 1 2𝑘
= √ ⁄ √
𝑓2 2𝜋 𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚

𝑓1 1
= = 0.707
𝑓2 √2

𝑓1 𝑓2−1 = 0.707

5. A mass at the end of a sprig describes S.H.M with T = 0.40 s. Find out ‘a’ where the
displacement is 0.04 m.

Given:
Time period, T = 0.4 s
Displacement, x = 0.04 m
Required:
Acceleration, a =?
Solution:
Acceleration of SHM is given by;

𝑎 = −𝜔2 𝑥

2𝜋 2 2𝜋
𝑎 = −( ) 𝑥 ∵T=
𝑇 𝑇

2 × 3.14 2
𝑎 = −( ) 0.04
0.4

𝑎 = − (15.9)2 0.04 = −9.86 𝑚/𝑠 2

 63

6. A block weighing 4.0 kg extends a spring by 0.16 m from its un-stretched position.
The block is removed and a 0.50 kg body is hung from same spring. If the spring is
stretched and then released, what is ts period of vibration?

Given:
For 4 kg extension in the spring, x = 0.16 m
𝐹 𝑚𝑔 4 × 9.8
Spring constant, 𝑘 = = = = 245 𝑁/𝑚
𝑥 𝑥 0.16
Required:
Mass attached, m = 0.5 kg
Solution:
Equation for time period of mass-spring system is given by:
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
0.5
𝑇 = 2 × 3.14√ = 6.28 × √0.002 = 0.28 𝑠
245

7. What should be the length of simple pendulum whose time period is one second?
What is frequency?

Given:
Time period of simple pendulum, T =1s
Gravitational acceleration, g = 9.8 ms-2
Required:
a) Length of simple pendulum, l =?
b) Frequency of simple pendulum, f =?
Solution:
a) Length of simple pendulum, l =?
Using the following equation:
𝑔𝑇 2
𝑙=
4𝜋 2
9.8 (1)2 9.8 × 1
𝑙= =
4 (3.14)2 4 × 9.86
⇒ 𝑙 = 0.25 𝑚
b) Frequency of simple pendulum, f =?
1 1
𝑓= = = 1 𝐻𝑧
𝑇 1

8. A spring whose spring constant is 80.0 Nm-1 vertically supports a mass of 1.0 kg is
at rest position. Find the distance by which the mass must be pulled down, so that
on being released, it may pass the mean position with velocity of one metre per
second.
Given:
Spring constant, k = 80 N/m
Mass, m = 1 kg
Maximum velocity, vo = 1 m/s
 64

Required:
Amplitude, xo =?
Solution:
Maximum velocity for mass-spring system is:

𝑘
𝑣𝑜 = 𝑥𝑜 √
𝑚

𝑚
𝑥𝑜 = 𝑣𝑜 √
𝑘

1
𝑥𝑜 = 1 √ = 0.11 𝑚
80

9. A 800 g body vibrates S.H.M with amplitude 0.30 m. find out (i) T (ii) a (iii) v (iv) K.E
(v) P.E where the displacement is 12 cm.

Given:
Mass of body, m = 8000 g = 8 kg
Amplitude, xo = 0.3 m
Restoring force, F = 60 N
Displacement, x = 0.3 m
Required:
i) Time period, T =?
ii) Acceleration, a =?
iii) Speed, v =?
iv) Kinetic energy, KE =?
v) Potential energy, PE = ? when x = 12 cm =0.12 m
Solution:
i) Time period, T =?
Equation for time period of mass-spring system is given by:
𝑚
𝑇 = 2𝜋√
𝑘
𝐹 60
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘 = = = 200 𝑁/𝑚
𝑥0 0.3

8
𝑇 = 2 × 3.14√ = 6.28 × √0.004 = 1.3 𝑠
200
ii) Acceleration, a =?

𝑘 200
𝑎=− 𝑥= − × 0.12 = 3 𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑚 8
iii) Speed, v =?

𝑘 200
𝑣 = √ (𝑥𝑜2 − 𝑥 2 ) = √ ((0.3)2 − (0.12)2 )
𝑚 8
 65

𝑣 = √25 (0.09 − 0.0144)

𝑣 = 5√0.0756 = 1.4 𝑚/𝑠 2
iv) Kinetic energy, KE =?
1 1
𝐾𝐸 = 𝑚𝑣 2 = × 8 (1.4)2 = 4 × 1.9 = 7.6 𝐽
2 2
v) Potential energy, PE = ? when x = 12 cm =0.12 m
1 1
𝐸𝐸 = 𝑘𝑥 2 = × 200 (0.12)2 = 100 × 0.0144 = 1.44 𝐽
2 2

10. Find the amplitude, frequency and time period of an object oscillating at the en of
𝝅
a spring, if the equation for its position at any instant is given by 𝒙 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟓 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ( ) 𝒕.
𝟖
Find the displacement of the object after 2.0 s.

Given:
𝜋
Displacement of object, x = 0.25 cos ( 8 ) 𝑡
Time, t =2s
Required:
i) Amplitude, xo =?
ii) Frequency, f =?
iii) Time period, T =?
iv) Displacement, x = ? when t = 2 s
Solution:
𝜋
As, displacement of object, x = 0.25 cos ( 8 ) 𝑡 − − − (1
General equation for the displacement is:
𝑥 = 𝑥0 cos 2𝜋𝑓𝑡 − − − (2
i) Amplitude, xo =?
Comparing eq (1 and (2
𝑥𝑜 = 0.25 𝑚
ii) Frequency, f =?
Comparing eq (1 and (2
𝜋
2𝜋𝑓 =
8
1
𝑓= 𝐻𝑧
16
iii) Time period, T =?
1
𝑇 = = 16 𝑠
𝑓
iv) Displacement, x = ? when t = 2 s
𝜋
As, displacement of object, x = 0.25 cos ( ) 2
8
𝜋
x = 0.25 cos ( ) = 0.25 cos 45
4

𝑥 = 0.25 × 0.707 = 0.18 m

========================================================================
 66

UNIT # 08 WAVES
Conceptual Questions
1. What is the difference between progressive and stationary waves?

Ans:

Progressive waves Stationary waves

1. Progressive waves are the result of 1. Stationary waves are the result of
disturbance in a medium which transmit superposition of two identical waves
energy from one point to another point in a moving in opposite direction in a medium.
medium
2. They transmit energy from one point to 2. They do not transmit energy from one
another point as they move on. point to another point as they have no
onward motion.
3. Principle of superposition may or may not 3. Principle of superposition must be applied
be applied in case of progressive waves. in case of stationary waves.
4. Example: Sound waves originating from 4. Example: The vibrations produced in the
vibrating tuning fork in a laboratory. string of a guitar or piano.

3. How are beats useful in tuning a musical instrument?

Ans: Tuning a musical instrument means matching a frequency of obe note wither another.
For this purpose, consider a standard instrument of known frequency. When the
unturned musical instrument and the standard one are played together beats are produced due
to difference of frequencies. As the two notes approach a harmonic relationship, the frequency
of beating decreases so much that it cannot be detected. When this happens, the musical
instrument is said to be tuned to a desired note.

4. Two wave pulses are travelling in opposite directions; completely cancel

each other as they pass. What happens to the energy possessed by the
waves?
Ans: When two wave pulses traveling in opposite direction completely cancel each other as
they pass, their energy remains constant.
Explanation:
Consider stationary waves consisting of nodes and antinodes. At the nodes amplitude of
vibration is zero and there is no transfer of energy through the medium due to nodes. However it
alternates between kinetic and potential form.
In case of antinodes, at extreme positions the energy is wholly potential while at mean
positions energy is wholly kinetic.
Thus it is concluded that the energy of the two wave pulses remain constant, however
only change from kinetic to potential at the point where they cross each other.

6. ) How might one can locate the position of node and antinode on a vibrating
string?
Ans: We can locate the position of nodes and antinodes in a vibrating string by identifying the
position of particles at rest and position of particles with maximum amplitude.
 67

Explanation:
Consider a vibrating string as shown in the figure. Point ‘N’ is node because the points
do not vibrate at all and displacement is zero. Point ‘A’ is antinode because the points vibrate
with maximum amplitude.

7. Is it possible for an object which is vibrating transversely to produce sound

waves?
Ans: Yes, it is possible for an object to vibrate transversely to produce sound waves.

Explanation:

In all musical instruments using strings, such as guitar and violin, strings vibrate
in transverse mode and dose work on the surrounding medium (air). The work appears as
pushing the molecules of the surrounding medium closer to and away from one another. This
result in producing compressions and rarefactions in the medium, which can be hear in the form
of sound waves.
8. Why does a sound wave travel faster in solids than in gases?
Ans: Sound travels faster in solids than in gases because the ratio 𝑬⁄𝝆 is much larger for solid
than for gases.
Explanation:
Speed of sound in a material medium is given by:

𝐸
𝑣 = √
𝜌

Where ‘E’ is the elasticity of the medium and ‘𝜌′ is the density of medium. As, density of
solid is greater than gases, but solid molecules respond more quickly to disturbance as
compared to gases due to large value of ‘E’ for solids. Therefore, 𝑬⁄𝝆 is much larger for solids
than for gases. Hence speed of sound is faster in solid than for gases.
9. ) Why does the speed of sound wave in gas changes with temperature?
Ans: Speed of sound in a gas changes with temperature because it is directly proportional to
the square root of the absolute temperature of the gas. i.e.

𝑣 ∝ √𝑇

Explanation:
When the temperature of the gas increases, the molecules move with high speed. As a
result transfer of energy increases from one point to another and the waves travel with greater
speed. It is experimentally found that speed of sound changes 0.61 m/s for each degree change
in temperature by the relation:
𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 0.61𝑜 𝐶

10. Is it possible for two astronauts to talk directly to one another even if they
remove their helmets?
Ans: No, this is not possible for two astronauts to talk directly to one another even if they
remove their helmet.
 68

Explanation:
Sound waves are longitudinal mechanical waves. Since there is no medium in
the space, the sound waves will not propagate in the space. In order to be in voice contact, the
astronauts should have an electronic communication system.

11. Estimate the frequencies at which a test tube 15 cm long resonates when
you blow across its lips.
Ans: As the test tube is closed at one end and open at the other, so it will act like a closed
organ pipe. The fundamental frequency of a closed organ pipe is:
𝑣
𝑓1 =
4𝐿

Here, length of tube = 15 cm

Let, speed of sound = 332 m/s

Then,

332
𝑓1 = = 553 𝐻𝑧
4 × 15

All the other harmonics are odd integral multiple of the fundamental frequency, i.e.

𝑓2 = 3𝑓1 = 3 × 553 = 1659 𝐻𝑧 (2nd harmonics)

𝑓3 = 5𝑓2 = 5 × 553 = 1765 𝐻𝑧 (3rd harmonics)

… And so on.

========================================================================
 69

Assignments

8.1 Compute the speed of sound in sea water, if its density is 1025 kg m -3and elastic
modulus is 2.1 × 109 N/m2.

Given:
Density of sea water, 𝜌 = 1035 kg/m3
Elastic modulus, E = 2.1 × 109 N/m2
Required:
Speed of sound, v =?
Solution:
Speed of sound in a material medium is given by:

𝐸
𝑣 = √
𝜌

Putting values in the above eq

2 × 109
𝑣 = √ = √2.04 × 10 6 = 1428 𝑚/𝑠
1035

8.2 How many beats per second are heard when two tuning forks of 256 Hz and 259
Hz are sounded together.

Given:
Frequency of 1st tuning fork, f1 = 256 Hz
Frequency of 2nd tuning fork, f2 = 259 Hz
Required:
Beats frequency, N =?
Solution:
Beats frequency is given by;

N = f2 – f1 = 259 – 256 = 3 Hz

8.3 A 40-g string 2m in length vibrates in three loops. The tension in the string is 270
N. What is the wavelength and frequency?

Given:
Mass of string, m = 40 g = 0.04 kg
Length of string, L =2m
Tension of the string, T = 270 N
Number of loops, =3
Required:
a) Wavelength of string, ʎ3 = ?
b) Frequency of string f3 =?
Solution:
a) Wavelength of string, ʎ3 = ?
 70

\ General formula for wavelength is;

2𝐿
ʎ𝑛 =
𝑛

For n = 3
2𝐿 2 ×2
ʎ3 = = = 1.33 𝑚
3 3

b) Frequency of string f3 =?
General formula for frequency is ;
𝑣
𝑓𝑛 =
ʎ𝑛

For n = 3
𝑣
𝑓3 = − − − (1
ʎ3

𝑇𝐿 270 × 2 540
As, 𝑣 =√ = √ = √ = √13500 = 116.19 𝑚/𝑠
𝑚 0.04 0.04

116.19
eq (1 becomes 𝑓3 = = 87.3 𝐻𝑧
1.33

8.5 What length of closed loop will produce a fundamental frequency of 256 Hz at 20
0C.

Given:
Fundamental frequency, f1 = 256 Hz
Temperature, t = 20 0C
Required:
Length of closed pipe, L =?
Solution:
In case of closed pipe, fundamental frequency is given by:
𝑣
𝑓1 =
4𝐿
𝑣
𝐿= − − − (1
4𝑓1

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 0.61 𝑡 0 𝐶

𝑣 = 332 + 0.61 × 20 (v0 =332 m/s)

𝑣 = 332 + 12.2 = 344.2 𝑚/𝑠

Using in equation (1

344.2 344.2
𝐿= = = 0.336 𝑚 = 33.6 𝑐𝑚
4 × 256 1024
 71

8.6 (a) What frequency is received by a woman watching an oncoming ambulance

moving at 110 km/h and emitting a 800-Hz sound from its siren. The speed of
sound on the day is 345 m/s. (b) What frequency does she receive after the
ambulance has passed?

Given:
Speed of ambulance, a = 110 km/hr = 110 × 0.28 = 30.8 m/s
Frequency of sound, f = 800 Hz
Speed of sound, v = 345 m/s
Required:
a) Apparent frequency when the ambulance approaches, f/ =?
b) Apparent frequency when receding the ambulance, f/? =?
Solution:
a) Apparent frequency when the ambulance approaches, f/ =?
Using the relation:
𝑣
𝑓/ = 𝑓
𝑣−𝑎
Putting values:
345 345
𝑓/ = × 800 = × 800 = 878 𝐻𝑧
345 − 30.8 314.2

b) Apparent frequency when receding the ambulance, f/? =?

Using the relation:
𝑣
𝑓/ = 𝑓
𝑣−𝑎
Putting values:
345 345
𝑓/ = × 800 = × 800 = 735 𝐻𝑧
345 + 30.8 375.8

========================================================================
 72

Numerical Questions
4 A string of guitar 1.3 m long vibrated with 4 nodes, 2 of them at the two ends. Find
the wavelength and speed of the wave in the string if it vibrates at 500 Hz.

Given:
Length of string, L = 1.3 m
Number of loops, n =3
Frequency of string, f3 = 500 Hz
Required:
a) Wavelength of string, ʎ3 = ?
b) Speed of waves, v =?
Solution:
General formula for wavelength is;

2𝐿
ʎ𝑛 =
𝑛

For n = 3
2𝐿 2 × 1.3
ʎ3 = = = 0.866 𝑚
3 3

b) Speed of waves, v =?
v = f3ʎ3 = 500 × 0.866 = 433 m/s

6 Compare the theoretical speed of sound in hydrogen (M H = 2 g/mol, 𝜸𝑯 = 1.4) with

helium (MHe = 4 g/mol, 𝜸𝑯𝒆 = 1.66 and R = 8.334 J/mol K) at 0 oC.

Given:
Atomic mass of hydrogen, MH = 2 g/mol = 0.002 kg/mol
Adiabatic index of hydrogen, 𝛾𝐻 = 1.4
Atomic mass of helium, MHe = 4 g/mol = 0.004 kg/mol
Adiabatic index of helium, 𝛾𝐻𝑒 = 1.66
Gas constant, R =8.334 J/mol K
Absolute temperature, T = 0 oC = 0 + 273 = 273 K
Required:
𝑣𝐻𝑒
Comparison of speeds, =?
𝑣𝐻
Solution:
Speed of sound in a gas is given by:

𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑣 =√
𝑀

For helium, speed of sound is given by;

𝛾𝐻𝑒 𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝐻𝑒 = √
𝑀𝐻𝑒
 73

Putting values;
1.66 × 8.334 × 273 3376.8
𝑣𝐻𝑒 = √ = √
0.004 0.004

𝑣𝐻𝑒 = √944200.53 = 971.7 𝑚/𝑠 ----- (1

Similarly for helium, speed of sound is given by;

𝛾𝐻 𝑅𝑇
𝑣𝐻 = √
𝑀𝐻

Putting values;
1.4 × 8.334 × 273 3185.75
𝑣𝐻𝑒 = √ = √
0.002 0.004

𝑣𝐻𝑒 = √1592627.4 = 1262 𝑚/𝑠 ------- (2

Dividing eq (1 and (2,

𝑣𝐻𝑒 971.7
= = 0.77
𝑣𝐻𝑒 1262

𝑣𝐻𝑒 = 0.77𝑣𝐻

7 The speed of sound in air at 0 oC is 332 ms-1. What will be the speed of sound at
22 oC

Given:
Speed of sound at 0 oC, v0 = 332 m/s
Temperature, t oC = 22 oC
Required:
Speed of sound at given temperature, v =?
Solution:
Speed of sound is given by;

𝑣 = 𝑣𝑜 + 0.61 𝑡 0 𝐶

𝑣 = 332 + 0.61 × 22

𝑣 = 332 + 13.4 = 345.4 𝑚/𝑠

8 Two tuning forks P and Q give 4 beats per second. On loading Q lightly with wax,
we get 3 beats per second. What is the frequency of Q before and after loading if
the frequency of P is 512 Hz?

Given:
Number of beats before loading, N =4
/
Number of beats after loading, N =3
Frequency of tuning fork P before loading, fp = 512 Hz
 74

Required:
a) Frequency of tuning fork Q before loading, fQ =?
b) Frequency of tuning fork Q after loading, f/Q =?
Solution:
Formula for beat frequency is given by:

N = f1 – f2

a) Frequency of tuning fork Q before loading, fQ =?

N = fQ – fP

4 = fQ - 512

fQ = 512 + 4 = 516 Hz

b) Frequency of tuning fork Q after loading, f/Q =?

/
N = f/Q – fP

3 = f/Q - 512

f/Q = 512 + 3 = 515 Hz

9 On a sunny day, the speed of sound in the air is 340ms-1, are tuning forks A & B are
sounded simultaneously. The wavelength of the sound emitted are 1.5 m and
1.68 m respectively. How many beats will produce per second?

Given:
Speed of sound in air, v = 340 m/s
Wavelength of tuning fork A, fA =1.5 m
Wavelength of tuning fork B, fB =1.68 m
Required:
Beat frequency, N =?
Solution:
Formula for beat frequency is given by:

N = fA – fB - - - - - (1

As, v = fʎ

For tuning fork A;

𝑣 340
𝑓𝐴 = = = 226.66 𝐻𝑧 − − − (2
ʎ𝐴 1.5

For tuning fork B;

𝑣 340
𝑓𝐵 = = = 202.38 𝐻𝑧 − − − (3
ʎ𝐵 1.68

Using eq (2 and eq (3 in eq (1, we get

N = 226.66 – 202.38 = 24 Hz
75
 76

10 A sound source vibrates at 200 Hz and is receding from a stationary observer at

18 ms-1. If the speed of sound is 331 ms-1 then what frequency does the observer
hear?

Given:
Frequency of sound, f = 200 Hz
Speed of sound, v = 331 m/s
Speed of sound source, a = 18 m/s
Required:
Apparent frequency when receding from observer, f/ =?
Solution:
Using the relation:
𝑣
𝑓/ = 𝑓
𝑣+𝑎
Putting values:
331 331
𝑓/ = × 200 = × 800 = 189.68 𝐻𝑧
331 + 18 349

11 Suppose a train that has a 150 Hz horn is moving at 35.0 m/s in still air on a day
when the speed of the sound is 340 m/s. (a) What frequencies are observed by a
stationary person at the side of the tracks as the train approaches and after it
passes? (b) What frequency is observed by the train’s engineer travelling on the
train?

Given:
Speed of train, a = 35 m/s
Frequency of sound, f = 150 Hz
Speed of sound, v = 340 m/s
Required:
a) Apparent frequency when the train approaches, f/ =?
b) Apparent frequency when receding the train, f/? =?
c) Frequency of sound observed by train’s engineer, f/// =?
Solution:
c) Apparent frequency when the train approaches, f/ =?
Using the relation:
𝑣
𝑓/ = 𝑓
𝑣−𝑎
Putting values:
340 340
𝑓/ = × 150 = × 150 = 167 𝐻𝑧
340 − 35 305

d) Apparent frequency when receding the train, f/? =?

Using the relation:
𝑣
𝑓/ = 𝑓
𝑣−𝑎
Putting values:
340 340
𝑓/ = × 150 = × 150 = 136 𝐻𝑧
340 + 35 375
 77

12 The first overtone of an organ pipe has the same frequency as the first overtone of
a closed pipe 3.6 m in length. What is the length of an open organ pipe?

Given:
Length of closed pipe, LC = 3.6 m
First overtone frequency of closed pipe = first overtone frequency of open pipe
f3close = f2open
Required:
Length of open pipe, LO =?
Solution:
First overtone frequency for closed pipe is given by;
𝑣
𝑓3𝑐𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑒 = 3 𝑓1 = 3 − − − (1
4𝐿𝐶

First overtone frequency for open pipe is given by;

𝑣 𝑣
𝑓2𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑛 = 2 𝑓1 = 2 = − − − (2
2𝐿𝑜 𝐿𝑜

As, f3close = f2open

Comparing (1 and (2
𝑣 𝑣
3 =
4𝐿𝐶 𝐿𝑜
4 𝐿𝐶 4 × 3.6
𝐿𝑂 = = = 4.8 𝑚
3 3

13 What length of open pipe will produce a frequency of 1200 Hz as it is first overtone
on a day when the speed of a sound is 240 m/s?

Given:
Frequency of first overtone, f2 =1200 Hz
Speed of sound, v = 340 m/s
Required:
Length of pipe, L =?
Solution:
First overtone frequency for open pipe is given by;
𝑣 𝑣
𝑓2 = 2 𝑓1 = 2 =
2𝐿 𝐿

𝑣 340
𝐿 = = = 0.283 𝑚 = 28.3 𝑐𝑚
𝑓2 1200

========================================================================
 78

UNIT # 09 PHYSICAL OPTICS

Conceptual Questions
2. What is the difference between interference and diffraction?
Ans:

Interference Diffraction
1. Interference of waves occur when two 1. Diffraction of waves occur when part of its
wave sources are superimposed wave front is obstructed e.g. by a narrow
slit.
2. Interference fringes are equally spaced. 2. Diffraction fringes are not equally spaced.
3. At least two coherent sources are 3. Only single source is sufficient to produce
required to produce interference. diffraction.
4. In interference, bright fringes are of 4. In diffraction, bright bands intensity
uniform high intensity gradually decreases.

3. In Michelson interferometer a second glass plate is also used, why?

Ans: In Michelson interferometer the second glass plate is equal in thickness to first glass plate
and cut from the same piece of glass. The second glass plate is introduced in the path of beam
II as a compensator plate. This equalizes the path length of beam I and II in glass and two
beams are coherent. As a result, series of parallel interference fringes are produced and arrive
at the observer’s eye.

4. How you can explain Brewster's law of polarization?

Ans: When un-polarized light falls on glass, water, etc., the reflected light is in general partially
plane polarized but at a certain angle of incidence called polarizing angle, the polarization is
complete. At this angle the reflected ray and the refracted ray in a transmitted medium are
found to be at right angle to each other.
The vibrations in the reflected ray are parallel to the surface, as shown in figure:
Applying Snell’s law we have,
𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 ------- (1

Where, n1 and n2 are the absolute refractive indexes of the medium 1 and 2.
Since from figure, we have;
𝒊𝒑 + 𝟗𝟎𝟎 + 𝒓 = 𝟏𝟖𝟎𝟎

𝒓 = 𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝒊𝒑

Hence, putting this value in Eq. (1

𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝒊𝒑 )

𝒏𝟏 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊𝒑 = 𝒏𝟐 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒊𝒑 ) ∵ sin(𝟗𝟎𝟎 − 𝜽) = 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝜽

𝒏𝟐 𝒔𝒊𝒏 𝒊𝒑
=
𝒏𝟏 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒊𝒑
𝒏𝟐
= 𝐭𝐚𝐧 Ɵ ------- (2[
𝒏𝟏

This is known as Brewster’s law.

 79

5. What is meant by the path difference with reference to the interference of two
wave motion?
Ans: Path difference in interference of waves is the distance travelled by two waves from their
respective sources to the point where waves superpose each other to result interference.

The path difference of two waves determines the type of interference.

For constructive interference, the path difference is:

𝑑 = 𝑚ʎ (where m = 0,1,2,3,……)

For destructive interference, the path difference is:

1
𝑑 = (𝑚 + )ʎ (where m = 0,1,2,3,……)
2

6. Why it is not possible to use the interference where the light beams from the head
lamps of a car overlap?
Ans: Following conditions are required for the interference of light waves:

i) The sources must be coherent.

ii) The source must be monochromatic.
iii) Principle of superposition must be applied.

These conditions are not satisfied in the case of light coming from the head lamps of
the car. First the head lamps are not coherent sources because the waves have random
phases. Secondly, the light is not monochromatic. So we can't have interference patterns from
the light from the head lamps of a car.

7. A telephone pole casts a clear shadow in the light from a distant head lamp of a
car, but no such effect is noticed for the sound from the car horn. Why?
Ans: This is due diffraction phenomenon.
Explanation:
The wavelength of sound waves is very large as compared to the wavelength of
light waves. Hence sound waves are diffracted around the corners of the pole so they are
heard. The wavelength of light waves is shorter and not comparable to the dimensions of
the pole. Therefore, light waves are not diffracted. Thus the light waves cannot bend
around the corners and shadow of pole is observed.

8. Why it is not possible to obtain the diffraction of X-rays by Young's double slits
experiment?
Ans: Diffraction of waves can be observed only when the wavelength of the incident wave is
comparable (less than or equal to) to the width of the slits. since X-rays are electromagnetic
radiations with wavelength of the order of 10 nm which is far less than the width of slits in
Young's double slit experiment. Therefore, X-rays cannot be diffracted through slits. For the
diffraction of X-rays, crystals like NaCl are used which has a comparable atomic spaces as
that of wavelength of X-rays.
9. Can we apply Huygen's principle to radar waves?
Ans: Yes, we can apply Huygen’s Principle to radar waves.
According to Huygen’s principle every point of wave may be considered as a source
of secondary wavelet i.e. Huygen’s principle explains the propagation of all type of waves. Since
 80

radar waves are electromagnetic radio waves. Therefore, Huygen’s principle can be applied to
radio waves like that of light waves.

10. How would you justify that light waves are transverse?
Ans: The phenomenon of polarization of light proves that light waves are transverse waves.

Explanation:

The light has electric and a magnetic field component which are perpendicular to
each other and propagation of light is perpendicular to both electric and magnetic fields. If the
un-polarized light is made incident on the sheet of polaroid, the transmitted light will be plane
polarized. If a second sheet of polaroid is placed in such a way that the axes of the polaroid are
parallel to the light, then it will transmit through the second polaroid. If the second polaroid is
slowly rotated about the beam of light, the light emerging out of the second polaroid gets
dimmer and dimmer and disappears when the axes become mutually perpendicular. The light
reappears on further rotation and becomes brightest when the axes are again parallel to each
other. This experiment confirms that light waves are transverse waves.

========================================================================
 81

Assignments

9.2 A beam of X- rays of wavelength 0.3 nm is incident on a crystal, and gives a first-
order maximum when the glancing angle is 9.0 degrees. Find the atomic spacing.
Given:
Wavelength of x-rays, ʎ = 0.3 nm
Order of the image, m =1
Glancing angle, Ɵ = 9.00
Required:
Atomic spacing, d =?
Solution:
From Bragg’s law we know that

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚ʎ

𝑚𝜆 1 × 0.3 × 10−9 3 × 10−10

𝑑= = =
2 sin 𝜃 2 sin 90 2 × 0.156

𝑑 = 0.959 × 10−9 𝑚 = 0.959 𝑛𝑚

========================================================================

Numerical Questions

3. When the movable mirror of a Michelson interferometer is moved 0.1 mm. how
may dark fringes pass through the reference point, I flight of wavelength 580 nm
is used/
Given:
Distance moved by movable mirror, P = 0.1 mm = 0.1 × 10-3 m
Wavelength of light, ʎ = 580 nm = 580 × 10-9 m
Required:
Number of fringes observed, m =?
Solution:
Using the relation;

𝑚ʎ
𝑑=
2

2𝑃 2 × 0.1 × 10−3
𝑚= == = 0.000345 × 106 = 345
ʎ 580 × 10−9

5. A diffraction grating has 5000 lines per centimeter. At what angle does the second
order spectrum of the sodium yellow light of wavelength 589 nm occur?
Given:
Number of lines per centimeter, N = 5000 lines
Wavelength of light, ʎ = 589 nm = 589 × 10-9 m
Order of spectrum, m =2
1 𝑐𝑚 0.01 𝑚
Grating element, d = 𝑁
= 5000
= 2 × 10−6 𝑚
Required:
 82

Angle, Ɵ =?
Solution:
As,

𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚ʎ

𝑚ʎ 2 × 589 × 10−9
𝑠𝑖𝑛Ɵ = = = 589 × 10−3 = 0.589
𝑑 2 × 10−6

θ = `sin−1 0.589 = 360

6. Light is incident normally on a grating which has 250 lines/mm. find the
wavelength of the spectral line for which the deviation in second order is 120.
Given:
Number of lines per mm, N = 250 lines
Angle, Ɵ = 120
Order of image, m =2
1 𝑚𝑚 1 𝑚𝑚
Grating element, d = 𝑁
= 250
= 0.04 𝑚𝑚
Required:
Wavelength of light, ʎ =?
Solution:
As,

𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚ʎ

𝑑 sin Ɵ 0.004 × 10−3 × sin 120 0.004 × 10−3 × 0.2079

ʎ= = =
𝑚 2 2

ʎ = 4158 × 10−10 𝑚

7. Ina certain X-rays diffraction experiment the first order image is observed at an
angle of 50 for a crystal plane spacing of 2.8 × 10-10 m. What is the wavelength of X-
rays used?
Given:
Angle of diffraction, Ɵ = 50
Crystal plane spacing, d = 2.8 × 10-10 m
Order of image, m =1
Required:
Wavelength of x-rays, ʎ =?
Solution:
From Bragg’s law we know that

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚ʎ

2𝑑 sin 𝜃 2 × 2.8 × 10−10 𝑠𝑖𝑛 50

𝜆= =
𝑚 1

𝜆 = 5.6 × 10−10 × 0.087 = 0.49 × 10−10 𝑚

 83

8. An X-ray beam of wavelength 0.48 × 10-10 m is used to get Bragg reflection from a
crystal at an angle of 200 for the first order maximum. What are the possible layer
plane spacing which give rise to this maximum?
Given:
Wavelength of x-rays, ʎ = 0.48 × 10-10 m
Angle of diffraction, Ɵ = 200
Order of image, m =1
Required:
Crystal plane spacing, d =?
Solution:
From Bragg’s law we know that

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚ʎ

𝑚𝜆 1 × 0.48 × 10−10 0.48 × 10−10

𝑑= = = = 0.707 × 10−10 𝑚
2 sin 𝜃 2 sin 20 2 × 0.3420

9. The spacing of one of crystal planes is NaCl (table salt) is d = 0.0282 nm. A
monochromatic beam of X-rays process a Bragg maximum when its glancing
angle with theses planes Is Ɵ =70. Assuming that this is a first order maximum (n
=1)find the wavelength of the X-rays.
Given:
Crystal plane spacing, d = 0.282nm = 0.282 × 10-9 m
Angle of diffraction, Ɵ = 70
Order of image, m =1
Required:
Wavelength of x-rays, ʎ =?
Solution:
From Bragg’s law we know that

2𝑑 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜃 = 𝑚ʎ

2𝑑 sin 𝜃 2 × 0.282 × 10−9 𝑠𝑖𝑛 70

𝜆= =
𝑚 1

𝜆 = 5.64 × 10−10 × 0.112 = 0.69 × 10−10 𝑚

𝜆 = 0.069 × 10−9 𝑚 = 0.069 𝑛𝑚

========================================================================
 84

UNIT # 10 THERMODYNAMICS
Conceptual Questions
1. Why is the earth not in thermal equilibrium with the sun?
Ans: Two objects are in thermal equilibrium if both have the same temperature and heat does
not flow between them. Since the temperature of the sun is very high as compared to the
temperature of the earth and also heat is continuously flowing from sun to earth in the form of
radiation. Due to these reasons earth is not in thermal equilibrium with the sun.

2. When a block with a hole in it is heated, why does not material around the hole
expand into the hole and make it small?

Ans: When heat is given to a body, it expands and when it is cooled, it contracts. By heating
the block with hole in it, the kinetic energy of the molecules increases. The molecules then
vibrate more vigorously with greater amplitudes. This results an expansion in the volume of the
block in all dimensions of the block including the hole.
Thus, the molecules around the hole are pulled outward and an increase in the size of
the hole is observed instead of decrease in size of hole.

3. A thermometer is placed in direct sun light. Will it read the temperature of air or of
the sun or something else?

Ans: Thermometer is an instrument which measures the temperature of substance when it is in

contact with the substance. When thermometer is placed in direct sun light, it becomes in
thermal contact with the surrounding air. The process of heat exchange is established and after
some time the temperature of the thermometer and the surrounding air become same. The
thermometer will record this temperature.
Thus the thermometer placed in direct sun light will record the temperature of the
surrounding air.

4. The pressure in a gas cylinder containing hydrogen will leak more quickly than if it
is containing oxygen. Why?
Ans: According to law of diffusion, velocity of a gas is inversely proportional to square root of
molecular mass of a gas by the relation;
𝛾𝑅𝑇
𝑣=√
𝑚

Since the molecular mass of hydrogen gas is 16 times greater than oxygen.
Therefore, rate of diffusion of hydrogen gas is greater than oxygen by the above relation
This is the reason why the pressure in a gas cylinder containing hydrogen will leak
more quickly than the gas cylinder containing oxygen.

5. What happens to the temperature of a room in which an air conditioner is left

running on a table in the middle of the room?
Ans: When an air conditioner is placed on a table in the middle of the room, it will not cool the
room because if, on one hand, its evaporator takes heat from the room and cooling it, on the
other hand, it also gives heat to the room through its condenser. Probably, it will increase the
temperature of the room to some extent because some work is done by the compressor which
is also rejected to the room as heat.
 85

6. Why does the pressure of the air in automobile tyre increases if the automobile is
driven for a while?
Ans: When an automobile is driven on the road, some work is done to overcome the road
friction. The work done against the force of friction appears as heating up the tyres and the air in
it. This results an increase in average kinetic energy of air molecules. This increases the rate of
collision of air molecules containing walls of the tyres. The increased rate of collision increases
the pressure on the walls of the tyre and hence the pressure of the air in the tyres of the
automobile increases.

7. On removing the valve, the air escaping from the cycle tube cools. Why?
Ans: The air escaping from the cycle tube is an example of an adiabatic expansion. Here no
heat enters or leaves the system (cycle tube) i.e. ΔQ = 0
Applying First Law of Thermodynamics,

ΔQ = ΔU + ΔW
0 = ΔU + ΔW
- ΔU = ΔW
The negative sign shows the work is done at the cost of internal energy of the system.
This decreases the temperature of the air in the tube and the cycle tube cools.

8. Write the limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics.

Ans: Limitations of the First Law of Thermodynamics:

i) First Law of Thermodynamics is the law of conservation of energy. However, it does not
give any information about the direction of the process and the condition in which
transformation of heat and work take place.
ii) Heat can be converted to an equivalent amount of work but work cannot be converted
to an equivalent amount of heat in actual practice. First Law is silent on this aspect of
conversion.
iii) This law cannot explain entropy of the system, principle of heat engine and refrigerator,
thermal equilibrium and frictional forces involved in the process.

9. Is it possible, according to the Second Law of Thermodynamics, to construct a

heat engine that is free from thermal pollution?
Ans: According to Kelvin's statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics, it is impossible to
construct a heat engine without having a sink. So, a heat engine that is free from thermal
pollution is impossible to be constructed.
Any heat engine works on the principle of absorbing some heat from the high
temperature reservoir (source), converts part of it to mechanical work and rejects the remaining
part to the low temperature reservoir (sink). The sink is usually the atmosphere. This causes an
increase in the temperature of the surrounding, which makes the surrounding thermally
polluted.

10. Can specific heat of a gas be zero or infinity? Can specific heat be negative?
Ans: a) specific heat can be zero in adiabatic process. As we know that:
∆𝑄
𝑐= − − − (1
𝑚∆𝑇

In adiabatic process ∆𝑄 = 0
 86

0
eq(1⇒ 𝑐= =0
𝑚∆𝑇

b) Specific heat can be infinity in isothermal process.

In isothermal process ∆𝑇 = 0

∆𝑄
eq(1⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑚(0) = ∞

c) specific heat can be negative if gas is allowed to expand such that fall in temperature due to
expansion is greater than rise in temperature due to heat supplied. In this case ∆𝑇 is negative.
For example gravitating objects such as stars and galaxies.
∆𝑄 ∆𝑄
eq(1⇒ 𝑐 = 𝑚(−∆𝑇) == − 𝑚∆𝑇

11. An inventor claims to have developed a heat engine, working between 27 ° and
227° having an efficiency of 45%. Is the claim valid? Why?
Ans:

Given that:

Temperature of heat source, T1 = 227˚C = 227 +273 = 500 K

Temperature of sink, T2 = 27˚C = 27 + 273 = 300 K

Efficiency of heat engine, η = 45 % (claim)

As, efficiency of heat engine is given by:

𝑇2
η = (1 − ) × 100%
𝑇1

Putting the values

300 3
η = (1 − ) × 100% = (1 − ) × 100%
500 5
5−3 2
η=( ) × 100% = × 100%
5 5

η = 40%

His claim is not valid because efficiency of heat engine working between 27° and 227°
is not 45% but 40%.

========================================================================
 87

Assignments

10.1 An ideal gas absorbs 5 × 103 J of energy while doing 2 × 103 J of work on the
environment during a constant pressure process. (a) Compute the change in the
internal energy of the gas. (b) If the internal energy drops by 𝟒. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱and
𝟕. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟑 𝑱is expelled from the system, find the change in volume, assuming a
constant pressure process at 𝟏. 𝟎𝟏 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂.
Given:
Heat absorbed by an ideal gas, ∆𝑄 = 5 × 103 J
Work done on the environment, ∆𝑊 = 2 × 103 J
Required:
a) Change in internal energy, ∆𝑈 =?
Solution:
According to first law of thermodynamics;

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = 5 × 103 − 2 × 103 = 3 × 103 𝐽

b) Change in volume, ∆𝑽 =?

Decrease in internal energy, ∆𝑈 = − 4.5 × 103 𝐽

Heat expelled from the system, ∆𝑄 = − 7.5 × 103 𝐽

Constant pressure, P = 1.01 × 105 𝑃𝑎

According to adiabatic process, the first law of thermodynamics is:

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + 𝑃∆𝑉
𝑃∆𝑉 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑈

∆𝑄 − ∆𝑈
∆𝑉 =
𝑃

Putting values:

− 7.5 × 103 − (− 4.5 × 103 )

∆𝑉 =
1.01 × 105

− 7.5 × 103 + 4.5 × 103 − 3 × 103

∆𝑉 = =
1.01 × 105 1.01 × 105

∆𝑉 = −2.97 × 10−2 𝑚2
 88

10.2 During one cycle, an engine extracts 2 × 103 J of energy from a hot reservoir and
transfers 1.5 × 103 J to a cold reservoir. (a) Find the thermal efficiency of the
engine. (b) How much does this heat engine do in one cycle? (c) What average
power does the engine generate through four cycles in 2.50 s?
Given:
Heat absorbed from hot reservoir, Q1 = 2 × 103 J
Heat transferred to cold reservoir, Q2 = 1.5 × 103 J
Required:
a) Thermal efficiency of the engine, η =?
b) Work done in one cycle, ∆𝑊 =?
c) Average power in four cycle, <P> =?
Solution:
a) Thermal; efficiency of heat engine is given by:
𝑄1 − 𝑄2
η=
𝑄1

2 × 103 − 1.5 × 103 0.5 × 103

η= = = 0.25
2 × 103 2 × 103

η = 0.25 × 100% = 25%

b) Work done in one cycle, ∆𝑾 =?

By definition of efficiency,
∆𝑊
η=
𝑄1
∆𝑊 = η𝑄1 = 0.25 × 2 × 103 = 5 × 102 𝐽
c) Average power in four cycle, <P> =?
Time for one cycle, t = 0.25 s
As, average power is given by;
4∆𝑊 4 × 5 × 102
< 𝑃 >= = = 8 × 102 𝑊
𝑡 0.25

10.3. (a) Find the change in entropy of 𝟑 × 𝟏𝟎𝟐 𝒈 of lead when it melts at 𝟑𝟐𝟕𝟎 𝑪. Lead
has a latent heat of fusion of 𝟐. 𝟒𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟒 𝑱/𝒌𝒈. (b) Suppose the same amount of
energy is used to melt part of piece of a silver, which is already at its melting
point of 𝟗𝟔𝟏𝟎 𝑪. Find the change in entropy of the silver.
Given:
Mass of lead, m = 3 × 102 𝑔 = 0.3 𝑘𝑔
Constant temperature at fusion point of lead, 𝑇𝐿 =3270 𝐶 = 327 + 273 = 600 𝐾
Latent heat of fusion of lead, 𝐻𝑓 = 2.45 × 104 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
Constant temperature at fusion point of silver, 𝑇𝑆 = 9610 𝐶 = 961 + 273 = 1234 𝐾
Required:
a) Change in entropy of lead, ∆𝑆𝐿 =?
b) Change in entropy of silver, ∆𝑆𝑆 =?
 89

Solution:
a) Change in entropy of lead, ∆𝑆𝐿 =?
Heat absorbed by lead, ∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝐻𝑓 = 0.3 × 2.45 × 104 = 7350 𝐽
Change in entropy of lead is given by;
∆𝑄 7350
∆𝑆𝐿 = = = 12.25 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝐿 600
b) Change in entropy of silver, ∆𝑆𝑆 =?
Change in entropy of lead is given by;
∆𝑄 7350
∆𝑆𝑆 = = = 5.96 𝐽/𝑘𝑔
𝑇𝑆 1234

========================================================================
 90

Numerical Questions
1. Water at 200 C falls from a height of 854 m. If the whole energy is used in
increasing the temperature, find out the final temperature. Specific heat of water
is 4200 J/kgK.
Given:
Initial temperature of water, 𝑇1 =200 𝐶 = 20 + 273 = 293 𝐾
Height of water fall, h = 854 m
Specific heat of water, c = 4200 J/kgK
Required:
Final temperature of water, 𝑇2 =?
Solution:
According to given condition:

Loss in P.E. = Gain in heat energy

i.e. 𝑚𝑔ℎ = ∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝑐∆𝑇

𝑔ℎ = 𝑐(𝑇2 − 𝑇1)

𝑔ℎ
𝑇2 − 𝑇1 =
𝑐
𝑔ℎ 9.8 × 854
𝑇2 = + 𝑇1 = + 293
𝑐 4200

𝑇2 = 1.99 + 293 = 294.99 = 295 𝐾

2. 25200 J of heat is supplied to the system while the system does 6000 J of work.
Calculate the change in internal energy of the system.
Given:
Heat energy supplied to the system, ∆𝑄 =25200 J
Work done by the system, ∆𝑊 = 6000 J
Required:
Increase in internal energy of the system, ∆𝑈= ?
Solution:
According to first law of thermodynamics;

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = 25200 − 6000 = 19200 𝐽

3. A sample of ideal gas is uniformly heated at constant pressure. If the amount of

180 J of heat is supplied to the gas, calculate the change in internal energy of the
gas and work done by the gas. Take 𝜸= 1.41.
Given:
Heat supplied at constant pressure, ∆𝑄𝑝 = 180 J
Heat capacity ratio, 𝛾 = 1,41
 91

Required:
a) Change in internal energy of the system, ∆𝑈= ?
b) Work done by the system, ∆𝑊 =?

Solution:
Heat at constant pressure is given by:

∆𝑄𝑝 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇

180 = 𝑛𝐶𝑝 ∆𝑇 − − − (1

As,

𝐶𝑝 = 𝛾𝐶𝑣

Putting the value on eq (1

180 𝐽 = 𝑛𝛾𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇

180 𝐽 = 𝛾(𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇) = 𝛾∆𝑈 (𝑛𝐶𝑣 ∆𝑇 = ∆𝑈 )

180 𝐽 180 𝐽
∆𝑈 = = = 127.66 𝐽
𝛾 1.41

c) Work done by the system, ∆𝑾 =?

Using to first law of thermodynamics;

∆𝑄𝑝 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

∆𝑊 = ∆𝑄𝑝 − ∆𝑈

∆𝑊 = 180 − 127.66 = 52.34 𝐽

4. Find the efficiency of a Carnot’s heat engine working between the steam and ice
points?
Given:
Temperature of steam, 𝑇1 = 1000 𝐶 = 100 + 273 = 373 𝐾
Temperature of ice, 𝑇2 = 00 𝐶 = 0 + 273 = 273 𝐾
Required:
Efficiency of Carnot’s engine, η =?
Solution:
Efficiency of Carnot’s engine id given by;
𝑇2
η = (1 − ) × 100%
𝑇1

Putting the values

273
η = (1 − ) × 100% = (1 − 0.73) × 100%
373

η = 0.27 × 100% = 27%

 92

5. A Carnot heat engine absorbs 2000 J of heat from the source of hat engine at
2270C and rejects 1200 J of heat during each cycle to sink. Calculate efficiency of
engine temperature of sink and amount of work done during each cycle.
Given:
Heat absorbed from source, Q1 = 2000 J
Heat rejected to sink, Q2 = 1200 J
Temperature of source, T1 = 227 0C = 227 +273 = 500 K
Required:
a) Efficiency of Carnot engine, η =?
b) Temperature of source, T2 =?
c) Work done in each cycle, ∆𝑊 =?
Solution:
Efficiency of Carnot’s engine id given by;
𝑄2
η = (1 − ) × 100%
𝑄1

Putting the values

1200
η = (1 − ) = (1 − 0.6) = 0.4
2000

η = 0.4 × 100% = 40%

b) Temperature of source, T2 =?
Efficiency of Carnot’s engine in terms of temperature is given by;

𝑇2
η=1−
𝑇1
𝑇2
=1−η
𝑇1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 (1 − η)

𝑇2 = 500(1 − 0.4) = 500 × 0.6

𝑇2 = 300 𝐾 = 300 − 273 = 270 𝐶

c) Work done in each cycle, ∆𝑊 =?

By definition of efficiency,
∆𝑊
η=
𝑄1
∆𝑊 = η𝑄1 = 0.4 × 2000 = 800 𝐽

6. What is the least amount of work that must be performed to freeze one gram of
water at 00 C by means of a refrigerator? Take the temperature of the surrounding
as 370 C. how much heat is passed on to the surrounding during this process?
Given:
Mass of water, m = 1 g = 0.001 kg
Temperature of surrounding, T1 = 37 0C = 37 +273 = 310 K
Temperature of freezer, T2 = 0 0C = 0 +273 = 273 K
Heat of fusion, Hf = 336000 J/kg
 93

Required:
a) Heat rejected to surrounding, Q1 = ?
b) Work done by freezer, W =?
Solution:
a) Heat rejected to surrounding, Q1 = ?
Using the relation:
Q2 = mHf = 0.001 ×336000 = 336 J
b) Work done by freezer, W =?
As, coefficient of performance of cooling is given by:
𝑇2 273 273
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 = = = = 7.38
𝑇1 − 𝑇2 310 − 273 37
Also, coefficient of performance for heating is :
𝑄2
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 =
𝑊
𝑄2 336
W= = = 45.53 𝐽
𝐸𝑐𝑜𝑜𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔 7.38
As,
W = Q1 – Q2
Q1 = W + Q2 = 45.53 + 336 = 381.53 J

7. Calculate the change in entropy when 10 kg of water is heated from 90 0 C to 1000

C? (Specific heat of water is4180 J/molK).
Given:
Mass of water, m = 10 kg
Initial temperature, T1 = 90 0C = 90 +273 = 363 K
Final temperature, T2 = 100 0C = 100 +273 = 373 K
Specific heat of water, C = 4180 J/molK
Required:
Change in entropy, ∆𝑆 =?
Solution:
Change in entropy is given by:

∆𝑄
∆𝑆 = − − − (1
𝑇
𝑇1 +𝑇2 363+373
Average temperature, T= 2
= 2
= 368 𝐾 − − − (2

Heat given to water, ∆𝑄 = 𝑚𝐶∆𝑇 = 10 × 4180 (373 − 363)

= 41800 × 10 = 418000 𝐽 − − − (3

Using values from eq (2 and (3 in eq (1,

418000
∆𝑆 = = 113.9 𝐽/𝐾
368
 94

8. A system absorbs 1176 J of heat and at the same time does 252.8 J of external
work. Find the change in internal energy of the system? Find the change in
internal energy in the system when it absorbs 1050 J of heat while 84 J of work is
done? What will be the change in internal energy of the gas if 210 J of heat is
removed at constant volume?
Given:
(a)
Heat absorbed, ∆𝑄 = 1176 J
Work done, ∆𝑊 = 352.8 J
Required:
Change in internal energy, ∆𝑈 =?
Solution:
According to first law of thermodynamics;

∆𝑄 = ∆𝑈 + ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = 1176 − 352.8 = 823.2 𝐽

(b)
Heat absorbed, ∆𝑄 = 1050 J
Work done, ∆𝑊 = 84 J

∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = 1050 − 84 = 966 𝐽

(c)
Heat removed at constant volume, ∆𝑄 = -210 J

Work done at constant volume, ∆𝑊 = 𝑃∆𝑉 = 𝑃 × 0 = 0

∆𝑈 = ∆𝑄 − ∆𝑊

∆𝑈 = −210 − 0 = −210 𝐽

9. An ideal gas at 20.00 C and a pressure of 𝟏. 𝟓 × 𝟏𝟎𝟓 𝑷𝒂 in a container having a

volume of 1.00 L. (a) Determine the number of moles of gas in the container. (b)
The gas pushes against a piston, expanding to twice its original volume, while the
pressure falls to atmospheric pressure. Find the final temperature.
Given:
Temperature of gas, T = 20 0C = 20 +273 = 293 K
Pressure of gas, P = 1.5 × 105 𝑃𝑎
Volume of gas, V = 1 L =0.001 m3
Gas constant, R = 8.314 J/molK
Required:
a) Number of moles in a container, n =?
b) Final temperature, T =?
 95

Solution:
a) Number of moles in a container, n =?
Using ideal gas equation;

𝑃𝑉 = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

𝑃𝑉 1.5 × 105 × 0.001

𝑛= =
𝑅𝑇 8.314 × 293

1.5 × 102
𝑛= = 6.16 × 10−2 𝑚𝑜𝑙
2436.02

b) Final temperature, T =?
Volume of gas, 𝑉 = 2𝑉 = 2 × 0.001 = 0.002 𝑚3
/

Pressure of gas, P = 1 atm. Pressure = 1.5 × 105 𝑃𝑎

Using ideal gas equation;

𝑃𝑉 / = 𝑛𝑅𝑇

𝑃𝑉 / 1.5 × 105 × 0.002

𝑇= = =
𝑅𝑛 8.314 × 6.16 × 10−2
202
𝑇= = 396.08 𝐾
0,51

10. A block of ice at 273 K is put in thermal contact with the container of steam at
373 K, converting 25 g of ice to water at 273 K condensing some of the steam
water at 73 K, (a) Find the change in entropy of the ice. (b) Find the change in
entropy of the steam. (c) Find the change in entropy of the universe.
Given:
Temperature of ice, 𝑇1 = 273 𝐾
Temperature of steam, 𝑇2 = 373 𝐾
Mass of ice, m = 25 g= 0.025 kg
Latent heat of fusion, Hf = 336000 J/kg
Required:
a) Change in entropy of ice, ∆𝑆𝑖 =?
b) Change in entropy of steam, ∆𝑆𝑠 = ?
c) Change in entropy of universe, ∆𝑆 =?
Solution:
a) Change in entropy of ice, ∆𝑺𝒊 =?
Relation for change in entropy of ice can be written as:
∆𝑄 𝑚𝐻𝑓
∆𝑆𝑖 = =
𝑇1 𝑇1
0.025 × 336000 8400
∆𝑆𝑖 = = = 30.77 𝐽/𝐾
273 273
 96

b) Change in entropy of steam, ∆𝑺𝒔 =?

Amount of heat removed, ∆𝑄 = −8400 𝐽
Relation for change in entropy of steam can be written as:
∆𝑄 −8400
∆𝑆𝑠 = = = −22.52 𝐽/𝐾
𝑇2 273
c) Change in entropy of universe, ∆𝑺 =?
∆𝑺 = ∆𝑆𝑖 + ∆𝑆𝑠 = 30.77 − 22.52 = 8.25 𝐽/𝐾

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