Introduction

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is a heat engine in which the ignition and
combustion of the fuel generates the heat takes place inside the engine itself, hence the
word internal. In an internal combustion engineer the energy supplied by a burning fuel
is directly converted into mechanical energy by the controlled burning of the fuel in an
enclosed space. The motion is transmitted to the crankshaft by means of the connecting
rod. There are two types of internal combustion engines namely rotary and reciprocating
engines. Rotary engines have a rotor inside the engine which is used to produce power.
On the other hand, reciprocating engines have a piston reciprocating within a cylinder
and which is converted into power. Reciprocating engines are classified into two types
namely the spark-ignition (SI) engines and compression-ignition (CI) engines. In SI
engines, the burning of fuel happens by a spark generated by the spark plug situated in
the cylinder head of the engine. The fuel used in these engines is either petrol or
gasoline. Hence, SI engines are also recognized as Petrol or Gasoline Engines. On the
other hand, the burning of fuel in CI engines happens because of the high pressure
exerted on the fuel. The fuel used in CI engines is diesel. Thus, CI engines are also
recognized as Diesel Engines. A diesel engine is an intermittent-combustion piston-
cylinder device which operates on either a two-stroke or four-stroke cycle.
A Diesel Engine, also known as compression ignition engine, can be classified as
an internal-combustion engine which utilizes air and compresses it to a high
temperature which causes an ignition to the diesel engine. By means of a nozzle, the
fuel is injected into the combustion chamber which is ignited by the heat of the
compressed air. In the combustion chamber, combustion and expansion take place to
actuate a piston which convert the chemical energy into the mechanical energy. This
process is used by trucks and locomotives. To further understand this process done by
the parts of the engine, reverse engineering will be applied to the diesel engine.
Reverse engineering, sometimes called back engineering, is a process in which
machines are deconstructed to obtain design information from them. It involves working
backward through the original design process. Hence, it involves disassembling of a
machine as the first step to study its system. Reverse engineering can be a useful
process in analyzing a machine’s inner workings and gain some insights on the nature
of the machine. This analysis can translate to the ability to reproduce the machine or to
come up with bright solutions or improvements of the machine when it was originally
design. Diesel engines was chosen to be the subject of reverse engineering in this
study to further understand and comprehend its working process which may be useful to
the industries who commonly use them.
The objective of this study is to:
1. To determine and to evaluate the different parts of an air-cooled diesel engine
model Toptek 186FA by analyzing the functions of each part, stating the positive
and negative sides of its design.
 2. To show the engineering drawing for each part using AutoCAD Software.
3. To give corresponding recommendations of improvements for each negative
finding.

Related literature

Parts, Basic Principles

Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) is any machine or engine wherein it gains its
energy during combustion of the nonreacted working fluids. It is a heat engine in which
the ignition and combustion of the fuel generates the heat takes place inside the engine
itself, hence the word internal. In an internal combustion engineer the energy supplied
by a burning fuel is directly converted into mechanical energy by the controlled burning
of the fuel in an enclosed space. The motion is transmitted to the crankshaft by means
of the connecting rod. (Wartsila.com, n.d.)
The principle of a diesel engine can be explained by the fuel burning internally
and the combustion products acts as the working fluid to prove mechanical action.
However, the difference with diesel engine with other types of ICE like gasoline engine
is the method of combustion. Diesel engines are characterized by a spontaneous
combustion due to high temperature compressed air as the cause of ignition, rather
than a spark plug. A small amount of the fuel is injected at the end of the compression
stroke into the cylinder wherein the fuel auto-ignites because of the fuel mixing with the
compressed air. (Encyclopedia.com,2018)
Additionally, according to Proctor (n.d.), Diesel Engine, which is also known as
compression-ignition engine, can be classified as any internal-combustion engine
wherein air is utilized to compressed to a high temperature to cause ignition to the
diesel fuel. It has neither carburetor nor ignition system. The fuel is injected in the form
of a very fine spray, by means of a nozzle, into the combustion chamber. There it is
ignited by the heat of compressed air which the chamber has been charged with.
Combustion and expansion take place in the combustion chamber to actuate a piston
which finally converts the chemical energy into mechanical energy. This process is used
by trucks and locomotives.
Conceptually, diesel engines operate by compressing air to high
pressure/temperature and then injecting a small amount of fuel into this hot compressed
air. The high temperature causes the small amount of highly atomized injected fuel to
evaporate. Mixing with the hot surrounding air in the combustion chamber, the
evaporated fuel reaches its auto-ignition temperature and burns to release the energy
that is stored in that fuel (Jääskeläinen et.al, 2021)
According to Generator Source (n.d.). The usefulness of diesel engine is evident
as to its efficiency and cost effectiveness. Since it contains a higher energy density
compared to gasoline, it provides a higher mileage in automobiles which is beneficial for
heavy-duty transportation and as well as equipment. Moreover, it is heavier, oilier and
has a boiling point that is actually higher than water. With that, there is no doubt as to
how it gains an increasing attention in the market. Accordingly, diesel engines use
compression which is subjected to a high compression that heats it up which is resulting
to a very high temperature in the engine. As a result, when it reaches the peak
temperature and pressure, the fuel in the engine will ignite on account of the extreme
temperature that it has. The air and fuel in a diesel engine are infused to the engine
varying at different stages. Using an injector, the fuel is injected in the engine which
causes for the air and fuel mixture to limit the fuel compression and its overall efficiency.
It is important to note that a diesel engine can only compress an air and its ratio can be
much higher. It compresses at a ratio starting from 14:1 which could lead to a 25:1 and
after combustion, the by-products are removed through exhaustion. Furthermore, during
the cold days, there is an extra heat provided using glow plugs. In here, the diesel
engines can be either of a two cycle or four cycle. To choose between the two, is
dependent on the mode of operation.
Moreover, they also claimed that several advantages are associated with the use
of diesel engine which becomes preferable than a gasoline engine. The modern diesel
engine has now overcome the various disadvantages of earlier model that has a higher
noise and cost of maintenance. They are now more reliable, rugged and contains no
sparking as the fuel is being auto ignite which lead to a lower maintenance cost. The
fuel cost produced per kilowatt in a diesel engine is also claimed to be thirty to fifty
percent lower comparing to a gasoline engine. More importantly, an 1800 rpm water
which is a cooled diesel unit operates in a 12000 to 30000 hours before any major
maintenance than a gas unit which will only last for a 6000 to 10000 hours before it
needs servicing. Lastly, diesel units have a longer life than gas units fort they tend to be
burn hotter.
Lastly, A diesel engines does not only consist of several benefits but also have
applications and uses. Such benefits are commonly used as mechanical engines, power
generator and the likes. Its usefulness is very evident in locomotives, automobiles,
industrial applications, and construction equipment. Nowadays, the benefits of diesel
engine and powered generators is clearly seen in constructions, marine, mining,
forestry, underground, hospital, telecommunications and agricultural. In addition, the
diesel-powered generators are now countless used on industrial and commercial
establishments and also for small loads such as homes and other small areas. It is used
either a prime power sources or only a standby power source. With the modernized
world, the increasing demand for diesel engines is inevitable as its usefulness is clearly
addressed (Generator Source, n.d.).
Diesel engines have parts crucial for the machine to perform smooth and
maintain its efficiency. One of these pars in the piston and piston rings; the piston and
piston rings prevents the fuel, air or combustion needed inside the combustion chamber
from leaking. It also prevents the oil from the sump from leaking into the combustion
area, preventing waste. Piston is attached to the connecting rod and this allows the
piston to perform a reciprocating motion inside the cylinder (Solidwheel, n.d.).

The connecting rod is then connected to the crankshaft of the engine. Crankshaft
is basically the backbone of ICEs. It allows the engine to properly function by converting
linear motion to a rotational motion. This causes the crankshaft to experience high
fatigue, wear, and tear and as such, requires heavy duty materials like forged steels and
ductile iron and titanium (Stojanovic et.al, 2016).

Flywheels are another essential part of diesel engine. It is responsible for the
balancing of the overall engine speed. It is located on one end of the crankshaft;
through its inertia, it can reduce vibration by smoothing out the power strokes from the
cylinders. It can also be designed to include gear teeth around its circumference which
allows the starting motors to engage and crank the diesel. (Engineers Edge, 2021)
Balance shafts are solid cylindrical metal rods. They are installed in two on one
side of the crankshaft. They are interconnected by gears. When the crankshaft rotates,
the shafts also rotate, only in opposite directions and with greater speed. There are
eccentrics on the balanced shafts, and springs are installed in the drive gears. The
balancers are driven by a crankshaft. A pair of shafts always rotates in the opposite
direction from each other (Avtotachki, n.d.).
Another shaft in a diesel engine is the Camshaft which are rotating shaft with
attached disks of irregular shape (the cams), which actuate the intake and exhaust
valves of the cylinders. The cams and the camshaft are usually formed as a unit, with
the cams set at angles to open and close the valves in a prescribed sequence as the
cams rotate. A separate camshaft for each row of cylinders is driven by gears or chains
from the crankshaft (Promeet, 2007).
Additionally, the oil pan is a special tub which contains the engine oil. It is
attached to the bottom of the engine and serves as a reservoir for the engine oil that
gets pumped to grease, clean and cool the parts of the engine. The pan is usually made
of steel or aluminum and typically holds from four to six quarts of oil, depending on the
engine. The oil dipstick extends into the oil pan and measures the oil level in the
reservoir. A drain plug on the bottom can be removed to drain oil. Oil leaks are common
on engines as they accumulate miles, and oil pans can be one source of leaks or
seepage. Gaskets or seals installed where the pan attaches to the engine block may
wear out and allow leaks. Drain plugs can leak if they are over-tightened or, in some
cases, if washers are not replaced when the oil is changed. Pans also can be damaged
when a vehicle goes off-road (whether intentionally or by accident) and hits a rock or
other hard object (Cars.com, n.d.).
Valve spring compressor tool for internal combustion engines having an
overhead camshaft. The tool has a fulcrum bracket removably attached to the engine
providing means to pivot a lever, and a lever assembly having a depressor member
used to depress the valve spring and means to retain the lever in position to hold the
valve spring in the depressed state (Johnson, 1984).

Rocker arm is part of the valve actuating mechanism. It is responsible for the
opening and closing the intake and exhaust valves. Rocker arms are typically in
between the pushrod and intake and exhaust valves. They allow the push rods to push
up on the rocker arm and push down on the valves. Over the years of rocker arm have
been optimized in its designed and material for better performance durability,
toughness, high dimensional stability, wear resistance, strength, as well as economic
factors, are the reasons for optimization of the rocker arm. (Patil, et.al, 2019)
In today's hi-tech world, where everything is being made accessible for human
beings, the shift of carburetors to fuel injection engine has made some major changes,
in engines around us and thus the vehicles. Cars which use indirect fuel injection
system or bikes which use direct fuel injection system or the trains which use rail direct
fuel injection system, all kinds of vehicles are now accustoming fuel injection system.
The major reason for this switch is to lower carbon emissions and to get better
efficiency, which was not possible with carburetors (Gupta et.al, 2020).
. A glow plug resembles a short metal pencil. The heating filament is fitted into its
tip. Glow plug filaments made of certain materials, like platinum and iridium, that are
resistant to high temperature. Glow plugs have high resistance to chemical, mechanical,
and thermal loads and provide long life for diesel engines (Parisara et.al ,2016).

A cylinder head arrangement for an engine such as a diesel engine that includes
a precombustion chamber. The precombustion is formed primarily by a recess formed in
the main combustion chamber and an insert piece that is interlocked in any of a variety
of different matters to the cylinder head casting. Various arrangements for achieving the
interlocked are disclosed and these include pressing and/or welding (Masuda, 1993).

The piston ring is one of the main components of an internal combustion engine.
Its main purposes are to seal the combustion chamber of the engine, minimize the
friction against the cylinder liner but also transfer heat from the piston to the cooled
cylinder liner. Another important property of the piston ring is to evenly distribute oil
along the cylinder liner to avoid engine seizure. There are two types of piston ring:
compression ring and oil ring. Automobile reciprocating engines normally use three
rings, two compression rings and one oil ring. Piston ring moves freely within its groove.
Such movements depend on the forces and the moments acting on the piston ring
system such as: the static ring tension from installation of piston ring in the cylinder
liner, the gas pressure forces caused by cylinder pressure and blow-by gas, the
hydrodynamic forces caused by lubricant film, the inertia forces related to component
mass and engine speed, and asperity contact forces caused by a direct contact to the
cylinder walls. Working conditions of piston rings are very demanding and it is desirable
to understand the design of such component subjected to various loads (Kongari et.al,
2014).

4 Stroke Diesel Engine

A four-stroke diesel engine is a common type of internal combustion engine

which means that a cycle within the engine is completed within four stokes. The four
strokes are named intake stroke, compression stroke, power stroke and exhaust stroke.
The inlet stroke consists of the piston moving down the cylinder bore from top dead
center (TDC) to bottom dead center (BDC); Intake valve is open while the exhaust valve
is closed; the downward piston motion creates a vacuum (negative air pressure) that
draws that air/fuel mixture into the engine via the open intake valve. In the compression
stroke, the piston moves up the cylinder bore from bottom dead center to top dead
center; both the intake and exhaust valves are closed and the upward piston motion
compresses air/fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. The next stroke, which is the
power stroke, both valves are closed, the spark plug which is in the picture between the
intake and exhaust valve will fire, igniting the air/fuel mixture. The resulting explosion
forces the piston downward and rotates the crankshaft, which in turn propels the
vehicle. Lastly, in the exhaust stroke, the exhaust valve is now open, allowing the piston
to push the spent exhaust gasses out of the engine as it rises, this completes the
process of a 4-stroke engine. (Universal Technical Institute, 2020.)

Single-Cylinder, Air-Cooled, Direct Injection

A diesel engine can be categorized based on a multitude of factors. It can be

classified by the number of its cylinders, by the cooling system it uses or by the type of
injection it utilizes.
Ayub (2016) noted that a single-cylinder engine is merely a basic piston engine
configuration type of an internal combustion engine. They are simple and compact and
can deliver the maximum power within a given time. Its cooling is simpler than the
multiple cylinder-types and is obviously lighter. It is designed to be simple and
economical to be constructed.
Air-cooling systems are systems in which the heat is conducted to the outer parts
of the engine by means of air stream which is obtained from the atmosphere. In order to
have efficient cooling, fins around the cylinder and cylinder head increases the contact
area, these fins are metallic ridges which are formed during casting of the cylinder and
cylinder head. A few factors determine the amount of heat carried by the system: the
total area of the fin surfaces, velocity and amount of the cooling air and the temperature
of the fins and of the cooling air. Usage of this system includes tractors with low
horsepower, motorcycles, scooters, small cars, and small aircraft engines. Air-cooled
engines are used because it has a simple design such as the absence of water jackets,
radiator and circulating pump which makes it lighter and cheaper to manufacture. It also
means that it is less delicate and low maintenance (Himachal Pradesh Agriculture
University, n.d.).
An air-cooled engine supports the cooling of an engine only by the aid of the
circulation of air over its hot parts. It has a simple design in which the metal fins on the
outer core of the head and cylinder block increases the exposed area to the cooling air.
The fins are providing a larger contact area to achieve a better result of heat dissipation.
However due to the forward motion of a vehicle, it can only be achieved by a natural air
flow. This is often used in an entry-level two wheelers which includes generators, ATV,
scooters, and the likes. Furthermore, the burning of lubricant in the combustion
chamber leads on a high lube oil consumption for air-cooled engines. It is important to
note that heat dissipation is dependent on several factors including the surface area of
metal in contact with air, the air-flow rate, difference in temperature between hot surface
and air and conductivity heat of the metal used. With that, fins on the cylinder head and
block are useful to increase the effectiveness of the surface area of the metal that
comes in contact with the air. Hence, the more surface area in contact with the cool air
could dissipates a greater heat. Accordingly, the higher the air-flow rate, the higher the
heat dissipated (Car Bike Tech, 2018).
Additionally, the fins are wider at the top on an air-cooled cylinder for it is where
most of the heat is generated. Consistently there is a duct that runs around the fins and
it includes an engine drive fan in which it blows the air through the duct to remove the
heat from the fins. There is also a temperature sensitive valve which controls the
amount of air that is being pushed all around by the fan that keeps its temperature
constant even on the days that it is cold (How A Car Works, n.d.).
It was also concurred by Neiger (2021), the design of an Air-cooled engine
works as Heat is pulled away from air-cooled engines by fins that stretch outward from
the engine. In vehicles, cold air is pushed over the fins by a fan, while in planes and
bikes, the vehicle's speed is enough to drive enough cool air over the fins to keep the
engine cool. Some air-cooled engines have ducts around them to keep the air
circulating to the hottest parts of the engine.
Baffling devices that force high-pressure air through the cooling fins can also
be used on certain aircraft engines. Horizontally opposed cylinders, which face away
from each other and are spaced further apart than in a conventional water-cooled
engine, are another design feature that keeps an air-cooled engine's temperature down.
Air will freely flow over the fins. Oil coolers are used in some air-cooled engines to keep
the oil temperature low. That air-cooled engine includes fins which extends out from the
engine itself to pull the heat away. For fan in cars, the cool air is forced over the fins
while for aircraft and motorcycles the speed of the vehicles moves the enough cool air
all over the fins on order to keep the cooling of an engine. However, there are some air-
cooled that includes ducts around its engine to keep the air flow into the hottest areas.
There are also few aircraft engines that have baffling systems which channels the high-
pressure air in the cooling fins. On the other hand, there is also another feature which
keeps an air-cooled engine’s temperature at low that is horizontally opposed cylinders
as they are facing away from each other and spread farther apart which is similar to a
typical water-cooled engine. Such design allows a free flow of air over the fins but there
are some air-cooled engines that also uses oil coolers just to keep a low oil
temperature. Common uses for air cooled engine have been documented since 1960,
when some automotive manufactures used air-cooled engines to power their cars.
Porsche built a car known as the Porsche 911 in 1964, which is known as one of the
fastest air-cooled engines while the Volkswagen air-cooled engine was one of the most
common and was used in the original beetle. While it is uncommon to see an air-cooled
engine moving off the assembly line these days, the idea is far from extinct. Since
helicopters and small planes also use air-cooled engines. The benefits of an air-cooled
engine include eliminating the issue of coolant leaks as well as the use of the radiator
and water pump, reducing the engine's weight. This supports the fact that an air-cooled
engine is lighter than a liquid-cooled engine because it uses less parts to operate. In
cold climates, an air-cooled engine avoids coolant freezing and warms the engine more
quickly. However, overheating is an issue that can arise while using an air-cooled
engine and can have a significant impact on the engine's performance and is more
costly than liquid cooling. Air-cooled engines are suitable for vehicles such as
motorcycles, utility vehicles, and certain helicopters, although they are not suitable for
automobiles.

Air-cooled engines depend on the flow of air directly on hot areas of the engine to
cool them to keep the engine within operating temperatures. In all combustion engines,
a huge percentage of the heat produced, around 44%, escapes through the exhaust
and not through the metal fins of an air-cooled engine (12%). About 8% of the heat
energy is transferred to the oil, which is primarily used for lubrication, also plays a role in
heat dissipation via coolers. This system of cooling utilizes air circulation to bring the
temperature down. In air-cooling systems, the engine intakes cool air from the
atmosphere and uses it to not let the equipment overheat. Air-cooled diesel engines are
compact and require limited resources to operate. Sometimes, they are also chosen
over liquid-cooled engines for their efficiency, dependability, and ease of use for certain
applications if the equipment is used outdoors. Air-cooled engines are used in
applications which do not suit liquid cooling, such as modern air-cooled engines found
in vehicles, generators, industrial machines, etc. (YouMotorcycle, 2015)
On the other hand, Diesel engines with direct injection have been commonly
used in heavy-duty applications. Because of their inherent high thermal efficiency and
low CO2 emissions, they have recently become common in light duty applications.
However, because pollution regulations have become more stringent in the interest of
environmental preservation, reducing NOx and Particulate emissions released by direct-
injection diesel engines is critical. To minimize NOx emissions, injection timing retard
and EGR were used to slow down the initial burning rate by regulating the combustion
temperature and oxygen concentration. These interventions, however, result in a rise in
smoke and particulate emissions. Devices such as high-pressure injection, which
promotes spray atomization and fuel-air mixing, and reentrant combustion chambers,
which intensify air motion and promote diffusion combustion, have been implemented to
minimize particulate emissions. However, simultaneously reducing NOx and particulate
emissions is challenging. According to some scholars, NOx emissions can be minimized
during the initial burning stage when the fuel is rich, and the swirl is solid (Kaleemuddin
et al, 2011).
Additionally, there was a study which was designed to evaluate a “What if”
scenario in terms of using butanol as an oxygenate in place of ethanol in an engine
calibrated for gasoline operation. Which there were no changes to the stock engine
calibration as this study was performed. It was analyzed with respect to Combustion
analysis, efficiency, and emissions of pure gasoline, 10% ethanol, and 10% butanol as it
blends in a modern direct-injection four-cylinder spark-ignition engine. The data were
taken with an engine speeds of 1000 rpm up to 4000 rpm with load varying from 0 N m
(idle) to 150 N m. the results stated that there was only little difference in regulated
emissions between 10% ethanol and 10% butanol. The ethanol blend produced the
highest peak specific NOx due to the high-octane rating of ethanol and effective
antiknock characteristics. Overall, the ability of butanol to perform equally as well as
ethanol from an emissions and combustion standpoint, with a decrease in fuel
consumption, initially appears promising (Thomas Wallner, Scott A. Miers, Steve
McConnell, 2009).
As Known for its high-quality diesel engines, engine parts and other diesel
products, YANMAR also manufactures a range of innovative L-series air-cooled diesel
engines with customizations for several application. The L-series engine outputs range
from 4.2 horsepower at 3,600 RPM to 10 horsepower at 3,600 RPM. This series has
become popular within a broad range of industries such as industrial organizations and
agriculture. YANMAR engines are known for their low fuel consumption, high power
reliability, compliance with emissions regulations, versatile across industries and high
power-to-weight ratio (Power Equipment, n.d.).
To attain the highest performing miniaturized and light weight diesel engines,
YANMAR developed the L-N series single cylinder, air-single cylinder technologies.
Designed with YANMAR’s proprietary direct injection technology, maximum combustion
efficiency is realized through the ideal match between the combustion chamber and
injection system. This is fast, effortless starts from a one- pull recoil starter. Starting is a
breeze with the standard recoil starter.
Table 1. TopTek Diesel Engine 186FA(E) Specifications
TopTek Diesel Engine 186FA(E) Specifications
Continuous Rating Output 7.7hp @ 3000rpm
9.0hp @ 3600rpm
Maximum Output 8.8hp @ 3000rpm
10.0hp @ 3600rpm
Cylinders 1
Cooling System Air
Bore x Stroke 86 x 75 mm
Displacement 0.435 liters
Dry Weight (Recoil start) 48.5 kg
Dry Weight (Electric start) 53.5 kg
Length 412 mm
Width 471 mm
Height 494 mm
Fuel Oil tank capacity 5.4 Littre
(Power Equipment, n.d.)

Kohler’s own air-cooled diesel engines provide a variety of specifications for

various uses. Most of their models are 4 stroke air cooled diesel engine, have a conical
power take-off on crankshaft, rotates counterclockwise Some features includes an
aluminum cylinder head, die-cast crankcase and so on. One of the more notable models
KD15-350 has the following technical features:
Table 2. Kohler’s Air-Cooled Diesel Engine Features
Cylinder Bore (mm) Stroke Engine Injection Compression
(mm) Disp. System Ratio
(cm^2)
1 82 66 349 DI (Direct 20:3:1
Injection)
 Table 3. Gantt Chart

Table 3 shows the Gannt Chart which projects the plan for Project Study 1 and Project Study 2. Its time frame is up until
December 2021.
Pictorial Diagram of the TopTek Diesel Engine 186FA(E)

Figure 1. Front View of the Figure 2. Back View of the Diesel

Diesel Engine Engine

Figure 3. Right Side View of the Figure 4. Left Side View of the
Diesel Engine Diesel Engine
Figure 5. Top View of the Diesel Figure 6. Bottom View of the
Engine Diesel Engine

Figure 7. Isometric View of the

Diesel Engine
Orthographic and Isometric Drawing of Air Filter (all units are in millimeters)

Figure 8. Top View of the Air Figure 9. Isometric View of the

Filter Air Filter

Figure 10. Front View of the Air Figure 11. Side View of the Air
Filter Filter

Figure 12. Bottom View of the Air

Filter
Properties of Air Filter
Air filter
A particle air filter is a device that filters solid particles from the air, such as dust,
pollen, mold, and germs, using fibrous or porous materials. Filters that contain an
adsorbent or catalyst, such as charcoal (carbon), may also remove smells and gaseous
contaminants including VOCs and ozone. Air filters are commonly utilized in
applications where air purity is critical, such as building ventilation systems and engines.
Materials
A. Stainless steel
Stainless steel mesh is another example of medium which allow more air
to pass through. Stainless steel mesh comes with different mesh counts, offering
different filtration standards.

B. Foam
Oil-wetted polyurethane foam elements are used in some aftermarket
replacement automobile air filters. Automotive-type paper filter elements have
largely supplanted oil-wetted foam in these applications. Depending on the grade
and thickness of foam employed, an oil-wetted foam filter element can offer
minimal airflow restriction or very high dirt capacity, the way dust is captured on
foam filters, large amounts may be trapped without measurable change in
airflow.

C. Paper
Pleated paper filter elements are the nearly exclusive choice
for automobile engine air cleaners, because they are efficient, easy to service,
and cost-effective. The paper filters flow poorly and thus restrict engine
performance. In fact, as long as a pleated-paper filter is sized appropriately for
the airflow volumes encountered in a particular application, such filters present
only trivial restriction to flow until the filter has become significantly clogged with
dirt.

D. Cotton
Oiled cotton gauze is employed in a growing number of aftermarket automotive
air filters marketed as high-performance items.
Properties of Balance Shaft
Orthographic and Isometric Drawing of Shaft Balancer (all units are in millimeters)
Figure 13. Top View of the Shaft
Balancer
Figure 14. Isometric View of the
Shaft Balancer

Figure 15. Front View of the Shaft Figure 16. Side View of the Shaft
Balancer Balancer

Figure 17. Bottom View of the

Shaft Balancer
Properties of Balance shaft
The operating principle of a balance shaft system is that two shafts carrying
identical eccentric weights rotate in opposite directions at twice the engine speed. The
phasing of the shafts is such that the centrifugal forces produced by the weights cancel
the vertical second-order forces (at twice the engine RPM) produced by the engine. The
horizontal forces produced by the balance shafts are equal and opposite, and so cancel
each other. The balance shafts do not reduce the vibrations experienced by
the crankshaft. 

Materials

Mild or low-carbon steel

Mild steel (iron containing a small percentage of carbon, strong and tough but not
readily tempered), also known as plain-carbon steel and low-carbon steel. Mild steel
contains approximately 0.05–0.30% carbon making it malleable and ductile. Mild steel
has a relatively low tensile strength, but it is cheap and easy to form; surface hardness
can be increased through carburizing.

Alloy steel 
Alloy steel is steel that is alloyed with a variety of elements in total amounts
between 1.0% and 50% by weight to improve its mechanical properties. Alloy steels are
broken down into two groups: low alloy steels and high alloy steels.
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Ayub, Izzat. (2016). SUMMARIZE OF SINGLE CYLINDER ENGINE.

10.13140/RG.2.1.3712.3443. Retrieved from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/303401004_SUMMARIZE_OF_SINGLE_CYLI
NDER_ENGINE
Cars.com (n.d.). Service and Repair: Oil Pan. Retrivied from Cars.com:
https://www.cars.com/auto-repair/glossary/oil-pan/
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