EASTERN VISAYAS STATE UNIVERSITY

Tacloban City
Lesson
2 COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS AND PROGRAMMING
1st Sem., AY 2020-2021

The Computer System Hardware

Overview:

The computer as a machine consists of different components that interact with each other to provide
the desired functionality. As a user of the computer, we need to be aware of the main components of the
computer, their functions, and the interconnection between the different components of the computer. This
lesson describes the different hardware components of the computer.

Objectives:

 Discuss the terms computer architecture, computer organization, and computer design.
 Discuss CPU and Memory Unit
 Discuss Instruction Set and Instruction Format
 Explain the Instruction Cycle.
 Explain the interconnecting units of a computer – System bus, expansion bus and external
ports
 Discuss the inside of the computer cabinet

Presentation/Discussion:

When we talk of computer hardware, the three related terms that require introduction are – computer
architecture, computer organization and computer design. Computer Architecture refers to the structure and
behavior of the computer. It includes the specification of the components, for example, instruction format,
instruction set and techniques for addressing the memory, and how they connect to the other components.
Given the components, Computer Organization focuses on the organizational structure. It deals with how the
hardware components operate and the way they are connected to form the computer. Given the system
specification, Computer Design focuses on the hardware to be used and the interconnection of parts. Different
kinds of computer, such as a PC or a mainframe computer may have different organization; however, basic
organization of the computer remains the same.

A computer consists of three main components – (1) Input/Output (I/O) Unit, (2) Central Processing
Unit (CPU), and (3) Memory Unit. The computer user interacts with the computer via the I/O unit. The purpose
of I/O unit is to provide data and instructions as input to the computer and to present relevant information as
output from the computer. CPU controls the operations of the computer and processes the received input to
generate the relevant output. The memory unit stores the instructions and the data during the input activity,
to make instructions readily available to CPU during processing. It also stores the processed output. This
chapter discusses the hardware components of the computer and the interaction between them.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 1 of 9

 Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor is also often called the brain of the computer. CPU
consists of Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) and Control Unit (CU). In addition, CPU also has a set of registers
which are temporary storage areas for holding data, and instructions. ALU performs the arithmetic and logic
operations on the data that is made available to it. CU is responsible for organizing the processing of data and
instructions. CU controls and coordinated the activity of the other units of computer. CPU uses the registers to
store the data, instructions during the processing.

a. Arithmetic Logic Unit

 ALU consists of two units – arithmetic unit and logic unit.

 The arithmetic unit performs arithmetic operations on the data that is made available to it.
Some of the arithmetic operations supported by the arithmetic unit are – addition,
subtraction, multiplication, and division.
 The logic unit of ALU is responsible for performing logic operations. Logic unit performs
comparisons of numbers, letters, and special characters. Logic operations include testing
for greater than, less than or equal to condition.
 ALU performs arithmetic and logic operations and used registers to hold the data that is
being processed.
b. Registers

 Registers are high-speed storage areas within the CPU but have the least storage
capacity. Registers are not referenced by their address, but are directly accessed and
manipulated by the CPU during the instruction execution.
 Registers store data, instructions, addresses and intermediate results of processing.
Registers are often referred to as the CPU’s working memory.
 The data and instructions that require processing must be brought in the registers of the
CPU before they can be processed. For example, if two numbers are to be added, both
numbers are brought in the registers, added and the result is also placed in a register.
c. Control Unit

 The control unit of a computer does not do any actual processing of data. It organizes the
processing the data and instructions. It acts as a supervisor and, controls and coordinates
the activity of the other units of computer.
 CU coordinated the input and output devices of a computer. It directs the computer to carry
our stored program instructions by communicating with the ALU and the registers. CU
uses the instructions in the Instruction Register (IR) to decide which circuit needs to be
activated. It also instructs the ALU to perform the arithmetic or logic operations. When the
program is run, the Program Counter (PC) registers keeps track of the program instruction
to be executed next.
 CU tells when to fetch the data and instructions, what to do, where to store the results, the
sequencing of events during processing etc.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 2 of 9

 The memory unit consists of cache memory and primary memory. Primary memory or main memory
of the computer is used to store the data and instructions during the execution of the instructions. Random
Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM) are the primary memory. In addition to the main
memory, there is another kind of storage device known as the secondary memory. Secondary memory is non-
volatile and is used for permanent storage of data and programs. A program or data that has to be executed
is brought into the RAM from the secondary memory.

a. Cache Memory

 The data and instructions that are required during the processing of data are brought from the
secondary storage devices and stored in the RAM . For processing, it is required that the data and
instructions are accessed from the RAM and stored in the registers. The time taken to move the
data between RAM and CPU registers is large. This affects the speed of processing of computer
and results in decreasing the performance of CPU.
 Cache memory is a very high-speed memory placed in between RAM and CPU. Cache memory
increases the speed of processing.
 Cache memory is a storage buffer that stores the data that is used more often, temporarily and
make them available to CPU at a fast rate. During processing, CPU first checks cache for the
required data. If data is not found in cache, then it looks in the RAM for data.
b. Primary Memory

 Primary memory is the main memory of computer. It is used to store data and instructions during
the processing of data. Primary memory is semiconductor memory.
 Primary memory is of two kinds – Random Access Memory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM)
gets erased when the computer is turned off. RAM provides temporary storage for data and
instructions.
 RAM is volatile. It stores data when the computer is on. The information stored in RAM gets
erased when the computer is turned off. RAM provides temporary storage for data and
instructions.
 ROM is non-volatile memory but is a read only memory. The storage in ROM is permanent in
nature and is used for storing standard processing programs that permanently reside in the
computer. ROM comes programmed by the manufacturer.
 RAM stores data and instructions during the execution of instructions. The data and instructions
that require processing are brought into the RAM from the storage devices like hard disk. CPU
access the data and the instructions from RAM, as it can access it at a fast speed than the storage
devices connected to the input and output unit. RAM provides a limited storage capacity, due to its
high cost.
c. Secondary Memory

 The secondary memory stores data and instructions permanently. The information can be stored in
secondary memory for a long time (years) and is generally permanent in nature unless erased by
the user. It is a non-volatile memory.
 It provides back-up storage for data and instructions. Hard disk drive, floppy drive and optical disk
drives are some examples of storage devices.
 The data and instructions that are currently not being used by CPU, but may be required later for
processing, are stored in secondary memory.
 Secondary memory has a high storage capacity than the primary memory.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 3 of 9

 A computer program is a set of instructions that describe the steps to be performed for carrying out a
computational task. The program and the data, on which the program operates, are stored in main memory,
waiting to be processed by the processor. This is also called the stored program concept.

Am instructions is designed to perform a task and is an elementary operation that the processor can
accomplish. An instruction is divided into groups called fields. The common field of an instructions are –
Operation (op) code and Operation code. The remainder of the instruction field differs from one computer type
to other. The operation code represents action that the processor must execute. It tells the processor what
basic operation to perform. The operand code defines the parameters of the action and depends on the
operation. It specifies the locations of the data or the operand on which the operation is performed. It can be
data or a memory address.

A processor has a set of instructions that it understands, called as instruction set. An instruction set
or an instruction set architecture is a part of the computer architecture. It relates to programming, instructions,
registers, addressing modes, memory architectures, etc. An instruction set is the set of all basic operations
that a processor can accomplish. The instructions in the instruction set are the language that a processor
understands. All programs have to communicate with the processor using these instructions. An instruction in
the instruction set involves a series of logical operations (may be thousand) that are performed to complete
each task. The instruction set is embedded in the processor (hard-wired) which determines the machine
language for the processor. All programs written in a high-level language are compiled and translated into
machine code before execution, which is understood by the processor for which the program has been coded.

Two processors are different if they have different instructions sets. A program run on one computer
may not run on another computer having a different processor. Two processors are compatible if the same
machine level program can run on both the processors. Therefore, the system software is developed within
the processor’s instruction set.

The primary responsibilities of a computer processor is to execute a sequential set of instructions that
constitute a program. CPU executes each instruction in a series of steps, called instruction cycle.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 4 of 9

An instruction cycle involves four steps –

 Fetching. The process fetches the instruction from the memory. The fetched instruction is
placed in the Instructions Registers. Program Counter holds the address of next
instructions to be fetched and is incremented after each fetch.

 Decoding. The instruction that is fetched is broken down into parts or decoded. The
instructions is translated into commands so that they corresponds to those in the CPU’s
instruction set. The instruction set architecture of the CPU defines the way in which an
instruction is decoded.

 Executing. The decoded instructions or the command is executed. CPU performs the
operations implied by the program instruction. For example, if it is ADD instruction, addition
is performed.
 Storing. CPU writes back the results of execution to the computer’s memory.

The Instruction Cycle

Instructions are of different categories. Some categories of instructions are:

 Memory access or transfer of data between registers

 Arithmetic operations like addition and subtraction
 Logic operations such as AND, OR, NOT
 Control the sequence, conditional connections, etc.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 5 of 9

 A processor’s instruction set is a determining factor in its architecture. On the basis of the instruction
set, microprocessor are classified as – Reduced Instruction Set Computer (RISC), and Complex Instruction
Set (CISC). The x86 instruction set of the original Intel 8086 processor is of the CISC type. The PCs are based
on the x86 instruction set.

CISC architecture hardwires the processor with complex instructions, which are difficult to create
otherwise using basic instructions. CISC combines different instructions into one single CPU.

RISC has simple, single-cycle instructions, which performs only basic instructions. RISC architecture
does not have hardwired advanced functions. All high-level language support is done in the software.

CPU sends data, instructions, and information to the components inside the computer as well as to
the peripherals and devices attached to it. Bus is a set of electronic signal pathway that allows information
and signals to travel between components inside or outside of a computer. The different components of
computer, i.e., CPU, I/O unit and memory unit are connected with each other by a bus. The data, instructions
and the signal are carried between the different components via a bus. The features and functionality of a
bus are as follows –

 A bus is a set of wires used for interconnection, where each wire can carry one bit of data.
 A bus width is defined by the number of wires in the bus.
 A computer bus can be divided into two types – Internal Bus and External Bus.
 The Internal Bus connects components inside the motherboard like, CPU and system memory. It
is also called the System Bus.
 The External Bus connects the different external devices, peripherals, expansion slots, I/O ports
and drive connections to the rest of computer. The external bus allows various devices to be
attached to the computer. It allows for the expansion of the computer’s capabilities. It is
generally slower than the system bus. It is also referred to as the Expansion Bus.
 A system bus or expansion bus comprise of three kinds of buses – data bus, address bus and
control bus.
 The interaction of CPU with the memory and I/O devices involves all the three buses.

 The command to access the memory or the I/O device is carried by the control bus.
 The address of I/O device or memory is carried by the address bus.
 The data to be transferred is carried by the data bus.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 6 of 9

 The computer cabinet encloses the components that are required for the running of the computer.
The components inside the computer cabinet includes power supply, motherboard, memory chips, expansion
slots, ports and interface, processor, cables and storage devices.

 Motherboard. The computer is built up around a motherboard. The motherboard is the most important
components in the PC. It is a large Printed Circuit Board (PCB), having many chips, connectors and
other electronics mounted on it. The motherboard is the hub, which is used to connect all the essential
components of a computer. The RAM, hard drive, disk drives and optical drives are all plugged into
interfaces on the motherboard. The motherboard contains the processor, memory chips, interfaces
and sockets, etc.

 BIOS It is the basic program used as an interface between the operating system and the
motherboard. The BIOS is stored in the ROM and cannot be rewritten.
 CMOS Chip. Bios ROMS are accompanied by a smaller CMOS (CMOS is a type of memory
technology) memory chip. When the computer is turned off, the power supply stops providing
electricity to the motherboard. When the computer is turned on again, the system still
displays the correct clock time. This is because the CMOS chip saves some system
information, such as time, system date and essential system settings. This CMOS chip is
working even when the computer power is switched off. It is kept powered by a button battery
located on the motherboard.

 Ports and Interfaces

Motherboard has a certain number of I/O sockets that are connected to the ports and
interfaces found on the rear side of a computer. You can connect external devices to the ports
and interfaces which get connected to the computer’s motherboard.

 Serial Port – to connect old peripherals

 Parallel Port – to connect old printers
 USB Ports – to connect newer peripherals like camera, scanners, and printers to the
computer. It uses a thin wire to connect to the devices, and many devices can share
that wire simultaneously.
 Firewire is another bus, used today mostly for video cameras and external hard
devices.
 RJ45 connector (called LAN or Ethernet port) is used to connect the computer to a
network. It corresponds to a network card integrated into the motherboard.
 VGA connector for connecting a monitor. This connector interfaces with the built-in
graphics card.
 Audio plugs (line-in, line0out and microphone) for connecting sound speakers and the
microphone. This connector interfaces with the built-in sound card.
 PS/2 port to connect mouse and keyboard into PC.
 SCSI port for connecting the hard disk drives and network connectors.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 7 of 9

  Expansion Slots
The expansion slots are located on the motherboard. The expansion cards are inserted in the
expansion slots. These cards give the computer new features or increased performance. There are several
types of slots.

 ISA (Industry Standard Architectures) slot – to connect modem and input devices.
 PCI (Peripherals Component Interconnect) slot – to connect audio, video, and graphics. They
are much faster than ISA cards.
 AGP (Accelerated Graphics Port) slots – a fast port for a graphics card.
 PCI (Peripheral Component Interconnect) Express slot – Faster bus architecture than AGP and
PCI buses.
 PC Card – It is used in laptop computers. It includes Wi-FI card, network card and external
modem.

 Ribbon Cables
Ribbon cables are flat, insulated and consists of several tiny wires molded together that carry
data to different components on the motherboard. There is a wire for each bit of the word or byte and additional
wires to coordinate the activity of moving information. They also connect floppy drives, disk drives and CD-
Rom drives to the connectors in the motherboard.

 Memory Chips
The RAM consists of chips on a small circuit board. Two types of memory chips – Single In-Line
Memory Module (SIMM) and Dual In-line Memory Module (DIMM) are used in desktop computers. The CPU
can retrieve information from DIMM chip at 64bits compared to 32bits or 16 bits transfer with SIMM chips.
DIMM chips are used in Pentium 4 onwards to increase the access speed.

 Storage Devices
The disk drives are present inside the machine. The common disk drives in a machine are hard
disk drive, floppy drive and CD drive or DVD drive. High-storage devices like hard disk, floppy disk and CDs
are inserted into the hard drive, floppy drive and CD drive, respectively. These storage devices can store large
amounts of data, permanently.

 Processor
The processor or the CPU is the main component of the computer. Select a processor based on
factors like its speed, performance, reliability, and motherboard support. Pentium Pro, Pentium 2 and Pentium
4 are some of the processors.

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 8 of 9

Practise Exercise:

I. Answer the following questions briefly:

1. Define computer architecture, computer organization and computer design

2. Give a brief description of the working of the computer.
3. what is the purpose of the main memory
4. What is the main function of the CPU?
5. Why are registers used in the CPU?
6. “This is a 64-bit processor”. Explain its meaning.
7. What are the functions of the control unit?
8. Explain the need of the cache memory.
9. What is the purpose of RAM?
10. What is the significance of the instruction set in the CPU?
11. “Two processors are compatible”. How do you deduce this statement?
12. Give the detailed working of the instruction cycle.
13. Why is a bus used?
14. “The motherboard is characterized by the form factor, chipset and the type of processor socket
used.” Explain.
15. What is the function of BIOS?

II. Give the full form of the following abbreviations.

1. IC 6. SATA
2. PCI 7. AGP
3. GHz 8. CMOS
4. BIOS 9. ROM
5. USB 10. DIMM

III. Give differences between the following –

a. Registers and cache memory

b. Cache memory and RAM
c. System bus and expansion bus
d. Data bus, address bus and control bus

Note: Email your answers to [email protected]

Reference:

Goel, A. 2010. Computer Fundamentals. Dorling Kindersley (India) Pvt. Ltd.

https://www.tutorialspoint.com

Lesson 2: The Computer System Hardware Page 9 of 9