CHAPTER 1.

0
INTRODUCTION TO
HIGHWAYS AND
TRAFFIC ENGINEERING

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Topic Outlines

1. Transportation system: Highway, Rail, Water & Air

2. Drivers, Pedestrian, Vehicles and Road

Characteristics

3. Transportation Institution.

4. Emerging Issues And Trends In Highway & Traffic

5. Feasibility Studies And Route Location

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 Learning Outcomes

Learning Outcomes:
At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:
1.Define the transportation system and explain on each of the components.
2.Describe the characteristics of driver, pedestrian, vehicle and roadway.
3.Describe the general aspects of highway classification and administration.
4.Discuss on ways to improve road safety and current issues (transportation
challenges).
5.Explain the importance of feasibility studies and identify the route location
consideration factors.

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 TOPIC 1.1
Transportation system:
Highway, Rail, Water &
Air

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Highway Engineering
Definition: Highway engineering is the process of design and
construction of efficient and safe highways and roads. This requires
detailed drawings with complete designs for drainage systems,
pavement foundations,

Scope:
- Pavement structural design, construction & maintenance.
- Materials
- Rehabilitation
- Geometric design

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Traffic Engineering

Definition: Traffic Engineering is that phase of

engineering which deals with the planning, and traffic
operations of roads, streets and highways, their networks,
terminals, abutting lands and relationships with other modes
of transportation for the achievement of safe, efficient, and
convenient movement of persons and goods.

Objective to study traffic engineering:

- To provide a high level of service (minimize travel times
and delays).
- To provide a high level of safety
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Traffic Engineering (cont….)
Scope:
● Traffic characteristic
● Traffic studies and analysis (i.e: flow, speed, density)
● Traffic operations (i.e: controls and regulations)
● Planning and analysis (i.e: queuing, traffic signal,
intersection)
● Transportation system
● Administration and management (i.e: parking, tolling)
● Research

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 Transportation Engineering
Transportation :
1. The movement of people and goods to meet
the basic needs of society that require mobility
and access Mobility
2. Everything involved in moving either the Movements – different
person or goods from the origin to the modes e.g walking,
destination. driving etc

Example:

a) A truckload of fresh bread is delivered to a

supermarket. Transportation
b) Workers commute from their homes to places
of employment.

Why do we provide and develop road

infrastructure?
Accessibility
1. To expedite economy recovery development Entry and exit
2. May benefit the surrounding areas -upgraded
to reduce accidents, congestions
3. Investment in mode and road infrastructure –
Definition of Transportation
to meet the demands and private 9
transportation
Transportation Engineering (cont..)
Importance
● Social – Connection between people, provide work
opportunity.
● Economics - Bridges consumer-producer gaps,
multiplier effects.
● Administrative – Good & high quality of system
● Safety – Proper service with less risk related to
accidents, fatalities.
Goals
● Access to locations,
● Reasonable travel time,
● Low cost (cost-effective)
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 Transportation System
Transportation system :

May be defined as consisting of the fixed facilities, the flow entities, and the control
system that move people and goods.

a) fixed facilities
– physical components of the system that are fixed in space and constitute the network
of links (e.g., roadway segment, railway track, pipes) and nodes (e.g., intersections,
interchanges, transit terminals, harbors and airports) of the transportation system.

b) Flow entities
– the units that traverse the fixed facilities: vehicles, container units, railroad cars.

c) Control system
– vehicular control: individual vehicles guided on the fixed facilities (manual or
automated)

– Flow control: signing, marking and signal system and rules of operation that permit the
efficient and smooth operation of streams of vehicles and reduction of conflicts
between vehicles.

d) User/operators
- Human resources, essential to the operation of transportation systems, include vehicle
operators such as automobile truck and bus driver, railroads engineers, airline pilots,
maintenance and construction workers, transportation managers, and professionals
who use knowledge and information to advance the transportation enterprise. 12
Transportation System (cont..)

Transportation system :

Categorized into four (4) major subsystems according to the medium on

which the flow elements are supported. These subsystems are
commonly referred to as modes.
a) Land Transportation – highway and rail

b) Air Transportation – Domestic and international

c) Water Transportation – Inland, Coastal and ocean

d) Pipelines – oil and gas

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 Transportation System (cont..)
Transportation Modes:

A ‘kind’ of transportation, distinguished in terms of their physical characteristics:

highway, rail, air and water transportation.

Classified according to whether they primarily carry freight or passengers, and

whether they serve urban, intercity or special-purpose markets.

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Transportation System (cont..)
Transportation Modes:

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Transportation System (cont..)
Highway
dominant transportation mode
private vehicles, truck lines, bus lines
Major markets: urban passenger transportation, urban goods
distribution, intercity passenger transportation and intercity freight.
Major service characteristics: very high accessibility to almost all
potential destinations, direct service with very low door-to-door travel times,
moderate speeds and capacities.
Capital cost: moderate
Vehicles: cheaper and available
Total investment: quite high
Operating cost: high but lower for private passenger vehicles.
Environmental impacts: high (air pollution)
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Transportation System (cont..)
Urban Transit

highly specialized mode

Includes traditional mass transit modes such as buses, streetcars, and light rail
and rail rapid transit, as well as paratransit modes such as jitneys and dial-a-ride
services.
Transit passengers – choice riders (person making work trips into dense CBD)
and captive riders (person without access to automobiles)
Speeds vary, door-to-door travel times greater than automobiles except in
congested CBD, accessibility less than private autos, capacities are high.
Capital costs: high for rail system (both for fixed facilities and vehicles) while
operating costs: moderate for both bus and rail systems
Environmental impacts: less than private automobiles.
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Transportation System (cont..)
Air

Includes commercial airlines, airfreight carriers and general aviation (private

aircraft).
Major market: intercity passenger travel (long-distance travel) and intercity
freight (product with high values).
Primary service characteristic: High speeds, limited accessibility, capacities of
individual aircraft are moderate, but productivity is high due to the very high
speed.
Capital and operating costs are both quite high for the commercial air system,
moderate for general aviation airports and aircraft.
Environmental impacts: significant especially the noise impacts of commercial
aviation.

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Transportation System (cont..)
Rail

Consists of the private railroads and Amtrak (US) which operates most intercity
passenger rail service.
Primary market: intercity freight
Provides moderate speeds and level of accessibility.
Capital costs of locomotives and railcars are also relatively high, and productivity
is often low, maintenance costs for track are relatively high while operating costs
per ton-mile are low.
Environmental impacts are comparatively low, and the energy efficiency of rail
per ton-mile is comparatively high.

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Transportation System (cont..)
Water

domestic water transportation system consists of coastwise and barge lines

operating on inland waterways
major types of oceangoing freighters include container ships, bulk cargo carriers
and oil tankers.
Market: intercity freight
Low speed, low accessibility, but extremely high capacities.
Capital cost is high, but operating costs per ton-mile are extremely low
Environmental impacts: relatively low, but water pollution from routine
discharges of oil and other pollutants, as well as from major oil spills.

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Transportation System (cont..)

Pipelines

Highly specialized freight transportation system.

Market: crude oil, petroleum products and natural gas.
Provide very low-speed, high capacity continuous flow transportation, and
involve a large amount of working storage.
Costs are low. Capital cost: pipeline, pumping stations account for 70-80% of
total costs, operating costs: very low and depend mostly on pumping costs.
Environmental impact: quite low once they are built, but construction impacts
have sometimes been of major concern.

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Transportation System (cont..)
Choice of modes
Each mode has inherent advantages of cost, travel time, convenience and flexibility that
make it the right choice under a certain set of circumstances.

Choice of mode for long-distance travel is heavily dependent on the sensitivity of the traveler
with the respect to time and cost
business travel – time sensitive
vacation travel – price sensitive
personal travel – either time or price sensitive or both.

Basic attributes of each mode are schedule, speed, cost, service offered and perceptions
regarding the service offered.
• Schedule and speed
– ability of the mode to serve passengers at the times they want and at the speed (or travel
time) they require.
b) Cost
– for a given distance: rail and bus are the least expensive, follows by private or rented car
and air travel the last as the most expensive means of travel.
c) Services
– travel by private or rented car offers the convenience of having a car available at all times.
– bus or rail offer few amenities on board
– airlines offer a wide variety of services on board
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 TOPIC 1.2
Drivers, Pedestrian,
Vehicles, and Road
Characteristics

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Characteristics
1) Human (Drivers/Pedestrian)
- Physical, mental, psychological, comfort,
convenience, enjoyment, stress, perception,
sensation, visual.

2) Vehicle
- Static and dynamic, dimension, speed, power, weight

3) Road
- Geometric design, lane capacity, alignment, control
measures at lane, gradient, traffic control system

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Characteristics and Behaviour of Driver
Characteristics and behaviour of a driver are
influenced by three factors:
i. Physical
ii. Environment
iii. Psychology

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Characteristic and Behaviour of Driver
i. Physical Factor
Two main factors considered are:
a) Perception–Reaction Time
It is a combination of four consecutive tasks:
- Perception
- Identification
- Emotion
- Volition
Perception-Reaction time of a driver varies and is
influenced by factors such as:
Age, fatigue, complexity of a situation, drivers physical
characteristics, alcohol or drugs, etc.

Average time: 0.5 – 3.0 seconds

b) Cone of vision
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Characteristic and Behaviour of Driver (cont..)
ii. Environmental Factor
These include:

• Weather & lighting

- Rainy days will affect drivers capability of driving.
- Slippery road due to raining.
- Improper road lighting during night

• Traffic volumes
- High number of cars resulting to traffic congestion

• Road geometry
- Curvy road

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Characteristic and Behaviour of Driver (cont..)

ii. Psychological Factor

• Motive of the journey
- Destination, travel time, distance.

• Emotion
- Happy, stressful, relax.

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Inter-relationship

ROAD HUMAN

VEHICLE
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Chapter 1 : Introduction Topic 1.2: Drivers/Pedestrian/ Vehicles/Road Leave blank

a) Driver characteristics Check Out

Page 58-85

• Visual Acuity – static & dynamic

• Peripheral Vision – see object beyond the cone of clearest vision
• Colour Vision – differentiate colour
• Glare Vision & Recovery – direct & specular
• Depth Perception – estimate speed & distance
Chapter 1 : Introduction Topic 1.2: Drivers/Pedestrian/ Vehicles/Road Leave blank

Check Out
Perception – reaction process: Page 58-85

– Driver, cyclist or pedestrian evaluates & reacts to a stimulus.

– Can be divided into four sub processes;
1. Perception - driver sees a control device or object on road
2. Identification - driver identifies the object/ctrl device and understand the
stimulus
3. Emotion - the driver decides what action to takes in response to the
stimulus.
- Ex: to step in the brake pedal, to pass, to change lane
4. Volition - the driver actually executes the action decided on the emotion
process.
Chapter 1 : Introduction Topic 1.2: Drivers/Pedestrian/ Vehicles/Road Leave blank

b) Pedestrian characteristics Check Out

Page 58-85
• Influence the design & location of pedestrian control devices.
• Ex: special pedestrian signals, safety zones & islands at intersections, pedestrian
underpasses, elevated walkways & crosswalks.
• Design of an all-red phase – permit pedestrians to cross an intersection of heavy
traffic.

c) Vehicle characteristics

• Based on:
a) Static – weight & size of the vehicle
b) Kinematic – motion of vehicle w/out considering the forces
c) Dynamic – involve the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle.
• Aid the highway/traffic engineer in designing highways & traffic control system
• Allow the safe & smooth operation of a moving vehicle while passing, stopping &
turning.
Chapter 1 : Introduction Topic 1.2: Drivers/Pedestrian/ Vehicles/Road Leave blank

a) Static characteristics
•Size – design standards for physical components of the highway (lane width, shoulder width,
parking space, & length of vertical curves).
• Weight – pavement depths & max grades
• AASHTO has selected three (3) general classes of vehicles: passenger cars, trucks & buses/
recreational vehicles.

b) Kinematic characteristics
• Primary element – acceleration capability of vehicle (passing maneuver & gap acceptance)
• Relationship of acceleration, velocity, distance and time.

c) Dynamic characteristics
• Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion:
- Air Resistance : forces due to frictional action of the air around that has to overcome by
vehicle
- Grade Resistance : when a vehicle moves up a grade, weight of the vehicle acts downward
creates a force acting in opposite direction of motion.
- Rolling Resistance : forces within the vehicle, moving parts & friction between pavement
surface and tyres. Depends on the speed of vehicle & the type of pavement.
- Curve Resistance : When a vehicle is maneuvered to take a curve, external forces act on the
front wheels of the vehicle. Depends on the radius of curve, gross weight of vehicle & the
velocity of moving vehicle.
Chapter 1 : Introduction Topic 1.2: Drivers/Pedestrian/ Vehicles/Road Leave blank

Check Out
Page 58-85

•Power Requirements : Rate of work, expressed in horsepower (US). Performance

capability of vehicle that can overcome air, grade, curve & friction resistance forces &
put the vehicle in motion.

d) Road characteristics

• Sight Distance (will be discussed in Chapter 3:Geometric design)

• Length of the roadway a driver can see ahead at any particular time.
a) Stopping Sight Distance
Min distance required to stop the vehicle at or near the design speed
before it reaches and object in its path
b) Passing/Overtaking Sight Distance
Passing sight distance when the distance is long enough to enable the
vehicle to overtake and pass another vehicle in front, w/out interference
 TOPIC 1.3
Transportation Institution

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Authorities & Service Provider

● Lembaga Lebuhraya Malaysia (LLM)

● Jabatan Kerja Raya Malaysia (JKR)
● Jabatan Pengangkutan Jalan (JPJ)
● Malaysia Institute of Road Safety (MIROS)
● Local Authorities
● PLUS, LITRAK, IJM CORP, etc

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Chapter 1 : Introduction Leave blank

Agencies Involved In Highway & Traffic

1. JKR (The Public Works Department)

- Implementation of development projects (federal road, state road, bridge &
airport)
- make sure all roads are in a good condition & safety

2. JPJ (The Road Transport Department)

- increase road safety through observation of motorized vehicles & drivers
- implement the Road Transport Act 1987
- Update the road tax system

3. LLM (Malaysia Highway Authority)

- plan, design, construct & maintain highway links & facilities.
- collect the toll & other payment which are related.

Benefits of Highway Privatization

• Reduce government financial burden
• Cost saving due innovation in construction techniques
• Users enjoy – improved standard of service & greater accessibility
• Earlier implementation and completion of highway project
• Create more job opportunity
Road Administration

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 Road Category General Description Responsible Agency

Federal Roads • Inter-urban expressways and • MHA

• Toll Expressways & Toll highways where tolls are collected. • Federal PWD (usually
Highways • Inter-urban highways linking Federal through State PWDs)
• National Highways Capital, State Capitals and point of • Federal PWD
entry / exit to the country. (through DBKL,
• Roads within Federal • Designated roads within Federal
Territories Municipal Council)
Territories; i.e. within Kuala Lumpur, • Federal PWD
• Regional Development Labuan.
Regional
Scheme Roads • Roads forming the network within a
Development Units
• Minor Roads (access to Regional Development Area.
• Roads leading to and within Federal • Federal PWD and
Federal Government State PWDs
Institutions) Government Institutions.

State Roads • Roads other than the designated • DBKL, Municipal

Federal roads Council
• Roads within Federal • Major roads forming the basic • State PWDs
Territories network within a State, linking • State PWDs
• Primary Roads State Capitals and major towns. • District Offices
• Roads forming the network within a •
• Secondary Roads District
Respective Local
Authorities (with
• Minor Roads • Minor roads within a village or
assistance from
• Urban Collector rural inhabited area
state PWDs in most
• Roads serving as collectors and
Roads distributors of traffic within a Local cases)
• Local Streets Authority area. • Respective Local
• Basic road network within an urban Authorities
neighbourhood, serving primarily to
offer direct access to abutting land 50
 TOPIC 1.4
Emerging Issues and
Trends in Highway &
Traffic Engineering

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Development of highway transportation

History of road construction:

Roman Roads
Metcalf’s Road (1717)
Telford’s Road (1757)
Mac Adam’s Road (1756)

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Development of highway transportation
Roman Roads
Paving Stones

Fine Concrete

Broken Stones

Rubble Stones

• Used by horses, chariot, wagon – pulled by animals

• Made-up from the stone blocks placed closed together

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Development of highway transportation

Metcalf’s Road
Gravel

Excavated Road
Material

Large Stone
Foundation

• Insisted on good drainage and foundation or subbase

• carriageway was arched – assist surface water drainage

• Crossing soft ground, he introduced a subbase raft of bundled heather

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Development of highway transportation

Telford’s Road
Gravel

Broken Stone

Hand
Pitched
Stone

• Improved ride ability - ‘sandwich’ smaller stones between the boulders

• smaller stones filled voids between the stone blocks – compacted

until smooth surface obtained 42
Development of highway transportation

Mac Adam’s Road

Camber

Gravel

• Several layers of compacted stones

• Foundation improvement – removing the topsoil

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Development of highway transportation
Historical Development (U.S overview)

Travel by foot, horseback or in animal drawn vehicles on dirt roads

Automobile and truck travel – development of roads and highways

1st toll road: Lancaster Turnpike (1794) connect Lancaster and
Philadelphia

The building of canals and inland waterways (1820s)

Construction of railroads (1830s)

Public transportation – bus and metro systems in cities

Development of air transportation – aircrafts, airports (1900s)

New technology 41
 Highway transportation trend in Malaysia

Highway transportation trend in Malaysia:

Pre-Independent Era

● Before independent – walking or animal’s cart and few motorized car - by

means of footpath and bullock cart tracks
● Rubber plantation and tin mining increase demand for a better
serviceability of road network – weak laterite
● Planning of road in Malaya – British Administration

● Last decade before independent – tar road constructed in cities and town

(business and admin activities) – Mac Adam road

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● Mechanical and motorized vehicles replaced animal drawn carts.
 Highway transportation trend in Malaysia

Post-Independent Era

● Bituminous or concrete road –

provide accessibility to residents

(urban or rural)

● Expressway stretching from the

north to the south of peninsular

Malaysia (PLUS)

● Federal highway – links between

states Expressway in urban or rural area 43

Road Classification
Based on location & function
● Location
- Urban
- Rural
● Function
- National
- Regional
- State
- City Network
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Road Classification (cont….)

Highway/Road Classification

Roads are divided into two groups by area: -

Rural Urban

● Used for commuting &

• Located outside of cities
• Serve as links between
●
shopping trips
Serve areas of
population centers
high density land
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Road Categories
Rural:

● Expressway
- divided highway for through traffic
- full access control and grade separation at all intersection.
- serve long trips and provide higher speed of travelling and
comfort.
● Highway
- link up directly/indirectly federal capitals, state capitals.
- serve long to intermediate trip lengths
- speed : high to medium (not important as expressway)
- smooth traffic with partial access control
● Primary road
- major roads within a state
- serve intermediate trip lengths & medium travelling speed
- smooth traffic with partial access control
- link up state capitals, district capitals and major towns
● Secondary road
- major road within district
- serve intermediate trip lengths with partial access control
● Minor road
- apply to all road other than mentioned earlier
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- serve mainly local traffic, short trip lengths, no access control
Road Categories (cont….)
Urban:

● Expressway
- divided highway for through traffic, and complements the Rural Expressway.
- full access control and grade separation at all intersection.
- serve long trips and smooth traffic flow
• Arterial
- continuous road with partial access for through traffic within urban area
- Convey traffic from residential area to Central Business District (CBD)
- smooth traffic flows and carry large traffic volume
• Collector
- Serve as collector or distributor between the arterial and local road system
- partial access control
- penetrate and serve identifiable neighbourhood, commercial areas and industrial
areas
• Local Street
- basic road networks within a neighbourhood, serve direct access to abutting land
- links to the collector road & short trip lengths 47
- through traffic should be discouraged
48
Chapter 1 : Introduction Leave blank

Standard application to Malaysian Roads

•Higher design speeds for roads those provide long distance travel
•Lower design speeds for roads those serve local traffic, where the effect of speed is less
significant
•Higher standard for roads with heavier traffic
In Malaysia, design standards for roads are classified into 7 groups for urban & rural categories.
The reason why road design standards in Malaysia need to be standardized particularly with
their geometric design features are as follows:

✓To provide a uniformity in the design of roads based on the performance

requirements
✓To provide consistent, safe and reliable road facilities for traffic movement
✓To provide a guide for less subjective decisions on road design
Roadway Ideal Conditions
• Lane width 3.6 m
• Clearance 1.8 m
• Free-flow speed of 100 km/h
• No No Passing Zone on two-lane highway
• No parking near the curb
• Level terrain
• No pedestrians
• Only passenger cars in the traffic stream (no heavy vehicles)
Transportation System Challenges
• Transportation system exists to meet perceived social and economic needs.
• As the transportation system itself evolves, situations arise as a problem – serve as
challenges to the transportation engineering profession.
• These challenges are:
1. Managing congestion – by demand or supply measures
2. Improving safety – traffic accidents concern
3. Providing equal access – poor, elderly, and physically handicapped
4. Protecting the environment – EIA
5. Incorporating new technology - ITS
6. Securing financial resources - funding

• Highway & Transportation Issues:

1. Serious urban traffic congestion

2. Highway-related crashes
3. Delay
4. Parking difficulties
5. Pollution – noise and air (carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxide(NO),
hydrocarbons) 53
Transportation & Highway Safety
Factors involved in transportation crashes can
be classified into 4 categories:
● The Driver – Performance and attitude of driver.
● The Vehicle – Mechanical condition failure, poor service
and maintenance.
● The Roadway – Condition and quality in term of
geometric design, structural design, traffic signal and
signboards.
● The Environment – Physical and climatic environment,
the weather.

54
Highway Safety Improvement Program
● Collecting and Maintaining Data
- Crash data, fatalities, injuries.
● Identifying Hazardous Location and Element
- Based on the crash frequencies calculated and evaluated
by comparing with other similar location or conditions.

● Conducting Engineering Studies

- Perform detailed engineering study to identify safety
problem. Countermeasures are determined.
● Establishing Project Priorities
- Evaluate the economic feasibility of each countermeasures
and determine the best alternative among countermeasure.
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 TOPIC 1.5
Feasibility Studies &
Route Location

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Highway Planning & Design
Involves:
● Project Identification
● Approval and Budget

● Feasibility Study

● Category of Road Design Std, Level of Service

● Route Location (maps)

● Primary Ground Survey

● Detailed Engineering Design Report & Costing

● Tendering

● Construction 57
65
Feasibility Studies

66
Feasibility Studies (cont…)
Traffic census - Obtain data on traffic census and growth rate & a study on
accident prone areas from Highway Planning Unit(HPU)

Capacity - A relationship between capacity and the no. of lane, lane width,
and level of service (LOS)

Class of road - From traffic census and capacity, the class of road can be
determined from the JKR Manual on Geometric Design

Route location: Propose route locations

Structures - propose structures such as bridge, tunnels

Environmental impact assessment - Evaluation on the effect of the project

implementation towards the environment. It is necessary to balance benefits
from major road schemes with adverse environmental effects due to their
implementations.
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63
Route Location

Is determined through:
● Topography sheet
● Aerial photographs
● Existing and future development plans from town
planning department
● Revenue sheet
● Design or as-built plan in the case of road
improvement

64
Chapter 1 : Introduction Topic 1.3 : Feasibility studies and route location. Leave blank

Route Location
☑Topography – terrain: FLAT? ROLLING? MOUNTANIOUS?
- Preferably route location on flat area compare to hilly and mountainous.
☑Soil condition
- Avoid soft soil condition which will involve replacement with suitable material
or ground improvement
- Avoid ground of mining subsidence
- Locate highway on soil that need least pavement thickness above it
☑Environment
- avoid destruction on flora and fauna
☑Economy/socioeconomic
- Avoid deep cuttings and expensive tunnel
- Avoid crossing waterways so that no need to provide structure (bridges)
- Length: longer will contribute to higher cost
- Keep grade and curve to minimum
- Existing properties: avoid relocation of properties and social impact
☑History
- Avoid destruction or removal man-made culture
 Highway Survey

• Involve measuring and computing horizontal and vertical

angles, vertical heights (elevation), and horizontal
distances.
• Used to prepare base maps with contour lines and
longitudinal cross sections.
• Surveying technique can be grouped into three (3) general
categories:
a) Ground surveys
b) Remote sensing
c) Computer graphics
 Leave blank

Principles of Highway Location

Basic principles for locating highways

• Roadway elements such as curvature and grade must blend with each
other to produce a system that provides for the easy flow of traffic at the
design capacity, while meeting design criteria and safety standards.

• The Highway Location Process Involves four (4) phases:

a) Office study of existing information

-Examination of all available data of the area in which the road to be
constructed.
-Carried out in the office prior to any field or photogrammetric
investigation.
-Data can be obtained from existing engineering reports, maps, aerial
photographs – collected and examined.
-Data – engineering (topography, geology, climate, traffic volumes),
social, environmental and economic.
 Leave blank

b) Reconnaissance survey
- Identify several feasible routes by a stereoscopic examination of
the aerial photographs.
- Factors into consideration
a) terrain & soil conditions
b) serviceability of route to industrial & population areas
c) crossing of other transportation facilities (rivers, railroads,
other highways)
d) directness of route
Chapter 6 :Road Construction & Maintenance Topic 6.1 : Stage of road construction Leave blank

c) Preliminary location survey

- The positions of the feasible routes are set as closely as possible by
establishing all the control points.
- Determine preliminary vertical and horizontal alignments – evaluate
the economic & environmental feasibility of the alternative routes.
- Economic evaluation – to determine the future effect of investing the
resources necessary to construct the highway: road user costs,
construction costs, maintenance costs, road user benefits, and also
disbenefits.
- Environmental evaluation – impact of highway construction on it
surroundings: plant, animals, human communities, social, man made
variables.
d) Final location survey
- A detailed layout of the selected route.
- Final horizontal and vertical alignments are determined
- Final positions of structures and drainage channels are located.
Example: Alternative alignments for a new road linking A to D