CHAPTER 3

MORTAR

DEFINITION AND USE

Mortar is the name given to a mixture of sand or similar inert particles with
cementing material and water which has the capacity of hardening into a rock like mass.
In general the maximum size of the inert particles in mortar is less than 5mm, and the
cementing material is Portland cement and/or lime.

In building construction, its uses are many and varied such as jointing medium in
brick and stone masonry, wall plaster or constituent of concrete and obviously its
composition varies accordingly. The main function of the mortar used in wall
construction, is to transfer from stone to stone the pressure that is produced by the weight
of the masonry and the superimposed load if any. In such a case the compressive stress
on the mortar is as large as on the stones and bricks themselves, and it is therefore clear
that not only the building stone and strength if a durable masonry is to be built.

Wall plastering is the other wide spread use of mortar. If an even surface is
desired on a wall, it is given two or three layers of specially prepared mortar. By using
appropriate tools, the outer layer can be made smooth before it hardens.

MORTAR MIXES

The traditional mortar material for building work was lime, but later to an
increasing extent it was replaced by Portland cement. While the use of lime results in a
relatively workable mixture, rapid development of strength as well as stronger mortar is
most conveniently obtained with Portland cement. Nowadays, in order to combine the
advantages of each, constructors prepare and use mortar made with appropriate
proportions of Portland cement, lime and sand which is known as compo-mortar.

In order to produce a durable mortar of required strength and other essential

properties at a minimum cost, careful attention must be given to the selection and
proportioning of the component materials. The following point must also be considered:

1. The mixture must be workable so that it can be placed and finished without
undue labor.
2. Since Portland cement is the most costly ingredient in the mixture, its
proportion used should
be as small as possible keeping the attainment of desired properties.

The most accurate method of measuring proportions is by weight however because of its
advantage at the site volumetric proportioning is often used.

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
PROPERTIES OF MORTAR

WORKABILITY

Properties of mortars vary greatly because they are dependent on many variables
such as the properties of the cementitious material used, ratio of cementitious material to
sand, characteristics and grading of the sand, and proportion of water.

For the same proportion, lime-sand mortar invariably gives better workability than
Portland cement-sand mortar. As pointed out above, sometimes both lime and cement can
with advantage be combined in the mortar –compo-mortar- which as a result is both
plastic and strong. Sometimes plasticizers and air-entraining agents are used in order to
improve the workability of cement-sand mortars, especially when they are lean (i.e.
containing less amount of cement) mixes.

STRENGTH

Results of tests on mortars and compo-mortars have shown that strength is affected
by a number of factors which include the quantity of the ingredients, their proportion, the
curing method and age.

For the same proportions, lime-sand mix gives weaker mortar than cement-sand
mix. This is due mainly to two factors, the first being the difference in strength between
Portland cement and lime pastes. For the same proportions cement gives invariably
stronger paste than lime. Secondly Portland cement is a better cementing material than
lime giving a better bond between the paste and the inert materials which are the sand
grains.

The compressive, tensile, shear and bending strength of cement mortar increase with
an increase in the cement content, and this is true irrespective of the grain size
distribution of the sand. However, drying shrinkage increases and the mortar becomes
prone to shrinkage cracks.

The strength as well as the density of mortar made of the same class of sand
decrease as the proportion of fine grains in the sand increases.

The other ingredient that affects the strength of mortar is the water used in the mix.
In general, increasing the percentage of mixing water beyond that required to form a
placeable mix lowers the strength and density of the mortar.

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 The strength of mortar increases with age. The rate of increase is highest at early
age and becomes negligible after a year or so. This is associated with the degree of
hydration of the cement in the case of cement-mortar or the amount of carbon absorption
in the case of lime-mortar.

WATER TIGHTNESS

Sometimes mortar is used in parts of building exposed to dampness or moisture

and might be required to be water tight. In such cases, Portland cement should be used
because of its hydraulic property and the mix should be rich and dense. Such mortar can
be produced by using higher amount of cement, lower water/cement ratio and coarse
grained sand.

Materials for Mortar

Sand used for making mortar should be well graded, that is the particles should not
all be fine nor all coarse. If the sand is well graded, the finer particles help to occupy the
space (voids) between the larger particles, thus resulting in a dense mortar and permitting
the most economical use of cement and/or lime in filling the remainder of the voids or air
spaces and binding the sand particles together.

Sand should be clean, free from dust, loam, clay, and vegetable matter. These
foreign materials are objectionable because they prevent adhesion, thereby reducing the
strength of the mortar and increasing its porosity. Mortar made with dirty sand hardens
very slowly even under the most favorable conditions and may never harden enough to
permit the mortar to be used for its intended purpose.

CLASSIFICATION

Mortars are classified in three ways:

1. on the basis of composition
-lime mortar
-cement mortar
-compo mortar
-gypsum mortar
2. on the basis of their density
-heavy mortar
-lightweight mortar

3. on the basis of their proposed application

-laying mortar
-protective mortar (plaster)
Lime mortars

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 For making lime mortars, a careful selection has to be made of the main components,
that is, lime and sand. Sand is added to the lime for giving strength to the mortar, for resisting
shrinkage on setting of lime and to increase the bulk volume of mortar.

Lime mortars are used commonly in many types of constructions except where sub-
grade is moist o wher very heavy loading is expected or where the structure is very thick.

Proportioning of raw materials is the most important step in making mortar of good quality.
Different proportions are recommended for different jobs:

CONSTRUCTION RECOMMENDED MORTAR REMARKS

SITUATION COMPOSITION(RATIOS BY
VOLUME)

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
A. Foundations: Any one of the following mixes: These mortars are quite
1. In DRY sub-grade, where I) 1 lime, 2 sand satisfactory for buildings
water level is 2.4 meters (8 feet) II) 1cement , 3 lime, upto 3 storeys height. For
below the foundation level. 12 sand moist subgrade only
(loading less than 44 tonnes/m 2 cement and sand mortar
) (1:3) should be used.
1 cement, 1 lime and 6 sand
2.Foundation work in medium
and heavy loading in dry
subgrade (loading more than 44
tonnes/m2 (only cement-sand mortar, with
1 cement:3 sand, should be used
3.Foundation work in medium
and heavy loading in dry
subgrade(>44tonnes) but when
sub grade is moist

B.superstructure
1 lime,2 sand

4.Load bearing walls with Load below 44 tonnes/m2

masonry
a. Light loading 1 lime,2 sand
1 cement,2 lime, 9 sand
1 cement,3 lime, 12 sand Load between 44-66
b. medium loading tonnes/m2
1 cement,2 lime and 9 sand or 1
cement 1 lime and 6 sand

Load above 66 tonnes/m2

c. heavy loading and below 88 tonnes/m2

1 cement, 1 lime, and 6sand

d. Very Heavy Loading -do- Between 88-110 tonnes/m2

Suitable for most of
1 cement, 3 sand masonry work.
5.Cavity Walls
1 lime, 3 sand
6.Arch work in stones
1 cement, 1 lime, and 6 sand
7.Non-load bearing walls

GENERAL PURPOSE
MORTAR

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Cement mortars
These are similar lime mortars in function and required qualities. The cement
mortars contain Portland cement as one of the essential component s. They are better in
strength and durability than lime mortars. Hence they are recommended for use in all
major construction work. For common type of construction a compo-mortar is generally
preferred. It contains cement and lime in addition to sand. The proportioning of cement
mortar and compo-mortars are fixed on the basis of their application.

Table. Proportions Recommended for cement sand mortar

No. Type of situation of work Recommended Proportions

1. For ordinary masonry work with brick/stone as 1 cement, 3 sand to

structural units 1 cement, 6 sand

2. For reinforced brick work for all work in moist 1 cement, 2 sand to
situations 1 cement, 3 sand.

3. 1 cement, 3 sand
Architectural work
4. 1 cement, 2 sand,
Load bearing structures 1 cement, 6 sand.

Plasters

These are lean types of mortar with a fluid like consistency. They are used more for
giving a stable protective covering to a construction. Sometimes, plasters given to obtain
a decorative look. These are called decorative plasters.

Among the various types of plasters, the lime plasters, the cement plasters, the
gypsum plaster and the stucco plasters are well known. The gypsum plasters are
decorative made by replacing cement with calcined gypsum (CaSO 4). These plasters have
much greater resistance against heat, sound, and fire. Further, they set and harden quickly
and can take any intricate shapes. Hence they are also used to give architectural fancies to
the building work.

BATCHING AND MIXING

Materials used for making mortar should be accurately measured, especially when
preparing mortar for wall plaster. Cement is usually measured by weight in cement bags
whereas site (wet) slaked lime and sand are measured by volume.

Each cement bag, as delivered by the factories, contains a net weight of 50kg
which corresponds to about 35 liter loose volumes. For convenience, the other materials

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
can be measured by using a measuring box made to hold quantities in multiples of 35 liter
would be 40cm long, 35cm wide and 25cm deep internally.





Care should be taken so as to have the sand surface dry. If surface moisture is present, bulking
should be allowed for.

Mortar is usually mixed at the site, and mixing may be by hand or by mechanical mixer.
Hand mixing must be done on a proper mixing board which should be water tight and clean.

Any mortar containing cement should be thoroughly mixed in a dry state first, and then
added before final mixing. All cement or cement – lime mortars should be used within the first two
hours of mixing.

CHAPTER-4

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 CONCRETE
Concrete is a composite material made up of inert materials of varying sizes, which are
bound together by a binding medium. Concrete contains coarse aggregate in addition to
cement, water, air and fine aggregate. The cement, water, and air combine to form a
paste that binds the aggregates together. Thus, the strength of concrete is dependent on
the strength of the aggregate matrix bond.

Portland cement

Water Paste

Air (entrapped or entrained)

Concrete

Fine aggregate (sand)

Coarse aggregate (gravel) Aggregate

Admixture (if required)

The entire mass of the concrete is deposited or placed in a plastic state and almost
immediately begins to develop strength (harden), a process which, under proper curing
conditions, may continue for years. Because concrete is initially in a plastic state; it lends
itself to all kinds of construction, regardless of size or shape.

Concrete is composed mainly of three materials, namely, cement, water and

aggregate (“inert” mineral fillers), and an additional material, known as an
admixture, is sometimes added to modify certain of its properties.

When these materials are mixed and placed in forms and allowed to cure, the
chemical reaction between the water and cement forms a hardened binding
medium of cement paste, which surrounds and holds together the aggregates
by adhering them to a varying degree.

The properties of concrete may be governed by careful selection (design)

and control of the constituent materials. The requirements for a fresh and a
hardened concrete may vary in wide range, dependent on the type of
structure to be cast and the available equipment. For practical concrete

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
mixes, the cement, water and aggregates should be so proportioned that the
resulting concrete has the following properties:
1. When freshly mixed it is workable enough for economical and
easy uniform placement, but not excessively fluid.
2. When hardened it possesses strength and durability adequate
to the purpose for which it is intended.
3. It involves minimum cost consistent with acceptable quality.

VOIDS 1 - 2 per cent

CEMENT PASTE (cement + water) 25 - 40 per cent
AGGREGATES (Course + Fine) 60 - 75 per cent.
Concrete composition

Concrete Making Materials

Water

Water fit for drinking is generally suitable for making concrete.

Harmful substances if present in large amounts are: salt, oil, industrial
wastes, alkalis, sulphates, organic matter, silt, sewage etc. Smell, sight or
taste should reveal such impurities. Water of doubtful quality should be
submitted for laboratory analysis and tests.

Water used in concrete mixes has two functions, the first is to react
chemically with the cement, which will finally set and harden, and the
second function is to lubricate all other materials and make the concrete
workable.

The total amount of water required per unit volume of fresh concrete
depends on the following factors.

1. The desired consistency of the concrete, which may be expressed, as will

be seen by the slump or ball penetration test.
2. The maximum size, particle shape and grading of the aggregate.
3. Water reducing or air entraining admixtures.

The use of seawater does not appear to have any adverse effect on the
strength and durability of Portland cement concrete but it is known to cause
surface dampness, efflorescence and staining. Seawater also increases the

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
risk of corrosion of steel and its use in reinforced concrete is not
recommended.

In general, the presence of impurities in the curing water doesn’t have any
harmful effects, although it may spoil the appearance of concrete.

Water/Cement Ratio

It is the relationship between the total free water and the cement. For a given
type of cement and aggregate, the strength and porosity of the paste-
structure are dependent almost entirely upon the water-cement ratio.
For a given consistency, the lower the water cement ratio in the fresh
concrete, the less voids and more strength, less drying shrinkage and more
durability, meaning all in all a better resulting concrete.

Aggregate

Though the term inert mineral fillers is often used to describe aggregates,
they are not truly inert. Their physical, thermal and at times chemical
properties influence those of the concrete. In choosing aggregate for use in a
particular concrete attention should be given, among other things, to three
important requirements:

1. Workability when fresh for which the size and gradation of the aggregate
should be such that undue labor in mixing and placing will not be
required.
2. Strength and durability when hardened - for which the aggregate should:
(a) Be stronger than the required concrete strength
(b) Contain no impurities, which adversely affect strength and
durability.
(c) Not undergo into undesirable reaction with the cement.
(d) Be resistant to weathering action.
3. Economy of the mixture - meaning to say that the aggregate should be:
(a) Available from local and easily accessible deposit or quarry.
(b) Well graded in order to minimize paste, hence cement
requirement.

Classification of Aggregates

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Aggregates are generally classified based on their source, their chemical
composition, their weight, their size or the mode of preparation.

Based on source

(i) Natural aggregates: obtained from river beds (sand, gravel) or the
quarries (crashed rock)
(ii) Artificial aggregates: generally obtained from industrial wastes such as
the blast furnace slag.

Based on chemical composition

(i) Argillaceous: composed primarily of aluminium (Al2O3), the chief

component of clay.
(ii) Siliceous: composed primarily of silicon dioxide (SiO 2), the principal
ingredient of quartz sand.
(iii) Calcareous: composed primarily of calcium carbonate or lime (CaCO3).

Based on weight

(i) Heavy weight aggregates: includes hematite, barite, limonite, magnetite,

and iron and steel-punching (weight from 2800 to 6400Kg/m3) concrete
is used for radiation shielding.
(ii) Normal weight aggregates: includes sand, gravel, crushed stone, and air
cooled blast furnace (weight from 2160 to 2560 Kg/m3)
(iii) Lightweight aggregates. (Weight from 1360 kg/m3 to 1840Kg/m3)
for structural concrete, expanded clay, shale, slate, and slag are used
whereas for insulating concrete pumice, scoria, perlite, vermiculite, and
diatomite are used.

Based on size (widely used classification method)

(i) Coarse aggregates (bigger than 4.75mm)

(ii) Fine aggregates (smaller than 4.75mm)

Quality of Aggregates

General requirements for natural aggregates for construction are that

they should be hard, clean and free of any harmful matter to an extent which
would adversely affect the hardening of a binder, or the strength or
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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
durability of the finished material in which they are put. The followings are
properties of aggregates that are used to detect its quality.

1-particle shape: is classified as rounded, irregular, angular, flaky,

elongated, flaky and elongated.

2-surface texture: is assessed as glassy, smooth, granular, rough,

crystalline or honeycombed.

3-Bond: a rougher texture results in a greater adhesion or bond between

the particles and the cement matrix. The same true for angular aggregates
due to its larger surface area. A better bond is also obtained with softer,
porous and mineralogically heterogeneous particles.

4-srength: should be greater tan or atleast equal to the compressive

strength of concrete. Even though is difficult to test the crushing strength of
the aggregate by itself, the required information is usually obtained from
indirect tests: crushing test, abrasion test, impact test, etc.

Grading of Aggregate

The grading of an aggregate defines the proportions of particles of different

size in the aggregate. The size normally used in concrete varies from 37.5 to
0.15 mm.The table below gives standard series of sieves of square openings
which are used in the sieve analysis of fine and coarse aggregates. Any sieve
down the list has half the clear opening of the one above.

Table: Standard Sieve Size and Square Openings

For Fine Aggregate For Coarse Aggregate

ES series ASTM series ES series ASTM series
Sieve size & Sieve size Clear Sieve size Sieve size Clear
clear opening & clear opening
opening opening

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
9.5mm 3/8 in 0.375in 75mm 3in 3.00in

4.75mm No.4 0.187in 63mm (2in)* 2.00in

2.36mm No.8 0.0937in 37.5mm 1 ½ in 1.50in

- - - - (1in)* 1.00in

1.18mm No.16 0.0469in 19mm ¾ in 0.75in

600μm No.30 0.0232in 13.2mm (½ in)* 0.50in

300μm No.50 0.0117in 9.5mm 3/8 in 0.375in

150μm No.100 0.0059in 4.75mm No.4 0.187in

* These sieves are called “Intermediate” or “full size sieves” are not
included in the series for fineness modulus calculations.

Grading is the most important factor in concrete mix design having

considerable effect on the workability and stability of the mix.

Grading is determined by a sieve analysis. A sample of aggregate for sieve

analysis is first surface dried and then sieved through the series, starting with
the largest. Any sieve down the list has half the clear opening of the one
above. The weight retained on each sieve is recorded and the percentage
computed.

The summation of the cumulative percentage of the material retained on the

sieves (not including the intermediate sieves) divided by 100 is called the
fineness modulus. The fineness modulus can be looked upon as a weighted
average size of a sieve on which the material is retained, the being counted
from the finest. For instance, a fineness modulus of 4.00 can be interpreted
to mean that the fourth sieve, 1.18mm (No 16 ASTM) is the average size.
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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
However, it is clear that one parameter, the average modulus can represent
an infinite number of totally different size distributions or grading curves.
Rather it is used as an index to the fineness or coarseness and uniformity of
aggregate supplied.

Example of sieve analysis of fine aggregate

Sieve size Weight % retained Cumulative % Cumulative %

retained (gr) retained passing
9.5mm 0 0 0 100
4.75mm 30 6 6 94
2.36mm 40 8 14 86
1.18mm 80 16 30 70
600m 160 32 62 38
300m 140 28 90 10
150m 40 8 98 2
Passing 10 2 100 0
150m
Total 500 100 300

300
Fineness modulus = 3
100

Example of sieve analysis of coarse aggregate (19 - 5mm)

Sieve size Weight % Retained Cumulative % Cumulative %

retained (gr) retained passing
37.5mm 0 0 0
*25.44mm 95 1.90 1.90
19mm 730 14.60 16.50
*13.2mm 2818 56.36 72.86
9.5mm 886 17.72 90.58
4.75mm 471 9.42 100.00
2.36mm 0 0 100.00
1.18mm 0 0 100.00
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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
600m 0 0 100.00
300m 0 0 100.00
150m 0 0 100.00
#
Total 5000 100 707.08
*Intermediate sieves.
#
Sum doesn’t include intermediate sieves.
707.08
Fineness modulus   7.07
100

Aggregate is graded so as to have different sizes of particles, from the

required largest size to the very fine.

The use of a well graded mixture of aggregates results in improved

workability of the concrete and economy of the cement since such aggregate
has a decreased amount of voids between the particles and consequently
requires less cement paste. For a given consistence and cement content, a
well-graded aggregate produces a stronger concrete than a poorly graded one
because less water is required to give suitable workability.

With a given sectional dimension of a concrete structural member and

spacing of reinforcements, it is in general recommended to select the
maximum possible size of aggregate. The maximum size and grading are
important because they affect:
(i) Relative volume occupied by the aggregate (i.e. the relative proportions),
hence the economy in producing concrete.
(ii) The surface area of the aggregate which determines the amount of water
necessary to wet all the solids.
(iii) The workability of the mixture.
(iv) The tendency to segregation.
(v) The porosity and shrinkage.
It is important to have a well-graded coarse and fine aggregate with
maximum possible size.

Grading Charts

The results obtained as percent passing or percent coarser can be shown

graphically in aggregate grading charts. On the horizontal axis the sieve
openings are read with arithmetic or logarithmic scale. They are arranged
with increasing sieve-opening sizes from left to right. On the vertical scale
on the left side of the chart the total percentage coarser are indicated as 0 to
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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
100, from bottom to top. The corresponding values for the percentage
passing are read on the right side of the chart.

A grading chart is especially useful in checking whether the results obtained

from the sieve analysis of a given sample fall within the limits specified by
standards. If they fall within the limits then they are said to satisfy the
standard.

Specific Gravity

The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio between the weight of the
substance and that of the same volume of water. The definition assumes that
the substance is solid throughout.

A section cut through any aggregate shows the existence of pores

(permeable & impermeable). Because of the pores, in concrete technology
distinction is made between absolute specific gravity and bulk specific
gravity.

Let A = Weight of the oven dry sample in air.

B = Weight of saturated surface dry sample in air.
C = Weight of saturated sample in water.

(a) Absolute specific gravity: It is the ratio of the mass of a unit volume
of a material (without pores) to the mass of the same volume of gas-free
distilled water.
(b) Apparent specific gravity: It is the ratio of the weight in air of a
material of given volume (solid matter plus impermeable pores or voids)
to the weight in air of an equal volume of distilled water.
A
Apparent specific gravity = AC
(c) Bulk specific gravity: It is the ratio of the weight in air of a given
volume of a permeable material (including both its permeable and
impermeable voids) to the weight in air of an equal volume of water.
A
Bulk specific gravity = BC
(d) Bulk specific gravity (saturated surface dry basis): It is the ratio of
the weight in air of a permeable material in a saturated surface dry
condition to the weight in air of an equal volume of water.

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 B
Bulk specific gravity (s.s.d) = BC
In the computation of quantities for concrete mixes, it the specific gravity of
the saturated surface dry aggregates that is always used.

Rock group Bulk specific gravity

Average Range
Basalt 2.75 2.7 - 2.9
Granite 2.65 2.6 - 2.7
Limestone (firm) 2.65 2.6 - 2.7
Sandstone 2.50 2.0 - 2.6
Trap rock 2.90 2.7 - 3.0

Bulk density

It is the measure of the weight of the aggregate that fills a container of unit
volume, part of which is void because of the loose packing of the particles.
The bulk density is used to convert quantities by weight to quantities by
volume for batching concrete.

Material Kg/m3
Sand (dry) 1520 - 1650
Gravel 1280 - 1440
Crushed stone 1250 - 1400

Porosity, Absorption and Surface Moisture

Various states in which an aggregate may exist.

1. Oven dry - completely dry.
2. Air dry - dry at the surface, some internal moisture but less than the
amount required to saturate the particle.
3. Saturated surface dry - Idealized condition, no free moisture on the
particle, but all voids within the particle filled with water.
4. Damp or wet - saturated and with free or surface moisture on its surface.

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State Oven dry Air dry Saturated surface dry Damp
(moist)

Total none Less than Equal to Greater than

moisture absorp. Cap. Absorp. Capacity absorption capacity
Effective
absorption
Absorption capacity or Surface
total internal moisture
Total moisture

SSD.Wt . OD.Wt .
Absorption Capacity, % = OD.Wt .
X 100
SSD.Wt . AD.Wt .
Effective absorption capacity, % = OD.Wt .
X 100
D.Wt . SSD.Wt .
Free moisture, % = SSD.Wt .
X 100

The absorption capacity is a measure of the porosity of an aggregate.

Material Absorption Capacity, %

by wt.
Sand 0-2
Gravel 0.5 - 1
Basalt 0 - 0.5
Granite 0 - 0.5
Limestone (firm) 0.5 - 1
Sand stone 2-7
Trap rock 0 - 0.5
Bulking of Sand

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Because of their small size and weight, sand particles are easily pushed and
held apart by surface water there by increasing the total volume per given
weight of sand. This phenomenon is known as bulking.

40

30

20

10
A - Fine sand
B - Medium sand
0 C - Coarse sand
0 5 10 15 20

Moisture added, wt.%

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FRESH CONCRETE

Properties of Fresh Concrete

In the fresh (as well as the hardened) mixture there are two major components:
1) the cement paste – consisting of water and cement, and
2) the aggregates.
When preparing a concrete mix, one’s main concern is to produce a concrete having the
required properties which make it easy to handle when fresh, and serve the purpose it is
intended for, when hardened, such fresh concrete is said to be workable.

1-Workability

In the freshly mixed plastic concrete the aggregate and cement particles are
temporarily suspended in water. This separation of the particles and the lubrication effect
of the water layers, together with the interparticle forces among the finest particles, make
the fresh mixture plastic and possible to place, compact and mould in any shape and
hence workable.

Workability of concrete is sometimes defined as “the property or group of

properties which determines the ease with which a material or group of properties which
a material can be used to give a product of the requisite properties.” And sometimes as
“the combined effect those particles of fresh concrete that determine the amount of
internal work required for placement and compaction, and that determine the resistance
to segregation .”or according to Ritchie and Newman workability comprises at least
three separate properties as follows:
1) compactability or the with which the concrete can be compacted and the air
voids be removed,
2) mobility or the ease with which concrete can flow into moulds, around
reinforcing steel and be remolded (i.e. that property which is inversely
proportional to the internal resistance of the mix to deformation .) and
3) Stability or ability of concrete to remain a stable coherent homogeneous mass
during handling and vibration without the constituent segregating.

Generally, workability is a relative property which should be seen in relation to

the equipment used for mixing, method of transporting, placing, consolidating, and size
and shape of mass to be formed.

2-Consistence

Consistence is the term used to denote the degree of wetness or fluidity of

concrete. By definition it is “the rheological behavior of a material under the condition of
stress and strain which either occur in practice or are realized in experimental study.” Or
“it is the property of a material by which it resists a permanent change of shape and it is
defined by the complete flow force relation.”

20
By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 Experience has shown that wet concretes are more workable than dry (stiff) concretes,
but concretes of the same wetness (consistence) may differ in workability. The degree of wetness
of a concrete mix may be classified and described as stiff, plastic, and flowing.

Factors That Affect Workability and Consistence

Workability and consistence of fresh concrete are principally affected by the

materials that constitute concrete. The basic influences of the constituent materials of the
different phases on the workability and consistence of concrete are stated as follows:
“The factors governing the plasticity of a concrete mixture are:
1) Relative quantities of cement paste and aggregates,
2) Plasticity of the cement paste,
3) Grading of aggregates,
4) Shape and surface characteristics of aggregate particles.”
For any given paste, that is, a quantity of cement with its definite proportion of
water, decreasing the amount of paste with respect to the quantity of aggregate stiffens
the mixture, and increasing the amount of paste renders the mix more fluid. If the
quantity of paste is reduced to the point where there is not enough to fill the spaces and
actually float the aggregate particles, the mix will become granular or will be impossible
of proper placement.

Similarly, for a given quantity of paste and aggregate the plasticity of the mix
will depend upon the relative quantities of cement and water in the paste. A paste that is
high in cement and low in water content will itself be stiff and cannot carry much
aggregate without becoming so stiff as to be wholly unplaceable. On the other hand, if
the cement content of the paste is low and the water content high, the paste may be so
thin and watery that it will be unable to hold the aggregates in the cohesive mass which is
the very embodiment of plasticity.

The grading of the aggregates affects plasticity of the concrete:

a) by affecting the quantity of paste necessary to fill the spaces thoroughly and surround
the aggregate particles completely, and
b) by affecting the resistance which is offered to the mobility of the mass through the
varying combination of size.
As in the case of grading, the shape and surface characteristics of the particles
affect the plasticity of the mix through their effect on the amount of paste required and on
the friction between the particles as the concrete is molded. Angular particles or those
with rough surfaces require a greater amount of paste for the same mobility of mass than
is necessary for well rounded particles or those with smooth and slippery faces, other
conditions remaining the same.

From the forgoing it could be understood that:

a) the fresh cement paste, its structure, its plastic deformability or its rheological
properties, its relative quantity or the average paste layer thickness in concrete,
and

21
By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 b) the aggregate particles, their shape, surface texture and their relative quantity are
major factors highly influencing the workability and consistence or in general
term, the plastic deformability of fresh concrete.
The properties of fresh cement paste are dependent on factors such as:
 The initial volume fraction of cement particles as given by the
water/cement ratio,
 The chemical composition of the cement,
 The particle size and size distribution of the cement.

Handling, placing and compacting fresh concrete

In order to secure good hardened concrete, certain fundamental principles should be

borne in mind in handling it when fresh. The best concrete mix can be easily damaged
when a little mistake is made on the way from the mixing place to the forms. Therefore,
each step in handling and transporting should be carefully controlled. Segregation i.e. of
coarse aggregate from mortar or of water the other ingredients, should be prevented. The
equipment and method of handling and transporting concrete should be selected
according to placing conditions. For instance, when concrete is transported by cranes,
circular buckets should be used. Gates should be as large as possible and they should
form the bottom of buckets.

Concrete is a plastic material when fresh hence it needs forms or moulds until it
sets and hardens. The forms are generally made of either timber or steel. Before placing
concrete the forms and subgrade should cleaned and moistened thoroughly specially in
hot weather. Where wooden forming have been exposed to the sun for some time, it may
be necessary to saturate the wood to tighten the joints. In order to prevent concrete from
adhering to the surface, forms should be thoroughly oiled. When concrete is to be placed
on hardened concrete, few millimeters thick layer of mortar is necessary to prevent
formations of stone pockets and secure tight joints. The mortar should be made from the
concrete mix to be cast without its coarse aggregate.

Concrete should be placed in the forms as soon as possible, in no case more than
30 minutes after mixing. It should be deposited in layers of uniform depth, usually not
exceeding 25cm. Each layer should be compacted before the next is placed.

Problems that arise due to poor handling of fresh concrete are segregation and bleeding.

The handling, placing and compacting process must be done with great care to avoid this
problems.

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Segregation

Separation of the coarse aggregate from the mortar or the water from other ingredients.
The equipment and method of handling and transporting concrete should be selected
according to the placing condition. Segregation can also result due to improper filling
method.

Bleeding

Concrete must be compacted to have higher density, strength and durability before it
hardens. The objective is to eliminate air holes and achieve maximum density which
leads to higher strength. Compaction can be done with hand or vibrator. Excessive
vibration can result in bleeding concrete. The rising water tends to carry with it many
fine particles which weakens the top portion and in extreme cases form scum over the
surface.

Curing Concrete

Moisture is necessary for the proper hardening of concrete because the chemical action
which results in the setting and hardening of the paste takes place only in the presence of
water. Normally the amount of water used at the time of mixing is enough for this
purpose, however, the loss from evaporation from the concrete is mixed and placed is
usually so rapid that there may not enough of it left for full hydration and hardening.
Excessive loss of water due to evaporation may cause the hydration to stop all together
with a consequent reduced strength development. In addition, if concrete dries out too
quickly by exposure to sun and wind, it will shrink. This early and unusually rapid
shrinkage will result in tensile stresses which will lead to surface cracks.

Therefore the purpose of curing is to:

a. Prevent formation of surface cracks due to rapid loss of water while the concrete
is fresh and weak.
b. Assure attainment of strength by providing enough moisture for the hydration of
the cement grains throughout the concrete.

Volume of Fresh Concrete

The volume of the fresh concrete is equal to the sum of the absolute volumes of
its components, including the naturally entrapped or purposely entrained air.
If Va = volume of the air
Vw = volume of the water
Vc = absolute volume of the cement
Vfa = absolute volume of the fine aggregate

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 Vca = absolute volume of the coarse aggregate
Then the total volume of the fresh compacted concrete will be:

V = Va + Vw + Vc + Vfa + Vca

From the point of view of concrete technology it would be best to prescribe mix
proportions by the “absolute volume” of the ingredients, because the volume of the
resulting concrete and its properties are dependent on them, and not on their weight or
bulk volume. But this is impractical way to proportion materials, because the absolute
volumes of the ingredients can not be measured in the field.
However, the absolute volume can easily be calculated from the relationship of
the weight and specific gravity of the material:

V = W/1000(G)

Where, V = the absolute volume in m3

W = weight of material in kg
G = specific gravity of the material
1000 = unit weight of fresh water in kg/m3

*The specific gravity of cement is taken as 3.15

* For calculating the volumes of aggregates, their specific gravity on saturated surface
dry basis is used.
Substituting weight and specific gravities in the above equations:

V = Va + Ww/1000 + Wc/1000Gc + Wfa/1000Gfa + Wca/1000Gca

Where Ww = weight of water

Wc = weight of cement
Wfa = weight of fine aggregate
Wca = weight of coarse aggregate.

Examples

MEASURMENT OF WORKABALITY

Unfortunately, there is no acceptable test which will measure directly the

workability and consistence of fresh concrete. There are, however, approximate methods
which give information within a range of consistency and workability good enough for
practical purposes.

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
The slump test

In this test fresh concrete is filled to a frustum of cone with 300mm height and
200 & 100mm diameters at the bottom and top respectively. The concrete is filled in
three layers, each being approximately one third of the volume of the cone. Each layer is
tamped 25 times with a standard straight tamping rod 16mm in diameter, the mould being
held firmly at the base. The cone is lifted slowly. The consistency or workability is
measured in terms of the amount it has slumped.

Three types of results could be obtained:

1. True slump: the slump could slump evenly all round.
2. Shear slump: part of the top cones might shear off and slide down an
inclined plane.
3. Collapse slump: the cone completely collapses.

The first type of slump indicates a well proportioned concrete where as the second, or
shear slump, occurs usually with harsh mixes with lack of cohesion. The third is an
indication of test failure or poor proportion of the aggregate, cement and water. In this
case the test must be repeated. Mixes of stiff consistency have a zero slump.

True slump Shear Collapse

*Description of Workability and Magnitude of Slump

Description of Workability Slump (mm)
No Slump ………………………………………………………...0
Very Low …………………………………………………………5-10
Low………………………………………………………………..15-30
Medium…………………………………………………………....35-75
High………………………………………………………………..80-155
Very high…………………………………………………………160-collapse

25
By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Compacting Factor Test

There is no generally accepted method of directly measuring the amount of

work necessary to achieve full compaction, which is a definition of workability. Probably
the best test yet available uses the inverse approach: the degree of compaction achieved
by a standard amount of work is determined. The work applied includes perforce the
work done against the surface friction but this is reduced to a minimum.

The degree of compaction called compacting factor, is measured by the

density ratio, i.e the ratio of the density actually achieved in the test to the density of the
same concrete fully compacted.

The apparatus used in this test consists of two hoppers. The bottom of these
hoppers consists of hinged doors and the distances of the hoppers from the base are fixed.
Below the lower hopper is the cylindrical mould 30cm high and 15cm in dia. The test is
performed as below:
i) Fill the top hopper and release the bottom door. The concrete falls from a
specified height into the lower hopper. The work done in its fall compact
concrete as it is collected in the lower hopper.
ii) Release the door of the lower hopper. The concrete fill with the mould
placed below.
iii) Remove the surplus concrete from the mould by using two steel floats
simultaneously from the circumference to the center in mould.
iv) Determine the weight of the concrete in mould.
v) Determine the theoretical weight of the concrete required to fill the
mould with concrete without air voids. This gives the maximum weight
of the concrete which can fill the mould. This is obtained by filling the
concrete in four layers, each tamped or vibrated, or alternatively
calculated from absolute volume of the mix ingredients.

The observed weight divided by the theoretical weight represents the compaction factor
workability of the mix.

*Description of Workability and Compacting Factor

Description of Workability Compacting Factor Corresponding Slump (mm)
Very low 0.78 0-25
Low 0.85 25-50
Medium 0.92 50-100
High 0.95 100-175

26
By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Hardened concrete

Fresh concrete, if left undisturbed, gradually stiffens until it may be said to have “set”.
However, its setting and hardening is not a simple process. In general it is known that
there is no well defined point at which concrete sets or passes from the plastic to rigid
condition. It is also reported that the setting time of neat paste can not be taken as an
index to the setting time of concrete, but the setting time of mortar correlates fairly well
with that of concrete.

In practice, concrete in which ordinary Portland cement is used, should remain

sufficiently plastic over a period of at least ½ an jour, and preferably, 1 hour or so, in
order to be transported, properly placed and consolidated without undue measure and
adverse effects; on the other hand, it should harden within a reasonable time for the
construction to precede.

During the hardening process the water reacts with the cement and a new product,
hardened cement paste (cement stone) is produced.

Fresh concrete containing only exact amount water required for hydration would be very
dry and exceedingly hard to place. In order to produce a workable concrete, far more
water is incorporated in the mixture than is necessary to hydrate all the cement. This extra
mixing water dilutes the cement paste and weakens its strength.

There is another disadvantage resulting from the use of too much mixing water.
Water occupies space in the fresh concrete. The surplus water, which does not go into the
reaction, evaporates and doing so it leaves capillary pores or voids. The more
uncombined water, the more voids will be left in the concrete, hence, the less the density,
strength and durability of the concrete.

The desired characteristics of concrete vary from one construction to the other and as
such they should be considered in relation to the quality required.

The properties that need great attention are:

- Strength - Compressive strength, Tensile strength and Shear strength

- Elasticity -Modulus of Elasticity

Compressive strength

Since most concrete structures are designed to resist compressive stresses, it is this
property which gets great attention. The strength of concrete is affected by a number of
factors the most important being the water cement ratio and the degree of compaction.
The other factors include the component materials (cement and aggregates), the age and
curing condition.

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
The effect of cement on the strength of concrete is dependent both on the type and
quantity of cement in the concrete.

For the same water cement ratio and degree of compaction, the compressive strength of
concrete decreases with the specific surface of the aggregate increases. Because as the
quantity of fine increases and the demand for water rises which consequently leads to a
weaker concrete.

Generally strength of concrete increases with time or age. Properly cured concrete will
gain good strength.

Tensile Strength

Concrete is brittle material and is not designed to carry tensile forces. Tensile capacity of
concrete is about 10% of its compressive strength.

Shear Strength

The shear strength is about 20 to 30% greater than the tensile strength or about 12 to 13%
of its compressive strength.

Elasticity

Concrete, like most other brittle materials, is imperfectly elastic. When subjected to a
compressive force, it deforms partly as a result of elastic strain or creep, and partly as a
result of plastic strain or creep, and as a consequence its stress-strain diagram is
curvilinear.

Concrete subjected to a sustained load exhibits two types of deformation. The first which
is referred to as the elastic strain, refers to the increasing strain under increasing load.
The second which is creep, relates to increase in strain under constant load.

Durability

In practice, concrete is designed and constructed in order to build permanent structures.

However, sometimes, its service life may be markedly reduced by the disintegrating
effects of either the environment to which it is exposed or by internal causes within its
mass.

The environmental causes may be:

a) Physical, i.e. weathering, due to the action of rain, freezing and thawing and
dimensional changes (expansion and contraction) resulting from temperature variations
and/or alternate wetting and drying,

b) Chemical, due to aggressive waters containing sulphates, leaching in hydraulic

structures and chemical corrosion, and

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
c) Mechanical wear, by abrasion from pedestrian or vehicular use, by wave action in
structures along the sea shore or erosion from the action of flowing water.

The resistance of concrete to the effect of weather, to salt scaling and to chemical attack,
to mechanical damage resulting from abrasion or impact and the different aspects of
durability of concrete; and a concrete which withstands the conditions it is intended for,
without deteriorating, over a long period of time, is said to be durable.

In countries with temperate and tropical climate such as Ethiopia, the problem of freezing
and thawing does mot practically exist; however, it is quite possible that concrete in
service becomes exposed to chemical. Chemical attack is brought about by the
penetration of various agents of the environment (such as reactive liquids particularly
sulphates, polluted air, etc..) into the mass concrete and the chemical reaction of the such
agents with the different components of the concrete. The chemical reaction results in the
disintegration of the concrete. Failure of concrete to resist chemical attack is primarily a
failure of the cement paste; if the cement paste can be made resistant, the concrete will be
resistant and serviceable.

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
It is the process of selecting suitable ingredients of concrete and determining their
relative proportions with the object of producing concrete of certain minimum strength
and durability as economically as possible.

Variables in proportioning
In connection with specifying a concrete mix, four variable factors to be considered are
 Water-cement ratio.
 Cement content or cement-aggregate ratio.
 Gradation of the aggregates.
 Consistency.

To the extent possible, selection of concrete proportion should be based on

test data or experience with the materials actually to be used. The following
information for available materials will be collected

 Sieve analyses of fine and coarse aggregates.

 Unit weight of coarse aggregate
 Bulk specific gravities and absorption of aggregates
 Mixing-water requirements of concrete developed from experience
with available aggregates.
 Relationship between strength and water-cement ratio or ratio of
water-to-cement plus other cementitious materials
 Specific gravity of Portland cement and other cementitious materials,
if used
 Optimum combination of coarse aggregates to meet the maximum
density grading for mass concrete
 Estimate of proportions of mix for preliminary design.

ACI method of mix design

The first step in mix design is to establish the design strength from the project
requirement and the over design factor.
The following mix design procedure is based on the ACI manual of concrete practice
standard ACI 211.1-91, using metric units.
1. Choose slump from Table 3.1a
2. Choose the maximum size of the aggregate. The largest size that is economically
available in the area is usually chosen, subject to the following maximums:
One-fifth of the width of the forms
One-third of the depth of the slabs
Three-fourths of the space between reinforcing bars
3. Estimate the amount of mixing water and air required from Table 3.1b.
Admixtures, if used, are added to the water.
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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 4. Select the W/C or W/CM ratio from Table 3.4 (for design strength), and Table 3.5
(for exposure). (Use lowest).
5. Calculate the cement content from the W/C ratio and water-content values.
6. Estimate the proportion of coarse aggregate from Table 3.3, and its mass using the dry-
rodded density.
7. Estimate the mass of fine aggregate using the estimated total mass shown in Table 3.2.
8. Calculate the adjustments required for aggregate moisture. Usually the aggregates are wet
and therefore the mass of water that they contain, both absorbed and surface water must
be added to the required mass of aggregates, and the mass of surface water subtracted
from the water requirement.
9. Make trial batches. Only sufficient water should be used to produce the desired
slump. Test for slump, air, and density, and cast cylinders for strength, if required.
If specifications are not met, new batches should be prepared with adjusted
proportions. If the mix is satisfactory, design quantities, corrected for moisture
contents of the aggregates, should be recorded for use.

Table 3.1a
RECOMMENDED SLUMPS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION (SI)
Types of Construction Slump, mm
Maximum Minimum
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 75 25
Plain footings, caissons, and substructure walls 75 25
Beams and reinforced walls 100 25
Building columns 100 25
Pavements and slabs 75 25
Mass concrete 75 25

Table 3.1b
APPROXIMATE MIXING-WATER AND AIR-CONTENT REQUIREMENTS

Water, kg/m3, for Indicated Nominal Sizes of Aggregates (mm)

Slump mm 9.5 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 75 150
Non-Air-Entrained Concrete
25 – 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75 – 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150 – 175 242 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
Approximate 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
entrapped air (%)
Air-Entrained Concrete
25 – 50 181 175 168 160 150 142 122 107
75 – 100 202 193 184 175 165 157 133 119
150 – 175 216 205 197 184 174 166 145 -
Recommended air
content (%)
Mild exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0

Note: Mild exposure-where air entrainment is not required for durability.

Moderate exposure where concrete will not be continually exposed to water before freezing or

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 to deicing agents.
Severe exposure – where deicing or similar agents are used or where concrete may be highly
saturated before freezing.

Table 3.2
FIRST ESTIMATE OF MASS OF FRESH CONCRETE (SI)

First Estimate of Concrete Unit mass, kg/m3

Nominal Maximum size
Non- Air Entrained Air Entrained Concrete
of aggregate, mm
Concrete
9.5 2280 2200
12.5 2310 2230
19 2345 2275
25 2380 2290
37.5 2410 2350
50 2445 2345
75 2490 2405
150 2530 2435

Table 3.3
VOLUME OF COARSE AGGREGATE PER UNIT OF VOLUME OF CONCRETE

Volume of Dry-Rodded coarse Aggregate Per

Unit Volume of Concrete for Different Fineness
Moduli of Fine Aggregate
Nominal Maximum Size of 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
Aggregate, mm
9.5 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
19 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
75 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
150 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81

Table 3.4
ESTIMATED AVERAGE STRENGTHS FOR CONCRETE (MPa)

Water/Cement Ratio (by Mass)

Compressive Strength, 28 Non-Air Entrained Air-Entrained
Days (MPa) Concrete Concrete
40 0.42 -
35 0.47 0.39
30 0.54 0.45
25 0.61 0.52
20 0.69 0.60
15 0.79 0.70

Table 3.5

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
MAXIMUM WATER/CEMENT RATIOS FOR CONCRETE
IN SEVERE EXPOSURES

Type of Structure Structure Wet Continuously or Structure Exposed

Frequently and Exposed to to Seawater or
Freezing and Thawing Sulfates
Thin sections (railings, curbs,
sills, ledges, ornamental work)
and section with less than 25
mm. –cover over steel 0.45 0.40
All other structures 0.50 0.45

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
Example 3.1 .A trial mix is required for a 150-mm pavement slab being constructed in an
area where exposure to seawater is expected. Strength required is 20 MPa. Trial mix
design strength is 28.5 MPa as previous test result are not available. For the sand, FM =
2.80 and absorption is 1.2%. The absorption of the coarse aggregate is 1.6%, and its dry-
rodded density is 1730 kg/m3. Fine aggregate is dry and coarse aggregate contains 3.0%
water.

Calculate
1. Slump allowed is 25-75 mm (Table 3.1a).
2. Maximum aggregate size is 50 mm (150/3). Size 37.5 mm is chosen, as it is
economically available in the area.
3. Mixing water required is 150 kg/m3 (for 25-50 mm slump). Air content required is
5.5% (Table 3.1b).
4. Maximum W/C is 0.47 for strength and 0.45 for exposure. Use 0.45 (Tables 3.4
and 3.5).
5. Cement content is 150 kg/m3/0.45 = 333 kg/m3.
6. Volume of dry coarse aggregate per volume of concrete is 0.71 (Table 3.3).
7. Materials per m3 (Estimate only as variation in aggregate densities and water
absorption not considered).
Coarse aggregate –0.71 x 1730 = 1228 kg
Water 150 kg
Cement 333 kg
Total 1711 kg
Estimated total mass of concrete is 2350 kg (Table 3.2).
 Dry mass of fine aggregate is 2350 kg-1711 kg = 639 kg

8. Adjust for moisture contents.

Extra water required for fine aggregate is 1.2% x 639 = 7.7 kg
Surplus water on coarse is 1.4% x 1228 kg = 17.2 kg
Corrected mix proportions:
Cement = 333 kg
Water 150 + 7.7 – 17.2 = 140 kg
Fine aggregate (dry) = 639 kg
Coarse aggregate = 1228 + 3.0% x 1228 = 1265 kg
9. Prepare trial mixes. A 150 x 300 mm standard cylinder contains 0.053 m 3. For a
mix making three cylinders plus enough for other tests, 0.03 m 3 (3% of 1 m3) will be
prepared.
Therefore, quantities are 3% of those required for 1m3.
Cement 9.99 kg
Water 4.20 kg
Fine aggregate 19.2 kg
Coarse aggregate 38.0 kg
Water is added to the mix only in sufficient quantities to give the desired slump. This
could be more or less than the amount prepared. If requirements have been met, corrected
batch quantities must be calculated. Results of the trial mix were: water used, 4.12 kg; air
content, 5.2%; and density of the mix, 2340 kg/m3.

34
By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
 Example 3.2 Concrete is required for a portion of a structure that will be below a
ground level in a location where it will not be exposed to severe weathering or sulfate
attack. Structural considerations require it to have an average 28- day compressive
strength of 24MPa with slump of 75 to 100 mm. The coarse aggregate has a nominal
maximum size of 37.5 dry-rodded mass of 1600 kg/m3. Ordinary Portland cement will be
used and its specific gravity is assumed to be 3.15. The coarse aggregate has a bulk
specific gravity of 2.68 and absorption of 0.5 percent. The fine aggregate has a bulk
specific gravity of 2.64, absorption of 0.7% and a fineness modulus of 2.8.

Solution:

Step 1: The slump is required to be 75 to 100 mm.

Step 2: The aggregate to be used has a nominal max size of 37.5mm

Step 3: The concrete will be non-air entrained since the structure is not exposed to severe
weathering. From table 2 the estimated mixing water for a slump of 75 to 100 mm in non
air entrained concrete made with 37.5 aggregate is found to be 181 kg/m3.

Step 4: The water-cement ratio for non-air entrained concrete with strength of 24MPa is
found from table 3 to be 0.62.

Step 5: From the information developed in step 3 and 4. The required cement content is
found to be 181/0.62 = 292 kg/m3.

Step 6: The quantity of coarse aggregate is estimated from 5. For a fine aggregate having
a fineness modulus of 2.8 and 37.5 mm nominal maximum size coarse aggregate, the
table indicated that 0.71 m3 of coarse aggregate, on a dry-rodded basis, may be used in
each cubic meter of concrete. The required dry mass is therefore, 0.71 *1600 = 1136 kg.

Step 7: With the quantities of water, cement, and coarse aggregate established, the
remaining material comprising the cubic meter of concrete must consist of fine aggregate
and whatever air will be entrapped. The required fine aggregate may be determined on
the basis of either mass or absolute volume as shown below.

Step 7.1 Mass basis: The mass of a cubic meter of non-air-entrained concrete made with
aggregate having a nominal maximum size of 37.5 mm is estimated to be 2410kg.(Table 6)

 Masses already known are:  Cement 292 kg

 Coarse aggregate 1136 kg

Total 1609 kg

 Water (net mixing) 181 kg

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By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept.
The mass of fine aggregate, therefore, is estimated to be 2410-1609 = 801 kg.

Step 7.2 Absolute volume basis: with the quantities of cement, water and coarse
aggregate established, and the approximate entrapped air content (as opposed to
purposely entrained air) of 1 percent determined from table 2 the sand content can be
calculated as follows:

181
Volume of water =  0.181m 3
1000

292
Solid volume of cement = = 0.093m3
3.15 *1000

1136
Solid volume of coarse aggregate = = 0.424m3
2.68 * 1000

Volume of entrapped air = 0.01 * 1 = 0.010 m3

Total solid volume of ingredients 0.708 m3 except fine aggregate then volume of fine
aggregate then is =1-0.708=0.292m3

Step 8:

Exercise

1) It is required to design a non-air entrained concrete mix with 28 days compressive

strength of 25MPa is specified and a slump of the order of 85-100mm.the course
aggregate available at the site is well graded having a maximum size of 40mm
and a specific gravity of 2.64.The available fine aggregate has a F.M=2.6
&G=2.68.The bulk density of C.A=1600 kg/m3.The type of cement available is
ordinary Portland cement and the structure is exposed to freezing and thawing.
2) Determine the proportion of the constituent material according to the information
provided below for non-air entrained concrete. A 28 day compressive strength of
34MPa is specified and the required slump is 5cm.

Coarse aggregate: Max size=40mm, bulk density=1600 kg/m3, G=2.64,

absorption capacity=0.5%, moisture content=0.2%.
Fine aggregate: F.M=2.6, G=2.68, absorption capacity=0.7%, moisture
content=2%.

�
TABLES USED FOR CONCRETE MIX DESIGN

Table 3.1a; RECOMMENDED SLUMPS FOR VARIOUS TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION (SI)

Types of Construction Slump, mm

Maximum Minimum
Reinforced foundation walls and footings 75 25
Plain footings, caissons, and substructure walls 75 25
Beams and reinforced walls 100 25
Building columns 100 25
Pavements and slabs 75 25
Mass concrete 75 25

Table 3.1b; APPROXIMATE MIXING-WATER AND AIR-CONTENT REQUIREMENTS

Water, kg/m3, for Indicated Nominal Sizes of Aggregates (mm)

Slump mm 9.5 12.5 19 25 37.5 50 75 150
Non-Air-Entrained Concrete
25 – 50 207 199 190 179 166 154 130 113
75 – 100 228 216 205 193 181 169 145 124
150 – 175 242 228 216 202 190 178 160 -
Approximate 3 2.5 2 1.5 1 0.5 0.3 0.2
entrapped air (%)
Air-Entrained Concrete
25 – 50 181 175 168 160 150 142 122 107
75 – 100 202 193 184 175 165 157 133 119
150 – 175 216 205 197 184 174 166 145 -
Recommended air
content (%)
Mild exposure 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0
Moderate exposure 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.0 3.5 3.0
Severe Exposure 7.5 7.0 6.0 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0

Note: Mild exposure-where air entrainment is not required for durability.

Moderate exposure where concrete will not be continually exposed to water before freezing or
to deicing agents.
Severe exposure – where deicing or similar agents are used or where concrete may be highly
saturated before freezing.

Table 3.2; FIRST ESTIMATE OF MASS OF FRESH CONCRETE (SI)

First Estimate of Concrete Unit mass, kg/m3

Nominal Maximum size
Non- Air Entrained Air Entrained Concrete
of aggregate, mm
Concrete
9.5 2280 2200
12.5 2310 2230
19 2345 2275
25 2380 2290
37.5 2410 2350
50 2445 2345
75 2490 2405
150 2530 2435
Table 3.3; VOLUME OF COURSE AGGREGATE PER UNIT OF VOLUME OF CONCRETE

Volume of Dry-Rodded coarse Aggregate Per

Unit Volume of Concrete for Different Fineness
Moduli of Fine Aggregate

Nominal Maximum Size of 2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00

Aggregate, mm
9.5 0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
12.5 0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
19 0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
25 0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
37.5 0.75 0.73 0.71 0.69
50 0.78 0.76 0.74 0.72
75 0.82 0.80 0.78 0.76
150 0.87 0.85 0.83 0.81

Table 3.4;ESTIMATED AVERAGE STRENGTHS FOR CONCRETE (MPa)

Water/Cement Ratio (by Mass)

Compressive Strength, 28 Non-Air Entrained Air-Entrained
Days (MPa) Concrete Concrete
40 0.42 -
35 0.47 0.39
30 0.54 0.45
25 0.61 0.52
20 0.69 0.60
15 0.79 0.70

Table 3.5
MAXIMUM WATER/CEMENT RATIOS FOR CONCRETE
IN SEVERE EXPOSURES

Type of Structure Structure Wet Continuously or Structure Exposed

Frequently and Exposed to to Seawater or
Freezing and Thawing Sulfates
Thin sections (railings, curbs,
sills, ledges, ornamental work)
and section with less than 25
mm. –cover over steel 0.45 0.40
All other structures 0.50 0.45
 Chapter 5

Bricks

5.1 Introduction

Bricks are manufactured from clays generally found in abundance in many parts of the
world. Clays are fine grained soils which have resulted from the decay of rocks. When
brought to the required consistency by moistening and mixing with water, clays become
plastic, easy to mold and are capable of retaining their shape on drying. On account of the
different phases they might have gone through and their history of formation, clays are
generally found mixed with other materials (impurities) which influence their proportion.
A clay soil for brick making should be such that when prepared with water, it can be
molded, dried and burnt without cracking or changing its shape or warping. Such material
should preferably have the following composition:

a) Clay 20-40
b) sand 30-50
c) Other (lime, silt, loam--) 20-35

Each of these components and their constituents play different rolls in the manufacture of
building bricks and influence the characteristics of the final product.

Functions of the Constituent Materials

Clays generally consist of the following chemical elements: alumina (Al2O3), silica
(Si02), Ferric oxide (Fe2O3), lime (CaO), Magnesia (MgO), carbon dioxide, sulphur
trioxide, alkalis and water. Each of these constituents of the raw material used in the
manufacture of building bricks has a function which can be summarized as follows:

1. Alumina- (AI2O3)
 When burnt alumina becomes stronger and harder.
 Makes the major part of clay
 Becomes plastic when mixed with water and is capable of being molded to
the desired shape. (Responsible for plasticity of the mud).
 On drying it loses its plasticity and become hard. This can be accompanied
with shrinkage which might result in wrapping and cracking depending on
the speed and magnitude of drying. If alumina content is excess, the brick
will shrink on drying which leads to cracking and warping. If small than
required, the brick will not be molded easily and nicely. Bricks of very
high alumina content are likely to be refractory.
2. Silica(SiO2)

Silica is available in two forms: Silica combined as a constituent of clay and free silica
(sand or quartz). It is useful in reducing shrinkage and warping in burning. Its presence in
brick produces hardness and durability however a large percentage of uncombined silica
is undesirable because it leads to brittleness of the product

3. Lime (CaO)

When present in small quantity, lime acts as a flux and lowers the fusion point of silica. It
also acts as a binder to the clay and silica particles leading to a greater strength. Excess of
lime may cause the bricks to melt and lose their shape.

4. Iron oxide (Fe203)

Acts as a flux i.e. it lowers down the softening temperature of silica. It is this element
which imparts the colors of the clay and the burnt product. Depending on its percentage
the color of the brick may vary from light yellow to red. If it present in the form of
Pyrites (Sulfide of iron), it can get oxidized, crystallize and split the bricks to pieces.

5. Magnesia -(MgO)

Usually it is present in small quantity (1%) in clay and together with the iron oxide; it
gives the brick darker or even black color. It also lessens warping of bricks in burning.

Building bricks may be defined as “structural units of rectangular shape and convenient
size that are made from suitable types of clays by mounding, drying and burning.”
It is now established that even in remotely ancient civilizations bricks were the common
material for the construction. Even at present, brick is the most basic and favoured
material for common construction throughout the world. This may be attributed to a
number of advantages it offers over other available materials of construction like stones
and concrete.

These may be summarized as follows:

 Availability: since clays are available almost universally, bricks can be made out of
them in every region. This is not true either for stone or for concrete.

 Construction Methods: this is not so stones, where experienced hands are less easily
available. With concrete, only a very experienced and qualified person can handle the
construction work.

 Size, shape and handling: Bricks are made in “ready to use” sizes and shapes which
are very convenient to handle and use. For stones, a good deal of dressing is
absolutely essential. In the case of concrete, an elaborate form-work and shuttering
are basic requirements, and its transport and lying requires great care and caution.

 Cost: because of the factors mentioned above, brickwork is cheaper compared to the
two types of constructions. Where bricks are not available locally, and have to be
transported from far off distances, and locally available stone may give a cheaper
construction.
5.2 MANUFACTURE OF BRICKS

The process of manufacture of bricks is carried out in a number of stages. These are listed
below. Each stage has its own specific importance
 Selection of suitable type of brick earth.
 Preparation and Tempering of Mud.
 Shaping or Moulding of brick units
 Drying of moulded bricks
 Firing or burning of units
 Cooling of the units.

The raw material for the manufacture of bricks is first excavated and crushed (clays
usually convert to loose or powder form when excavated, hence, all that will be needed is
to make them free from stones, bolder, coarse sand or lime. It is then mixed with water
until it gets the desired consistency. Sand soil and or lime may be added to the dry raw
material if it is found deficient in silica and lime. Mixing done until the whole mass
becomes homogeneous and plastic.

The tempered clay is then fed into molds made of timber or metal and pressed (hand
molding) or extruded through a rectangular hole the dimensions of which are equal to
those of the transversal cross section of the brick (Mechanical molding). In the later case,
the material thus formed is made to pass through a machine the function of which is to
cut the long column into length equal to that of a brick which at this stage is called green
brick. The green brick is then dried before burning.

Drying is essentia1 and usefu1 in giving the green bricks sufficient strength to be handled
and staked in kilns without being damaged. It is done either in the open-air driers (open
shades) provided with roofs or in the drying .Zone of a continuous kiln with sufficient care
taken so as to avoid checking and warping resulting from quick drying. The dried bricks
are then fed into kilns where they are burnt, at temperatures reaching, 900 to l200o C.
Besides imparting strength to the green brick and preventing cracking and warping; drying
helps remove the moisture from the bricks which allows to save time and fuel during
burning.

Burning, this is required in order to make the bricks stronger, harder, more durable and
less absorbent, norma1ly takes couple of days to complete. Three irreversible reactions
take place during the process of burning. These are:

Dehydration; which is generally completed before a temperature of 7000 C is reached.

During the dehydration period the water left in the bricks after drying is driven off and
some of the chemical elements such as the hydrate of alumina silicate (A1203.2SiO2.2H20)
are dehydrated.

Oxidation; which leads to the formation of an interconnected network made of new

crystals (oxides). The rest of the carbon is also eliminated at this stage. Oxidation is
completed at about 900oc.
Sintering; the temperature is raised to l2000C. At these temperatures hard-burnt bricks are
produced which contain melted components acting as binder to the non-melted minerals.
In addition to being stronger, hard-burnt bricks are more durable and absorb very much
less water on wetting with water.

5.3 Properties of Bricks

The essential properties of bricks may be conveniently discussed under four headings:
physical properties, mechanical characteristics, thermal characteristics and durability.

5.3.1 Physical properties

These include shape, size, colour and density of a brick.

 Shape. The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has well defined
and sharp edges. The surface of the bricks is rectangular and even. For special
purpose bricks may, however, be either cut or manufactured in various other shapes.
 Size. The size of the brick used in construction various from country to country and
from place to place in the same country.

Country Length Thickness Height

(cm) (cm) (cm)
United Kingdom 20 9.5 5.5
United States of America 20 10 10
(USA) 30 10 10
U.S.S.R 25 12 6.5
Ethiopia 25 12 6

 Colour. The most common colour of building bricks falls under class RED.
 Density. In the case of standard bricks, density various from 1600 to 1900 kg/cubic
meter

5.3.2 Mechanical characteristics

Under this comprehensive strength and flexure strength are included.

 Comprehensive strength: the comprehensive strength of a brick depends on the
composition of the clay and the degree of burning.
 Flexure strength: they should posses sufficient strength against transverse loads. It
is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall not be less
than 10 kg/cm2. Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 20 kg/cm2.

5.3.3 Insulation
 Besides being hard and strong, an ideal bricks should also provide adequate insulation
against heat, cold and noise.
The heat and sound conductivity of bricks varies greatly with their density and porosity.
Very dense and heavy bricks conduct heat and sound at a greater rate. They have,
therefore, poor thermal and sound insulation qualities. For this reason, bricks should be
so designed that they are light and strong and give adequate insulation.

5.3.4 Durability
By durability of bricks is understood the length of time for which they remain unaltered
and strong when used in construction.
The durability of bricks depends on a number of factors such as: absorption value, frost
resistance and efflorescence.

Efflorescence: is a whitish powder of crystallization on brick masonry walls caused by

water-soluble salts deposited on the surface upon evaporation of water. Efflorescence will
appear when salt is available within a brick and moisture to carry these salts to the
surface .To over come efflorescence, it is necessary to check types of brick, quality of
water used, and type of mortar used.

Tests for Burnt Clay Bricks

Two types of tests are used to determine the quality of building bricks.

A. Field test

B. Laboratory test

Field tests: such as appearance, hummer test and hardness test can easily be made at a
construction site:

 Appearance test is that: shape, plainness, color etc.

 When stroked with hummer, a properly burnt dry brick free from cracks emits a
highly metallic ring.
 The hardness of a brick sample can be checked by scratching its surface or broken
section with a knife or fingernail. A well burnt brick will be scratched with
difficulty.
 A rough test for the strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from a height of
about one meter on to a hard floor. It should not break

Laboratory tests:

1. Compressive strength test 2. Water absorption test

3. Efflorescence test and

4. Saturation coefficient test

Standard Specifications

Many countries have their own standard specifications for bricks, and reference should be
made to these where available.

According to Ethiopian Standard solid clay bricks are classified according to the
numerical values of their compressive strength, water absorption, saturation coefficient
and efflorescence as follows:

1. Minimum Compressive Strength

Table: 1 Minimum compressive strength

Minimum compressive strength

Class
Average of 5 Individual bricks
bricks(N/mm2) (N/mm2)
A 20 17.5
B 15 12.5
C 10 7.5
D 7.5 5

2. Maximum water absorption. (%)

Table: 2 Maximum water absorption

After 24hr.lmmersion After 5hr.Boiling

Class
Average of 5 Individual Average of 5 Individual
bricks bricks bricks bricks
A 21 23 22 24
B 22 24 23 24
C,D No Limit No Limit No Limit No Limit

Page 45

By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept

3. Maximum Saturation Coefficient

Table: 3 Maximum Saturation coefficients

Class Average of 5 bricks Individual bricks

A,B 0.96 0.99
C,D No Limit No Limit

4. Efflorescence Rating

Table: 4 Efflorescence Rating

Class Efflorescence
A,B Nil to slight
C,D Effloresced

In the case of hollow clay bricks and beam tiles the minimum compressive strength and
maximum allowable value for water absorption are given in table 5 and 6 respectively.

1. Minimum compressive strength

Table: 5 Minimum compressive strength

Minimum Compressive strength

Type Average of 5
Individual Bricks(N/mm2)
bricks(N/mm2)
Kk 7 5.5
Ss 7 5.5
Sk 7 5.5

2. Maximum allowable water absorption, %

Table: 6 Maximum allowable water absorption

After 1hr Submersion in boiling water

Type Average of 5 Individual
bricks(N/mm2) Bricks(N/mm2)
Kk 21.5 23

Page 46

By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept

 Ss 21.5 23
Sk 21.5 23

5.4 qualities of a good brick

 It should have a rectangular shape, regular surfaces and red colored

appearance.
 It should confirm in size to the specified dimensions.
 It should be properly burnt. This can be ascertained by holding two bricks
freely, one in each hand, and striking them. A sharp metallic sound
indicates good burning whereas a dull thud would indicate incomplete
burning.
 A good building brick should not absorb water more than 20 % of dry
weight. Absorption not more than 25% in any case.
 A good building brick should possess requisite comprehensive strength,
which in no case should be less than 35 kg/cm 2. A rough test for the
strength of the brick is to let it fall freely from a height of about one meter
on to a hard floor. It should not break.
 Bricks should be hard enough so that it is not scratched by finger nail.
 A good brick has a uniform color and structure through its body. This can
be checked by taking a brick from the lot and breaking into two parts. The
broken surface in both the half same appearance and structure.

5.5 Types of Bricks

5.5.1 Types Based on Modification in Shape

In construction, there are positions where a perfect rectangular shape will not be suitable.
It has to be modified. Such bricks are required in the plinth, the corners of the walls and
at the copings.

5.5.2 Types Based on perforations or cavities

Three types of bricks: perforated bricks, hollow bricks and channeled bricks.

5.5.2.1 Perforated Bricks

In perforated bricks, cylindrical, rounded or rectangular holes are made in the bricks after
the moulding stage, these holes are called perforations. They are properly spaced from
the side of the brick; minimum distance being 15 mm. further distances between any two
perforations is not less than 10mm. the volume of the perforation may be as much as 20 –
50% of the total volume of the brick.

Page 47

By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept

The perforated brick may be larger in size than ordinary building brick which is a distinct
advantage in that work output of masonry will increase considerably with the use of
perforated bricks.

The major advantage that perforated bricks offer over ordinary bricks is:
i. These bricks are light in weight
ii. Less quantity of clay is required for their manufacture
iii. Less time is required for drying and burning of perforated bricks
iv. These offer better resistance against rain penetration and better insulation
against heat. As such they are ideally suited for tropical countries
v. Efflorescence is least in perforated bricks
vi. These are especially suitable for construction of brick panels in multistory
structures.

5.5.2.2 Hollow Bricks

A brick also called cavity brick or cellular brick has a few well defined sets of cavities
with specified dimensions made in the body of the brick. As a result, its net weight may
be only one-third to one-half of the solid brick. It is important that the thickness of brick
wall near the cavity should not be less than 2cm.

They offer following advantages over the ordinary solid bricks

i. Being light in weight, they can be handled more conveniently and the output of
the mason may be three to four times compared with ordinary bricks.
ii. They offer better insulation against heat and sound.
iii. They are ideal and economical for non-load-bearing walls, e.g. partition walls

5.5.2.3 Channel or Gutter Brick

They are actually special purpose bricks having a continuous central semi-circular cavity
or depression running through their length. Very often they are glazed to make them
impervious. These find use in the laying of drains.

Page 48

By Habtamu Mel. AMU Civil Eng. Dept