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 Table of Contents

Foreword . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv

Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xvii

1. Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

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2. Type Less, Do More . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

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vii

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3. Rounding Out the Essentials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53

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4. Traits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
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viii | Table of Contents

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5. Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

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6. Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111

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Table of Contents | ix

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 5HFDSDQG:KDW¦V1H[W 

7. The Scala Object System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

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8. Functional Programming in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165

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 9. Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
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10. Herding XML in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211

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11. Domain-Specific Languages in Scala . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217

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12. The Scala Type System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

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Table of Contents | xi

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13. Application Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289

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14. Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343

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Table of Contents | xiii

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 7HUUDFRWWD 
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Appendix: References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387

Glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407

xiv | Table of Contents

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 Foreword

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 Preface

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Welcome to Programming Scala

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2 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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4 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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6 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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Why Scala? | 7

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8 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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10 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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A Taste of Scala | 11

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12 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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A Taste of Scala | 13

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14 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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:HKDYHDOVRH[SORLWHGDVKRUWKDQGIRUWKHIXQFWLRQOLWHUDO3UHYLRXVO\ZHZURWHLWDV
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(s:String) => s.toUpperCase()

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/upper3.scala

object Upper {
def main(args: Array[String]) = {
args.map(_.toUpperCase()).foreach(printf("%s ",_))
println("")
}
}

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16 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes.scala

package shapes {
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
override def toString() = "Point(" + x + "," + y + ")"
}

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

class Circle(val center: Point, val radius: Double) extends Shape {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() = "Circle(" + center + "," + radius + ")"
}

class Rectangle(val lowerLeft: Point, val height: Double, val width: Double)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Rectangle(" + lowerLeft + "," + height + "," + width + ")"
}

class Triangle(val point1: Point, val point2: Point, val point3: Point)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Triangle(" + point1 + "," + point2 + "," + point3 + ")"
}
}

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18 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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 // code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes-actor.scala

package shapes {
import scala.actors._
import scala.actors.Actor._

object ShapeDrawingActor extends Actor {

def act() {
loop {
receive {
case s: Shape => s.draw()
case "exit" => println("exiting..."); exit
case x: Any => println("Error: Unknown message! " + x)
}
}
}
}
}

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// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes-actor-script.scala

import shapes._

ShapeDrawingActor.start()

ShapeDrawingActor ! new Circle(new Point(0.0,0.0), 1.0)

ShapeDrawingActor ! new Rectangle(new Point(0.0,0.0), 2, 5)
ShapeDrawingActor ! new Triangle(new Point(0.0,0.0),
new Point(1.0,0.0),
new Point(0.0,1.0))
ShapeDrawingActor ! 3.14159

ShapeDrawingActor ! "exit"

20 | Chapter 1:—Zero to Sixty: Introducing Scala

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Circle.draw: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0)
Rectangle.draw: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0)
Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))
Error: Unknown message! 3.14159
exiting...

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Recap and What’s Next

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Recap and What’s Next | 21

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Download at WoweBook.Com
 CHAPTER 2
Type Less, Do More

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ZKDW6FDODSURYLGHV<RXFRPSLOHDQGUXQVXFKSURJUDPVLQRQHVKRWZLWKWKH scala
FRPPDQG,I\RX¦YHGRZQORDGHGWKHH[DPSOHFRGHIRUWKLVERRNPDQ\RIWKHVPDOOHU
H[DPSOHVFDQEHUXQXVLQJWKH scalaFRPPDQGHJ scala filename.scala6HHWKH
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PDQG/LQH7RROV¤RQSDJHIRUPRUHLQIRUPDWLRQDERXWXVLQJWKHscalaFRPPDQG

Semicolons
<RXPD\KDYHDOUHDG\QRWLFHGWKDWWKHUHZHUHYHU\IHZVHPLFRORQVLQWKHFRGHH[DPSOHV
LQWKHSUHYLRXVFKDSWHU<RXFDQXVHVHPLFRORQVWRVHSDUDWHVWDWHPHQWVDQGH[SUHV
VLRQVDVLQ-DYD&3+3DQGVLPLODUODQJXDJHV,QPRVWFDVHVWKRXJK6FDODEHKDYHV
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RUDQH[SUHVVLRQ:KHQDVWDWHPHQWRUH[SUHVVLRQLVWRRORQJIRURQHOLQH6FDODFDQ
XVXDOO\LQIHUZKHQ\RXDUHFRQWLQXLQJRQWRWKHQH[WOLQHDVVKRZQLQWKLVH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/semicolon-example-script.scala

// Trailing equals sign indicates more code on next line

def equalsign = {
val reallySuperLongValueNameThatGoesOnForeverSoYouNeedANewLine =
"wow that was a long value name"

println(reallySuperLongValueNameThatGoesOnForeverSoYouNeedANewLine)

23

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 }

// Trailing opening curly brace indicates more code on next line

def equalsign2(s: String) = {
println("equalsign2: " + s)
}

// Trailing comma, operator, etc. indicates more code on next line

def commas(s1: String,
s2: String) = {
println("comma: " + s1 +
", " + s2)
}

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case "exit" => println("exiting..."); exit

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...
case "exit" =>
println("exiting...")
exit
...

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FRGH¦VUHDGDELOLW\

Variable Declarations
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ZULWH ZKHQ \RX GHFODUH LW $Q LPPXWDEOH £YDULDEOH¤ LV GHFODUHG ZLWK WKH NH\ZRUG
valWKLQNYDOXHREMHFW
val array: Array[String] = new Array(5)

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ArrayEXWWKHDUUD\LWVHOIFDQEHPRGLILHGDVVKRZQLQWKHIROORZLQJscalaVHVVLRQ
scala> val array: Array[String] = new Array(5)
array: Array[String] = Array(null, null, null, null, null)

scala> array = new Array(2)

<console>:5: error: reassignment to val
array = new Array(2)

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 ^

scala> array(0) = "Hello"

scala> array
res3: Array[String] = Array(Hello, null, null, null, null)

scala>

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scala> var stockPrice: Double = 100.
stockPrice: Double = 100.0

scala> stockPrice = 10.

stockPrice: Double = 10.0

scala>

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WRD varDVRIWHQDV\RXZDQW$JDLQWREHSUHFLVHWKH stockPriceUHIHUHQFHFDQEH
FKDQJHGWRSRLQWWRDGLIIHUHQW DoubleREMHFWHJ 10.,QWKLVFDVHWKHREMHFWWKDW
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LQLWLDOL]HGYDULDEOHVLQDEVWUDFWW\SHV$OVRGHULYHGW\SHVFDQRYHUULGH valVGHFODUHG
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LI\ZKHWKHURUQRWWKHREMHFWWKH\UHIHUHQFHLVPXWDEOH

Method Declarations
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HTXDOVVLJQ=DQGILQDOO\WKHPHWKRGERG\0HWKRGVDUHLPSOLFLWO\GHFODUHG£DEVWUDFW¤

Method Declarations | 25

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LI \RX OHDYH RII WKH HTXDOV VLJQ DQG PHWKRG ERG\ 7KH HQFORVLQJ W\SH LV WKHQ LWVHOI
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WKDQRQHDUJXPHQWOLVWIRUDPHWKRG7KLVLVUHTXLUHGIRUFXUU\LQJPHWKRGVZKLFKZH¦OO
GLVFXVVLQ£&XUU\LQJ¤RQSDJH,WLVDOVRYHU\XVHIXOIRUGHILQLQJ\RXURZQ'RPDLQ
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{...}<RXFDQRPLWWKHEUDFHVLIWKHPHWKRGERG\KDVMXVWRQHH[SUHVVLRQ

Method Default and Named Arguments (Scala Version 2.8)

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RIVWULQJVZLWKDXVHUVSHFLILHGVHSDUDWRU
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v1-script.scala
// Version 1 of "StringUtil".

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)

def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = joiner(strings, " ")

}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.

println( joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")) )

7KHUHDUHDFWXDOO\WZR£RYHUORDGHG¤ joinerPHWKRGV7KHVHFRQGRQHXVHVDVLQJOH
VSDFHDVWKH£GHIDXOW¤VHSDUDWRU+DYLQJWZRPHWKRGVVHHPVDELWZDVWHIXO,WZRXOG
EH QLFH LI ZH FRXOG HOLPLQDWH WKH VHFRQG joiner PHWKRG DQG GHFODUH WKDW WKH
separatorDUJXPHQWLQWKHILUVWjoinerKDVDGHIDXOWYDOXH,QIDFWLQ6FDODYHUVLRQ
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v2-v28-script.scala
// Version 2 of "StringUtil" for Scala v2.8 only.

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String = " "): String =
strings.mkString(separator)
}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.

println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")))

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ZKLFKZHZLOOGLVFXVVLQ£,PSOLFLW)XQFWLRQ3DUDPHWHUV¤RQSDJH

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6FDODYHUVLRQRIIHUVDQRWKHUHQKDQFHPHQWIRUPHWKRGDUJXPHQWOLVWVQDPHGDUJX
PHQWV:HFRXOGDFWXDOO\ZULWHWKHODVWOLQHRIWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHLQVHYHUDOZD\V
$OORIWKHIROORZLQJprintlnVWDWHPHQWVDUHIXQFWLRQDOO\HTXLYDOHQW
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")))
println(joiner(strings = List("Programming", "Scala")))
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala"), " ")) // #1
println(joiner(List("Programming", "Scala"), separator = " ")) // #2
println(joiner(strings = List("Programming", "Scala"), separator = " "))

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\RXUFDOOVWRWKRVHPHWKRGVGRFXPHQWHDFKDUJXPHQWZLWKDQDPH)RUH[DPSOHFRP
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/user-profile-v28-script.scala
// Scala v2.8 only.

object OptionalUserProfileInfo {
val UnknownLocation = ""
val UnknownAge = -1
val UnknownWebSite = ""
}

class OptionalUserProfileInfo(
location: String = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownLocation,
age: Int = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownAge,
webSite: String = OptionalUserProfileInfo.UnknownWebSite)

println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo )

println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29) )
println( new OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29, location="Earth") )

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:HEVRFLDOQHWZRUNLQJVLWH,WGHILQHVGHIDXOWYDOXHVIRUDOOLWVILHOGV7KHVFULSW
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DQGWKHSDUDPHWHUVDUHFXUULHGDFRQFHSWZH¦OOGLVFXVVLQ£&XUU\LQJ¤RQSDJH

Method Declarations | 27

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)LQDOO\DQRWKHUFRQVWUDLQWRQQDPHGSDUDPHWHUVLVWKDWRQFH\RXSURYLGHDQDPHIRU
DSDUDPHWHULQDPHWKRGLQYRFDWLRQWKHUHVWRIWKHSDUDPHWHUVDSSHDULQJDIWHULWPXVW
DOVREHQDPHG)RUH[DPSOHnew OptionalUserProfileInfo(age = 29, "Earth")ZRXOG
QRWFRPSLOHEHFDXVHWKHVHFRQGDUJXPHQWLVQRWLQYRNHGE\QDPH
:H¦OOVHHDQRWKHUXVHIXOH[DPSOHRIQDPHGDQGGHIDXOWDUJXPHQWVZKHQZHGLVFXVV
FDVHFODVVHVLQ£&DVH&ODVVHV¤RQSDJH

Nesting Method Definitions

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/factorial-script.scala

def factorial(i: Int): Int = {

def fact(i: Int, accumulator: Int): Int = {
if (i <= 1)
accumulator
else
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}

fact(i, 1)
}

println( factorial(0) )
println( factorial(1) )
println( factorial(2) )
println( factorial(3) )
println( factorial(4) )
println( factorial(5) )

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LQVLGHWKHHQFORVLQJPHWKRG,I\RXWU\WRFDOOfactRXWVLGHRIfactorial\RXZLOOJHWD
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ILQHEHFDXVHZHGRQ¦WQHHGWKHRXWHUYDOXHRI iLQVLGH fact:HRQO\XVHLWWKHILUVW
WLPHZHFDOOfactDWWKHHQGRIfactorial

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:KDWLIZHQHHGWRXVHDYDULDEOHWKDWLVGHILQHGRXWVLGHDQHVWHGIXQFWLRQ"&RQVLGHU
WKLVFRQWULYHGH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/count-to-script.scala

def countTo(n: Int):Unit = {

def count(i: Int): Unit = {
if (i <= n) {
println(i)
count(i + 1)
}
}
count(1)
}

countTo(5)

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countTo7KHUHLVQRQHHGWRSDVV nDVDQDUJXPHQWWR count%HFDXVH countLVQHVWHG
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UXOHVDQGNH\ZRUGVLQ£9LVLELOLW\5XOHV¤RQSDJH

Inferring Type Information

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import java.util.Map;
import java.util.HashMap;
...
Map<Integer, String> intToStringMap = new HashMap<Integer, String>();

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import java.util.Map
import java.util.HashMap
...
val intToStringMap: Map[Integer, String] = new HashMap

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Inferring Type Information | 29

Download at WoweBook.Com
)RUFRPSOHWHQHVVVXSSRVHZHGRQ¦WDFWXDOO\FDUHLIWKHLQVWDQFHLVRIW\SHMapWKH-DYD
LQWHUIDFHW\SH,WFDQEHRIW\SHHashMapIRUDOOZHFDUH
import java.util.Map
import java.util.HashMap
...
val intToStringMap2 = new HashMap[Integer, String]

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intToStringMap2DHashMap[Integer,String]
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When Explicit Type Annotations Are Required

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 $YDULDEOHGHFODUDWLRQXQOHVV\RXDVVLJQDYDOXHWRWKHYDULDEOHHJ val name =
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 $OOPHWKRGSDUDPHWHUVHJdef deposit(amount: Money)...
 0HWKRGUHWXUQYDOXHVLQWKHIROORZLQJFDVHV
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/HW¦VORRNDWH[DPSOHVZKHUHH[SOLFLWGHFODUDWLRQVRIPHWKRGUHWXUQW\SHVDUHUHTXLUHG
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-nested-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile until you put a String return type on upCase.

def upCase(s: String) = {

if (s.length == 0)
return s
else
s.toUpperCase()
}

println( upCase("") )
println( upCase("Hello") )

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWJLYHV\RXWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
... 6: error: method upCase has return statement; needs result type
return s
^

<RXFDQIL[WKLVHUURUE\FKDQJLQJWKHILUVWOLQHRIWKHPHWKRGWRWKHIROORZLQJ
def upCase(s: String): String = {

$FWXDOO\IRUWKLVSDUWLFXODUVFULSWDQDOWHUQDWLYHIL[LVWRUHPRYHWKH returnNH\ZRUG
IURPWKHOLQH,WLVQRWQHHGHGIRUWKHFRGHWRZRUNSURSHUO\EXWLWLOOXVWUDWHVRXUSRLQW
5HFXUVLYHPHWKRGVDOVRUHTXLUHDQH[SOLFLWUHWXUQW\SH5HFDOORXU factorialPHWKRG
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QHVWHGfactPHWKRG
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-recursive-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile until you put an Int return type on "fact".

def factorial(i: Int) = {

def fact(i: Int, accumulator: Int) = {
if (i <= 1)
accumulator
else
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}

fact(i, 1)
}

1RZLWIDLOVWRFRPSLOH
... 9: error: recursive method fact needs result type
fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
^

Inferring Type Information | 31

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2YHUORDGHGPHWKRGVFDQVRPHWLPHVUHTXLUHDQH[SOLFLWUHWXUQW\SH:KHQRQHVXFK
PHWKRGFDOOVDQRWKHUZHKDYHWRDGGDUHWXUQW\SHWRWKHRQHGRLQJWKHFDOOLQJDVLQ
WKLVH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-overloaded-return-script.scala
// Version 1 of "StringUtil" (with a compilation error).
// ERROR: Won't compile: needs a String return type on the second "joiner".

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)

def joiner(strings: List[String]) = joiner(strings, " ")

}
import StringUtil._ // Import the joiner methods.

println( joiner(List("Programming", "Scala")) )

7KHWZRjoinerPHWKRGVFRQFDWHQDWHDListRIVWULQJVWRJHWKHU7KHILUVWPHWKRGDOVR
WDNHVDQDUJXPHQWIRUWKHVHSDUDWRUVWULQJ7KHVHFRQGPHWKRGFDOOVWKHILUVWZLWKD
£GHIDXOW¤VHSDUDWRURIDVLQJOHVSDFH
,I\RXUXQWKLVVFULSW\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
... 9: error: overloaded method joiner needs result type
def joiner(strings: List[String]) = joiner(strings, "")
^

6LQFHWKHVHFRQGjoinerPHWKRGFDOOVWKHILUVWLWUHTXLUHVDQH[SOLFLWStringUHWXUQW\SH
,WVKRXOGORRNOLNHWKLV
def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = joiner(strings, " ")

7KHILQDOVFHQDULRFDQEHVXEWOHZKHQDPRUHJHQHUDOUHWXUQW\SHLVLQIHUUHGWKDQZKDW
\RXH[SHFWHG<RXXVXDOO\VHHWKLVHUURUZKHQ\RXDVVLJQDYDOXHUHWXUQHGIURPDIXQF
WLRQ WR D YDULDEOH ZLWK D PRUH VSHFLILF W\SH )RU H[DPSOH \RX ZHUH H[SHFWLQJ D
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H[DPSOHWKDWUHIOHFWVDEXJZKHUHWKLVVFHQDULRFDQRFFXU
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/method-broad-inference-return-script.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile; needs a String return type on the second "joiner".

def makeList(strings: String*) = {

if (strings.length == 0)
List(0) // #1
else
strings.toList
}

val list: List[String] = makeList()

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWUHWXUQVWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
...11: error: type mismatch;
found : List[Any]
required: List[String]

32 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 val list: List[String] = makeList()
^

:HLQWHQGHGIRU makeListWRUHWXUQD List[String]EXWZKHQ strings.lengthHTXDOV

]HURZHUHWXUQHG List(0)LQFRUUHFWO\£DVVXPLQJ¤WKDWWKLVH[SUHVVLRQLVWKHFRUUHFW
ZD\WRFUHDWHDQHPSW\OLVW,QIDFWZHUHWXUQHGDList[Int]ZLWKRQHHOHPHQW0:H
VKRXOG KDYH UHWXUQHG List() 6LQFH WKH else H[SUHVVLRQ UHWXUQV D List[String] WKH
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WLJDWHWKHPHWKRGWKDWDSSHDUVWRUHWXUQWKHXQH[SHFWHGW\SH,QRXUH[SHULHQFH\RX
RIWHQILQGWKDW\RXPRGLILHGWKDWPHWKRGRUDQRWKHURQHLQWKHFDOOSDWKLQVXFKD
ZD\WKDWWKHFRPSLOHUQRZLQIHUVDPRUHJHQHUDOUHWXUQW\SHWKDQQHFHVVDU\$GGWKH
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$QRWKHUZD\WRSUHYHQWWKHVHSUREOHPVLVWRDOZD\VGHFODUHUHWXUQW\SHVIRUPHWKRGV
HVSHFLDOO\ZKHQGHILQLQJPHWKRGVIRUDSXEOLF$3,/HW¦VUHYLVLWRXUStringUtilH[DPSOH
DQGVHHZK\H[SOLFLWGHFODUDWLRQVDUHDJRRGLGHDDGDSWHGIURP>6PLWKD@
+HUHLVRXUStringUtil£$3,¤DJDLQZLWKDQHZPHWKRGtoCollection
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-v3.scala
// Version 3 of "StringUtil" (for all versions of Scala).

object StringUtil {
def joiner(strings: List[String], separator: String): String =
strings.mkString(separator)

def joiner(strings: List[String]): String = strings.mkString(" ")

def toCollection(string: String) = string.split(' ')

}

7KHtoCollectionPHWKRGVSOLWVDVWULQJRQVSDFHVDQGUHWXUQVDQArrayFRQWDLQLQJWKH
VXEVWULQJV7KHUHWXUQW\SHLVLQIHUUHGZKLFKLVDSRWHQWLDOSUREOHPDVZHZLOOVHH7KH
PHWKRG LV VRPHZKDW FRQWULYHG EXW LW ZLOO LOOXVWUDWH RXU SRLQW +HUH LV D FOLHQW RI
StringUtilWKDWXVHVWKLVPHWKRG
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/string-util-client.scala

import StringUtil._

object StringUtilClient {
def main(args: Array[String]) = {
args foreach { s => toCollection(s).foreach { x => println(x) } }
}
}

Inferring Type Information | 33

Download at WoweBook.Com
,I\RXFRPSLOHWKHVHILOHVZLWKscala\RXFDQUXQWKHFOLHQWDVIROORZV
$ scala -cp ... StringUtilClient "Programming Scala"
Programming
Scala

)RUWKH -cp ...FODVVSDWKDUJXPHQWXVHWKHGLUHFWRU\ZKHUH scalac

ZURWHWKHFODVVILOHVZKLFKGHIDXOWVWRWKHFXUUHQWGLUHFWRU\LHXVH
-cp .,I\RXXVHGWKHEXLOGSURFHVVLQWKHGRZQORDGHGFRGHH[DPSOHV
WKH FODVV ILOHV DUH ZULWWHQ WR WKH EXLOG GLUHFWRU\ XVLQJ scalac -d
build ...,QWKLVFDVHXVH-cp build

(YHU\WKLQJ LV ILQH DW WKLV SRLQW EXW QRZ LPDJLQH WKDW WKH FRGH EDVH KDV JURZQ
StringUtilDQGLWVFOLHQWVDUHQRZEXLOWVHSDUDWHO\DQGEXQGOHGLQWRGLIIHUHQW-$5V
,PDJLQHDOVRWKDWWKHPDLQWDLQHUVRIStringUtilGHFLGHWRUHWXUQDListLQVWHDGRIWKH
GHIDXOW
object StringUtil {
...

def toCollection(string: String) = string.split(' ').toList // changed!

}

7KHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHLVWKHILQDOFDOOWR toListWKDWFRQYHUWVWKHFRPSXWHG ArrayWRD

List<RXUHFRPSLOH StringUtilDQGUHGHSOR\LWV-$57KHQ\RXUXQWKHVDPHFOLHQW
ZLWKRXWUHFRPSLOLQJLWILUVW
$ scala -cp ... StringUtilClient "Programming Scala"
java.lang.NoSuchMethodError: StringUtil$.toCollection(...
at StringUtilClient$$anonfun$main$1.apply(string-util-client.scala:6)
at StringUtilClient$$anonfun$main$1.apply(string-util-client.scala:6)
...

:KDWKDSSHQHG":KHQWKHFOLHQWZDVFRPSLOHGStringUtil.toCollectionUHWXUQHGDQ
Array7KHQ toCollectionZDVFKDQJHGWRUHWXUQ List,QERWKYHUVLRQVWKHPHWKRG
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+RZHYHUKDGDQH[SOLFLWUHWXUQW\SHRISeqEHHQGHFODUHGZKLFKLVDSDUHQWIRUERWK
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RIWKHFOLHQW

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\RXFDQ7KLVLVHVSHFLDOO\LPSRUWDQWZKHQ$3,VGHFODUHDEVWUDFWPHWK
RGVVHHHJ&KDSWHU

7KHUH LV DQRWKHU VFHQDULR WR ZDWFK IRU ZKHQ XVLQJ GHFODUDWLRQV RI FROOHFWLRQV OLNH
val map = Map()DVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH

34 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 val map = Map()

map.update("book", "Programming Scala")

... 3: error: type mismatch;
found : java.lang.String("book")
required: Nothing
map.update("book", "Programming Scala")
^

:KDW KDSSHQHG" 7KH W\SH SDUDPHWHUV RI WKH JHQHULF W\SH Map ZHUH LQIHUUHG DV
[Nothing,Nothing]ZKHQWKHPDSZDVFUHDWHG:H¦OOGLVFXVV NothingLQ£7KH6FDOD
7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJHEXWLWVQDPHLVVXJJHVWLYH:HDWWHPSWHGWRLQVHUWDQ
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VROXWLRQ LV WR SDUDPHWHUL]H WKH LQLWLDO PDS GHFODUDWLRQ HJ val map = Map[String,
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map = Map("Programming" → "Scala")
)LQDOO\WKHUHLVDVXEWOHEHKDYLRUZLWKLQIHUUHGUHWXUQW\SHVWKDWFDQFDXVHXQH[SHFWHG
DQGEDIIOLQJUHVXOWVVHH>6FDOD7LSV@&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHscalaVHVVLRQ
scala> def double(i: Int) { 2 * i }
double: (Int)Unit

scala> println(double(2))
()

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LQWHUSUHWHUVDLGWKHILUVWFRPPDQGUHWXUQHGdouble (Int)Unit:HGHILQHGDPHWKRG
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scala> def double(i: Int) = { 2 * i }
double: (Int)Int

scala> println(double(2))
4

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doubleWRUHWXUQDQIntDQGWKHVHFRQGFRPPDQGGRHVZKDWZHH[SHFWLWWRGR
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LWLVPRUHOLNHO\WKDWWKHSURJUDPPHUVLPSO\IRUJRWWRLQVHUWWKHHTXDOVVLJQ

Inferring Type Information | 35

Download at WoweBook.Com
 :KHQWKHUHWXUQW\SHRIDPHWKRGLVLQIHUUHGDQG\RXGRQ¦WXVHDQHTXDOV
VLJQEHIRUHWKHRSHQLQJSDUHQWKHVLVIRUWKHPHWKRGERG\6FDODLQIHUVD
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Scala"/HW¦VGLVFXVVWKHNLQGVRIOLWHUDOYDOXHVVXSSRUWHGE\6FDOD+HUHZH¦OOOLPLW
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WRWKHP

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PDUL]HGLQ7DEOH
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Kind Format Examples
Decimal 0 or a nonzero digit followed by zero or more digits (0–9) 0, 1, 321
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36 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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$FRPSLOHWLPHHUURURFFXUVLIDQLQWHJHUOLWHUDOQXPEHULVVSHFLILHGWKDWLVRXWVLGHWKHVH
UDQJHVDVLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHV
scala > val i = 12345678901234567890
<console>:1: error: integer number too large
val i = 12345678901234567890
scala> val b: Byte = 128
<console>:4: error: type mismatch;
found : Int(128)
required: Byte
val b: Byte = 128
^

scala> val b: Byte = 127

b: Byte = 127

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Literals | 37

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scala> val b1 = true
b1: Boolean = true

scala> val b2 = false

b2: Boolean = false

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38 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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String Literals
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TXRWHVLH"""..."""
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"Programming\nScala"
"He exclaimed, \"Scala is great!\""
"First\tSecond"

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"""Programming\nScala"""
"""He exclaimed, "Scala is great!" """
"""First line\n
Second line\t

Fourth line"""

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Literals | 39

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 ,I \RX ZDQW WR FUHDWH D V\PERO WKDW FRQWDLQV ZKLWHVSDFH XVH HJ
scala.Symbol(" Programming Scala ")$OOWKHZKLWHVSDFHLVSUHVHUYHG

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V\QWD[RIDFRPPDVHSDUDWHGOLVWRIWKHLWHPVLQVLGHSDUHQWKHVHVHJ(x1, x2, ...)
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/tuple-example-script.scala

def tupleator(x1: Any, x2: Any, x3: Any) = (x1, x2, x3)

val t = tupleator("Hello", 1, 2.3)

println( "Print the whole tuple: " + t )
println( "Print the first item: " + t._1 )
println( "Print the second item: " + t._2 )
println( "Print the third item: " + t._3 )

val (t1, t2, t3) = tupleator("World", '!', 0x22)

println( t1 + " " + t2 + " " + t3 )

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWZLWKscalaSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Print the whole tuple: (Hello,1,2.3)
Print the first item: Hello
Print the second item: 1
Print the third item: 2.3
World ! 34

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val t = ("Hello",1,2.3)DQGVHHWKDW\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJUHVXOWZKLFKVKRZV\RX
WKHW\SHRIHDFKHOHPHQWLQWKHWXSOH
scala> val t = ("Hello",1,2.3)
t: (java.lang.String, Int, Double) = (Hello,1,2.3)

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scala> 1 -> 2
res0: (Int, Int) = (1,2)

scala> Tuple2(1, 2)
res1: (Int, Int) = (1,2)

scala> Pair(1, 2)
res2: (Int, Int) = (1,2)

Option, Some, and None: Avoiding nulls

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Option, Some, and None: Avoiding nulls | 41

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<RXFDQVHHOptionSomeDQGNoneLQDFWLRQLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHZKHUHZHFUHDWH
DPDSRIVWDWHFDSLWDOVLQWKH8QLWHG6WDWHV
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/state-capitals-subset-script.scala

val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
// ...
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

println( "Get the capitals wrapped in Options:" )

println( "Alabama: " + stateCapitals.get("Alabama") )
println( "Wyoming: " + stateCapitals.get("Wyoming") )
println( "Unknown: " + stateCapitals.get("Unknown") )

println( "Get the capitals themselves out of the Options:" )

println( "Alabama: " + stateCapitals.get("Alabama").get )
println( "Wyoming: " + stateCapitals.get("Wyoming").getOrElse("Oops!") )
println( "Unknown: " + stateCapitals.get("Unknown").getOrElse("Oops2!") )

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YDOXHVIURPWKHPDS,I\RXUXQWKLVVFULSWZLWKWKH scalaFRPPDQG\RX¦OOJHWWKH
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Get the capitals wrapped in Options:
Alabama: Some(Montgomery)
Wyoming: Some(Cheyenne)
Unknown: None
Get the capitals themselves out of the Options:
Alabama: Montgomery
Wyoming: Cheyenne
Unknown: Oops2!

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def get(key: A): Option[B] = {
if (contains(key))
new Some(getValue(key))
else
None
}

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Option, Some, and None: Avoiding nulls | 43

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Organizing Code in Files and Namespaces
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7KHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHGHILQHVDFODVV MyClassLQDSDFNDJH com.example.mypkgXVLQJ
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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/package-example1.scala

package com.example.mypkg

class MyClass {
// ...
}

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modulesDVQDPHVSDFHVLQ5XE\
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/package-example2.scala

package com {
package example {
package pkg1 {
class Class11 {
def m = "m11"
}
class Class12 {
def m = "m12"
}
}

package pkg2 {
class Class21 {
def m = "m21"
def makeClass11 = {
new pkg1.Class11
}
def makeClass12 = {
new pkg1.Class12
}
}
}

package pkg3.pkg31.pkg311 {
class Class311 {
def m = "m21"
}
}
}
}

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scala

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Importing Types and Their Members

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/import-example1.scala

import java.awt._
import java.io.File
import java.io.File._
import java.util.{Map, HashMap}

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Importing Types and Their Members | 45

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/import-example2-script.scala

def writeAboutBigInteger() = {

import java.math.BigInteger.{
ONE => _,
TEN,
ZERO => JAVAZERO }

// ONE is effectively undefined

// println( "ONE: "+ONE )
println( "TEN: "+TEN )
println( "ZERO: "+JAVAZERO )
}

writeAboutBigInteger()

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Imports are Relative

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/relative-imports.scala
import scala.collection.mutable._
import collection.immutable._ // Since "scala" is already imported
import _root_.scala.collection.jcl._ // full path from real "root"
package scala.actors {
import remote._ // We're in the scope of "scala.actors"
}

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Abstract Types And Parameterized Types

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val languages: List[String] = ...

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PHWHUL]HGW\SHVDUHXVHG+RZHYHUZKLOHWKHWZRPHFKDQLVPVRYHUODSWKH\DUHQRW
UHGXQGDQW(DFKKDVVWUHQJWKVDQGZHDNQHVVHVIRUFHUWDLQGHVLJQSUREOHPV

Abstract Types And Parameterized Types | 47

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+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHWKDWXVHVDQDEVWUDFWW\SH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

type In = String
def read = source
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

type In = File
def read = {
val in = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(source))
val numBytes = in.available()
val bytes = new Array[Byte](numBytes)
in.read(bytes, 0, numBytes)
new String(bytes)
}
}

println( new StringBulkReader("Hello Scala!").read )

println( new FileBulkReader(new File("abstract-types-script.scala")).read )

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWZLWKscalaSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Hello Scala!
import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

...

7KH BulkReader DEVWUDFW FODVV GHFODUHV WKUHH DEVWUDFW PHPEHUV D type QDPHG In D
valILHOGsourceDQGDreadPHWKRG$VLQ-DYDLQVWDQFHVLQ6FDODFDQRQO\EHFUHDWHG
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7KH GHULYHG FODVVHV StringBulkReader DQG FileBulkReader SURYLGH FRQFUHWH GHILQL
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)RUQRZQRWHWKDWWKHtypeILHOGZRUNVYHU\PXFKOLNHDW\SHSDUDPHWHULQDSDUDPH
WHUL]HGW\SH,QIDFWZHFRXOGUHZULWHWKLVH[DPSOHDVIROORZVZKHUHZHVKRZRQO\
ZKDWZRXOGEHGLIIHUHQW
abstract class BulkReader[In] {
val source: In
...

48 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 }

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader[String] {...}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader[File] {...}

-XVWDVIRUSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVLIZHGHILQHWKHInW\SHWREHStringWKHQWKHsource
ILHOGPXVWDOVREHGHILQHGDVDString1RWHWKDWWKHStringBulkReader¦VreadPHWKRG
VLPSO\UHWXUQVWKHsourceILHOGZKLOHWKHFileBulkReader¦VreadPHWKRGUHDGVWKHFRQ
WHQWVRIWKHILOH
$VGHPRQVWUDWHGE\>%UXFH@SDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVWHQGWREHEHVWIRUFROOHFWLRQV
ZKLFKLVKRZWKH\DUHPRVWRIWHQXVHGLQ-DYDFRGHZKHUHDVDEVWUDFWW\SHVDUHPRVW
XVHIXOIRUW\SH£IDPLOLHV¤DQGRWKHUW\SHVFHQDULRV
:H¦OOH[SORUHWKHGHWDLOVRI6FDOD¦VDEVWUDFWW\SHVLQ&KDSWHU)RUH[DPSOHZH¦OOVHH
KRZWRFRQVWUDLQWKHSRVVLEOHFRQFUHWHW\SHVWKDWFDQEHXVHG

Reserved Words
7DEOHOLVWVWKHUHVHUYHGZRUGVLQ6FDODZKLFKZHVRPHWLPHVFDOO£NH\ZRUGV¤DQG
EULHIO\GHVFULEHVKRZWKH\DUHXVHGVHH>6FDOD6SHF@
7DEOH5HVHUYHGZRUGV
Word Description See …
abstract Makes a declaration abstract. Unlike Java, the keyword is usually “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
not required for abstract members.
case Start a case clause in a match expression. “Pattern Matching” on page 63
catch Start a clause for catching thrown exceptions. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
class Start a class declaration. “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
def Start a method declaration. “Method Declarations” on page 25
do Start a do...while loop. “Other Looping Constructs”
on page 61
else Start an else clause for an if clause. “Scala if Statements” on page 58
extends Indicates that the class or trait that follows is the parent type of the “Parent Classes” on page 91
class or trait being declared.
false Boolean false. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
final Applied to a class or trait to prohibit deriving child types from it. “Attempting to Override final Declara-
Applied to a member to prohibit overriding it in a derived class or tions” on page 112
trait.
finally Start a clause that is executed after the corresponding try clause, “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
whether or not an exception is thrown by the try clause. ses” on page 70

Reserved Words | 49

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 Word Description See …
for Start a for comprehension (loop). “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
forSome Used in existential type declarations to constrain the allowed “Existential Types” on page 284
concrete types that can be used.
if Start an if clause. “Scala if Statements” on page 58
implicit Marks a method as eligible to be used as an implicit type converter. “Implicit Conversions” on page 186
Marks a method parameter as optional, as long as a type-
compatible substitute object is in the scope where the method is
called.
import Import one or more types or members of types into the current “Importing Types and Their Mem-
scope. bers” on page 45
lazy Defer evaluation of a val. “Lazy Vals” on page 190
match Start a pattern matching clause. “Pattern Matching” on page 63
new Create a new instance of a class. “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
null Value of a reference variable that has not been assigned a value. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
object Start a singleton declaration: a class with only one instance. “Classes and Objects: Where Are the
Statics?” on page 148
override Override a concrete member of a class or trait, as long as the original “Overriding Members of Classes and
is not marked final. Traits” on page 111
package Start a package scope declaration. “Organizing Code in Files and Namespa-
ces” on page 44
private Restrict visibility of a declaration. “Visibility Rules” on page 96
protected Restrict visibility of a declaration. “Visibility Rules” on page 96
requires Deprecated. Was used for self typing. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
return Return from a function. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
sealed Applied to a parent class to require all directly derived “Case Classes” on page 136
classes to be declared in the same source file.
super Analogous to this, but binds to the parent type. “Overriding Abstract and Concrete
Methods” on page 112
this How an object refers to itself. The method name for auxiliary “Class and Object Basics” on page 89
constructors.
throw Throw an exception. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70
trait A mixin module that adds additional state and behavior to an Chapter 4
instance of a class.
try Start a block that may throw an exception. “Using try, catch, and finally Clau-
ses” on page 70

50 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 Word Description See …
true Boolean true. “The Scala Type Hierarchy”
on page 155
type Start a type declaration. “Abstract Types And Parameterized
Types” on page 47
val Start a read-only “variable” declaration. “Variable Declarations” on page 24
var Start a read-write variable declaration. “Variable Declarations” on page 24
while Start a while loop. “Other Looping Constructs”
on page 61
with Include the trait that follows in the class being declared or the object Chapter 4
being instantiated.
yield Return an element in a for comprehension that becomes part of “Yielding” on page 60
a sequence.
_ A placeholder, used in imports, function literals, etc. Many
: Separator between identifiers and type annotations. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
= Assignment. “A Taste of Scala” on page 10
=> Used in function literals to separate the argument list from the “Function Literals and Clo-
function body. sures” on page 169
<- Used in for comprehensions in generator expressions. “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59
<: Used in parameterized and abstract type declarations to constrain “Type Bounds” on page 259
the allowed types.
<% Used in parameterized and abstract type “view bounds” “Type Bounds” on page 259
declarations.
>: Used in parameterized and abstract type declarations to constrain “Type Bounds” on page 259
the allowed types.
# Used in type projections. “Path-Dependent Types” on page 272
@ Marks an annotation. “Annotations” on page 289
º (Unicode \u21D2) Same as =>. “Function Literals and Clo-
sures” on page 169
← (Unicode \u2190) Same as <-. “Scala for Comprehen-
sions” on page 59

1RWLFHWKDW breakDQG continueDUHQRWOLVWHG7KHVHFRQWURONH\ZRUGVGRQ¦WH[LVWLQ

6FDOD,QVWHDG6FDODHQFRXUDJHV\RXWRXVHIXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJLGLRPVWKDWDUH
XVXDOO\PRUHVXFFLQFWDQGOHVVHUURUSURQH:H¦OOGLVFXVVDOWHUQDWLYHDSSURDFKHVZKHQ
ZHGLVFXVVforORRSVVHH£*HQHUDWRU([SUHVVLRQV¤RQSDJH
6RPH -DYD PHWKRGV XVH QDPHV WKDW DUH UHVHUYHG E\ 6FDOD IRU H[DPSOH
java.util.Scanner.match7RDYRLGDFRPSLODWLRQHUURUVXUURXQGWKHQDPHZLWKVLQJOH
EDFNTXRWHVHJjava.util.Scanner.ÂmatchÂ

Reserved Words | 51

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Recap and What’s Next
:HFRYHUHGVHYHUDOZD\VWKDW6FDOD¦VV\QWD[LVFRQFLVHIOH[LEOHDQGSURGXFWLYH:H
DOVRGHVFULEHGPDQ\6FDODIHDWXUHV,QWKHQH[WFKDSWHUZHZLOOURXQGRXWVRPH6FDOD
HVVHQWLDOV EHIRUH ZH GLYH LQWR 6FDOD¦V VXSSRUW IRU REMHFWRULHQWHG SURJUDPPLQJ DQG
IXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ

52 | Chapter 2:—Type Less, Do More

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 CHAPTER 3
Rounding Out the Essentials

%HIRUHZHGLYHLQWR6FDOD¦VVXSSRUWIRUREMHFWRULHQWHGDQGIXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ
OHW¦VILQLVKRXUGLVFXVVLRQRIWKHHVVHQWLDOIHDWXUHV\RX¦OOXVHLQPRVWRI\RXUSURJUDPV

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$QLPSRUWDQWIXQGDPHQWDOFRQFHSWLQ6FDODLVWKDWDOORSHUDWRUVDUHDFWXDOO\PHWKRGV
&RQVLGHUWKLVPRVWEDVLFRIH[DPSOHV
// code-examples/Rounding/one-plus-two-script.scala

1 + 2

7KDW SOXV VLJQ EHWZHHQ WKH QXPEHUV" ,W¦V D PHWKRG )LUVW 6FDOD DOORZV QRQ
DOSKDQXPHULFPHWKRGQDPHV<RXFDQFDOOPHWKRGV + - $RUZKDWHYHU\RXGHVLUH
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ZRXOGEHLQWHUSUHWHGDVDDouble:KHQDPHWKRGWDNHVRQHDUJXPHQW6FDODOHWV\RX
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6RZKDWFKDUDFWHUVFDQ\RXXVHLQLGHQWLILHUV"+HUHLVDVXPPDU\RIWKHUXOHVIRULGHQ
WLILHUV XVHG IRU PHWKRG DQG W\SH QDPHV YDULDEOHV HWF )RU WKH SUHFLVH GHWDLOV VHH
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53

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VKRZQVXFKDVPDWKHPDWLFDOV\PEROVDQG£RWKHU¤V\PEROV7KHVHUHPDLQLQJFKDUDF
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World!"5HFDOOWKDWWKLVV\QWD[LVDOVRWKHZD\WRLQYRNHDPHWKRGRQD-DYDRU1(7
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54 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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NQRZWKDWWKH!LVMXVWDQRWKHUPHWKRGDVDUHWKHRWKHUKDQG\VKRUWFXWRSHUDWRUV\RX
FDQXVHWRWDONWR$FWRUV6LPLODUO\6FDOD¦V;0/OLEUDU\SURYLGHVWKH\DQG\\RSHUDWRUV
WRGLYHLQWRGRFXPHQWVWUXFWXUHV7KHVHDUHMXVWPHWKRGVRQWKH scala.xml.NodeSeq
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VKRUWFXWGRHVQ¦WFRPHUHDGLO\WRPLQG

Methods Without Parentheses and Dots

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2, 3).size()\RX¦OOJHWDQHUURU+RZHYHUWKH lengthPHWKRGIRU java.lang.String
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EXWGHILQLQJDPHWKRGWKDWWUDQVIRUPVWKHHOHPHQWVLQWKHVHTXHQFHVKRXOGEHZULWWHQ
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WKDWWDNHVRQO\RQHDUJXPHQW:LWKWKLVLQPLQGRXU List(1, 2, 3).sizeH[DPSOH
FRXOGEHZULWWHQDV
// code-examples/Rounding/no-dot-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3) size

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Methods Without Parentheses and Dots | 55

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 // code-examples/Rounding/no-dot-better-script.scala

def isEven(n: Int) = (n % 2) == 0

List(1, 2, 3, 4) filter isEven foreach println

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res2: Double = 13.333333333333332

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res3: Double = 13.333333333333332

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\RXFDQSUHSHQGDQHOHPHQWWRD ListXVLQJWKH ::PHWKRGFDOOHG£FRQV¤VKRUWIRU
£FRQVWUXFWRU¤
scala> val list = List('b', 'c', 'd')
list: List[Char] = List(b, c, d)

scala> 'a' :: list

res4: List[Char] = List(a, b, c, d)

7KHVHFRQGH[SUHVVLRQLVHTXLYDOHQWWR list.::(a),QDVHTXHQFHRIULJKWDVVRFLDWLYH
PHWKRGLQYRFDWLRQVWKH\ELQGIURPULJKWWROHIW:KDWDERXWDPL[WXUHRIOHIWELQGLQJ
DQGULJKWELQGLQJH[SUHVVLRQV"
scala> 'a' :: list ++ List('e', 'f')
res5: List[Char] = List(a, b, c, d, e, f)

7KH++PHWKRGDSSHQGVWZROLVWV,QWKLVFDVHlistLVDGGHGWRWKHList(e, f)WKHQ

aLVSUHSHQGHGWRFUHDWHWKHILQDOOLVW,W¦VXVXDOO\EHWWHUWRDGGSDUHQWKHVHVWRUHPRYH
DQ\SRWHQWLDOXQFHUWDLQW\

$Q\PHWKRGZKRVHQDPHHQGVZLWKD:ELQGVWRWKHULJKWQRWWKHOHIW

)LQDOO\QRWHWKDWZKHQ\RXXVHWKHscalaFRPPDQGHLWKHULQWHUDFWLYHO\RUZLWKVFULSWV
LWPD\DSSHDUWKDW\RXFDQGHILQH£JOREDO¤YDULDEOHVDQGPHWKRGVRXWVLGHRIW\SHV7KLV
LVDFWXDOO\DQLOOXVLRQWKHLQWHUSUHWHUZUDSVDOOGHILQLWLRQVLQDQDQRQ\PRXVW\SHEHIRUH
JHQHUDWLQJ-90RU1(7&/5E\WHFRGH

Domain-Specific Languages
'RPDLQ6SHFLILF/DQJXDJHVRU'6/VSURYLGHDFRQYHQLHQWV\QWDFWLFDOPHDQVIRUH[
SUHVVLQJJRDOVLQDJLYHQSUREOHPGRPDLQ)RUH[DPSOH64/SURYLGHVMXVWHQRXJKRI
DSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHWRKDQGOHWKHSUREOHPVRIZRUNLQJZLWKGDWDEDVHVPDNLQJ
LWD'RPDLQ6SHFLILF/DQJXDJH
:KLOHVRPH'6/VOLNH64/DUHVHOIFRQWDLQHGLW¦VEHFRPHSRSXODUWRLPSOHPHQW'6/V
DVVXEVHWVRIIXOOIOHGJHGSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHV7KLVDOORZVSURJUDPPHUVWROHYHUDJH
WKHHQWLUHW\RIWKHKRVWODQJXDJHIRUHGJHFDVHVWKDWWKH'6/GRHVQRWFRYHUDQGVDYHV
WKHZRUNRIZULWLQJOH[HUVSDUVHUVDQGWKHRWKHUEXLOGLQJEORFNVRIDODQJXDJH
6FDOD¦VULFKIOH[LEOHV\QWD[PDNHVZULWLQJ'6/VDEUHH]H&RQVLGHUWKLVH[DPSOHRID
VW\OHRIWHVWZULWLQJFDOOHG%HKDYLRU'ULYHQ'HYHORSPHQWVHH>%''@XVLQJWKH6SHFV
OLEUDU\VHH£6SHFV¤RQSDJH
// code-examples/Rounding/specs-script.scala

"nerd finder" should {

Domain-Specific Languages | 57

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 "identify nerds from a List" in {
val actors = List("Rick Moranis", "James Dean", "Woody Allen")
val finder = new NerdFinder(actors)
finder.findNerds mustEqual List("Rick Moranis", "Woody Allen")
}
}

1RWLFHKRZPXFKWKLVFRGHUHDGVOLNH(QJOLVK£7KLVVKRXOGWHVWWKDWLQWKHIROORZLQJ
VFHQDULR¤ £7KLV YDOXH PXVW HTXDO WKDW YDOXH¤ DQG VR IRUWK 7KLV H[DPSOH XVHV WKH
VXSHUE6SHFVOLEUDU\ZKLFKHIIHFWLYHO\SURYLGHVD'6/IRUWKH%HKDYLRU'ULYHQ'HYHO
RSPHQWWHVWLQJDQGHQJLQHHULQJPHWKRGRORJ\%\PDNLQJPD[LPXPXVHRI6FDOD¦VOLE
HUDOV\QWD[DQGULFKPHWKRGV6SHFVWHVWVXLWHVDUHUHDGDEOHHYHQE\QRQGHYHORSHUV
7KLVLVMXVWDWDVWHRIWKHSRZHURI'6/VLQ6FDOD:H¦OOVHHRWKHUH[DPSOHVODWHUDQG
OHDUQKRZWRZULWHRXURZQDVZHJHWPRUHDGYDQFHGVHH&KDSWHU

Scala if Statements
(YHQWKHPRVWIDPLOLDUODQJXDJHIHDWXUHVDUHVXSHUFKDUJHGLQ6FDOD/HW¦VKDYHDORRN
DWWKHORZO\ifVWDWHPHQW$VLQPRVWHYHU\ODQJXDJH6FDOD¦VifHYDOXDWHVDFRQGLWLRQDO
H[SUHVVLRQWKHQSURFHHGVWRDEORFNLIWKHUHVXOWLV trueRUEUDQFKHVWRDQDOWHUQDWH
EORFNLIWKHUHVXOWLVfalse$VLPSOHH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/if-script.scala

if (2 + 2 == 5) {
println("Hello from 1984.")
} else if (2 + 2 == 3) {
println("Hello from Remedial Math class?")
} else {
println("Hello from a non-Orwellian future.")
}

:KDW¦VGLIIHUHQWLQ6FDODLVWKDWifDQGDOPRVWDOORWKHUVWDWHPHQWVDUHDFWXDOO\H[SUHV
VLRQVWKHPVHOYHV6RZHFDQDVVLJQWKHUHVXOWRIDQifH[SUHVVLRQDVVKRZQKHUH
// code-examples/Rounding/assigned-if-script.scala

val configFile = new java.io.File("~/.myapprc")

val configFilePath = if (configFile.exists()) {

configFile.getAbsolutePath()
} else {
configFile.createNewFile()
configFile.getAbsolutePath()
}

1RWHWKDW ifVWDWHPHQWVDUHH[SUHVVLRQVPHDQLQJWKH\KDYHYDOXHV,QWKLVH[DPSOH
WKHYDOXH configFilePathLVWKHUHVXOWRIDQ ifH[SUHVVLRQWKDWKDQGOHVWKHFDVHRID
FRQILJXUDWLRQILOHQRWH[LVWLQJLQWHUQDOO\WKHQUHWXUQVWKHDEVROXWHSDWKWRWKDWILOH7KLV
YDOXHFDQQRZEHUHXVHGWKURXJKRXWDQDSSOLFDWLRQDQGWKH ifH[SUHVVLRQZRQ¦WEH
UHHYDOXDWHGZKHQWKHYDOXHLVXVHG

58 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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%HFDXVH ifVWDWHPHQWVDUHH[SUHVVLRQVLQ6FDODWKHUHLVQRQHHGIRUWKHVSHFLDOFDVH
WHUQDU\FRQGLWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQVWKDWH[LVWLQ&GHULYHGODQJXDJHV<RXZRQ¦WVHH x ?
doThis() : doThat()LQ6FDOD6FDODSURYLGHVDPHFKDQLVPWKDW¦VMXVWDVSRZHUIXODQG
PRUHUHDGDEOH
:KDW LI ZH RPLW WKH else FODXVH LQ WKH SUHYLRXV H[DPSOH" 7\SLQJ WKH FRGH LQ WKH
scalaLQWHUSUHWHUZLOOWHOOXVZKDWKDSSHQV
scala> val configFile = new java.io.File("~/.myapprc")
configFile: java.io.File = ~/.myapprc

scala> val configFilePath = if (configFile.exists()) {

| configFile.getAbsolutePath()
| }
configFilePath: Unit = ()

scala>

1RWHWKDWconfigFilePathLVQRZUnit,WZDVStringEHIRUH7KHW\SHLQIHUHQFHSLFNV

DW\SHWKDWZRUNVIRUDOORXWFRPHVRIWKHifH[SUHVVLRQUnitLVWKHRQO\SRVVLELOLW\VLQFH
QRYDOXHLVRQHSRVVLEOHRXWFRPH

Scala for Comprehensions

$QRWKHU IDPLOLDU FRQWURO VWUXFWXUH WKDW¦V SDUWLFXODUO\ IHDWXUHULFK LQ 6FDOD LV WKH for
ORRSUHIHUUHGWRLQWKH6FDODFRPPXQLW\DVDforFRPSUHKHQVLRQRUforH[SUHVVLRQ7KLV
FRUQHURIWKHODQJXDJHGHVHUYHVDWOHDVWRQHIDQF\QDPHEHFDXVHLWFDQGRVRPHJUHDW
SDUW\WULFNV
$FWXDOO\WKHWHUPcomprehensionFRPHVIURPIXQFWLRQDOSURJUDPPLQJ,WH[SUHVVHVWKH
LGHDWKDWZHDUHWUDYHUVLQJDVHWRIVRPHNLQG£FRPSUHKHQGLQJ¤ZKDWZHILQGDQG
FRPSXWLQJVRPHWKLQJQHZIURPLW

A Dog-Simple Example
/HW¦VVWDUWZLWKDEDVLFforH[SUHVVLRQ
// code-examples/Rounding/basic-for-script.scala

val dogBreeds = List("Doberman", "Yorkshire Terrier", "Dachshund",

"Scottish Terrier", "Great Dane", "Portuguese Water Dog")

for (breed <- dogBreeds)

println(breed)

$V\RXPLJKWJXHVVWKLVFRGHVD\V£)RUHYHU\HOHPHQWLQWKHOLVW dogBreedsFUHDWHD
WHPSRUDU\YDULDEOHFDOOHGbreedZLWKWKHYDOXHRIWKDWHOHPHQWWKHQSULQWLW¤7KLQNRI
WKH<-RSHUDWRUDVDQDUURZGLUHFWLQJHOHPHQWVRIDFROOHFWLRQRQHE\RQHWRWKHVFRSHG
YDULDEOHE\ZKLFKZH¦OOUHIHUWRWKHPLQVLGHWKHforH[SUHVVLRQ7KHOHIWDUURZRSHUDWRU

Scala for Comprehensions | 59

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LVFDOOHGDJHQHUDWRUVRQDPHGEHFDXVHLW¦VJHQHUDWLQJLQGLYLGXDOYDOXHVIURPDFROOHF
WLRQIRUXVHLQDQH[SUHVVLRQ

Filtering
:KDWLIZHZDQWWRJHWPRUHJUDQXODU"6FDOD¦VforH[SUHVVLRQVDOORZIRUILOWHUVWKDWOHW
XVVSHFLI\ZKLFKHOHPHQWVRIDFROOHFWLRQZHZDQWWRZRUNZLWK6RWRILQGDOOWHUULHUV
LQRXUOLVWRIGRJEUHHGVZHFRXOGPRGLI\WKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHWRWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/Rounding/filtered-for-script.scala

for (breed <- dogBreeds

if breed.contains("Terrier")
) println(breed)

7RDGGPRUHWKDQRQHILOWHUWRDforH[SUHVVLRQVHSDUDWHWKHILOWHUVZLWKVHPLFRORQV
// code-examples/Rounding/double-filtered-for-script.scala

for (breed <- dogBreeds

if breed.contains("Terrier");
if !breed.startsWith("Yorkshire")
) println(breed)

<RX¦YHQRZIRXQGDOOWKHWHUULHUVWKDWGRQ¦WKDLOIURP<RUNVKLUHDQGKRSHIXOO\OHDUQHG
MXVWKRZXVHIXOILOWHUVFDQEHLQWKHSURFHVV

Yielding
:KDW LI UDWKHU WKDQ SULQWLQJ \RXU ILOWHUHG FROOHFWLRQ \RX QHHGHG WR KDQG LW RII WR
DQRWKHUSDUWRI\RXUSURJUDP"7KH yieldNH\ZRUGLV\RXUWLFNHWWRJHQHUDWLQJQHZ
FROOHFWLRQVZLWK forH[SUHVVLRQV,QWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHQRWHWKDWZH¦UHZUDSSLQJ
XSWKHforH[SUHVVLRQLQFXUO\EUDFHVDVZHZRXOGZKHQGHILQLQJDQ\EORFN
// code-examples/Rounding/yielding-for-script.scala

val filteredBreeds = for {

breed <- dogBreeds
if breed.contains("Terrier")
if !breed.startsWith("Yorkshire")
} yield breed

forH[SUHVVLRQVPD\EHGHILQHGZLWKSDUHQWKHVHVRUFXUO\EUDFHVEXW
XVLQJFXUO\EUDFHVPHDQV\RXGRQ¦WKDYHWRVHSDUDWH\RXUILOWHUVZLWK
VHPLFRORQV0RVWRIWKHWLPH\RX¦OOSUHIHUXVLQJFXUO\EUDFHVZKHQ\RX
KDYHPRUHWKDQRQHILOWHUDVVLJQPHQWHWF

(YHU\WLPHWKURXJKWKH forH[SUHVVLRQWKHILOWHUHGUHVXOWLV\LHOGHGDVDYDOXHQDPHG
breed7KHVHUHVXOWVDFFXPXODWHZLWKHYHU\UXQDQGWKHUHVXOWLQJFROOHFWLRQLVDVVLJQHG
WR WKH YDOXH filteredBreeds DV ZH GLG ZLWK if VWDWHPHQWV HDUOLHU 7KH W\SH RI WKH

60 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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FROOHFWLRQUHVXOWLQJIURPDfor-yieldH[SUHVVLRQLVLQIHUUHGIURPWKHW\SHRIWKHFROOHF
WLRQEHLQJLWHUDWHGRYHU,QWKLVFDVHfilteredBreedsLVRIW\SHList[String]VLQFHLWLV
DVXEVHWRIWKHdogBreedsOLVWZKLFKLVDOVRRIW\SHList[String]

Expanded Scope
2QHILQDOXVHIXOIHDWXUHRI6FDOD¦VforFRPSUHKHQVLRQVLVWKHDELOLW\WRGHILQHYDULDEOHV
LQVLGHWKHILUVWSDUWRI\RXUforH[SUHVVLRQVWKDWFDQEHXVHGLQWKHODWWHUSDUW7KLVLV
EHVWLOOXVWUDWHGZLWKDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/scoped-for-script.scala

for {
breed <- dogBreeds
upcasedBreed = breed.toUpperCase()
} println(upcasedBreed)

1RWHWKDWZLWKRXWGHFODULQJupcasedBreedDVDval\RXFDQUHXVHLWZLWKLQWKHERG\RI
\RXU forH[SUHVVLRQ7KLVDSSURDFKLVLGHDOIRUWUDQVIRUPLQJHOHPHQWVLQDFROOHFWLRQ
DV\RXORRSWKURXJKWKHP
)LQDOO\ LQ £2SWLRQV DQG IRU &RPSUHKHQVLRQV¤ RQ SDJH  ZH¦OO VHH KRZ XVLQJ
OptionsZLWK forFRPSUHKHQVLRQVFDQJUHDWO\UHGXFHFRGHVL]HE\HOLPLQDWLQJXQQHF
HVVDU\£QXOO¤DQG£PLVVLQJ¤FKHFNV

Other Looping Constructs

6FDODSURYLGHVVHYHUDORWKHUORRSLQJFRQVWUXFWV

Scala while Loops

)DPLOLDULQPDQ\ODQJXDJHVWKHwhileORRSH[HFXWHVDEORFNRIFRGHDVORQJDVDFRQ
GLWLRQLVWUXH)RUH[DPSOHWKHIROORZLQJFRGHSULQWVRXWDFRPSODLQWRQFHDGD\XQWLO
WKHQH[W)ULGD\WKHWKKDVDUULYHG
// code-examples/Rounding/while-script.scala
// WARNING: This script runs for a LOOOONG time!

import java.util.Calendar

def isFridayThirteen(cal: Calendar): Boolean = {

val dayOfWeek = cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_WEEK)
val dayOfMonth = cal.get(Calendar.DAY_OF_MONTH)

// Scala returns the result of the last expression in a method

(dayOfWeek == Calendar.FRIDAY) && (dayOfMonth == 13)
}

while (!isFridayThirteen(Calendar.getInstance())) {
println("Today isn't Friday the 13th. Lame.")

Other Looping Constructs | 61

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 // sleep for a day
Thread.sleep(86400000)
}

7DEOHODWHULQWKLVFKDSWHUVKRZVWKHFRQGLWLRQDORSHUDWRUVWKDWZRUNLQwhileORRSV

Scala do-while Loops

/LNHWKHwhileORRSDdo-whileORRSH[HFXWHVVRPHFRGHZKLOHDFRQGLWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQ
LVWUXH7KHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHWKDWD do-whileFKHFNVWRVHHLIWKHFRQGLWLRQLVWUXHDIWHU
UXQQLQJWKHEORFN7RFRXQWXSWRZHFRXOGZULWHWKLV
// code-examples/Rounding/do-while-script.scala

var count = 0

do {
count += 1
println(count)
} while (count < 10)

$VLWWXUQVRXWWKHUH¦VDPRUHHOHJDQWZD\WRORRSWKURXJKFROOHFWLRQVLQ6FDODDVZH¦OO
VHHLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQ

Generator Expressions
5HPHPEHUWKHDUURZRSHUDWRU<-IURPWKHGLVFXVVLRQDERXW forORRSV":HFDQSXW
LWWRZRUNKHUHWRR/HW¦VFOHDQXSWKHdo-whileH[DPSOHMXVWVKRZQ
// code-examples/Rounding/generator-script.scala

for (i <- 1 to 10) println(i)

<XS WKDW¦V DOO WKDW¦V QHFHVVDU\ 7KLV FOHDQ RQHOLQHU LV SRVVLEOH EHFDXVH RI 6FDOD¦V
RichIntFODVV$QLPSOLFLWFRQYHUVLRQLVLQYRNHGE\WKHFRPSLOHUWRFRQYHUWWKH 1DQ
Int LQWR D RichInt :H¦OO GLVFXVV WKHVH FRQYHUVLRQV LQ £7KH 6FDOD 7\SH +LHUDU
FK\¤RQSDJHDQGLQ£,PSOLFLW&RQYHUVLRQV¤RQSDJH RichIntGHILQHVD to
PHWKRGWKDWWDNHVDQRWKHULQWHJHUDQGUHWXUQVDQLQVWDQFHRIRange.Inclusive7KDWLV
Inclusive LV D QHVWHG FODVV LQ WKH Range FRPSDQLRQ REMHFW D FRQFHSW ZH LQWURGXFHG
EULHIO\LQ&KDSWHUVHH&KDSWHUIRUGHWDLOV7KLVVXEFODVVRIWKHFODVVRangeLQKHULWV
DQXPEHURIPHWKRGVIRUZRUNLQJZLWKVHTXHQFHVDQGLWHUDEOHGDWDVWUXFWXUHVLQFOXGLQJ
WKRVHQHFHVVDU\WRXVHLWLQDforORRS
%\WKHZD\LI\RXZDQWHGWRFRXQWIURPXSWREXWQRWLQFOXGLQJ\RXFRXOGXVH
untilLQVWHDGRIto)RUH[DPSOHfor (i <- 0 until 10)
7KLVVKRXOGSDLQWDFOHDUHUSLFWXUHRIKRZ6FDOD¦VLQWHUQDOOLEUDULHVFRPSRVHWRIRUP
HDV\WRXVHODQJXDJHFRQVWUXFWV

62 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 :KHQZRUNLQJZLWKORRSVLQPRVWODQJXDJHV\RXFDQ breakRXWRID
ORRSRUcontinueWKHLWHUDWLRQV6FDODGRHVQ¦WKDYHHLWKHURIWKHVHVWDWH
PHQWVEXWZKHQZULWLQJLGLRPDWLF6FDODFRGHWKH\¦UHQRWQHFHVVDU\
8VHFRQGLWLRQDOH[SUHVVLRQVWRWHVWLIDORRSVKRXOGFRQWLQXHRUPDNH
XVHRIUHFXUVLRQ%HWWHU\HWILOWHU\RXUFROOHFWLRQVDKHDGRIWLPHWRHOLP
LQDWHFRPSOH[FRQGLWLRQVZLWKLQ\RXUORRSV+RZHYHUEHFDXVHRIGH
PDQGIRULW6FDODYHUVLRQLQFOXGHVVXSSRUWIRUbreakLPSOHPHQWHG
DVDOLEUDU\PHWKRGUDWKHUWKDQDEXLOWLQbreakNH\ZRUG

Conditional Operators
6FDODERUURZVPRVWRIWKHFRQGLWLRQDORSHUDWRUVIURP-DYDDQGLWVSUHGHFHVVRUV<RX¦OO
ILQGWKHRQHVOLVWHGLQ7DEOHLQ ifVWDWHPHQWV whileORRSVDQGHYHU\ZKHUHHOVH
FRQGLWLRQVDSSO\
7DEOH&RQGLWLRQDORSHUDWRUV
Operator Operation Description
&& and The values on the left and right of the operator are true. The righthand side is only evaluated
if the lefthand side is true.
|| or At least one of the values on the left or right is true. The righthand side is only evaluated if the
lefthand side is false.
> greater than The value on the left is greater than the value on the right.
>= greater than or The value on the left is greater than or equal to the value on the right.
equals
< less than The value on the left is less than the value on the right.
<= less than or The value on the left is less than or equal to the value on the right.
equals
== equals The value on the left is the same as the value on the right.
!= not equal The value on the left is not the same as the value on the right.

1RWHWKDW&&DQG||DUH£VKRUWFLUFXLWLQJ¤RSHUDWRUV7KH\VWRSHYDOXDWLQJH[SUHVVLRQV
DVVRRQDVWKHDQVZHULVNQRZQ
:H¦OOGLVFXVVREMHFWHTXDOLW\LQPRUHGHWDLOLQ£(TXDOLW\RI2EMHFWV¤RQSDJH)RU
H[DPSOHZH¦OOVHHWKDW==KDVDGLIIHUHQWPHDQLQJLQ6FDODYHUVXV-DYD2WKHUZLVHWKHVH
RSHUDWRUVVKRXOGDOOEHIDPLOLDUVROHW¦VPRYHRQWRVRPHWKLQJQHZDQGH[FLWLQJ

Pattern Matching
$QLGHDERUURZHGIURPIXQFWLRQDOODQJXDJHVSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJLVDSRZHUIXO\HWFRQFLVH
ZD\WRPDNHDSURJUDPPDWLFFKRLFHEHWZHHQPXOWLSOHFRQGLWLRQV3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJLV
WKHIDPLOLDUcaseVWDWHPHQWIURP\RXUIDYRULWH&OLNHODQJXDJHEXWRQVWHURLGV,QWKH

Pattern Matching | 63

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W\SLFDOcaseVWDWHPHQW\RX¦UHOLPLWHGWRPDWFKLQJDJDLQVWYDOXHVRIRUGLQDOW\SHV\LHOG
LQJWULYLDOH[SUHVVLRQVOLNHWKLV£,QWKHFDVHWKDWiLVSULQWDPHVVDJHLQWKHFDVHWKDW
iLVH[LWWKHSURJUDP¤:LWK6FDOD¦VSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJ\RXUFDVHVFDQLQFOXGHW\SHV
ZLOGFDUGVVHTXHQFHVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVDQGHYHQGHHSLQVSHFWLRQVRIDQREMHFW¦V
YDULDEOHV

A Simple Match
7REHJLQZLWKOHW¦VVLPXODWHIOLSSLQJDFRLQE\PDWFKLQJWKHYDOXHRIDERROHDQ
// code-examples/Rounding/match-boolean-script.scala

val bools = List(true, false)

for (bool <- bools) {

bool match {
case true => println("heads")
case false => println("tails")
case _ => println("something other than heads or tails (yikes!)")
}
}

,WORRNVMXVWOLNHD&VW\OHcaseVWDWHPHQWULJKW"7KHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHLVWKHODVWcaseZLWK
WKHXQGHUVFRUH _ ZLOGFDUG,WPDWFKHVDQ\WKLQJQRWGHILQHGLQWKHFDVHVDERYHLWVR
LWVHUYHVWKHVDPHSXUSRVHDVWKHdefaultNH\ZRUGLQ-DYDDQG&switchVWDWHPHQWV
3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJLVHDJHUWKHILUVWPDWFKZLQV6RLI\RXWU\WRSXWD case _FODXVH
EHIRUHDQ\RWKHUcaseFODXVHVWKHFRPSLOHUZLOOWKURZDQ£XQUHDFKDEOHFRGH¤HUURURQ
WKHQH[WFODXVHEHFDXVHQRWKLQJZLOOJHWSDVWWKHGHIDXOWFODXVH

8VHcase _IRUWKHGHIDXOW£FDWFKDOO¤PDWFK

:KDWLIZHZDQWWRZRUNZLWKPDWFKHVDVYDULDEOHV"

Variables in Matches
,Q WKH IROORZLQJ H[DPSOH ZH DVVLJQ WKH ZLOGFDUG FDVH WR D YDULDEOH FDOOHG other
NumberWKHQSULQWLWLQWKHVXEVHTXHQWH[SUHVVLRQ,IZHJHQHUDWHDZH¦OOH[WROWKDW
QXPEHU¦VYLUWXHV2WKHUZLVHZH¦OOFXUVHIDWHIRUPDNLQJXVVXIIHUDQXQOXFN\QXPEHU
// code-examples/Rounding/match-variable-script.scala

import scala.util.Random

val randomInt = new Random().nextInt(10)

randomInt match {

64 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 case 7 => println("lucky seven!")
case otherNumber => println("boo, got boring ol' " + otherNumber)
}

Matching on Type
7KHVHVLPSOHH[DPSOHVGRQ¦WHYHQEHJLQWRVFUDWFKWKHVXUIDFHRI6FDOD¦VSDWWHUQPDWFK
LQJIHDWXUHV/HW¦VWU\PDWFKLQJEDVHGRQW\SH
// code-examples/Rounding/match-type-script.scala

val sundries = List(23, "Hello", 8.5, 'q')

for (sundry <- sundries) {

sundry match {
case i: Int => println("got an Integer: " + i)
case s: String => println("got a String: " + s)
case f: Double => println("got a Double: " + f)
case other => println("got something else: " + other)
}
}

+HUHZHSXOOHDFKHOHPHQWRXWRIDListRIAnyW\SHRIHOHPHQWLQWKLVFDVHFRQWDLQLQJ
DStringDDoubleDQIntDQGDChar)RUWKHILUVWWKUHHRIWKRVHW\SHVZHOHWWKHXVHU
NQRZVSHFLILFDOO\ZKLFKW\SHZHJRWDQGZKDWWKHYDOXHZDV:KHQZHJHWVRPHWKLQJ
HOVHWKHCharZHMXVWOHWWKHXVHUNQRZWKHYDOXH:HFRXOGDGGIXUWKHUHOHPHQWVWR
WKHOLVWRIRWKHUW\SHVDQGWKH\¦GEHFDXJKWE\WKHotherZLOGFDUGFDVH

Matching on Sequences
6LQFHZRUNLQJLQ6FDODRIWHQPHDQVZRUNLQJZLWKVHTXHQFHVZRXOGQ¦WLWEHKDQG\WR
EHDEOHWRPDWFKDJDLQVWWKHOHQJWKDQGFRQWHQWVRIOLVWVDQGDUUD\V"7KHIROORZLQJ
H[DPSOHGRHVMXVWWKDWWHVWLQJWZROLVWVWRVHHLIWKH\FRQWDLQIRXUHOHPHQWVWKHVHFRQG
RIZKLFKLVWKHLQWHJHU3
// code-examples/Rounding/match-seq-script.scala

val willWork = List(1, 3, 23, 90)

val willNotWork = List(4, 18, 52)
val empty = List()

for (l <- List(willWork, willNotWork, empty)) {

l match {
case List(_, 3, _, _) => println("Four elements, with the 2nd being '3'.")
case List(_*) => println("Any other list with 0 or more elements.")
}
}

,QWKHVHFRQG caseZH¦YHXVHGDVSHFLDOZLOGFDUGSDWWHUQWRPDWFKD ListRIDQ\VL]H

HYHQ]HURHOHPHQWVDQGDQ\HOHPHQWYDOXHV<RXFDQXVHWKLVSDWWHUQDWWKHHQGRIDQ\
VHTXHQFHPDWFKWRUHPRYHOHQJWKDVDFRQGLWLRQ

Pattern Matching | 65

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5HFDOOWKDWZHPHQWLRQHGWKH£FRQV¤PHWKRGIRU List ::7KHH[SUHVVLRQ a :: list
SUHSHQGVaWRDOLVW<RXFDQDOVRXVHWKLVRSHUDWRUWRH[WUDFWWKHKHDGDQGWDLORIDOLVW
// code-examples/Rounding/match-list-script.scala

val willWork = List(1, 3, 23, 90)

val willNotWork = List(4, 18, 52)
val empty = List()

def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {

case head :: tail =>
format("%s ", head)
processList(tail)
case Nil => println("")
}

for (l <- List(willWork, willNotWork, empty)) {

print("List: ")
processList(l)
}

7KHprocessListPHWKRGPDWFKHVRQWKHListDUJXPHQWO,WPD\ORRNVWUDQJHWRVWDUW
WKHPHWKRGGHILQLWLRQOLNHWKHIROORZLQJ
def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {
...
}

+RSHIXOO\KLGLQJWKHGHWDLOVZLWKWKHHOOLSVLVPDNHVWKHPHDQLQJDOLWWOHFOHDUHU7KH
processListPHWKRGLVDFWXDOO\RQHVWDWHPHQWWKDWFURVVHVVHYHUDOOLQHV
,WILUVWPDWFKHVRQ head :: tailZKHUH headZLOOEHDVVLJQHGWKHILUVWHOHPHQWLQWKH
OLVWDQGtailZLOOEHDVVLJQHGWKHUHVWRIWKHOLVW7KDWLVZH¦UHH[WUDFWLQJWKHKHDGDQG
WDLOIURPWKHOLVWXVLQJ:::KHQWKLVFDVHPDWFKHVLWSULQWVWKHheadDQGFDOOVprocess
ListUHFXUVLYHO\WRSURFHVVWKHWDLO
7KHVHFRQGFDVHPDWFKHVWKHHPSW\OLVWNil,WSULQWVDQHQGRIOLQHDQGWHUPLQDWHVWKH
UHFXUVLRQ

Matching on Tuples (and Guards)

$OWHUQDWHO\LIZHMXVWZDQWHGWRWHVWWKDWZHKDYHDWXSOHRIWZRLWHPVZHFRXOGGRD
WXSOHPDWFK
// code-examples/Rounding/match-tuple-script.scala

val tupA = ("Good", "Morning!")

val tupB = ("Guten", "Tag!")

for (tup <- List(tupA, tupB)) {

tup match {
case (thingOne, thingTwo) if thingOne == "Good" =>
println("A two-tuple starting with 'Good'.")
case (thingOne, thingTwo) =>

66 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 println("This has two things: " + thingOne + " and " + thingTwo)
}
}

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YDULDEOHVWKHQUHXVHGWKHVHYDULDEOHVLQWKHUHVXOWLQJH[SUHVVLRQ
,QWKHILUVWFDVHZH¦YHDGGHGDQHZFRQFHSWJXDUGV7KHifFRQGLWLRQDIWHUWKHWXSOHLV
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WKHSUHFHGLQJSDUWRIWKHFDVH*XDUGVSURYLGHDGGLWLRQDOJUDQXODULW\ZKHQFRQVWUXFWLQJ
FDVHV,QWKLVH[DPSOHWKHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQWKHWZRSDWWHUQVLVWKHJXDUGH[
SUHVVLRQEXWWKDW¦VHQRXJKIRUWKHFRPSLOHUWRGLIIHUHQWLDWHWKHP

5HFDOOWKDWWKHFDVHVLQDSDWWHUQPDWFKDUHHYDOXDWHGLQRUGHU)RUH[
DPSOHLI\RXUILUVWFDVHLVEURDGHUWKDQ\RXUVHFRQGFDVHWKHVHFRQG
FDVH ZLOO QHYHU EH UHDFKHG 8QUHDFKDEOH FDVHV ZLOO FDXVH D FRPSLOHU
HUURU<RXPD\LQFOXGHD£GHIDXOW¤FDVHDWWKHHQGRIDSDWWHUQPDWFK
HLWKHUXVLQJWKHXQGHUVFRUHZLOGFDUGFKDUDFWHURUDPHDQLQJIXOO\QDPHG
YDULDEOH:KHQXVLQJDYDULDEOHLWVKRXOGKDYHQRH[SOLFLWW\SHRULW
VKRXOGEHGHFODUHGDVAnyVRLWFDQPDWFKDQ\WKLQJ2QWKHRWKHUKDQG
WU\WRGHVLJQ\RXUFRGHWRDYRLGDFDWFKDOOFODXVHE\HQVXULQJLWRQO\
UHFHLYHVVSHFLILFLWHPVWKDWDUHH[SHFWHG

Matching on Case Classes

/HW¦VWU\DGHHSPDWFKH[DPLQLQJWKHFRQWHQWVRIREMHFWVLQRXUSDWWHUQPDWFK
// code-examples/Rounding/match-deep-script.scala

case class Person(name: String, age: Int)

val alice = new Person("Alice", 25)

val bob = new Person("Bob", 32)
val charlie = new Person("Charlie", 32)

for (person <- List(alice, bob, charlie)) {

person match {
case Person("Alice", 25) => println("Hi Alice!")
case Person("Bob", 32) => println("Hi Bob!")
case Person(name, age) =>
println("Who are you, " + age + " year-old person named " + name + "?")
}
}

3RRU&KDUOLHJHWVWKHFROGVKRXOGHUDVZHFDQVHHLQWKHRXWSXW
Hi Alice!
Hi Bob!
Who are you, 32 year-old person named Charlie?

Pattern Matching | 67

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:HILUVWGHILQHDFDVHFODVVDVSHFLDOW\SHRIFODVVWKDWZH¦OOOHDUQPRUHDERXWLQ£&DVH
&ODVVHV¤RQSDJH)RUQRZLWZLOOVXIILFHWRVD\WKDWDFDVHFODVVDOORZVIRUYHU\
WHUVHFRQVWUXFWLRQRIVLPSOHREMHFWVZLWKVRPHSUHGHILQHGPHWKRGV2XUSDWWHUQPDWFK
WKHQORRNVIRU$OLFHDQG%REE\LQVSHFWLQJWKHYDOXHVSDVVHGWRWKHFRQVWUXFWRURIWKH
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VDPHageYDOXHDV%REZH¦UHPDWFKLQJRQWKHnameSURSHUW\DVZHOO
7KLVW\SHRISDWWHUQPDWFKEHFRPHVH[WUHPHO\XVHIXOZKHQZRUNLQJZLWK$FWRUVDV
ZH¦OO VHH ODWHU RQ &DVH FODVVHV DUH IUHTXHQWO\ VHQW WR $FWRUV DV PHVVDJHV DQG GHHS
SDWWHUQPDWFKLQJRQDQREMHFW¦VFRQWHQWVLVDFRQYHQLHQWZD\WR£SDUVH¤WKRVHPHVVDJHV

Matching on Regular Expressions

5HJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVDUHFRQYHQLHQWIRUH[WUDFWLQJGDWDIURPVWULQJVWKDWKDYHDQLQIRU
PDOVWUXFWXUHEXWDUHQRW£VWUXFWXUHGGDWD¤WKDWLVLQDIRUPDWOLNH;0/RU-621IRU
H[DPSOH&RPPRQO\UHIHUUHGWRDVUHJH[HVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVDUHDIHDWXUHRIQHDUO\
DOOPRGHUQSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHV7KH\SURYLGHDWHUVHV\QWD[IRUVSHFLI\LQJFRPSOH[
PDWFKHV RQH WKDW LV W\SLFDOO\ WUDQVODWHG LQWR D VWDWH PDFKLQH EHKLQG WKH VFHQHV IRU
RSWLPXPSHUIRUPDQFH
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ODQJXDJHV/HW¦VVHHDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/match-regex-script.scala

val BookExtractorRE = """Book: title=([^,]+),\s+authors=(.+)""".r

val MagazineExtractorRE = """Magazine: title=([^,]+),\s+issue=(.+)""".r

val catalog = List(

"Book: title=Programming Scala, authors=Dean Wampler, Alex Payne",
"Magazine: title=The New Yorker, issue=January 2009",
"Book: title=War and Peace, authors=Leo Tolstoy",
"Magazine: title=The Atlantic, issue=February 2009",
"BadData: text=Who put this here??"
)

for (item <- catalog) {

item match {
case BookExtractorRE(title, authors) =>
println("Book \"" + title + "\", written by " + authors)
case MagazineExtractorRE(title, issue) =>
println("Magazine \"" + title + "\", issue " + issue)
case entry => println("Unrecognized entry: " + entry)
}
}

:HVWDUWZLWKWZRUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVRQHIRUUHFRUGVRIERRNVDQGDQRWKHUIRUUHFRUGV
RIPDJD]LQHV&DOOLQJ.rRQDVWULQJWXUQVLWLQWRDUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQZHXVHUDZWULSOH
TXRWHGVWULQJVKHUHWRDYRLGKDYLQJWRGRXEOHHVFDSHEDFNVODVKHV6KRXOG\RXILQG

68 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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WKH.rWUDQVIRUPDWLRQPHWKRGRQVWULQJVXQFOHDU\RXFDQDOVRGHILQHUHJH[HVE\FUHDWLQJ
QHZLQVWDQFHVRIWKHRegexFODVVDVLQnew Regex("""\W""")
1RWLFHWKDWHDFKRIRXUUHJH[HVGHILQHVWZRFDSWXUHJURXSVFRQQRWHGE\SDUHQWKHVHV
(DFKJURXSFDSWXUHVWKHYDOXHRIDVLQJOHILHOGLQWKHUHFRUGVXFKDVDERRN¦VWLWOHRU
DXWKRU5HJH[HVLQ6FDODWUDQVODWHWKRVHFDSWXUHJURXSVWRH[WUDFWRUV(YHU\PDWFKVHWV
DILHOGWRWKHFDSWXUHGUHVXOWHYHU\PLVVLVVHWWRnull
:KDWGRHVWKLVPHDQLQSUDFWLFH",IWKHWH[WIHGWRWKHUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQPDWFKHV
case BookExtractorRE(title, authors)ZLOODVVLJQWKHILUVWFDSWXUHJURXSWRtitleDQG
WKH VHFRQG WR authors :H FDQ WKHQ XVH WKRVH YDOXHV RQ WKH ULJKWKDQG VLGH RI WKH
case FODXVH DV ZH KDYH LQ WKH SUHYLRXV H[DPSOH 7KH YDULDEOH QDPHV title DQG
author ZLWKLQ WKH H[WUDFWRU DUH DUELWUDU\ PDWFKHV IURP FDSWXUH JURXSV DUH VLPSO\
DVVLJQHGIURPOHIWWRULJKWDQG\RXFDQFDOOWKHPZKDWHYHU\RX¦GOLNH
7KDW¦VUHJH[HVLQ6FDODLQQXWVKHOO7KHscala.util.matching.RegexFODVVVXSSOLHVVHY
HUDOKDQG\PHWKRGVIRUILQGLQJDQGUHSODFLQJPDWFKHVLQVWULQJVERWKDOORFFXUUHQFHV
RIDPDWFKDQGMXVWWKHILUVWRFFXUUHQFHVREHVXUHWRPDNHXVHRIWKHP
:KDWZHZRQ¦WFRYHULQWKLVVHFWLRQLVWKHGHWDLOVRIZULWLQJUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQV6FDOD¦V
Regex FODVV XVHV WKH XQGHUO\LQJ SODWIRUP¦V UHJXODU H[SUHVVLRQ $3,V WKDW LV -DYD¦V
RU1(7¦V&RQVXOWUHIHUHQFHVRQWKRVH$3,VIRUWKHKDLU\GHWDLOVDVWKH\PD\EHVXEWO\
GLIIHUHQWIURPWKHUHJH[VXSSRUWLQ\RXUODQJXDJHRIFKRLFH

Binding Nested Variables in Case Clauses

6RPHWLPHV\RXZDQWWRELQGDYDULDEOHWRDQREMHFWHQFORVHGLQDPDWFKZKHUH\RXDUH
DOVRVSHFLI\LQJPDWFKFULWHULDRQWKHQHVWHGREMHFW6XSSRVHZHPRGLI\DSUHYLRXVH[
DPSOH VR ZH¦UH PDWFKLQJ RQ WKH NH\YDOXH SDLUV IURP D PDS :H¦OO VWRUH RXU VDPH
PersonREMHFWVDVWKHYDOXHVDQGXVHDQHPSOR\HH,'DVWKHNH\:H¦OODOVRDGGDQRWKHU
DWWULEXWHWRPersonDroleILHOGWKDWSRLQWVWRDQLQVWDQFHIURPDW\SHKLHUDUFK\
// code-examples/Rounding/match-deep-pair-script.scala

class Role
case object Manager extends Role
case object Developer extends Role

case class Person(name: String, age: Int, role: Role)

val alice = new Person("Alice", 25, Developer)

val bob = new Person("Bob", 32, Manager)
val charlie = new Person("Charlie", 32, Developer)

for (item <- Map(1 -> alice, 2 -> bob, 3 -> charlie)) {
item match {
case (id, p @ Person(_, _, Manager)) => format("%s is overpaid.\n", p)
case (id, p @ Person(_, _, _)) => format("%s is underpaid.\n", p)
}
}

Pattern Matching | 69

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7KHcase objectsDUHMXVWVLQJOHWRQREMHFWVOLNHZH¦YHVHHQEHIRUHEXWZLWKWKHVSHFLDO
caseEHKDYLRU:H¦UHPRVWLQWHUHVWHGLQWKHHPEHGGHGp @ Person(...)LQVLGHWKHFDVH
FODXVH:H¦UHPDWFKLQJRQSDUWLFXODUNLQGVRIPersonREMHFWVLQVLGHWKHHQFORVLQJWXSOH
:HDOVRZDQWWRDVVLJQWKHPersonWRDYDULDEOHpVRZHFDQXVHLWIRUSULQWLQJ
Person(Alice,25,Developer) is underpaid.
Person(Bob,32,Manager) is overpaid.
Person(Charlie,32,Developer) is underpaid.

,IZHZHUHQ¦WXVLQJPDWFKLQJFULWHULDLQPersonLWVHOIZHFRXOGMXVWZULWHp: Person)RU
H[DPSOHWKHSUHYLRXVmatchFODXVHFRXOGEHZULWWHQWKLVZD\
item match {
case (id, p: Person) => p.role match {
case Manager => format("%s is overpaid.\n", p)
case _ => format("%s is underpaid.\n", p)
}
}

1RWHWKDWWKH p @ Person(...)V\QWD[JLYHVXVDZD\WRIODWWHQWKLVQHVWLQJRIPDWFK
VWDWHPHQWVLQWRRQHVWDWHPHQW,WLVDQDORJRXVWRXVLQJ£FDSWXUHJURXSV¤LQDUHJXODU
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VXFFHVVLYHVWHSVWRH[WUDFWWKHVXEVWULQJVZHZDQW8VHZKLFKHYHUWHFKQLTXH\RXSUHIHU

Using try, catch, and finally Clauses

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VW\OH WKDW OHVVHQV WKH QHHG IRU H[FHSWLRQV DQG H[FHSWLRQ KDQGOLQJ %XW ZKHUH 6FDOD
LQWHUDFWVZLWK-DYDH[FHSWLRQVDUHVWLOOSUHYDOHQW

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WLRQV¤RQSDJH

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WRPDNHVPDUWFKRLFHVZKHQSUHVHQWHGZLWKDPXOWLSOLFLW\RISRWHQWLDOH[FHSWLRQV/HW¦V
VHHWKLVLQDFWLRQ
// code-examples/Rounding/try-catch-script.scala

import java.util.Calendar

val then = null

val now = Calendar.getInstance()

try {
now.compareTo(then)
} catch {

70 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 case e: NullPointerException => println("One was null!"); System.exit(-1)
case unknown => println("Unknown exception " + unknown); System.exit(-1)
} finally {
println("It all worked out.")
System.exit(0)
}

,QWKLVH[DPSOHZHH[SOLFLWO\FDWFKWKH NullPointerExceptionWKURZQZKHQWU\LQJWR
FRPSDUHDCalendarLQVWDQFHZLWKnull:HDOVRGHILQHunknownDVDFDWFKDOOFDVHMXVW
WREHVDIH,IZHZHUHQ¦WKDUGFRGLQJWKLVSURJUDPWRIDLOWKH finallyEORFNZRXOGEH
UHDFKHGDQGWKHXVHUZRXOGEHLQIRUPHGWKDWHYHU\WKLQJZRUNHGRXWMXVWILQH

<RXFDQXVHDQXQGHUVFRUH6FDOD¦VVWDQGDUGZLOGFDUGFKDUDFWHUDVD

SODFHKROGHUWRFDWFKDQ\W\SHRIH[FHSWLRQUHDOO\WRPDWFKDQ\FDVHLQ
DSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJH[SUHVVLRQ+RZHYHU\RXZRQ¦WEHDEOHWRUHIHUWR
WKHH[FHSWLRQLQWKHVXEVHTXHQWH[SUHVVLRQ1DPHWKHH[FHSWLRQYDUL
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GRLQWKHFDWFKDOOFDVHRIWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOH

3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJDVLGH6FDOD¦VWUHDWPHQWRIH[FHSWLRQKDQGOLQJVKRXOGEHIDPLOLDUWR
WKRVHIOXHQWLQ-DYD5XE\3\WKRQDQGPRVWRWKHUPDLQVWUHDPODQJXDJHV$QG\HV
\RXWKURZDQH[FHSWLRQE\ZULWLQJthrow new MyBadException(...)7KDW¦VDOOWKHUHLV
WRLW

Concluding Remarks on Pattern Matching

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WZHHQSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJDQGSRO\PRUSKLVP0RVWRIWKHWLPH\RXZDQWWRDYRLGWKH
SUREOHPVRI£VZLWFK¤VWDWHPHQWVWKDWNQRZDFODVVKLHUDUFK\EHFDXVHWKH\KDYHWREH
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JRULHV¤RIPHVVDJHVEXWZHXVHGSRO\PRUSKLVPWRGUDZWKHVKDSHVVHQWWRLW:HFRXOG
FKDQJHWKHShapeKLHUDUFK\DQGWKH$FWRUFRGHZRXOGQRWUHTXLUHFKDQJHV
3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJLVDOVRXVHIXOIRUWKHGHVLJQSUREOHPZKHUH\RXQHHGWRJHWDWGDWD
LQVLGHDQREMHFWEXWRQO\LQVSHFLDOFLUFXPVWDQFHV2QHRIWKHXQLQWHQGHGFRQVHTXHQ
FHVRIWKH-DYD%HDQVVHH>-DYD%HDQV6SHF@VSHFLILFDWLRQZDVWKDWLWHQFRXUDJHGSHRSOH
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WUDFWLQIRUPDWLRQLQDFRQWUROOHGZD\$VZHZLOOVHHLQ£8QDSSO\¤RQSDJHWKH
SDWWHUQPDWFKLQJH[DPSOHVZHKDYHVKRZQXVH unapplyPHWKRGVGHILQHGWRH[WUDFW

Pattern Matching | 71

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LQIRUPDWLRQIURPLQVWDQFHV7KHVHPHWKRGVOHW\RXH[WUDFWWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQZKLOHKLG
LQJWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOV,QIDFWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQUHWXUQHGE\unapplyPLJKWEH
DWUDQVIRUPDWLRQRIWKHDFWXDOLQIRUPDWLRQLQWKHW\SH
)LQDOO\ZKHQGHVLJQLQJSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJVWDWHPHQWVEHZDU\RIUHO\LQJRQDGHIDXOW
FDVHFODXVH8QGHUZKDWFLUFXPVWDQFHVZRXOG£QRQHRIWKHDERYH¤EHWKHFRUUHFWDQ
VZHU",WPD\LQGLFDWHWKDWWKHGHVLJQVKRXOGEHUHILQHGVR\RXNQRZPRUHSUHFLVHO\DOO
WKHSRVVLEOHPDWFKHVWKDWPLJKWRFFXU:H¦OOOHDUQRQHWHFKQLTXHWKDWKHOSVZKHQZH
GLVFXVVVHDOHGFODVVKLHUDUFKLHVLQ£6HDOHG&ODVV+LHUDUFKLHV¤RQSDJH

Enumerations
5HPHPEHURXUH[DPSOHVLQYROYLQJYDULRXVEUHHGVRIGRJ",QWKLQNLQJDERXWWKHW\SHV
LQWKHVHSURJUDPVZHPLJKWZDQWDWRSOHYHOBreedW\SHWKDWNHHSVWUDFNRIDQXPEHU
RIEUHHGV6XFKDW\SHLVFDOOHGDQHQXPHUDWHGW\SHDQGWKHYDOXHVLWFRQWDLQVDUHFDOOHG
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LVQRVSHFLDOV\QWD[IRUHQXPHUDWLRQVLQ6FDODDVLQ-DYDDQG&,QVWHDG\RXMXVW
GHILQHDQREMHFWWKDWH[WHQGVWKHEnumerationFODVV+HQFHDWWKHE\WHFRGHOHYHOWKHUH
LVQRFRQQHFWLRQEHWZHHQ6FDODHQXPHUDWLRQVDQGWKHenumFRQVWUXFWVLQ-DYDDQG&
+HUHLVDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/Rounding/enumeration-script.scala

object Breed extends Enumeration {

val doberman = Value("Doberman Pinscher")
val yorkie = Value("Yorkshire Terrier")
val scottie = Value("Scottish Terrier")
val dane = Value("Great Dane")
val portie = Value("Portuguese Water Dog")
}

// print a list of breeds and their IDs

println("ID\tBreed")
for (breed <- Breed) println(breed.id + "\t" + breed)

// print a list of Terrier breeds

println("\nJust Terriers:")
Breed.filter(_.toString.endsWith("Terrier")).foreach(println)

:KHQUXQ\RX¦OOJHWWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
ID Breed
0 Doberman Pinscher
1 Yorkshire Terrier
2 Scottish Terrier
3 Great Dane
4 Portuguese Water Dog

72 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 Just Terriers:
Yorkshire Terrier
Scottish Terrier

:HFDQVHHWKDWRXUBreedHQXPHUDWHGW\SHFRQWDLQVVHYHUDOYDULDEOHVRIW\SHValueDV
LQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
val doberman = Value("Doberman Pinscher")

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DPSOHDGDSWHGIURPWKH6FDODGRFHQWU\IRUEnumeration
// code-examples/Rounding/days-enumeration-script.scala

object WeekDay extends Enumeration {

type WeekDay = Value
val Mon, Tue, Wed, Thu, Fri, Sat, Sun = Value
}
import WeekDay._

def isWorkingDay(d: WeekDay) = ! (d == Sat || d == Sun)

WeekDay filter isWorkingDay foreach println

5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWZLWKscala\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(0)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(1)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(2)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(3)
Main$$anon$1$WeekDay(4)

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Enumerations | 73

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1RWHWKDWZHLPSRUWHGWeekDay._7KLVPDGHHDFKHQXPHUDWLRQYDOXHMonTuesHWF
LQVFRSH2WKHUZLVH\RXZRXOGKDYHWRZULWHWeekDay.MonWeekDay.TuesHWF
$OVRWKHLPSRUWPDGHWKHW\SHDOLDVtype Weekday = ValueLQVFRSHZKLFKZHXVHG
DVWKHW\SHIRUWKHDUJXPHQWIRUWKH isWorkingDayPHWKRG,I\RXGRQ¦WGHILQHDW\SH
DOLDV OLNH WKLV WKHQ \RX ZRXOG GHFODUH WKH PHWKRG DV def isWorkingDay(d: Week
Day.Value)
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Recap and What’s Next

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74 | Chapter 3:—Rounding Out the Essentials

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 CHAPTER 4
Traits

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks.scala

package ui

class ButtonWithCallbacks(val label: String,

val clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit]) extends Widget {

require(clickedCallbacks != null, "Callback list can't be null!")

def this(label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(label, List(clickedCallback))

def this(label: String) = {

75

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 this(label, Nil)
println("Warning: button has no click callbacks!")
}

def click() = {
// ... logic to give the appearance of clicking a physical button ...
clickedCallbacks.foreach(f => f())
}
}

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76 | Chapter 4:—Traits

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button.scala

package ui

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}
}

+HUHLVWKHSDUHQWFODVVWidget
// code-examples/Traits/ui/widget.scala

package ui

abstract class Widget

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// code-examples/Traits/observer/observer.scala

package observer

trait Subject {
type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this))
}

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Introducing Traits | 77

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78 | Chapter 4:—Traits

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Subject
// code-examples/Traits/ui/observable-button.scala

package ui
import observer._

class ObservableButton(name: String) extends Button(name) with Subject {

override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}

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Introducing Traits | 79

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,I\RXGRQ¦WXVHextendsIRUWKHILUVWWUDLWHJ\RXZULWHWKHIROORZLQJ
// ERROR:
class ObservableButton(name: String) with Button(name) with Subject {...}

<RX¦OOJHWDQHUURUOLNHWKLV
... error: ';' expected but 'with' found.
class ObservableButton(name: String) with Button(name) with Subject {...}
^

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-count-observer.scala

package ui
import observer._

class ButtonCountObserver {
var count = 0
def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) = count += 1
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-observer-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new ObservableButton("Okay")
val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

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Specification "ButtonCountObserverSpec"
A Button Observer should
+ observe button clicks

80 | Chapter 4:—Traits

Download at WoweBook.Com
 Total for specification "ButtonCountObserverSpec":
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1 example, 1 expectation, 0 failure, 0 error

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assertEquals(3, buttonObserver.count)

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// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-observer-anon-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserverAnonSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new Button("Okay") with Subject {
override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}

val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver

observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3

Introducing Traits | 81

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 }
}
}

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£/LQHDUL]DWLRQRIDQ2EMHFW¦V+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

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)LUVWOHW¦VLQWURGXFHDQHZWUDLWClickableDQDEVWUDFWLRQIRUDQ\ZLGJHWWKDWUHVSRQGV
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/clickable.scala

package ui2

trait Clickable {
def click()
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button.scala

package ui2

import ui.Widget

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...

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 }
}

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Clickable
// code-examples/Traits/ui2/observable-clicks.scala

package ui2
import observer._

trait ObservableClicks extends Clickable with Subject {

abstract override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-clickable-observer-spec.scala

package ui2

Stackable Traits | 83

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 import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonClickableObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton = new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/vetoable-clicks.scala

package ui2
import observer._

trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

val maxAllowed = 1 // default
private var count = 0

abstract override def click() = {

if (count < maxAllowed) {
count += 1
super.click()
}
}
}

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5XOHV¤RQSDJH7KHRYHUULGGHQ clickPHWKRGLQFUHPHQWV count,WRQO\FDOOVWKH
super.click()PHWKRGLIWKHFRXQWLVOHVVWKDQRUHTXDOWRWKHmaxAllowedFRXQW
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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-clickable-observer-vetoable-spec.scala

package ui2
import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec extends Specification {

"A Button Observer with Vetoable Clicks" should {
"observe only the first button click" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()

buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 1
}
}
}

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new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks

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// code-examples/Traits/ui2/button-vetoable-clickable-observer-spec.scala

package ui2
import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonVetoableClickableObserverSpec extends Specification {

"A Vetoable Button with Click Observer" should {
"observe all the button clicks, even when some are vetoed" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with VetoableClicks with ObservableClicks
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)

Stackable Traits | 85

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 for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

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// code-examples/Traits/trait-construction-script.scala

trait T1 {
println( " in T1: x = " + x )
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}
trait T2 {
println( " in T2: y = " + y )
val y="T2"
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}

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println( " in Base12: b = " + b )
}
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val c="C12"

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 println( " in C12: c = " + c )
}
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new C12
println( "After Creating C12" )

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Constructing Traits | 87

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 CHAPTER 5
Basic Object-Oriented Programming
in Scala

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// code-examples/BasicOOP/type-erasure-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

object Foo {
def bar(list: List[String]) = list.toString
def bar(list: List[Int]) = list.size.toString
}

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90 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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FDQEHXVHGLQVWHDGHJval name = "Programming Scala"LVHTXLYDOHQWWRval name =
new String("Programming Scala")
,QVWDQFHVRIYDOXHW\SHVIntDoubleHWFZKLFKFRUUHVSRQGWRWKHSULPLWLYHVLQODQ
JXDJHVOLNH-DYDDUHDOZD\VFUHDWHGXVLQJOLWHUDOYDOXHVHJ13.14,QIDFWWKHUHDUH
QRSXEOLFFRQVWUXFWRUVIRUWKHVHW\SHVVRDQH[SUHVVLRQOLNHval i = new Int(1)ZRQ¦W
FRPSLOH
:H¦OO GLVFXVV WKH GLIIHUHQFH EHWZHHQ UHIHUHQFH DQG YDOXH W\SHV LQ £7KH 6FDOD 7\SH
+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

Parent Classes
6FDODVXSSRUWVVLQJOHLQKHULWDQFHQRWPXOWLSOHLQKHULWDQFH$FKLOGRUGHULYHGFODVV
FDQKDYHRQHDQGRQO\RQHSDUHQWRUEDVHFODVV7KHVROHH[FHSWLRQLVWKHURRWRIWKH
6FDODFODVVKLHUDUFK\AnyZKLFKKDVQRSDUHQW
:H¦YHVHHQVHYHUDOH[DPSOHVRISDUHQWDQGFKLOGFODVVHV+HUHDUHVQLSSHWVRIRQHRI
WKHILUVWZHVDZLQ£$EVWUDFW7\SHV$QG3DUDPHWHUL]HG7\SHV¤RQSDJH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

// ...
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

// ...
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

// ...
}

$VLQ-DYDWKHNH\ZRUGextendsLQGLFDWHVWKHSDUHQWFODVVLQWKLVFDVHBulkReader,Q
6FDODextendsLVDOVRXVHGZKHQDFODVVLQKHULWVDWUDLWDVLWVSDUHQWHYHQZKHQLWPL[HV
LQRWKHUWUDLWVXVLQJWKHwithNH\ZRUG$OVRextendsLVXVHGZKHQRQHWUDLWLVWKHFKLOG
RIDQRWKHUWUDLWRUFODVV<HVWUDLWVFDQLQKHULWFODVVHV
,I\RXGRQ¦W extendDSDUHQWFODVVWKHGHIDXOWSDUHQWLV AnyRefDGLUHFWFKLOGFODVVRI
Any:HGLVFXVVWKHGLIIHUHQFHEHWZHHQAnyDQGAnyRefZKHQZHGLVFXVVWKH6FDODW\SH
KLHUDUFK\LQ£7KH6FDOD7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

Constructors in Scala
6FDODGLVWLQJXLVKHVEHWZHHQDSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRUDQG]HURRUPRUHDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXF
WRUV,Q6FDODWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRULVWKHHQWLUHERG\RIWKHFODVV$Q\SDUDPHWHUV

Constructors in Scala | 91

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WKDWWKHFRQVWUXFWRUUHTXLUHVDUHOLVWHGDIWHUWKHFODVVQDPH:H¦YHVHHQPDQ\H[DPSOHV
RIWKLVDOUHDG\DVLQWKHButtonWithCallbacksH[DPSOHZHXVHGLQ&KDSWHU
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks.scala

package ui

class ButtonWithCallbacks(val label: String,

val clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit]) extends Widget {

require(clickedCallbacks != null, "Callback list can't be null!")

def this(label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(label, List(clickedCallback))

def this(label: String) = {

this(label, Nil)
println("Warning: button has no click callbacks!")
}

def click() = {
// ... logic to give the appearance of clicking a physical button ...
clickedCallbacks.foreach(f => f())
}
}

7KHButtonWithCallbacksFODVVUHSUHVHQWVDEXWWRQRQDJUDSKLFDOXVHULQWHUIDFH,WKDV
DODEHODQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFNIXQFWLRQVWKDWDUHLQYRNHGLIWKHEXWWRQLVFOLFNHG(DFK
FDOOEDFN IXQFWLRQ WDNHV QR DUJXPHQWV DQG UHWXUQV Unit 7KH click PHWKRG LWHUDWHV
WKURXJKWKHOLVWRIFDOOEDFNVDQGLQYRNHVHDFKRQH
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ERG\RIWKHHQWLUHFODVVKDVDSDUDPHWHUOLVWWKDWWDNHVDODEHOVWULQJDQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFN
IXQFWLRQV%HFDXVHHDFKSDUDPHWHULVGHFODUHGDVDvalWKHFRPSLOHUJHQHUDWHVDSULYDWH
ILHOGFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRHDFKSDUDPHWHUDGLIIHUHQWLQWHUQDOQDPHLVXVHGDORQJZLWKD
SXEOLFUHDGHUPHWKRGWKDWKDVWKHVDPHQDPHDVWKHSDUDPHWHU£3ULYDWH¤DQG£SXEOLF¤
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5XOHV¤RQSDJH
,IDSDUDPHWHUKDVWKHvarNH\ZRUGDSXEOLFZULWHUPHWKRGLVDOVRJHQHUDWHGZLWKWKH
SDUDPHWHU¦VQDPHDVDSUHIL[IROORZHGE\_=)RUH[DPSOHLIlabelZHUHGHFODUHGDVD
varWKHZULWHUPHWKRGZRXOGEHQDPHGlabel_=DQGLWZRXOGWDNHDVLQJOHDUJXPHQW
RIW\SHString
7KHUHDUHWLPHVZKHQ\RXGRQ¦WZDQWWKHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVWREHJHQHUDWHGDXWRPDW
LFDOO\,QRWKHUZRUGV\RXZDQWWKHILHOGWREHSULYDWH$GGWKHprivateNH\ZRUGEHIRUH
WKHvalRUvarNH\ZRUGDQGWKHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVZRQ¦WEHJHQHUDWHG6HH£9LVLELOLW\
5XOHV¤RQSDJHIRUPRUHGHWDLOV

92 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 )RU\RX-DYDSURJUDPPHUV6FDODGRHVQ¦WIROORZWKH-DYD%HDQV>-DYD
%HDQV6SHF@FRQYHQWLRQWKDWILHOGUHDGHUDQGZULWHUPHWKRGVEHJLQZLWK
getDQGsetUHVSHFWLYHO\IROORZHGE\WKHILHOGQDPHZLWKWKHILUVWFKDU
DFWHUFDSLWDOL]HG:H¦OOVHHZK\ZKHQZHGLVFXVVWKH8QLIRUP$FFHVV
3ULQFLSOHLQ£:KHQ$FFHVVRU0HWKRGVDQG)LHOGV$UH,QGLVWLQJXLVKDEOH
7KH 8QLIRUP $FFHVV 3ULQFLSOH¤ RQ SDJH  +RZHYHU \RX FDQ JHW
-DYD%HDQVVW\OH JHWWHUV DQG VHWWHUV ZKHQ \RX QHHG WKHP XVLQJ WKH
scala.reflect.BeanPropertyDQQRWDWLRQDVZH¦OOGLVFXVVLQ£-DYD%HDQ
3URSHUWLHV¤RQSDJH

:KHQDQLQVWDQFHRIWKHFODVVLVFUHDWHGHDFKILHOGFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRDSDUDPHWHULQWKH
SDUDPHWHUOLVWZLOOEHLQLWLDOL]HGZLWKWKHSDUDPHWHUDXWRPDWLFDOO\1RFRQVWUXFWRUORJLF
LVUHTXLUHGWRLQLWLDOL]HWKHVHILHOGVLQFRQWUDVWWRPRVWRWKHUREMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHV
7KHILUVWVWDWHPHQWLQWKHButtonWithCallbacksFODVVLHWKHFRQVWUXFWRUERG\LVDWHVW
WRHQVXUHWKDWDQRQnullOLVWKDVEHHQSDVVHGWRWKHFRQVWUXFWRU,WGRHVDOORZDQHPSW\
NilOLVWKRZHYHU,WXVHVWKHFRQYHQLHQWrequireIXQFWLRQWKDWLVLPSRUWHGDXWRPDWL
FDOO\LQWRWKHFXUUHQWVFRSHDVZH¦OOGLVFXVVLQ£7KH3UHGHI2EMHFW¤RQSDJH,I
WKHOLVWLVQXOOrequireZLOOWKURZDQH[FHSWLRQ7KHrequireIXQFWLRQDQGLWVFRPSDQLRQ
assumeDUHYHU\XVHIXOIRU 'HVLJQE\&RQWUDFWSURJUDPPLQJDVGLVFXVVHGLQ £%HWWHU
'HVLJQZLWK'HVLJQ%\&RQWUDFW¤RQSDJH
+HUH LV SDUW RI D IXOO VSHFLILFDWLRQ IRU ButtonWithCallbacks WKDW GHPRQVWUDWHV WKH
requireVWDWHPHQWLQXVH
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-callbacks-spec.scala
package ui
import org.specs._

object ButtonWithCallbacksSpec extends Specification {

"A ButtonWithCallbacks" should {
// ...
"not be constructable with a null callback list" in {
val nullList:List[() => Unit] = null
val errorMessage =
"requirement failed: Callback list can't be null!"
(new ButtonWithCallbacks("button1", nullList)) must throwA(
new IllegalArgumentException(errorMessage))
}
}
}

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ZRQ¦WW\SHFKHFNZKHQ\RXFRPSLOHLW+RZHYHU\RXFDQDVVLJQ nullWRDYDOXHDV
VKRZQ ,I ZH GLGQ¦W KDYH WKH must throwA(...) FODXVH ZH ZRXOG VHH WKH IROORZLQJ
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java.lang.IllegalArgumentException: requirement failed: Callback list can't be null!
at scala.Predef$.require(Predef.scala:112)
at ui.ButtonWithCallbacks.<init>(button-callbacks.scala:7)
...

Constructors in Scala | 93

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ButtonWithCallbacksGHILQHVWZRDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRUVIRUWKHXVHU¦VFRQYHQLHQFH7KH
ILUVW DX[LOLDU\ FRQVWUXFWRU DFFHSWV D ODEHO DQG D VLQJOH FDOOEDFN ,W FDOOV WKH SULPDU\
FRQVWUXFWRUSDVVLQJWKHODEHODQGDQHZListWRZUDSWKHVLQJOHFDOOEDFN
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ZLWKNilZKLFKUHSUHVHQWVDQHPSW\ListREMHFW7KHFRQVWUXFWRUWKHQSULQWVDZDUQ
LQJPHVVDJHWKDWWKHUHDUHQRFDOOEDFNVVLQFHOLVWVDUHLPPXWDEOHDQGWKHUHLVQRZD\
WRUHSODFHWKHFDOOEDFNOLVWvalZLWKDQHZRQH
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FRQVWUXFWRUGHILQHGEHIRUHLWVHH>6FDOD6SHF@7KHFRQVWUXFWRULQYRNHGPD\EH
HLWKHUDQRWKHUDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRURUWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRUDQGLWPXVWEHWKHILUVW
VWDWHPHQWLQWKHDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRU¦VERG\$GGLWLRQDOSURFHVVLQJFDQRFFXUDIWHU
WKLVFDOOVXFKDVWKHZDUQLQJPHVVDJHSULQWHGLQRXUH[DPSOH

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VWUXFWRUORJLFFKHFNVDQGRWKHULQLWLDOL]DWLRQVGRQHLQWKHERG\ZLOOEH
SHUIRUPHGFRQVLVWHQWO\IRUDOOLQVWDQFHVFUHDWHG

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(OLPLQDWLRQRIGXSOLFDWLRQ
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SULDWHDFFHVVRUPHWKRGVXQOHVVWKH\DUHGHFODUHG privateDQGWKHLQLWLDOL]DWLRQ
ORJLFIRUZKHQLQVWDQFHVDUHFUHDWHG
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/HVVIOH[LELOLW\
6RPHWLPHVLW¦VMXVWQRWFRQYHQLHQWWRKDYHRQHFRQVWUXFWRUERG\WKDWDOOFRQVWUXF
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FDVHVLWPD\VLPSO\EHWKDWWKHFODVVKDVWRRPDQ\UHVSRQVLELOLWLHVDQGLWVKRXOG
EHUHIDFWRUHGLQWRVPDOOHUFODVVHV

Calling Parent Class Constructors

7KHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRULQDGHULYHGFODVVPXVWLQYRNHRQHRIWKHSDUHQWFODVVFRQ
VWUXFWRUVHLWKHUWKHSULPDU\FRQVWUXFWRURUDQDX[LOLDU\FRQVWUXFWRU,QWKHIROORZLQJ
H[DPSOHDFODVVGHULYHGIURPButtonWithCallbacksFDOOHGRadioButtonWithCallbacks
LQYRNHVWKHSULPDU\ ButtonWithCallbacksFRQVWUXFWRU£5DGLR¤EXWWRQVFDQEHHLWKHU
RQRURII

94 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 // code-examples/BasicOOP/ui/radio-button-callbacks.scala

package ui

/**
* Button with two states, on or off, like an old-style,
* channel-selection button on a radio.
*/
class RadioButtonWithCallbacks(
var on: Boolean, label: String, clickedCallbacks: List[() => Unit])
extends ButtonWithCallbacks(label, clickedCallbacks) {

def this(on: Boolean, label: String, clickedCallback: () => Unit) =

this(on, label, List(clickedCallback))

def this(on: Boolean, label: String) = this(on, label, Nil)

}

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VWDWHtrueRUfalseDODEHODQGDOLVWRIFDOOEDFNV,WSDVVHVWKHODEHODQGOLVWRIFDOOEDFNV
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:KLOHsuperLVXVHGWRLQYRNHRYHUULGGHQPHWKRGVDVLQ-DYDLWFDQQRW
EHXVHGWRLQYRNHDVXSHUFODVVFRQVWUXFWRU

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6FDODOHWV\RXQHVWFODVVGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHPDQ\REMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHV6XSSRVHZH
ZDQWDOO WidgetsWRKDYHDPDSRISURSHUWLHV7KHVHSURSHUWLHVFRXOGEHVL]HFRORU
ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH ZLGJHW LV YLVLEOH HWF :H PLJKW XVH D VLPSOH map WR KROG WKH
SURSHUWLHVEXWOHW¦VDVVXPHWKDWZHDOVRZDQWWRFRQWURODFFHVVWRWKHSURSHUWLHVDQG
WRSHUIRUPRWKHURSHUDWLRQVZKHQWKH\FKDQJH
+HUHLVRQHZD\ZHPLJKWH[SDQGRXURULJLQDO WidgetH[DPSOHIURP£7UDLWV$V0L[
LQV¤RQSDJHWRDGGWKLVIHDWXUH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/ui/widget.scala

package ui

Nested Classes | 95

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 abstract class Widget {
class Properties {
import scala.collection.immutable.HashMap

private var values: Map[String, Any] = new HashMap

def size = values.size

def get(key: String) = values.get(key)

def update(key: String, value: Any) = {

// Do some preprocessing, e.g., filtering.
values = values.update(key, value)
// Do some postprocessing.
}
}

val properties = new Properties

}

:HDGGHGD PropertiesFODVVWKDWKDVDSULYDWHPXWDEOHUHIHUHQFHWRDQLPPXWDEOH
HashMap:HDOVRDGGHGWKUHHSXEOLFPHWKRGVWKDWUHWULHYHWKHVL]HLHWKHQXPEHURI
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EDVLFVRILQKHULWDQFH,QWKHQH[WVHFWLRQZH¦OOGLVFXVVYLVLELOLW\UXOHVZLWKLQFODVVHVDQG
REMHFWV

Visibility Rules
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96 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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<RX¦OOZDQWWRXVHSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\IRUDQ\WKLQJWKDWXVHUVRI\RXUFODVVHVDQGREMHFWV
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EHIRUH WKH DUJXPHQW OLVW DV LQ WKLV H[DPSOH class Restricted[+A]
private (name: String) {...}

7DEOHVXPPDUL]HVWKHYLVLELOLW\VFRSHV
7DEOH9LVLELOLW\VFRSHV
Name Keyword Description
public none Public members and types are visible everywhere, across all boundaries.
protected protected Protected members are visible to the defining type, to derived types, and to
nested types. Protected types are visible only within the same package and
subpackages.

Visibility Rules | 97

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 Name Keyword Description
private private Private members are visible only within the defining type and nested types.
Private types are visible only within the same package.
scoped protected protected[scope] Visibility is limited to scope, which can be a package, type, or this (meaning
the same instance, when applied to members, or the enclosing package, when
applied to types). See the text below for details.
scoped private private[scope] Synonymous with scoped protected visibility, except under inheritance (dis-
cussed below).

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ILHOGVIRUPHPEHUH[DPSOHV0HWKRGDQGW\SHGHFODUDWLRQVEHKDYHWKHVDPHZD\

8QIRUWXQDWHO\\RXFDQ¦WDSSO\DQ\RIWKHYLVLELOLW\PRGLILHUVWRSDFN
DJHV7KHUHIRUHDSDFNDJHLVDOZD\VSXEOLFHYHQZKHQLWFRQWDLQVQR
SXEOLFO\YLVLEOHW\SHV

Public Visibility
$Q\GHFODUDWLRQZLWKRXWDYLVLELOLW\NH\ZRUGLV£SXEOLF¤PHDQLQJLWLVYLVLEOHHYHU\
ZKHUH7KHUHLVQRpublicNH\ZRUGLQ6FDOD7KLVLVLQFRQWUDVWWR-DYDZKLFKGHIDXOWV
WRSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\RQO\ZLWKLQWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJHLH£SDFNDJHSULYDWH¤2WKHU
REMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHVOLNH5XE\DOVRGHIDXOWWRSXEOLFYLVLELOLW\
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/public.scala

package scopeA {
class PublicClass1 {
val publicField = 1

class Nested {
val nestedField = 1
}

val nested = new Nested

}

class PublicClass2 extends PublicClass1 {

val field2 = publicField + 1
val nField2 = new Nested().nestedField
}
}

package scopeB {
class PublicClass1B extends scopeA.PublicClass1

class UsingClass(val publicClass: scopeA.PublicClass1) {

def method = "UsingClass:" +
" field: " + publicClass.publicField +

98 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 " nested field: " + publicClass.nested.nestedField
}
}

<RXFDQFRPSLOHWKLVILOHZLWKscalac,WVKRXOGFRPSLOHZLWKRXWHUURU
(YHU\WKLQJLVSXEOLFLQWKHVHSDFNDJHVDQGFODVVHV1RWHWKDW scopeB.UsingClassFDQ
DFFHVVscopeA.PublicClass1DQGLWVPHPEHUVLQFOXGLQJWKHLQVWDQFHRINestedDQGLWV
SXEOLFILHOG

Protected Visibility
3URWHFWHGYLVLELOLW\LVIRUWKHEHQHILWRILPSOHPHQWHUVRIGHULYHGW\SHVZKRQHHGDOLWWOH
PRUH DFFHVV WR WKH GHWDLOV RI WKHLU SDUHQW W\SHV $Q\ PHPEHU GHFODUHG ZLWK WKH
protectedNH\ZRUGLVYLVLEOHRQO\WRWKHGHILQLQJW\SHLQFOXGLQJRWKHULQVWDQFHVRIWKH
VDPHW\SHDQGDQ\GHULYHGW\SHV:KHQDSSOLHGWRDW\SHprotectedOLPLWVYLVLELOLW\WR
WKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
-DYDLQFRQWUDVWPDNHVSURWHFWHGPHPEHUVYLVLEOHWKURXJKRXWWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
6FDODKDQGOHVWKLVFDVHZLWKVFRSHGSULYDWHDQGSURWHFWHGDFFHVV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/protected-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class ProtectedClass1(protected val protectedField1: Int) {
protected val protectedField2 = 1

def equalFields(other: ProtectedClass1) =

(protectedField1 == other.protectedField1) &&
(protectedField1 == other.protectedField1) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
protected val nestedField = 1
}

protected val nested = new Nested

}

class ProtectedClass2 extends ProtectedClass1(1) {

val field1 = protectedField1
val field2 = protectedField2
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class ProtectedClass3 {
val protectedClass1 = new ProtectedClass1(1)
val protectedField1 = protectedClass1.protectedField1 // ERROR
val protectedField2 = protectedClass1.protectedField2 // ERROR
val protectedNField = protectedClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

Visibility Rules | 99

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 protected class ProtectedClass4

class ProtectedClass5 extends ProtectedClass4

protected class ProtectedClass6 extends ProtectedClass4
}

package scopeB {
class ProtectedClass4B extends scopeA.ProtectedClass4 // ERROR
}

:KHQ\RXFRPSLOHWKLVILOHZLWKscalac\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW7KHILOHQDPHV
EHIRUHWKHN:OLQHQXPEHUVKDYHEHHQUHPRYHGIURPWKHRXWSXWWREHWWHUILWWKHVSDFH
16: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in ProtectedClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value protectedField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedField1 = protectedClass1.protectedField1
^
21: error: value protectedField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedField2 = protectedClass1.protectedField2
^
22: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.ProtectedClass1
val protectedNField = protectedClass1.nested.nestedField
^
32: error: class ProtectedClass4 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
class ProtectedClass4B extends scopeA.ProtectedClass4
^
5 errors found

7KH// ERRORFRPPHQWVLQWKHOLVWLQJPDUNWKHOLQHVWKDWIDLOWRSDUVH
ProtectedClass2 FDQ DFFHVV SURWHFWHG PHPEHUV RI ProtectedClass1 VLQFH LW GHULYHV
IURP LW +RZHYHU LW FDQ¦W DFFHVV WKH SURWHFWHG nestedField LQ protectedClass1.nes
ted $OVR ProtectedClass3 FDQ¦W DFFHVV SURWHFWHG PHPEHUV RI WKH ProtectedClass1
LQVWDQFHLWXVHV
)LQDOO\EHFDXVH ProtectedClass4LVGHFODUHG protectedLWLVQRWYLVLEOHLQWKH scopeB
SDFNDJH

Private Visibility
3ULYDWHYLVLELOLW\FRPSOHWHO\KLGHVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOVHYHQIURPWKHLPSOHPHQWHUV
RIGHULYHGFODVVHV$Q\PHPEHUGHFODUHGZLWKWKH privateNH\ZRUGLVYLVLEOHRQO\WR
WKHGHILQLQJW\SHLQFOXGLQJRWKHULQVWDQFHVRIWKHVDPHW\SH:KHQDSSOLHGWRDW\SH
privateOLPLWVYLVLELOLW\WRWKHHQFORVLQJSDFNDJH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private val privateField1: Int) {
private val privateField2 = 1

100 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =
(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
(privateField2 == other.privateField2) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
private val nestedField = 1
}

private val nested = new Nested

}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateField2 // ERROR
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

private class PrivateClass4

class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass4 // ERROR

protected class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass4 // ERROR
private class PrivateClass7 extends PrivateClass4
}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass4B extends scopeA.PrivateClass4 // ERROR
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
14: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
15: error: not found: value privateField2
val field2 = privateField2
^
16: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value privateField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
21: error: value privateField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2
^
22: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^

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 27: error: private class PrivateClass4 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass4
class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass4
^
28: error: private class PrivateClass4 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass4
protected class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass4
^
33: error: class PrivateClass4 cannot be accessed in package scopeA
class PrivateClass4B extends scopeA.PrivateClass4
^
9 errors found

1RZ PrivateClass2FDQ¦WDFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRILWVSDUHQWFODVV PrivateClass1

7KH\DUHFRPSOHWHO\LQYLVLEOHWRWKHVXEFODVVDVLQGLFDWHGE\WKHHUURUPHVVDJHV1RU
FDQLWDFFHVVDSULYDWHILHOGLQDNestedFODVV
-XVWDVIRUWKHFDVHRIprotectedDFFHVVPrivateClass3FDQ¦WDFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRI
WKHPrivateClass1LQVWDQFHLWLVXVLQJ1RWHKRZHYHUWKDWWKHequalFieldsPHWKRGFDQ
DFFHVVSULYDWHPHPEHUVRIWKHotherLQVWDQFH
7KH GHFODUDWLRQV RI PrivateClass5 DQG PrivateClass6 IDLO EHFDXVH LI DOORZHG WKH\
ZRXOGHQDEOHPrivateClass4WR£HVFDSHLWVGHILQLQJVFRSH¤+RZHYHUWKHGHFODUDWLRQ
RIPrivateClass7VXFFHHGVEHFDXVHLWLVDOVRGHFODUHGWREHSULYDWH&XULRXVO\RXUSUH
YLRXVH[DPSOHZDVDEOHWRGHFODUHDSXEOLFFODVVWKDWVXEFODVVHGDSURWHFWHGFODVVZLWK
RXWDVLPLODUHUURU
)LQDOO\MXVWDVIRU protectedW\SHGHFODUDWLRQVWKH privateW\SHVFDQ¦WEHVXEFODVVHG
RXWVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJH

Scoped Private and Protected Visibility

6FDOD DOORZV \RX WR ILQHWXQH WKH VFRSH RI YLVLELOLW\ ZLWK WKH VFRSHG private DQG
protectedYLVLELOLW\GHFODUDWLRQV1RWHWKDWXVLQJprivateRUprotectedLQDVFRSHGGHF
ODUDWLRQLVLQWHUFKDQJHDEOHDVWKH\EHKDYHLGHQWLFDOO\H[FHSWXQGHULQKHULWDQFHZKHQ
DSSOLHGWRPHPEHUV

:KLOHHLWKHUFKRLFHEHKDYHVWKHVDPHLQPRVWVFHQDULRVLWLVPRUHFRP
PRQWRVHH private[X]UDWKHUWKDQ protected[X]XVHGLQFRGH,QWKH
FRUHOLEUDULHVLQFOXGHGZLWK6FDODWKHUDWLRLVURXJKO\ILYHWRRQH

/HW¦VEHJLQE\FRQVLGHULQJWKHRQO\GLIIHUHQFHVLQEHKDYLRUEHWZHHQVFRSHGSULYDWHDQG
VFRSHG SURWHFWHG¢KRZ WKH\ EHKDYH XQGHU LQKHULWDQFH ZKHQ PHPEHUV KDYH WKHVH
VFRSHV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/scope-inheritance-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {

102 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 class Class1 {
private[scopeA] val scopeA_privateField = 1
protected[scopeA] val scopeA_protectedField = 2
private[Class1] val class1_privateField = 3
protected[Class1] val class1_protectedField = 4
private[this] val this_privateField = 5
protected[this] val this_protectedField = 6
}

class Class2 extends Class1 {

val field1 = scopeA_privateField
val field2 = scopeA_protectedField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
val field4 = class1_protectedField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
val field6 = this_protectedField
}
}

package scopeB {
class Class2B extends scopeA.Class1 {
val field1 = scopeA_privateField // ERROR
val field2 = scopeA_protectedField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
val field4 = class1_protectedField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
val field6 = this_protectedField
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
17: error: not found: value class1_privateField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
^
19: error: not found: value this_privateField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
^
26: error: not found: value scopeA_privateField
val field1 = scopeA_privateField // ERROR
^
28: error: not found: value class1_privateField
val field3 = class1_privateField // ERROR
^
30: error: not found: value this_privateField
val field5 = this_privateField // ERROR
^
5 errors found

7KHILUVWWZRHUURUVLQVLGHClass2VKRZXVWKDWDGHULYHGFODVVLQVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJH
FDQ¦WUHIHUHQFHDPHPEHUWKDWLVVFRSHGSULYDWHWRWKHSDUHQWFODVVRU thisEXWLWFDQ
UHIHUHQFHDSULYDWHPHPEHUVFRSHGWRWKHSDFNDJHRUW\SHWKDWHQFORVHVERWKClass1
DQGClass2

Visibility Rules | 103

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,QFRQWUDVWIRUDGHULYHGFODVVRXWVLGHWKHVDPHSDFNDJHLWKDVQRDFFHVVWRDQ\RIWKH
VFRSHGSULYDWHPHPEHUVRIClass1
+RZHYHUDOOWKHVFRSHGSURWHFWHGPHPEHUVDUHYLVLEOHLQERWKGHULYHGFODVVHV
:H¦OOXVHVFRSHGSULYDWHGHFODUDWLRQVIRUWKHUHVWRIRXUH[DPSOHVDQGGLVFXVVLRQVLQFH
XVHRIVFRSHGSULYDWHLVDOLWWOHPRUHFRPPRQLQWKH6FDODOLEUDU\WKDQVFRSHGSURWHFWHG
ZKHQWKHSUHYLRXVLQKHULWDQFHVFHQDULRVDUHQ¦WDIDFWRU
)LUVW OHW¦V VWDUW ZLWK WKH PRVW UHVWULFWLYH YLVLELOLW\ private[this] DV LW DIIHFWV W\SH
PHPEHUV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-this-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private[this] val privateField1: Int) {
private[this] val privateField2 = 1

def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =

(privateField1 == other.privateField1) && // ERROR
(privateField2 == other.privateField2) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
private[this] val nestedField = 1
}

private[this] val nested = new Nested

}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateField2 // ERROR
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
5: error: value privateField1 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
^
14: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
15: error: not found: value privateField2
val field2 = privateField2
^

104 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 16: error: value nestedField is not a member of PrivateClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
20: error: value privateField1 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
21: error: value privateField2 is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2
^
22: error: value nested is not a member of scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
7 errors found

/LQHV¡DOVRZRQ¦WSDUVH6LQFHWKH\DUHSDUWRIWKHH[SUHVVLRQWKDW
VWDUWHGRQOLQHWKHFRPSLOHUVWRSSHGDIWHUWKHILUVWHUURU

7KHprivate[this]PHPEHUVDUHRQO\YLVLEOHWRWKHVDPHLQVWDQFH$QLQVWDQFHRIWKH
VDPHFODVVFDQ¦WVHH private[this]PHPEHUVRIDQRWKHULQVWDQFHVRWKH equalFields
PHWKRGZRQ¦WSDUVH
2WKHUZLVH WKH YLVLELOLW\ RI FODVV PHPEHUV LV WKH VDPH DV private ZLWKRXW D VFRSH
VSHFLILHU
:KHQGHFODULQJDW\SHZLWKprivate[this]XVHRIthisHIIHFWLYHO\ELQGVWRWKHHQFORVLQJ
SDFNDJHDVVKRZQKHUH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-this-pkg-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
private[this] class PrivateClass1

package scopeA2 {
private[this] class PrivateClass2
}

class PrivateClass3 extends PrivateClass1 // ERROR

protected class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1 // ERROR
private class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass1
private[this] class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass1

private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2 // ERROR

}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 // ERROR
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW

Visibility Rules | 105

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 8: error: private class PrivateClass1 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass1
class PrivateClass3 extends PrivateClass1
^
9: error: private class PrivateClass1 escapes its defining scope as part
of type scopeA.PrivateClass1
protected class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1
^
13: error: type PrivateClass2 is not a member of package scopeA.scopeA2
private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2
^
17: error: type PrivateClass1 is not a member of package scopeA
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1
^
four errors found

,QWKHVDPHSDFNDJHDWWHPSWLQJWRGHFODUHDpublicRUprotectedVXEFODVVIDLOV2QO\
privateDQG private[this]VXEFODVVHVDUHDOORZHG$OVR PrivateClass2LVVFRSHGWR
scopeA2VR\RXFDQ¦WGHFODUHLWRXWVLGHscopeA26LPLODUO\DQDWWHPSWWRGHFODUHDFODVV
LQXQUHODWHGscopeBXVLQJPrivateClass1DOVRIDLOV
+HQFHZKHQDSSOLHGWRW\SHV private[this]LVHTXLYDOHQWWR-DYD¦V package private
YLVLELOLW\
1H[WOHW¦VH[DPLQHW\SHOHYHOYLVLELOLW\private[T]ZKHUHTLVDW\SH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-type-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1(private[PrivateClass1] val privateField1: Int) {
private[PrivateClass1] val privateField2 = 1

def equalFields(other: PrivateClass1) =

(privateField1 == other.privateField1) &&
(privateField2 == other.privateField2) &&
(nested == other.nested)

class Nested {
private[Nested] val nestedField = 1
}

private[PrivateClass1] val nested = new Nested

val nestedNested = nested.nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1(1) {

val field1 = privateField1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateField2 // ERROR
val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1(1)
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1 // ERROR

106 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2 // ERROR
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
12: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass1.this.Nested
val nestedNested = nested.nestedField
^
15: error: not found: value privateField1
val field1 = privateField1
^
16: error: not found: value privateField2
val field2 = privateField2
^
17: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
21: error: value privateField1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField1 = privateClass1.privateField1
^
22: error: value privateField2 cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateField2 = privateClass1.privateField2
^
23: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
7 errors found

$ private[PrivateClass1] PHPEHU LV YLVLEOH WR RWKHU LQVWDQFHV VR WKH equalFields
PHWKRG QRZ SDUVHV +HQFH private[T] LV QRW DV UHVWULFWLYH DV private[this] 1RWH
WKDW PrivateClass1 FDQ¦W VHH Nested.nestedField EHFDXVH WKDW ILHOG LV GHFODUHG
private[Nested]

:KHQPHPEHUVRITDUHGHFODUHGprivate[T]WKHEHKDYLRULVHTXLYDOHQW
WR private ,W LV QRW HTXLYDOHQW WR private[this] ZKLFK LV PRUH
UHVWULFWLYH

:KDWLIZHFKDQJHWKHVFRSHRINested.nestedFieldWREHprivate[PrivateClass1]"/HW¦V
VHHKRZprivate[T]DIIHFWVQHVWHGW\SHV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-type-nested-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1 {
class Nested {
private[PrivateClass1] val nestedField = 1
}

private[PrivateClass1] val nested = new Nested

val nestedNested = nested.nestedField

Visibility Rules | 107

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 }

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1 {

val nField = new Nested().nestedField // ERROR
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField // ERROR
}
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
10: error: value nestedField cannot be accessed in PrivateClass2.this.Nested
def nField = new Nested().nestedField
^
14: error: value nested cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
^
two errors found

1RZnestedFieldLVYLVLEOHWRPrivateClass1EXWLWLVVWLOOLQYLVLEOHRXWVLGHRIPrivate
Class17KLVLVKRZprivateZRUNVLQ-DYD
/HW¦VH[DPLQHVFRSLQJXVLQJDSDFNDJHQDPH
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-pkg-type-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
private[scopeA] class PrivateClass1

package scopeA2 {
private [scopeA2] class PrivateClass2
private [scopeA] class PrivateClass3
}

class PrivateClass4 extends PrivateClass1

protected class PrivateClass5 extends PrivateClass1
private class PrivateClass6 extends PrivateClass1
private[this] class PrivateClass7 extends PrivateClass1

private[this] class PrivateClass8 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2 // ERROR

private[this] class PrivateClass9 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass3
}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 // ERROR
}

&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
14: error: class PrivateClass2 cannot be accessed in package scopeA.scopeA2
private[this] class PrivateClass8 extends scopeA2.PrivateClass2
^
19: error: class PrivateClass1 cannot be accessed in package scopeA

108 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1
^
two errors found

1RWHWKDWPrivateClass2FDQ¦WEHVXEFODVVHGRXWVLGHRIscopeA2EXWPrivateClass3FDQ
EHVXEFODVVHGLQscopeAEHFDXVHLWLVGHFODUHGprivate[scopeA]
)LQDOO\OHW¦VORRNDWWKHHIIHFWRISDFNDJHOHYHOVFRSLQJRIW\SHPHPEHUV
// code-examples/BasicOOP/scoping/private-pkg-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package scopeA {
class PrivateClass1 {
private[scopeA] val privateField = 1

class Nested {
private[scopeA] val nestedField = 1
}

private[scopeA] val nested = new Nested

}

class PrivateClass2 extends PrivateClass1 {

val field = privateField
val nField = new Nested().nestedField
}

class PrivateClass3 {
val privateClass1 = new PrivateClass1
val privateField = privateClass1.privateField
val privateNField = privateClass1.nested.nestedField
}

package scopeA2 {
class PrivateClass4 {
private[scopeA2] val field1 = 1
private[scopeA] val field2 = 2
}
}

class PrivateClass5 {
val privateClass4 = new scopeA2.PrivateClass4
val field1 = privateClass4.field1 // ERROR
val field2 = privateClass4.field2
}
}

package scopeB {
class PrivateClass1B extends scopeA.PrivateClass1 {
val field1 = privateField // ERROR
val privateClass1 = new scopeA.PrivateClass1
val field2 = privateClass1.privateField // ERROR
}
}

Visibility Rules | 109

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&RPSLOLQJWKLVILOH\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
28: error: value field1 cannot be accessed in scopeA.scopeA2.PrivateClass4
val field1 = privateClass4.field1
^
35: error: not found: value privateField
val field1 = privateField
^
37: error: value privateField cannot be accessed in scopeA.PrivateClass1
val field2 = privateClass1.privateField
^
three errors found

7KHRQO\HUURUVDUHZKHQZHDWWHPSWWRDFFHVVPHPEHUVVFRSHGWR scopeAIURPWKH
XQUHODWHG SDFNDJH scopeB DQG ZKHQ ZH DWWHPSW WR DFFHVV D PHPEHU IURP D QHVWHG
SDFNDJHscopeA2WKDWLVVFRSHGWRWKDWSDFNDJH

:KHQDW\SHRUPHPEHULVGHFODUHGprivate[P]ZKHUHPLVWKHHQFORVLQJ
SDFNDJHWKHQLWLVHTXLYDOHQWWR-DYD¦Vpackage privateYLVLELOLW\

Final Thoughts on Visibility

6FDODYLVLELOLW\GHFODUDWLRQVDUHYHU\IOH[LEOHDQGWKH\EHKDYHFRQVLVWHQWO\7KH\SURYLGH
ILQHJUDLQHG FRQWURO RYHU YLVLELOLW\ DW DOO SRVVLEOH VFRSHV IURP WKH LQVWDQFH OHYHO
private[this]XSWRSDFNDJHOHYHOYLVLELOLW\private[P]IRUDSDFNDJHP)RUH[DP
SOH WKH\ PDNH LW HDVLHU WR FUHDWH £FRPSRQHQWV¤ ZLWK W\SHV H[SRVHG RXWVLGH RI WKH
FRPSRQHQW¦VWRSOHYHOSDFNDJHZKLOHKLGLQJLPSOHPHQWDWLRQW\SHVDQGW\SHPHPEHUV
ZLWKLQWKH£FRPSRQHQW¦V¤SDFNDJHV
)LQDOO\ZHKDYHREVHUYHGDSRWHQWLDO£JRWFKD¤ZLWKKLGGHQPHPEHUVRIWUDLWV

%HFDUHIXOZKHQFKRRVLQJWKHQDPHVRIPHPEHUVRIWUDLWV,IWZRWUDLWV
KDYHDPHPEHURIWKHVDPHQDPHDQGWKHWUDLWVDUHXVHGLQWKHVDPH
LQVWDQFHDQDPHFROOLVLRQZLOORFFXUHYHQLIERWKPHPEHUVDUHSULYDWH

)RUWXQDWHO\WKHFRPSLOHUFDWFKHVWKLVSUREOHP

Recap and What’s Next

:HLQWURGXFHGWKHEDVLFVRI6FDOD¦VREMHFWPRGHOLQFOXGLQJFRQVWUXFWRUVLQKHULWDQFH
QHVWLQJRIFODVVHVDQGUXOHVIRUYLVLELOLW\
,QWKHQH[WFKDSWHUZH¦OOH[SORUH6FDOD¦VPRUHDGYDQFHG223IHDWXUHVLQFOXGLQJRYHU
ULGLQJFRPSDQLRQREMHFWVFDVHFODVVHVDQGUXOHVIRUHTXDOLW\EHWZHHQREMHFWV

110 | Chapter 5:—Basic Object-Oriented Programming in Scala

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 CHAPTER 6
Advanced Object-Oriented
Programming In Scala

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Overriding Members of Classes and Traits

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111

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W\SHPLVVSHOOLQJVEXWLWFDQ¦WKHOSZLWKHUURUVRIWKHVHFRQGW\SHVLQFHXVLQJWKH
DQQRWDWLRQLVRSWLRQDO

Attempting to Override final Declarations

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LVSURKLELWHG,QWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHWKHfixedMethodLVGHFODUHGfinalLQWKHSDUHQW
FODVV$WWHPSWLQJWRFRPSLOHWKHH[DPSOHZLOOUHVXOWLQDFRPSLODWLRQHUURU
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/final-member-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE.

class NotFixed {
final def fixedMethod = "fixed"
}

class Changeable2 extends NotFixed {

override def fixedMethod = "not fixed" // ERROR
}

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FODVVFixedLVGHFODUHGfinalVRDQDWWHPSWWRGHULYHDQHZW\SHIURPLWZLOODOVRIDLOWR
FRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/final-class-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE.

final class Fixed {

def doSomething = "Fixed did something!"
}

class Changeable1 extends Fixed // ERROR

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OLNHStringDQGDOOWKH£YDOXH¤W\SHVGHULYHGIURPAnyValVHH£7KH6FDOD
7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJH

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VWDUWLQJZLWKPHWKRGV

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IRUHZHZLOOXVHDQHZSDFNDJHui3

112 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 'UDZLQJLVDFWXDOO\DFURVVFXWWLQJFRQFHUQ7KHVWDWHRIDWidgetLVRQH
WKLQJKRZLWLVUHQGHUHGRQGLIIHUHQWSODWIRUPVWKLFNFOLHQWVZHESDJHV
PRELOHGHYLFHVHWFLVDVHSDUDWHLVVXH6RGUDZLQJLVDYHU\JRRGFDQ
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WidgetKLHUDUFK\LWVHOI

+HUHLVWKHUHYLVHGWidgetFODVVZLWKdrawDQGtoStringPHWKRGV
// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/widget.scala

package ui3

abstract class Widget {

def draw(): Unit
override def toString() = "(widget)"
}

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overrideNH\ZRUGLVUHTXLUHGIRUWidget.toString
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/button.scala

package ui3

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}

def draw() = {
// Logic to draw the button on the display, web page, etc.
}

override def toString() =

"(button: label=" + label + ", " + super.toString() + ")"
}

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Button DOVR RYHUULGHV toString VR WKH override NH\ZRUG LV UHTXLUHG 1RWH WKDW
super.toStringLVFDOOHG

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 113

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super.toString ZLOO ILQG WKH £FORVHVW¤ SDUHQW W\SH toString DV GHWHUPLQHG E\ WKH
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WKLVFDVHVLQFHClickableGRHVQ¦WGHILQHtoStringWidget.toStringZLOOEHFDOOHG

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WHUQVHH>*2)@

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WLFXODULVVXHV

Overriding Abstract and Concrete Fields in Traits

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-val-script.scala
// DANGER! Silent failure to override a trait's "name" (V2.7.5 only).
// Works as expected in V2.8.0.

114 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 trait T1 {
val name = "T1"
}

class Base

class ClassWithT1 extends Base with T1 {

override val name = "ClassWithT1"
}

val c = new ClassWithT1()

println(c.name)

class ClassExtendsT1 extends T1 {

override val name = "ClassExtendsT1"
}

val c2 = new ClassExtendsT1()

println(c2.name)

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-abs-val-script.scala

trait AbstractT1 {
val name: String

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 115

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 }

class Base

class ClassWithAbstractT1 extends Base with AbstractT1 {

val name = "ClassWithAbstractT1"
}

val c = new ClassWithAbstractT1()

println(c.name)

class ClassExtendsAbstractT1 extends AbstractT1 {

val name = "ClassExtendsAbstractT1"
}

val c2 = new ClassExtendsAbstractT1()

println(c2.name)

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ClassWithAbstractT1
ClassExtendsAbstractT1

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-invalid-init-val-script.scala
// ERROR: "value" read before initialized.

trait AbstractT2 {
println("In AbstractT2:")
val value: Int
val inverse = 1.0/value // ???
println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}

val c2b = new AbstractT2 {

println("In c2b:")
val value = 10
}
println("c2b.value = "+c2b.value+", inverse = "+c2b.inverse)

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WUDLW7KLVVFULSWVKRZVZKDWKDSSHQVZKHQinverseLVFDOFXODWHG
In AbstractT2:
AbstractT2: value = 0, inverse = Infinity
In c2b:
c2b.value = 10, inverse = Infinity

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116 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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WKHprintln("In c2b:")VWDWHPHQW7KHQWU\SXWWLQJLWEDFNEXWDIWHUWKHval value =
10OLQH
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/trait-pre-init-val-script.scala

trait AbstractT2 {
println("In AbstractT2:")
val value: Int
val inverse = 1.0/value
println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}

val c2c = new {

// Only initializations are allowed in pre-init. blocks.
// println("In c2c:")
val value = 10
} with AbstractT2

println("c2c.value = "+c2c.value+", inverse = "+c2c.inverse)

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In AbstractT2:
AbstractT2: value = 10, inverse = 0.1
c2c.value = 10, inverse = 0.1

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Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 117

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 // code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/vetoable-clicks.scala

package ui3
import observer._

trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

var maxAllowed = 1 // default
private var count = 0
abstract override def click() = {
count += 1
if (count <= maxAllowed)
super.click()
}
}

+HUHLVDQHZspecsREMHFWButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec2WKDWGHPRQVWUDWHV
FKDQJLQJWKHYDOXHRImaxAllowed
// code-examples/AdvOOP/ui3/button-clickable-observer-vetoable2-spec.scala
package ui3

import org.specs._
import observer._
import ui.ButtonCountObserver

object ButtonClickableObserverVetoableSpec2 extends Specification {

"A Button Observer with Vetoable Clicks" should {
"observe only the first 'maxAllowed' clicks" in {
val observableButton =
new Button("Okay") with ObservableClicks with VetoableClicks {
maxAllowed = 2
}
observableButton.maxAllowed mustEqual 2
val buttonClickCountObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonClickCountObserver)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
buttonClickCountObserver.count mustEqual 2
}
}
}

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118 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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IRUWKHPDLQWDLQHURIVetoableClicks&RQWURORYHUWKDWILHOGLVQRZORVW7KHPDLQWDLQHU
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Overriding Abstract and Concrete Fields in Classes

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H[DPSOHZLWKERWKDvalRYHUULGHDQGDvarUHDVVLJQPHQWLQDGHULYHGFODVV
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/class-field-script.scala

class C1 {
val name = "C1"
var count = 0
}

class ClassWithC1 extends C1 {

override val name = "ClassWithC1"
count = 1
}

val c = new ClassWithC1()

println(c.name)
println(c.count)

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1

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/class-abs-field-script.scala

abstract class AbstractC1 {

val name: String
var count: Int
}

class ClassWithAbstractC1 extends AbstractC1 {

val name = "ClassWithAbstractC1"

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 119

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 var count = 1
}

val c = new ClassWithAbstractC1()

println(c.name)
println(c.count)

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1

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Overriding Abstract Types

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7\SHV¤RQSDJH5HFDOOWKHBulkReaderH[DPSOHIURPWKDWVHFWLRQ
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

type In = String
def read = source
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

type In = File
def read = {
val in = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(source))
val numBytes = in.available()
val bytes = new Array[Byte](numBytes)
in.read(bytes, 0, numBytes)
new String(bytes)
}
}

println( new StringBulkReader("Hello Scala!").read )

println( new FileBulkReader(new File("abstract-types-script.scala")).read )

120 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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YLGHDQDEVWUDFWLRQPHFKDQLVPDWWKHW\SHOHYHO
7KHH[DPSOHVKRZVKRZWRGHFODUHDQDEVWUDFWW\SHDQGKRZWRGHILQHDFRQFUHWHYDOXH
LQ GHULYHG FODVVHV BulkReader GHFODUHV type In ZLWKRXW LQLWLDOL]LQJ LW 7KH FRQFUHWH
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)LQDOO\\RXSUREDEO\QRWLFHGWKDWWKLVH[DPSOHDOVRGHPRQVWUDWHVGHILQLQJDQDEVWUDFW
ILHOGXVLQJDFRQVWUXFWRUSDUDPHWHUDQGDQDEVWUDFWPHWKRG
)RU DQRWKHU H[DPSOH OHW¦V UHYLVLW RXU Subject WUDLW IURP £7UDLWV $V 0L[
LQV¤RQSDJH7KHGHILQLWLRQRIWKHObserverW\SHLVDVWUXFWXUDOW\SHZLWKDPHWKRG
QDPHG receiveUpdate2EVHUYHUVPXVWKDYHWKLV£VWUXFWXUH¤/HW¦VJHQHUDOL]HWKHLP
SOHPHQWDWLRQQRZXVLQJDQDEVWUDFWW\SH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/observer2.scala

package observer

trait AbstractSubject {
type Observer

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (notify(_))

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit

}

trait SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer.receiveUpdate(this)

}

trait SubjectForFunctionalObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = (AbstractSubject) => Unit

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer(this)

}

1RZAbstractSubjectGHFODUHVtype ObserverDVDEVWUDFWLPSOLFLWO\EHFDXVHWKHUHLV

QRGHILQLWLRQ6LQFHWKHRULJLQDOVWUXFWXUDOW\SHLVJRQHZHGRQ¦WNQRZH[DFWO\KRZWR
QRWLI\DQREVHUYHU6RZHDOVRDGGHGDQDEVWUDFWPHWKRGnotifyZKLFKDFRQFUHWHFODVV
RUWUDLWZLOOGHILQHDVDSSURSULDWH

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 121

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VWUXFWXUDO W\SH ZH XVHG LQ WKH RULJLQDO H[DPSOH DQG notify VLPSO\ FDOOV
receiveUpdateDVEHIRUH
7KH SubjectForFunctionalObservers GHULYHG WUDLW GHILQHV Observer WR EH D IXQFWLRQ
WDNLQJDQLQVWDQFHRI AbstractSubjectDQGUHWXUQLQJ Unit$OO notifyKDVWRGRLVFDOO
WKHREVHUYHUIXQFWLRQSDVVLQJWKHVXEMHFWDVWKHVROHDUJXPHQW1RWHWKDWWKLVLPSOH
PHQWDWLRQLVVLPLODUWRWKHDSSURDFKZHXVHGLQRXURULJLQDOEXWWRQLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
ButtonWithCallbacksZKHUHWKH£FDOOEDFNV¤ZHUHXVHUVXSSOLHGIXQFWLRQV6HH£,QWUR
GXFLQJ 7UDLWV¤ RQ SDJH  DQG D UHYLVLWHG YHUVLRQ LQ £&RQVWUXFWRUV LQ 6FDOD¤
RQSDJH
+HUHLVDVSHFLILFDWLRQWKDWH[HUFLVHVWKHVHWZRYDULDWLRQVREVHUYLQJEXWWRQFOLFNVDV
EHIRUH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/button-observer2-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserver2Spec extends Specification {

"An Observer watching a SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers button" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton =
new Button(name) with SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers {
override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
val buttonObserver = new ButtonCountObserver
observableButton.addObserver(buttonObserver)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
buttonObserver.count mustEqual 3
}
}
"An Observer watching a SubjectForFunctionalObservers button" should {
"observe button clicks" in {
val observableButton =
new Button(name) with SubjectForFunctionalObservers {
override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers
}
}
var count = 0
observableButton.addObserver((button) => count += 1)
for (i <- 1 to 3) observableButton.click()
count mustEqual 3
}
}
}

122 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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GRQ¦WQHHGDQRWKHU£REVHUYHU¤LQVWDQFHDWDOO:HMXVWPDLQWDLQD countYDULDEOHDQG
SDVVDIXQFWLRQOLWHUDOWRaddObserverWRLQFUHPHQWWKHFRXQWDQGLJQRUHWKHEXWWRQ
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VSHFLDO LQVWDQFHV QR WUDLWV GHILQLQJ DEVWUDFWLRQV HWF )RU PDQ\ FDVHV LW LV DQ LGHDO
DSSURDFK
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LPSRVHVIHZHUFRQVWUDLQWVRQSRWHQWLDOREVHUYHUV

AbstractSubjectLOOXVWUDWHVWKDWDQDEVWUDFWLRQZLWKIHZHUFRQFUHWHGH
WDLOVLVXVXDOO\PRUHUHXVDEOH

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LQ£6FDODEOH$EVWUDFWLRQV¤RQSDJH

When Accessor Methods and Fields Are Indistinguishable: The Uniform

Access Principle
6XSSRVHDXVHURI ButtonCountObserverIURP£7UDLWV$V0L[LQV¤RQSDJHDFFHVVHV
WKHcountPHPEHU
// code-examples/Traits/ui/button-count-observer-script.scala

val bco = new ui.ButtonCountObserver

val oldCount = bco.count
bco.count = 5
val newCount = bco.count
println(newCount + " == 5 and " + oldCount + " == 0?")

:KHQWKHcountILHOGLVUHDGRUZULWWHQDVLQWKLVH[DPSOHDUHPHWKRGVFDOOHGRULVWKH
ILHOGDFFHVVHGGLUHFWO\"$VRULJLQDOO\GHFODUHGLQ ButtonCountObserverWKHILHOGLVDF
FHVVHGGLUHFWO\+RZHYHUWKHXVHUGRHVQ¦WUHDOO\FDUH,QIDFWWKHIROORZLQJWZRGHIL
QLWLRQVDUHIXQFWLRQDOO\HTXLYDOHQWIURPWKHSHUVSHFWLYHRIWKHXVHU
class ButtonCountObserver {
var count = 0 // public field access (original definition)
// ...
}
class ButtonCountObserver {
private var cnt = 0 // private field
def count = cnt // reader method
def count_=(newCount: Int) = cnt = newCount // writer method
// ...
}

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 123

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ILHOGYDOXHVDVLIWKH\DUHSXEOLFO\DFFHVVLEOHHYHQWKRXJKLQVRPHFDVHVWKH\DUHDFWXDOO\
FDOOLQJPHWKRGV7KHPDLQWDLQHURIButtonCountObserverKDVWKHIUHHGRPWRFKDQJHWKH
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VLVWHQF\LQWKHXVHRISDUHQWKHVHVLVUHTXLUHGLIDPHWKRGGHILQLWLRQRPLWVSDUHQWKHVHV
7KLVLVRQO\SRVVLEOHLIWKHPHWKRGWDNHVQRDUJXPHQWV)RUWKH8QLIRUP$FFHVV3ULQ
FLSOHWRZRUNZHZDQWWRGHILQHILHOGUHDGHUPHWKRGVZLWKRXWSDUHQWKHVHV&RQWUDVW
WKDWZLWK5XE\ZKHUHPHWKRGSDUHQWKHVHVDUHDOZD\VRSWLRQDODVORQJDVWKHSDUVHLV
XQDPELJXRXV
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DOORZVLQYRFDWLRQVRIPHWKRGVZLWKWKLVIRUPDWWREHZULWWHQLQHLWKHURIWKHIROORZLQJ
ZD\V
obj.field_=(newValue)
// or
obj.field = newValue

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PHWKRGQDPHVLQWKHVDPHQDPHVSDFHZKLFKPHDQVZHFDQ¦WQDPHWKHILHOGcountLID
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ZRXOGQRWFRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/member-namespace-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

class IllegalMemberNameUse {
def member(i: Int) = 2 * i
val member = 2 // ERROR
object member { // ERROR
def apply() = 2
}
}

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SDUDPHWHUOHVV PHWKRG WKHQ D VXEFODVV FDQ RYHUULGH WKDW PHWKRG ZLWK D val ,I WKH
SDUHQW¦VPHWKRGLVFRQFUHWHWKHQWKHoverrideNH\ZRUGLVUHTXLUHG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/method-field-class-script.scala

class Parent {
def name = "Parent"
}

124 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 class Child extends Parent {
override val name = "Child"
}

println(new Child().name) // => "Child"

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/abs-method-field-class-script.scala

abstract class AbstractParent {

def name: String
}

class ConcreteChild extends AbstractParent {

val name = "Child"
}

println(new ConcreteChild().name) // => "Child"

7KLVDOVRZRUNVIRUWUDLWV,IWKHWUDLW¦VPHWKRGLVFRQFUHWHZHKDYHWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/method-field-trait-script.scala

trait NameTrait {
def name = "NameTrait"
}

class ConcreteNameClass extends NameTrait {

override val name = "ConcreteNameClass"
}

println(new ConcreteNameClass().name) // => "ConcreteNameClass"

,IWKHWUDLW¦VPHWKRGLVDEVWUDFWZHKDYHWKHIROORZLQJ
// code-examples/AdvOOP/overrides/abs-method-field-trait-script.scala

trait AbstractNameTrait {
def name: String
}

class ConcreteNameClass extends AbstractNameTrait {

val name = "ConcreteNameClass"
}

println(new ConcreteNameClass().name) // => "ConcreteNameClass"

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WKHWLFDOPersonInterfaceIURPVRPHOHJDF\-DYDFRGH

Overriding Members of Classes and Traits | 125

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 class Person(val getName: String) extends PersonInterface

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Companion Objects
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126 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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Apply
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VWDQGDUGOLEUDU\
type Pair[+A, +B] = Tuple2[A, B]
object Pair {
def apply[A, B](x: A, y: B) = Tuple2(x, y)
def unapply[A, B](x: Tuple2[A, B]): Option[Tuple2[A, B]] = Some(x)
}

6R\RXFDQFUHDWHDQHZPairDVIROORZV
val p = Pair(1, "one")

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MHFWPairZKLFKWKHQFDOOVTuple2.applyRQWKHTuple2FRPSDQLRQREMHFW

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UHWXUQDQLQVWDQFHRIDVXEFODVVRIWKHFRPSDQLRQFODVV+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHZKHUHZH
GHILQHDFRPSDQLRQREMHFW WidgetWKDWXVHVUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQVWRSDUVHDVWULQJUHS
UHVHQWLQJDWidgetVXEFODVV:KHQDPDWFKRFFXUVWKHVXEFODVVLVLQVWDQWLDWHGDQGWKH
QHZLQVWDQFHLVUHWXUQHG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/widget.scala

package objects

abstract class Widget {

def draw(): Unit
override def toString() = "(widget)"
}

object Widget {
val ButtonExtractorRE = """\(button: label=([^,]+),\s+\(Widget\)\)""".r
val TextFieldExtractorRE = """\(textfield: text=([^,]+),\s+\(Widget\)\)""".r

def apply(specification: String): Option[Widget] = specification match {

Companion Objects | 127

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 case ButtonExtractorRE(label) => new Some(new Button(label))
case TextFieldExtractorRE(text) => new Some(new TextField(text))
case _ => None
}
}

Widget.applyUHFHLYHVDVWULQJ£VSHFLILFDWLRQ¤WKDWGHILQHVZKLFKFODVVWRLQVWDQWLDWH
7KHVWULQJPLJKWFRPHIURPDFRQILJXUDWLRQILOHZLWKZLGJHWVWRFUHDWHDWVWDUWXSIRU
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£([WHUQDO'6/VZLWK3DUVHU&RPELQDWRUV¤RQSDJH
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case ButtonExtractorRE(label) => new Some(new Button(label))

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VXFFHVVIXOLWH[WUDFWVWKHVXEVWULQJLQWKHILUVWFDSWXUHJURXSLQWKHUHJXODUH[SUHVVLRQ
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+HUHLVDspecsobjectWKDWH[HUFLVHVWidget.apply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/widget-apply-spec.scala

package objects
import org.specs._

object WidgetApplySpec extends Specification {

"Widget.apply with a valid widget specification string" should {
"return a widget instance with the correct fields set" in {
Widget("(button: label=click me, (Widget))") match {
case Some(w) => w match {
case b:Button => b.label mustEqual "click me"
case x => fail(x.toString())
}
case None => fail("None returned.")
}
Widget("(textfield: text=This is text, (Widget))") match {
case Some(w) => w match {
case tf:TextField => tf.text mustEqual "This is text"
case x => fail(x.toString())
}
case None => fail("None returned.")
}
}
}
"Widget.apply with an invalid specification string" should {
"return None" in {

128 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 Widget("(button: , (Widget)") mustEqual None
}
}
}

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GHVLJQSDWWHUQIURP>*2)@1HYHUWKHOHVVWKHH[DPSOHLOOXVWUDWHVKRZDQ apply
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val a = Array(1,2,3,4)
println(a(2)) // => 3

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ZLVHQRGLIIHUHQWIURPDQ\RWKHUPHWKRG<RXFDQRYHUORDGLW\RXFDQLQYRNHLWGLUHFWO\
HWF

Unapply
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XVHGWRH[WUDFWWKHFRQVWLWXHQWSDUWVRIDQLQVWDQFH3DWWHUQPDWFKLQJXVHVWKLVIHDWXUH
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unapplyPHWKRGVDUHFDOOHGH[WUDFWRUV
+HUHLVDQH[SDQGHGbutton.scalaZLWKDButtonobjectWKDWGHILQHVDQunapplyH[WUDFWRU
PHWKRG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/button.scala

package objects
import ui3.Clickable

class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {

Companion Objects | 129

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 def click() = {
// Logic to give the appearance of clicking a button...
}

def draw() = {
// Logic to draw the button on the display, web page, etc.
}

override def toString() = "(button: label="+label+", "+super.toString()+")"

}

object Button {
def unapply(button: Button) = Some(button.label)
}

Button.unapplyWDNHVDVLQJOHButtonDUJXPHQWDQGUHWXUQVDSomeZUDSSLQJWKH label
YDOXH7KLVGHPRQVWUDWHVWKHSURWRFROIRUunapplyPHWKRGV7KH\UHWXUQDSomeZUDS
SLQJWKHH[WUDFWHGILHOGV:H¦OOVHHKRZWRKDQGOHPRUHWKDQRQHILHOGLQDPRPHQW
+HUHLVDspecsobjectWKDWH[HUFLVHVButton.unapply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/button-unapply-spec.scala

package objects
import org.specs._

object ButtonUnapplySpec extends Specification {

"Button.unapply" should {
"match a Button object" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case Button(label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"match a RadioButton object" in {
val b = new RadioButton(false, "click me")
b match {
case Button(label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"not match a non-Button object" in {
val tf = new TextField("hello world!")
tf match {
case Button(label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"extract the Button's label" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case Button(label) => label mustEqual "click me"
case _ => fail()
}

130 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 }
"extract the RadioButton's label" in {
val rb = new RadioButton(false, "click me, too")
rb match {
case Button(label) => label mustEqual "click me, too"
case _ => fail()
}
}
}
}

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DFWXDOButtonLQVWDQFHVRULQVWDQFHVRIGHULYHGFODVVHVOLNHRadioButton
6LQFHunapplyWDNHVDButtonDUJXPHQWLQWKLVFDVHWKH6FDODUXQWLPHW\SHFKHFNVWKH
LQVWDQFHEHLQJPDWFKHG,WWKHQORRNVIRUDFRPSDQLRQREMHFWZLWKDQunapplyPHWKRG
DQGLQYRNHVWKDWPHWKRGSDVVLQJWKHLQVWDQFH7KHGHIDXOWFDVHFODXVHcase _LVLQYRNHG
IRUWKHLQVWDQFHVWKDWGRQ¦WW\SHFKHFNDVFRPSDWLEOH7KHSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJSURFHVVLV
IXOO\W\SHVDIH
7KHUHPDLQLQJH[DPSOHVinFODXVHVFRQILUPWKDWWKHFRUUHFWYDOXHVIRUWKHlabelDUH
H[WUDFWHG7KH6FDODUXQWLPHDXWRPDWLFDOO\H[WUDFWVWKHLWHPLQWKHSome
:KDWDERXWH[WUDFWLQJPXOWLSOHILHOGV")RUDIL[HGVHWRINQRZQILHOGVDSomeZUDSSLQJ
DTupleLVUHWXUQHGDVVKRZQLQWKLVXSGDWHGYHUVLRQRIRadioButton
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/radio-button.scala

package objects

/**
* Button with two states, on or off, like an old-style,
* channel-selection botton on a radio.
*/
class RadioButton(val on: Boolean, label: String) extends Button(label)

object RadioButton {
def unapply(button: RadioButton) = Some((button.on, button.label))
// equivalent to: = Some(Pair(button.on, button.label))
}

$SomeZUDSSLQJDPair(button.on, button.label)LVUHWXUQHG$VZHGLVFXVVLQ£7KH
3UHGHI2EMHFW¤RQSDJH PairLVDW\SHGHILQHGWREHHTXDOWR Tuple2+HUHLVWKH
FRUUHVSRQGLQJspecsobjectWKDWWHVWVLW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/radio-button-unapply-spec.scala

package objects
import org.specs._

object RadioButtonUnapplySpec extends Specification {

"RadioButton.unapply" should {
"should match a RadioButton object" in {
val b = new RadioButton(true, "click me")
b match {

Companion Objects | 131

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 case RadioButton(on, label) =>
case _ => fail()
}
}
"not match a Button (parent class) object" in {
val b = new Button("click me")
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"not match a non-RadioButton object" in {
val tf = new TextField("hello world!")
tf match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => fail()
case _ =>
}
}
"extract the RadioButton's on/off state and label" in {
val b = new RadioButton(true, "click me")
b match {
case RadioButton(on, label) => {
label mustEqual "click me"
on mustEqual true
}
case _ => fail()
}
}
}
}

Apply and UnapplySeq for Collections

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DERXWWKHUHVWRILW"
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WKRVHPHWKRGVIURP6FDOD¦VRZQListFODVV
def apply[A](xs: A*): List[A] = xs.toList

def unapplySeq[A](x: List[A]): Some[List[A]] = Some(x)

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SDUDPHWHUL]HG WR FRQVWUXFW D QHZ List[A] 6HH £8QGHUVWDQGLQJ 3DUDPHWHUL]HG
7\SHV¤RQSDJHIRUPRUHGHWDLOV0RVWRIWKHWLPHWKHW\SHSDUDPHWHUZLOOEH
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ALQVWDQFHVDVWKH\ZDQWLQFOXGLQJQRQH,QWHUQDOO\YDULDEOHDUJXPHQWOLVWVDUHVWRUHG
LQDQArray[A]ZKLFKLQKHULWVWKHtoListPHWKRGIURPIterableWKDWZHXVHGKHUH

132 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
 7KLVLVDKDQG\LGLRPIRU$3,ZULWHUV$FFHSWLQJYDULDEOHDUJXPHQWVWR
DIXQFWLRQFDQEHFRQYHQLHQWIRUXVHUVDQGFRQYHUWLQJWKHDUJXPHQWV
WRDListLVRIWHQLGHDOIRULQWHUQDOPDQDJHPHQW

+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHVFULSWWKDWXVHVList.applyLPSOLFLWO\
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/list-apply-example-script.scala

val list1 = List()

val list2 = List(1, 2.2, "three", 'four)
val list3 = List("1", "2.2", "three", "four")
println("1: "+list1)
println("2: "+list2)
println("3: "+list3)

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LQ5XE\IRUH[DPSOHZKHUHWKHVDPHV\PEROZRXOGEHZULWWHQDV:four6\PEROVDUH
XVHIXOIRUUHSUHVHQWLQJLGHQWLWLHVFRQVLVWHQWO\
7KLVVFULSW\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
1: List()
2: List(1, 2.2, three, 'four)
3: List(1, 2.2, three, four)

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WKLVLVVXIILFLHQWIRUSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJDVVKRZQLQWKLVH[DPSOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/list-unapply-example-script.scala

val list = List(1, 2.2, "three", 'four)

list match {
case List(x, y, _*) => println("x = "+x+", y = "+y)
case _ => throw new Exception("No match! "+list)
}

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DQGWKHILUVWWZRHOHPHQWVZLOOEHDVVLJQHGWRxDQGy:HGRQ¦WFDUHDERXWWKHUHVWRI
WKHOLVW7KH_*PDWFKHV]HURRUPRUHUHPDLQLQJHOHPHQWV
7KHRXWSXWLVWKHIROORZLQJ
x = 1, y = 2.2

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3URJUDPPLQJ¤RQSDJH

Companion Objects and Java Static Methods

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mainPHWKRGWRXVHDVWKHHQWU\SRLQWIRUDQDSSOLFDWLRQ6FDODUHTXLUHV\RXWRSXWLWLQ
DQREMHFW+RZHYHUDWWKHWLPHRIWKLVZULWLQJ mainPHWKRGVFDQQRWEHGHILQHGLQD

Companion Objects | 133

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FRPSDQLRQREMHFW%HFDXVHRILPSOHPHQWDWLRQGHWDLOVLQWKHJHQHUDWHGFRGHWKH-90
ZRQ¦WILQGWKH mainPHWKRG7KLVLVVXHPD\EHUHVROYHGLQDIXWXUHUHOHDVH)RUQRZ
\RXPXVWGHILQHDQ\mainPHWKRGLQDVLQJOHWRQREMHFWLHD£QRQFRPSDQLRQ¤REMHFW
VHH>6FDOD7LSV@&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHRIDVLPSOH PersonFODVVDQGFRP
SDQLRQREMHFWWKDWDWWHPSWVWRGHILQHmain
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/person.scala

package objects

class Person(val name: String, val age: Int) {

override def toString = "name: " + name + ", age: " + age
}

object Person {
def apply(name: String, age: Int) = new Person(name, age)
def unapply(person: Person) = Some((person.name, person.age))

def main(args: Array[String]) = {

// Test the constructor...
val person = new Person("Buck Trends", 18)
assert(person.name == "Buck Trends")
assert(person.age == 21)
}
}

object PersonTest {
def main(args: Array[String]) = Person.main(args)
}

7KLVFRGHFRPSLOHVILQHEXWLI\RXDWWHPSWWRLQYRNHPerson.mainXVLQJscala -cp ...

objects.Person\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
java.lang.NoSuchMethodException: objects.Person.main([Ljava.lang.String;)

7KH objects/Person.classILOHH[LVWV,I\RXGHFRPSLOHLWZLWK javap -classpath ...

objects.Person UHIHU WR £7KH VFDODS MDYDS DQG MDG &RPPDQG/LQH
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FRPSLOHobjects/Person$.classWKHILOHIRUWKHFRPSDQLRQREMHFW¦VE\WHFRGHLWKDVD
mainPHWKRGEXWQRWLFHWKDWLWLVQ¦WGHFODUHG static6RDWWHPSWLQJWRLQYRNH scala
-cp ... objects.Person$DOVRIDLOVWRILQGWKH£VWDWLF¤main
java.lang.NoSuchMethodException: objects.Person$.main is not static

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FRPSLOLQJLWZLWKjavap -classpath ... objects.PersonTestVKRZVWKDWLWKDVDstatic
mainPHWKRG,I\RXLQYRNHLWXVLQJ scala -cp ... objects.PersonTestWKH PersonT
est.mainPHWKRGLVLQYRNHGZKLFKLQWXUQLQYRNHVPerson.main<RXJHWDQDVVHUWLRQ
HUURUIURPWKHVHFRQGFDOOWRassertZKLFKLVLQWHQWLRQDO
java.lang.AssertionError: assertion failed
at scala.Predef$.assert(Predef.scala:87)
at objects.Person$.test(person.scala:15)

134 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 at objects.PersonTest$.main(person.scala:20)
at objects.PersonTest.main(person.scala)
...

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EHYLVLEOHWR-DYDFRGHDVVWDWLFPHWKRGV7KH\DUHQ¦WVWDWLFLQWKHE\WHFRGH<RXKDYH
WRSXWWKHVHPHWKRGVLQVLQJOHWRQREMHFWVLQVWHDG&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJ-DYDFODVV
WKDWDWWHPSWVWRFUHDWHDXVHUZLWKPerson.apply
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java
// WON'T COMPILE

package objects;

public class PersonUserWontCompile {

public static void main(String[] args) {
Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100); // ERROR
System.out.println(buck);
}
}

,IZHFRPSLOHLWDIWHUFRPSLOLQJPerson.scalaZHJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU

$ javac -classpath ... objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java
objects/PersonUserWontCompile.java:5: cannot find symbol
symbol : method apply(java.lang.String,int)
location: class objects.Person
Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100);
^
1 error

+RZHYHUZHFDQXVHWKHIROORZLQJVLQJOHWRQREMHFW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/person-factory.scala

package objects

object PersonFactory {
def make(name: String, age: Int) = new Person(name, age)
}

1RZWKHIROORZLQJ-DYDFODVVZLOOFRPSLOH
// code-examples/AdvOOP/objects/PersonUser.java

package objects;

public class PersonUser {

public static void main(String[] args) {
// The following line won't compile.
// Person buck = Person.apply("Buck Trends", 100);
Person buck = PersonFactory.make("Buck Trends", 100);
System.out.println(buck);
}
}

Companion Objects | 135

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 'RQRWGHILQHmainRUDQ\RWKHUPHWKRGLQDFRPSDQLRQREMHFWWKDWQHHGV
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Case Classes
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&DVHFODVVHVKDYHVHYHUDOXVHIXOIHDWXUHVEXWDOVRVRPHGUDZEDFNV
/HW¦VUHZULWHWKH ShapeH[DPSOHZHXVHGLQ£$7DVWHRI&RQFXUUHQF\¤RQSDJHWR
XVHFDVHFODVVHV+HUHLVWKHRULJLQDOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
// code-examples/IntroducingScala/shapes.scala

package shapes {
class Point(val x: Double, val y: Double) {
override def toString() = "Point(" + x + "," + y + ")"
}

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

class Circle(val center: Point, val radius: Double) extends Shape {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() = "Circle(" + center + "," + radius + ")"
}

class Rectangle(val lowerLeft: Point, val height: Double, val width: Double)
extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Rectangle(" + lowerLeft + "," + height + "," + width + ")"
}

class Triangle(val point1: Point, val point2: Point, val point3: Point)
extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
override def toString() =
"Triangle(" + point1 + "," + point2 + "," + point3 + ")"
}
}

+HUHLVWKHH[DPSOHUHZULWWHQXVLQJWKHcaseNH\ZRUG
// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case.scala

package shapes {

136 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
}

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example1-script.scala

import shapes._

val shapesList = List(

Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 1.0),
Circle(Point(5.0, 2.0), 3.0),
Rectangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2, 5),
Rectangle(Point(-2.0, -1.0), 4, 3),
Triangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.0, 1.0)))

val shape1 = shapesList.head // grab the first one.

println("shape1: "+shape1+". hash = "+shape1.hashCode)
for (shape2 <- shapesList) {
println("shape2: "+shape2+". 1 == 2 ? "+(shape1 == shape2))
}

Case Classes | 137

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7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
shape1: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0). hash = 2061963534
shape2: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),1.0). 1 == 2 ? true
shape2: Circle(Point(5.0,2.0),3.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Rectangle(Point(-2.0,-1.0),4.0,3.0). 1 == 2 ? false
shape2: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0)). 1 == 2 ? false

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example2-script.scala

import shapes._

val shapesList = List(

Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 1.0),
Circle(Point(5.0, 2.0), 3.0),
Rectangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2, 5),
Rectangle(Point(-2.0, -1.0), 4, 3),
Triangle(Point(0.0, 0.0), Point(1.0, 0.0), Point(0.0, 1.0)))

def matchOn(shape: Shape) = shape match {

case Circle(center, radius) =>
println("Circle: center = "+center+", radius = "+radius)
case Rectangle(ll, h, w) =>
println("Rectangle: lower-left = "+ll+", height = "+h+", width = "+w)
case Triangle(p1, p2, p3) =>
println("Triangle: point1 = "+p1+", point2 = "+p2+", point3 = "+p3)
case _ =>
println("Unknown shape!"+shape)
}

138 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 shapesList.foreach { shape => matchOn(shape) }

7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
Circle: center = Point(0.0,0.0), radius = 1.0
Circle: center = Point(5.0,2.0), radius = 3.0
Rectangle: lower-left = Point(0.0,0.0), height = 2.0, width = 5.0
Rectangle: lower-left = Point(-2.0,-1.0), height = 4.0, width = 3.0
Triangle: point1 = Point(0.0,0.0), point2 = Point(1.0,0.0), point3 = Point(0.0,1.0)

Syntactic Sugar for Binary Operations

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def processList(l: List[Any]): Unit = l match {
case head :: tail => ...
...
}

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case head :: tail => ...
case ::(head, tail) => ...

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def matchOn(shape: Shape) = shape match {
case center Circle radius => ...
case ll Rectangle (h, w) => ...
case p1 Triangle (p2, p3) => ...
case _ => ...
}

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case arg Foo () => ...

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Case Classes | 139

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The copy Method in Scala Version 2.8
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LGHQWLFDOWRDQRWKHULQVWDQFHZLWKDIHZILHOGVFKDQJHG&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
VFULSW
// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-usage-example3-v28-script.scala
// Scala version 2.8 only.

import shapes._

val circle1 = Circle(Point(0.0, 0.0), 2.0)

val circle2 = circle1 copy (radius = 4.0)

println(circle1)
println(circle2)

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case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {
...
def copy(center: Point = this.center, radius: Double = this.radius) =
new Circle(center, radius)
}

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H[SOLFLWO\

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WKLVILHOGLQShape/HW¦VPDNHWKHVHWZRFKDQJHVWRShape
abstract case class Shape(id: String) {
def draw(): Unit
}

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140 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 case class Circle(id: String, center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape(id){
def draw(): Unit
}

+RZHYHULI\RXFRPSLOHWKLVFRGH\RX¦OOJHWHUURUVOLNHWKHIROORZLQJ
... error: error overriding value id in class Shape of type String;
value id needs `override' modifier
case class Circle(id: String, center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape(id){
^

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case-id.scala

package shapesid {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

abstract case class Shape(id: String) {

def draw(): Unit
}

case class Circle(override val id: String, center: Point, radius: Double)
extends Shape(id) {
def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Rectangle(override val id: String, lowerLeft: Point,

height: Double, width: Double) extends Shape(id) {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Triangle(override val id: String, point1: Point,

point2: Point, point3: Point) extends Shape(id) {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
}

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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case-equals-ambiguity-script.scala

import shapesid._

case class FancyCircle(name: String, override val id: String,

override val center: Point, override val radius: Double)
extends Circle(id, center, radius) {
override def draw() = println("FancyCircle.draw: " + this)

Case Classes | 141

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 }

val fc = FancyCircle("me", "circle", Point(0.0,0.0), 10.0)

val c = Circle("circle", Point(0.0,0.0), 10.0)
format("FancyCircle == Circle? %b\n", (fc == c))
format("Circle == FancyCircle? %b\n", (c == fc))

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FancyCircle == Circle? false
Circle == FancyCircle? true

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142 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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The equals Method
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scala> Array(1, 2) == Array(1, 2)
res0: Boolean = false

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Equality of Objects | 143

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144 | Chapter 6:—Advanced Object-Oriented Programming In Scala

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 CHAPTER 7
The Scala Object System

The Predef Object

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Values Map, Set.

145

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 Objects Pair, Triple.
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146 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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val stateCapitals = Map(
"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
// ...
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")
// ...

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The Predef Object | 147

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IRUWHVWVDQGWKHPairW\SHDQGLWVFRPSDQLRQREMHFWZKLFKZHH[SORUHGLQ£7KH3UHGHI
2EMHFW¤RQSDJH
type Pair[+A, +B] = Tuple2[A, B]
object Pair {
def apply[A, B](x: A, y: B) = Tuple2(x, y)
def unapply[A, B](x: Tuple2[A, B]): Option[Tuple2[A, B]] = Some(x)
}

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Classes and Objects: Where Are the Statics? | 149

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Package Objects
6FDODYHUVLRQLQWURGXFHVDQHZVFRSLQJFRQVWUXFWFDOOHGSDFNDJHREMHFWV7KH\DUH
XVHGWRGHILQHW\SHVYDULDEOHVDQGPHWKRGVWKDWDUHYLVLEOHDWWKHOHYHORIWKHFRUUH
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EHIRUHWKHILQDOYHUVLRQLVUHOHDVHG
package object scala {
type Iterable[+A] = scala.collection.Iterable[A]
val Iterable = scala.collection.Iterable

@deprecated("use Iterable instead") type Collection[+A] = Iterable[A]

@deprecated("use Iterable instead") val Collection = Iterable

type Seq[+A] = scala.collection.Sequence[A]

val Seq = scala.collection.Sequence

type RandomAccessSeq[+A] = scala.collection.Vector[A]

val RandomAccessSeq = scala.collection.Vector

type Iterator[+A] = scala.collection.Iterator[A]

val Iterator = scala.collection.Iterator

type BufferedIterator[+A] = scala.collection.BufferedIterator[A]

type List[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.List[A]

val List = scala.collection.immutable.List

val Nil = scala.collection.immutable.Nil

type ::[A] = scala.collection.immutable.::[A]

val :: = scala.collection.immutable.::

type Stream[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.Stream[A]

val Stream = scala.collection.immutable.Stream

type StringBuilder = scala.collection.mutable.StringBuilder

val StringBuilder = scala.collection.mutable.StringBuilder
}

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1RWHWKDWSDLUVRIGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHtype List[+] = ...DQGval List = ...DUHHIIHF
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REMHFW
package scala {
object toplevel {
...
type List[+A] = scala.collection.immutable.List[A]
val List = scala.collection.immutable.List
...
}
}

...
import scala.toplevel._
...

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PHQWDWLRQGHWDLOV

Sealed Class Hierarchies

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HYHULW¦VQRWDOZD\VSRVVLEOHWRGHILQHUHDVRQDEOHEHKDYLRUIRUWKHGHIDXOWFDVH
7KHUHLVDQDOWHUQDWLYHVROXWLRQLI\RXNQRZWKDWWKHFDVHFODVVKLHUDUFK\LVXQOLNHO\WR
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Sealed Class Hierarchies | 151

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-script.scala

sealed abstract class HttpMethod()

case class Connect(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Delete (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Get (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Head (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Options(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Post (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Put (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Trace (body: String) extends HttpMethod

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect (body) => println("connect: " + body)
case Delete (body) => println("delete: " + body)
case Get (body) => println("get: " + body)
case Head (body) => println("head: " + body)
case Options (body) => println("options: " + body)
case Post (body) => println("post: " + body)
case Put (body) => println("put: " + body)
case Trace (body) => println("trace: " + body)
}

val methods = List(

Connect("connect body..."),
Delete ("delete body..."),
Get ("get body..."),
Head ("head body..."),
Options("options body..."),
Post ("post body..."),
Put ("put body..."),
Trace ("trace body..."))

methods.foreach { method => handle(method) }

7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
connect: connect body...
delete: delete body...
get: get body...
head: head body...
options: options body...
post: post body...
put: put body...
trace: trace body...

152 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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1RGHIDXOWFDVHLVQHFHVVDU\VLQFHZHFRYHUDOOWKHSRVVLELOLWLHV&RQYHUVHO\LI\RXRPLW
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FRPPHQWRXWWKHFDVHIRUPut\RXJHWWKLVZDUQLQJ
warning: match is not exhaustive!
missing combination Put

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

...

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IRUDQDSSURSULDWHGHILQLWLRQRI£IUHTXHQWO\¤

)LQDOO\\RXPD\KDYHQRWLFHGVRPHGXSOLFDWLRQLQWKHH[DPSOH$OOWKHFRQFUHWHFODVVHV
KDYHDbodyILHOG:K\GLGQ¦WZHSXWWKDWILHOGLQWKHSDUHQWHttpMethodFODVV"%HFDXVH
ZHGHFLGHGWRXVHFDVHFODVVHVIRUWKHFRQFUHWHFODVVHVZH¦OOUXQLQWRWKHVDPHSUREOHP
ZLWK FDVH FODVV LQKHULWDQFH WKDW ZH GLVFXVVHG LQ £&DVH &ODVV ,QKHUL
WDQFH¤RQSDJHZKHUHZHDGGHGDVKDUHGidILHOGLQWKHShapeKLHUDUFK\:HQHHG
WKHbodyDUJXPHQWIRUHDFK+773PHWKRG¦VFRQVWUXFWRU\HWLWZLOOEHPDGHDILHOGRI
HDFKPHWKRGW\SHDXWRPDWLFDOO\6RZHZRXOGKDYHWRXVHWKHoverride valWHFKQLTXH
ZHGHPRQVWUDWHGSUHYLRXVO\
:HFRXOGUHPRYHWKHFDVHNH\ZRUGVDQGLPSOHPHQWWKHPHWKRGVDQGFRPSDQLRQRE
MHFWVWKDWZHQHHG+RZHYHULQWKLVFDVHWKHGXSOLFDWLRQLVPLQLPDODQGWROHUDEOH
:KDWLIZHZDQWWRXVHFDVHFODVVHV\HWDOVRUHIHUHQFHWKH bodyILHOGLQ HttpMethod"
)RUWXQDWHO\ZHNQRZWKDW6FDODZLOOJHQHUDWHDbodyUHDGHUPHWKRGLQHYHU\FRQFUHWH
VXEFODVVDVORQJDVZHXVHWKHQDPHbodyFRQVLVWHQWO\6RZHFDQGHFODUHWKDWPHWKRG
DEVWUDFWLQHttpMethodWKHQXVHLWDVZHVHHILW7KHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHGHPRQVWUDWHV
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-body-script.scala

sealed abstract class HttpMethod() {

def body: String
def bodyLength = body.length

Sealed Class Hierarchies | 153

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 }

case class Connect(body: String) extends HttpMethod

case class Delete (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Get (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Head (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Options(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Post (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Put (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Trace (body: String) extends HttpMethod

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect (body) => println("connect: " + body)
case Delete (body) => println("delete: " + body)
case Get (body) => println("get: " + body)
case Head (body) => println("head: " + body)
case Options (body) => println("options: " + body)
case Post (body) => println("post: " + body)
case Put (body) => println("put: " + body)
case Trace (body) => println("trace: " + body)
}

val methods = List(

Connect("connect body..."),
Delete ("delete body..."),
Get ("get body..."),
Head ("head body..."),
Options("options body..."),
Post ("post body..."),
Put ("put body..."),
Trace ("trace body..."))

methods.foreach { method =>

handle(method)
println("body length? " + method.bodyLength)
}

:HGHFODUHGbodyDEVWUDFWLQHttpMethod:HDGGHGDVLPSOHbodyLengthPHWKRGWKDW
FDOOVbody7KHORRSDWWKHHQGRIWKHVFULSWFDOOV bodyLength5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWSUR
GXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
connect: connect body...
body length? 15
delete: delete body...
body length? 14
get: get body...
body length? 11
head: head body...
body length? 12
options: options body...
body length? 15
post: post body...
body length? 12
put: put body...
body length? 11

154 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 trace: trace body...
body length? 13

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FKLHVKDYHYHU\XVHIXOSURSHUWLHVEXWWKH\DUHQ¦WVXLWDEOHIRUDOOVLWXDWLRQV

The Scala Type Hierarchy

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O\LQJ£UXQWLPH¤LVGLVFXVVHGWKHSRLQWVPDGHDSSO\HTXDOO\WRWKH-90DQGWKH1(7
&/5H[FHSWZKHUHQRWHG

The Scala Type Hierarchy | 155

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7DEOH$Q\$Q\9DODQG$Q\5HI
Name Parent Description
Any none The root of the hierarchy. Defines a few final methods like ==, !=, isInstanceOf[T] (for type
checking), and asInstanceOf[T] (for type casting), as well as default versions of equals,
hashCode, and toString, which are designed to be overridden by subclasses.
AnyVal Any The parent of all value types, which correspond to the primitive types on the runtime platform, plus
Unit. All the AnyVal instances are immutable value instances, and all the AnyVal types are
abstract final. Hence, none of them can be instantiated with new. Rather, new instances are
created with literal values (e.g., 3.14 for a Double) or by calling methods on instances that return
new values.
AnyRef Any The parent of all reference types, including all java.* and scala.* types. It is equivalent to
java.lang.Object for the JVM and object (System.Object) for the .NET runtime. Instances
of reference types are created with new.

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7DEOH'LUHFWVXEW\SHVRI$Q\9DOWKHYDOXHW\SHV
Name Runtime primitive type
Boolean Boolean (true and false).
Byte Byte.
Char Char.
Short Short.
Int Int.
Long Long.
Float Float.
Double Double.
Unit Serves the same role as void in most imperative languages. Used primarily as a function return value.
There is only one instance of Unit, named (). Think of it as a tuple with zero items.

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Name Parent Description
Collection[+T] Iterable[T] Trait for collections of known size.
Either[+T1, +T2] AnyRef Used most often as a return type when a method could return an instance
of one of two unrelated types. For example, an exception or a “successful”
result. The Either can be pattern matched for its Left or Right
subtypes. (It is analogous to Option, with Some and None.) For the

156 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 Name Parent Description
exception-handling idiom, it is conventional to use Left for the
exception.
FunctionN[-T1, -T2, AnyRef Trait representing a function that takes N arguments, each of which can
..., -TN, +R] have its own type, and returns a value of type R. (Traits are defined for
N = 0 to 22.) The variance annotations (+ and -) in front of the types will
be explained in “Variance Under Inheritance” on page 251.
Iterable[+T] AnyRef Trait with methods for operating on collections of instances. Users
implement the abstract elements method to return an Iterable
instance.
List[+T] Seq[T] sealed abstract class for ordered collections with functional-
style list semantics. It is the most widely used collection in Scala, so it is
defined in the scala package, rather than one of the collection packages.
(In Scala version2.8, it is actually defined in scala.collec
tion.immutable and “aliased” in package object scala). It
has two subclasses, case object Nil, which extends List[Noth
ing] and represents an empty list, and case final class ::
[T], which represents a non-empty list, characterized by a head element
and a tail list, which would be Nil for a one-element list.
Nothing All other types Nothing is the subtype of all other types. It has no instances. It is used
primarily for defining other types in a type-safe way, such as the special
List subtype Nil. See also “Nothing and Null” on page 267.
Null All reference types Null has one instance, null, corresponding to the runtime’s concept
of null.
Option[T] Product Wraps an optional item. It is a sealed abstract type and the only
allowed instances are an instance of its derived case class
Some[T], wrapping an instance of T, or its derived case object
None, which extends Option[Nothing].
Predef AnyRef An object that defines and imports many commonly used types and
methods. See “The Predef Object” on page 145 for details.
Product AnyRef Trait with methods for determining arity and getting the nth item in a
“Cartesian product.” Subtraits are defined for Product, called
ProductN, for dimension N from 1 through 22.
ScalaObject AnyRef Mixin trait added to all Scala reference type instances.
Seq[+T] Collection[T] Trait for ordered collections.
TupleN ProductN Separate case classes for arity N = 1 through 22. Tuples support the
literal syntax (x1, x2, ..., xN).

%HVLGHV ListVRPHRIWKHRWKHUOLEUDU\FROOHFWLRQVLQFOXGH Map Set QueueDQG Stack

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FROOHFWLRQVDUHLQWKHSDFNDJH scala.collection.immutableZKLOHWKHPXWDEOHFROOHF
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The Scala Type Hierarchy | 157

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)RUH[DPSOHWKH byteWrapperPHWKRGFRQYHUWVD ByteWRD scala.runtime.RichByte
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/typehierarchy/either-script.scala

def exceptionToLeft[T](f: => T): Either[java.lang.Throwable, T] = try {

Right(f)
} catch {
case ex => Left(ex)
}

def throwsOnOddInt(i: Int) = i % 2 match {

case 0 => i
case 1 => throw new RuntimeException(i + " is odd!")
}

for(i <- 0 to 3)
exceptionToLeft(throwsOnOddInt(i)) match {
case Left(ex) => println("Oops, got exception " + ex.toString)
case Right(x) => println(x)
}

7KH exceptionToLeftPHWKRGHYDOXDWHV f,WFDWFKHVD ThrowableDQGUHWXUQVLWDVWKH

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0
Oops, got exception java.lang.RuntimeException: 1 is odd!
2
Oops, got exception java.lang.RuntimeException: 3 is odd!

158 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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$ FunctionNWUDLWZKHUH NLVWRLVLQVWDQWLDWHGIRUDQDQRQ\PRXVIXQFWLRQZLWK
NDUJXPHQWV6RFRQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJDQRQ\PRXVIXQFWLRQ
(t1: T1, ..., tN: TN) => new R(...)

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new FunctionN {
def apply(t1: T1, ..., tN: TN): R = new R(...)

// other methods
}

:H¦OOUHYLVLW FunctionNLQ£9DULDQFH8QGHU,QKHULWDQFH¤RQSDJHDQG£)XQFWLRQ
7\SHV¤RQSDJH

Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy

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PL[HGLQWUDLWV:KHQWUDLWVDUHFRQVLGHUHGHDFKRIZKLFKPD\EHGHULYHGIURPRWKHU
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization1-script.scala

class C1 {
def m = List("C1")
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T1" :: super.m }
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T2" :: super.m }
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T3" :: super.m }
}

class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m = { "C2" :: super.m }
}

val c2 = new C2
println(c2.m)

Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 159

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5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSW\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1)

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WKHHQGRIWKHOLVW)LUVWOHW¦VVHHZKDWWKHLQYRFDWLRQVHTXHQFHRIWKHFRQVWUXFWRUVORRNV
OLNH
// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization2-script.scala

var clist = List[String]()

class C1 {
clist ::= "C1"
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
clist ::= "T1"
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
clist ::= "T2"
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
clist ::= "T3"
}

class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

clist ::= "C2"
}

val c2 = new C2
println(clist.reverse)

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List(C1, T1, T2, T3, C2)

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List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

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160 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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7KH£YDOXHW\SHV¤VXEFODVVHVRIAnyValDUHDOOGHFODUHGabstract final7KHFRPSLOHU
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LQVWDQFHLVRIWKDWW\SHC2.mFDOOVsuper.mZKLFKUHVROYHVWRT3.m7KHVHDUFKDSSHDUV
WREHEUHDGWKILUVWUDWKHUWKDQGHSWKILUVW,ILWZHUHGHSWKILUVWLWZRXOGLQYRNH C1.m
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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization3-script.scala

class C1 {
def m(previous: String) = List("C1("+previous+")")
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m(p: String) = { "T1" :: super.m("T1") }
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
override def m(p: String) = { "T2" :: super.m("T2") }
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
override def m(p: String) = { "T3" :: super.m("T3") }
}

class C2 extends T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m(p: String) = { "C2" :: super.m("C2") }
}

val c2 = new C2
println(c2.m(""))

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FDOOHGLW5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSW\LHOGVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
List(C2, T3, T2, T1, C1(T1))

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LVJLYHQLQ>6FDOD6SHF@

Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 161

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 Linearization Algorithm for Reference Types
 3XWWKHDFWXDOW\SHRIWKHLQVWDQFHDVWKHILUVWHOHPHQW
 6WDUWLQJZLWKWKHULJKWPRVWSDUHQWW\SHDQGZRUNLQJOHIWFRPSXWHWKHOLQHDUL]DWLRQ
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ScalaObjectAnyRefDQGAnyIRUQRZ
 :RUNLQJIURPOHIWWRULJKWUHPRYHDQ\W\SHLILWDSSHDUVDJDLQWRWKHULJKWRIWKH
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 $SSHQGScalaObjectAnyRefDQGAny

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// code-examples/ObjectSystem/linearization/linearization4-script.scala

class C1 {
def m = List("C1")
}

trait T1 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T1" :: super.m }
}

trait T2 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T2" :: super.m }
}

trait T3 extends C1 {
override def m = { "T3" :: super.m }
}

class C2A extends T2 {

override def m = { "C2A" :: super.m }
}

class C2 extends C2A with T1 with T2 with T3 {

override def m = { "C2" :: super.m }
}

def calcLinearization(obj: C1, name: String) = {

val lin = obj.m ::: List("ScalaObject", "AnyRef", "Any")
println(name + ": " + lin)
}

calcLinearization(new C2, "C2 ")

println("")
calcLinearization(new T3 {}, "T3 ")
calcLinearization(new T2 {}, "T2 ")

162 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 calcLinearization(new T1 {}, "T1 ")
calcLinearization(new C2A, "C2A")
calcLinearization(new C1, "C1 ")

7KHRXWSXWLVWKHIROORZLQJ
C2 : List(C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

T3 : List(T3, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

T2 : List(T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
T1 : List(T1, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
C2A: List(C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)
C1 : List(C1, ScalaObject, AnyRef, Any)

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# Linearization Description
1 C2 Add the type of the instance.
2 C2, T3, C1 Add the linearization for T3 (farthest on the right).
3 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1 Add the linearization for T2.
4 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1, T1, C1 Add the linearization for T1.
5 C2, T3, C1, T2, C1, T1, C1, C2A, T2, C1 Add the linearization for C2A.
6 C2, T3, T2, T1, C2A, T2, C1 Remove duplicates of C1; all but the last C1.
7 C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1 Remove duplicate T2; all but the last T2.
8 C2, T3, T1, C2A, T2, C1, ScalaObject, Finish!
AnyRef, Any

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Linearization of an Object’s Hierarchy | 163

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Recap and What’s Next
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164 | Chapter 7:—The Scala Object System

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 CHAPTER 8
Functional Programming in Scala

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166 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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// code-examples/FP/basics/list-map-example-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) map { _ * 2 }

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List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) reduceLeft { _ * _ }

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168 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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// code-examples/FP/basics/list-map-closure-example-script.scala

var factor = 3
val multiplier = (i:Int) => i * factor

val l1 = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) map multiplier

factor = 5
val l2 = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) map multiplier

println(l1)
println(l2)

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Functional Programming in Scala | 169

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// code-examples/FP/recursion/factorial-loop-script.scala

def factorial_loop(i: BigInt): BigInt = {

var result = BigInt(1)
for (j <- 2 to i.intValue)
result *= j
result
}

for (i <- 1 to 10)

format("%s: %s\n", i, factorial_loop(i))

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// code-examples/FP/recursion/factorial-recur1-script.scala

def factorial(i: BigInt): BigInt = i match {

case _ if i == 1 => i
case _ => i * factorial(i - 1)
}

170 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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 for (i <- 1 to 10)
format("%s: %s\n", i, factorial(i))

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// code-examples/FP/recursion/factorial-recur2-script.scala

def factorial(i: BigInt): BigInt = {

def fact(i: BigInt, accumulator: BigInt): BigInt = i match {
case _ if i == 1 => accumulator
case _ => fact(i - 1, i * accumulator)
}
fact(i, 1)
}

for (i <- 1 to 10)

format("%s: %s\n", i, factorial(i))

Tail Calls and Tail-Call Optimization | 171

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172 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/list-script.scala

val list1 = List("Programming", "Scala")

val list2 = "People" :: "should" :: "read" :: list1
println(list2)

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val list2 = list1.::("read").::("should").::("People")

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,QWKHLQWHUHVWRIPLQLPDOLVPPDSVFRXOGEHLPSOHPHQWHGZLWKOLVWV(YHU\HYHQHOH
PHQWLQWKHOLVWFRXQWLQJIURP]HURFRXOGEHDNH\IROORZHGE\WKHYDOXHLQWKHQH[W
RGGSRVLWLRQ,QSUDFWLFHPDSVDUHXVXDOO\LPSOHPHQWHGLQRWKHUZD\VIRUHIILFLHQF\
6FDODVXSSRUWVWKHVSHFLDOLQLWLDOL]DWLRQV\QWD[ZHVDZSUHYLRXVO\
val stateCapitals = Map(
"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
// ...
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

Functional Data Structures | 173

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7KHscala.collection.Map[A,+B]WUDLWRQO\GHILQHVPHWKRGVIRUUHDGLQJWKHMap7KHUH
DUH GHULYHG WUDLWV IRU LPPXWDEOH DQG PXWDEOH PDSV scala.collection.immuta
ble.Map[A,+B] DQG scala.collection.mutable.Map[A,B] UHVSHFWLYHO\ 7KH\ GHILQH +
DQG-RSHUDWRUVIRUDGGLQJDQGUHPRYLQJHOHPHQWVDQG++DQG--RSHUDWRUVIRUDGGLQJ
DQGUHPRYLQJHOHPHQWVGHILQHGLQ IteratorsRI PairsZKHUHHDFK PairLVDNH\YDOXH
SDLU

<RXPLJKWKDYHQRWLFHGWKDWWKH+GRHVQRWDSSHDULQIURQWRIWKHBW\SH
SDUDPHWHUVIRUscala.collection.mutable.Map<RX¦OOVHHZK\LQ£9DU
LDQFHRI0XWDEOH7\SHV¤RQSDJH

Sets in Functional Programming

6HWVDUHOLNHOLVWVEXWWKH\UHTXLUHHDFKHOHPHQWWREHXQLTXH6HWVFRXOGDOVREHLP
SOHPHQWHGXVLQJOLVWVDVORQJDVWKHHTXLYDOHQWRIWKHOLVW£FRQV¤RSHUDWRU::ILUVW
FKHFNVWKDWWKHHOHPHQWGRHVQ¦WDOUHDG\H[LVWLQWKHVWRUDJHOLVW7KLVSURSHUW\PHDQV
WKDWHOHPHQWLQVHUWLRQZRXOGEH21LIDVWRUDJHOLVWZHUHXVHGDQGWKHRUGHURIWKH
HOHPHQWVLQWKHVHWZRXOGQ¦WQHFHVVDULO\PDWFKWKHRUGHURI£LQVHUWLRQ¤RSHUDWLRQV,Q
SUDFWLFHVHWVDUHXVXDOO\LPSOHPHQWHGZLWKPRUHHIILFLHQWGDWDVWUXFWXUHV
-XVWDVIRUMapWKHscala.collection.Set[A]WUDLWRQO\GHILQHVPHWKRGVIRUUHDGLQJWKH
Set 7KHUH DUH GHULYHG WUDLWV IRU LPPXWDEOH DQG PXWDEOH VHWV scala.collec
tion.immutable.Set[A]DQG scala.collection.mutable.Set[A]UHVSHFWLYHO\7KH\GH
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DGGLQJDQGUHPRYLQJHOHPHQWVGHILQHGLQ IteratorsZKLFKFRXOGEHRWKHUVHWVOLVWV
HWF

Other Data Structures in Functional Programming

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PRUHFRPPRQIXQFWLRQDOW\SH,QPRVWFDVHVWKH\FRXOGEHUHSODFHGZLWKOLVWV

Traversing, Mapping, Filtering, Folding, and Reducing

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DUUD\V¢DOOVXSSRUWVHYHUDOFRPPRQRSHUDWLRQVEDVHGRQUHDGRQO\WUDYHUVDO,QIDFW
WKLVXQLIRUPLW\FDQEHH[SORLWHGLIDQ\£FRQWDLQHU¤W\SHDOVRVXSSRUWVWKHVHRSHUDWLRQV
)RUH[DPSOHDQOptionFRQWDLQV]HURRURQHHOHPHQWVLILWLVDNoneRUSomeUHVSHFWLYHO\

174 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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Traversal
7KHVWDQGDUGWUDYHUVDOPHWKRGIRU6FDODFRQWDLQHUVLVforeachZKLFKLVGHILQHGE\WKH
IterableWUDLWVWKDWWKHFRQWDLQHUVPL[LQ,WLV21LQWKHQXPEHURIHOHPHQWV+HUH
LVDQH[DPSOHRILWVXVHIRUOLVWVDQGPDSV
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foreach-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) foreach { i => println("Int: " + i) }

val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

stateCapitals foreach { kv => println(kv._1 + ": " + kv._2) }

7KHVLJQDWXUHRIforeachLVWKHIROORZLQJ
trait Iterable[+A] {
...
def foreach(f : (A) => Unit) : Unit = ...
...
}

foreach LV D KLJKHURUGHU IXQFWLRQ WKDW WDNHV D IXQFWLRQ DUJXPHQW WKH RSHUDWLRQ WR
SHUIRUPRQHDFKHOHPHQW1RWHWKDWIRUDPDS ALVDFWXDOO\DWXSOHDVVKRZQLQWKH
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ILOWHULQJ FROOHFWLRQV ILQGLQJ HOHPHQWV WKDW PDWFK VSHFLILHG FULWHULD FDOFXODWLQJ WKH
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ILOWHULQJIROGLQJDQGUHGXFLQJ

Mapping
:H¦YHHQFRXQWHUHGWKHmapPHWKRGEHIRUH,WUHWXUQVDQHZFROOHFWLRQRIWKHVDPHVL]H
DVWKHRULJLQDOFROOHFWLRQ,WLVDOVRDPHPEHURIIterableDQGLWVVLJQDWXUHLV
trait Iterable[+A] {
...
def map[B](f : (A) => B) : Iterable[B] = ...
...
}

Traversing, Mapping, Filtering, Folding, and Reducing | 175

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7KHSDVVHGLQIXQFWLRQfFDQWUDQVIRUPDQRULJLQDOHOHPHQWRIW\SH AWRDQHZW\SH
B+HUHLVDQH[DPSOH
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/map-script.scala

val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

val lengths = stateCapitals map { kv => (kv._1, kv._2.length) }

println(lengths)

7KLV VFULSW SURGXFHV WKH RXWSXW ArrayBuffer((Alabama,10), (Alaska,6), (Wyoming,

8)) 7KDW LV ZH FRQYHUW WKH Pair[String,String] HOHPHQWV WR DQ ArrayBuffer RI
Pair[String,Int]HOHPHQWV:KHUHGLGWKH ArrayBufferFRPHIURP",WWXUQVRXWWKDW
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ZKDWNLQGRIW\SHWRFUHDWH"
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RYHUULGHPHWKRGVOLNH mapWRUHWXUQDQLQVWDQFHRIWKHLURZQW\SH7KLVDSSURDFKLV
HUURUSURQHWKRXJKDVLWZRXOGEHHDV\WRIRUJHWWRRYHUULGHDOOVXFKPHWKRGVZKHQD
QHZW\SHLVDGGHG
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WRLPSOHPHQWWKHRYHUULGH'R\RXFDOOWKHsuperPHWKRGWRUHXVHWKHDOJRULWKPWKHQ
LWHUDWHWKURXJKWKHUHWXUQHGLQVWDQFHWRFUHDWHDQHZLQVWDQFHRIWKHFRUUHFWW\SH"7KDW
ZRXOGEHLQHIILFLHQW<RXFRXOGFRS\DQGSDVWHWKHDOJRULWKPLQWRHDFKRYHUULGHEXW
WKDWFUHDWHVLVVXHVRIFRGHEORDWPDLQWDLQDELOLW\DQGVNHZ
7KHUH¦VDQDOWHUQDWLYHDSSURDFKGRQ¦WHYHQWU\+RZLVWKHQHZLQVWDQFHWKDWLVUHWXUQHG
DFWXDOO\XVHG"'RZHUHDOO\FDUHLILWKDVWKH£ZURQJ¤W\SH".HHSLQPLQGWKDWDOOZH
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/map2-script.scala

val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

val map2 = stateCapitals map { kv => (kv._1, kv._2.length) }

176 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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 // val lengths = Map(map2) // ERROR: won't work
val lengths = Map[String,Int]() ++ map2

println(lengths)

7KHFRPPHQWHGRXWOLQHVXJJHVWVWKDWLWZRXOGEHQLFHLI\RXFRXOGVLPSO\SDVVWKH
QHZIterableWRMap.applyEXWWKLVGRHVQ¦WZRUN+HUHLVWKHVLJQDWXUHRIMap.apply
object Map {
...
def apply[A, B](elems : (A, B)*) : Map[A, B] = ...
...
}

,WH[SHFWVDYDULDEOHDUJXPHQWOLVWQRWDQIterable+RZHYHUZHFDQFUHDWHDQHPSW\
PDSRIWKHULJKWW\SHDQGWKHQDGGWKHQHZIterableWRLWXVLQJWKH++PHWKRGZKLFK
UHWXUQVDQHZMap
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PHWKRGVOLNHmapUHWXUQHGWKHVDPHFROOHFWLRQW\SHZHVDZWKDWWKHUHLVQRHDV\ZD\
WRGRWKLV,QVWHDGZHDFFHSWWKDWmapDQGVLPLODUPHWKRGVUHWXUQDQDEVWUDFWLRQOLNH
IterableDQGWKHQUHO\RQWKHVSHFLILFVXEW\SHVWRWDNH IterablesDVLQSXWDUJXPHQWV
IRUSRSXODWLQJWKHFROOHFWLRQ
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VWUXFWXUHUHPRYH£HPSW\¤HOHPHQWVHWF+HQFHXQOLNH mapLWPD\QRWUHWXUQDQHZ
FROOHFWLRQRIWKHVDPHVL]HDVWKHRULJLQDOFROOHFWLRQ
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/flatmap-script.scala

val graph = List(

"a", List("b1", "b2", "b3"), List("c1", List("c21", Nil, "c22"), Nil, "e")
)

def flatten(list: List[_]): List[_] = list flatMap {

case head :: tail => head :: flatten(tail)
case Nil => Nil
case x => List(x)
}

println(flatten(graph))

7KLVVFULSWUHGXFHVWKHKLHUDUFKLFDO graphWR List(a, b1, b2, b3, c1, c21, c22, e)
1RWLFHWKDWWKHNilHOHPHQWVKDYHEHHQUHPRYHG:HXVHGList[_]EHFDXVHZHZRQ¦W
NQRZZKDWWKHW\SHSDUDPHWHUVDUHIRUDQ\HPEHGGHGOLVWVZKHQZH¦UHWUDYHUVLQJWKH
RXWHUOLVWGXHWRW\SHHUDVXUH
+HUHLVWKHVLJQDWXUHIRUflatMapDORQJZLWKmapIRUFRPSDULVRQ
trait Iterable[+A] {
...
def map[B] (f : (A) => B) : Iterable[B] = ...
def flatMap[B](f : (A) => Iterable[B]) : Iterable[B]

Traversing, Mapping, Filtering, Folding, and Reducing | 177

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 ...
}

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flatMapZLOO£IODWWHQ¤DOOWKRVHIterablesLQWRRQHFROOHFWLRQ1RWHWKDWflatMapZRQ¦W
IODWWHQHOHPHQWVEH\RQGRQHOHYHO,IRXUIXQFWLRQOLWHUDOOHDYHVQHVWHGOLVWVLQWDFWWKH\
ZRQ¦WEHIODWWHQHGIRUXV

Filtering
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WKDWPDWFKFHUWDLQFULWHULD
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/filter-script.scala

val stateCapitals = Map(

"Alabama" -> "Montgomery",
"Alaska" -> "Juneau",
"Wyoming" -> "Cheyenne")

val map2 = stateCapitals filter { kv => kv._1 startsWith "A" }

println( map2 )

7KHUHDUHVHYHUDOGLIIHUHQWNLQGVRIPHWKRGVGHILQHGLQIterableIRUILOWHULQJRURWKHU
ZLVHUHWXUQLQJSDUWRIWKHRULJLQDOFROOHFWLRQFRPPHQWVDGDSWHGIURPWKH6FDODGRFV
trait Iterable[+A] {
...
// Returns this iterable without its n first elements. If this iterable
// has less than n elements, the empty iterable is returned.
def drop (n : Int) : Collection[A] = ...

// Returns the longest suffix of this iterable whose first element does
// not satisfy the predicate p.
def dropWhile (p : (A) => Boolean) : Collection[A] = ...

// Apply a predicate p to all elements of this iterable object and

// return true, iff there is at least one element for which p yields true.
def exists (p : (A) => Boolean) : Boolean = ...

// Returns all the elements of this iterable that satisfy the predicate p.
// The order of the elements is preserved.
def filter (p : (A) => Boolean) : Iterable[A] = ...

// Find and return the first element of the iterable object satisfying a
// predicate, if any.
def find (p : (A) => Boolean) : Option[A] = ...

// Returns index of the first element satisying a predicate, or -1.

def findIndexOf (p : (A) => Boolean) : Int = ...

// Apply a predicate p to all elements of this iterable object and return

// true, iff the predicate yields true for all elements.

178 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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 def forall (p : (A) => Boolean) : Boolean = ...

// Returns the index of the first occurence of the specified object in

// this iterable object.
def indexOf [B >: A](elem : B) : Int = ...

// Partitions this iterable in two iterables according to a predicate.

def partition (p : (A) => Boolean) : (Iterable[A], Iterable[A]) = ...

// Checks if the other iterable object contains the same elements.

def sameElements [B >: A](that : Iterable[B]) : Boolean = ...

// Returns an iterable consisting only over the first n elements of this

// iterable, or else the whole iterable, if it has less than n elements.
def take (n : Int) : Collection[A] = ...

// Returns the longest prefix of this iterable whose elements satisfy the
// predicate p.
def takeWhile (p : (A) => Boolean) : Iterable[A] = ...
}

7\SHVOLNHMapDQGSetKDYHDGGLWLRQDOPHWKRGV

Folding and Reducing

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RSHUDWLRQVIRU£VKULQNLQJ¤DFROOHFWLRQGRZQWRDVPDOOHUFROOHFWLRQRUDVLQJOHYDOXH
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LWXVHVWKHILUVWHOHPHQWDVWKHLQLWLDOYDOXH
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foldreduce-script.scala

List(1,2,3,4,5,6) reduceLeft(_ + _)

List(1,2,3,4,5,6).foldLeft(10)(_ * _)

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IROGVWKHVDPHOLVWXVLQJPXOWLSOLFDWLRQZLWKDVHHGRIUHWXUQLQJ
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// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foldleft-map-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).foldLeft(List[String]()) {
(list, x) => ("<" + x + ">") :: list
}.reverse

Traversing, Mapping, Filtering, Folding, and Reducing | 179

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,WUHWXUQV List(<1>, <2>, <3>, <4>, <5>, <6>)1RWHWKDWZHKDGWRFDOO reverseRQ
WKHUHVXOWWRJHWEDFNDOLVWLQWKHVDPHRUGHUDVWKHLQSXWOLVW
+HUHDUHWKHVLJQDWXUHVIRUWKHYDULRXVIROGDQGUHGXFHRSHUDWLRQVLQIterable
trait Iterable[+A] {
...
// Combines the elements of this iterable object together using the
// binary function op, from left to right, and starting with the value z.
def foldLeft [B](z : B)(op : (B, A) => B) : B

// Combines the elements of this list together using the binary function
// op, from right to left, and starting with the value z.
def foldRight [B](z : B)(op : (A, B) => B) : B

// Similar to foldLeft but can be used as an operator with the order of

// list and zero arguments reversed. That is, z /: xs is the same as
// xs foldLeft z
def /: [B](z : B)(op : (B, A) => B) : B

// An alias for foldRight. That is, xs :\ z is the same as xs foldRight z

def :\ [B](z : B)(op : (A, B) => B) : B

// Combines the elements of this iterable object together using the

// binary operator op, from left to right
def reduceLeft [B >: A](op : (B, A) => B) : B

// Combines the elements of this iterable object together using the

// binary operator op, from right to left
def reduceRight [B >: A](op : (A, B) => B) : B

0DQ\SHRSOHFRQVLGHUWKHRSHUDWRUIRUPV:\IRUfoldRightDQG/:IRUfoldLeftWREH
DOLWWOHWRRREVFXUHDQGKDUGWRUHPHPEHU'RQ¦WIRUJHWWKHLPSRUWDQFHRIFRPPXQL
FDWLQJZLWK\RXUUHDGHUVZKHQZULWLQJFRGH
:K\DUHWKHUHOHIWDQGULJKWIRUPVRIIROGDQGUHGXFH")RUWKHILUVWH[DPSOHVZHVKRZHG
DGGLQJDQGPXOWLSO\LQJDOLVWRILQWHJHUVWKH\ZRXOGUHWXUQWKHVDPHUHVXOW&RQVLGHU
DfoldRightYHUVLRQRIRXUODVWH[DPSOHWKDWXVHGIROGWRPDSWKHLQWHJHUVWRVWULQJV
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/foldright-map-script.scala

List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6).foldRight(List[String]()) {
(x, list) => ("<" + x + ">") :: list
}

7KLV VFULSW SURGXFHV List(<1>, <2>, <3>, <4>, <5>, <6>) ZLWKRXW KDYLQJ WR FDOO
reverseDVZHGLGEHIRUH1RWHDOVRWKDWWKHDUJXPHQWVWRWKHIXQFWLRQOLWHUDODUHUH
YHUVHG FRPSDUHG WR WKH DUJXPHQWV IRU foldLeft DV UHTXLUHG E\ WKH GHILQLWLRQ RI
foldRight
%RWK foldLeft DQG reduceLeft SURFHVV WKH HOHPHQWV IURP OHIW WR ULJKW +HUH LV WKH
foldLeftVHTXHQFHIRUList(1,2,3,4,5,6).foldLeft(10)(_ * _)
((((((10 * 1) * 2) * 3) * 4) * 5) * 6)
((((((10) * 2) * 3) * 4) * 5) * 6)

180 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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 (((((20) * 3) * 4) * 5) * 6)
((((60) * 4) * 5) * 6)
(((240) * 5) * 6)
((1200) * 6)
(7200)

+HUHLVWKHfoldRightVHTXHQFH
(1 * (2 * (3 * (4 * (5 * (6 * 10))))))
(1 * (2 * (3 * (4 * (5 * (60))))))
(1 * (2 * (3 * (4 * (300)))))
(1 * (2 * (3 * (1200))))
(1 * (2 * (3600)))
(1 * (7200))
(7200)

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£ULJKWKDQGHG¤EUHWKUHQWKH\DUHWDLOFDOOUHFXUVLYHDQGDVVXFKWKH\FDQEHQHILWIURP
WDLOFDOORSWLPL]DWLRQ
,I\RXVWDUHDWWKHSUHYLRXVEUHDNGRZQVIRUPXOWLSO\LQJWKHLQWHJHUV\RXFDQSUREDEO\
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DQLWHUDWLRQ)RUHDFKOLQHLQWKHfoldRightVHTXHQFHWKHRXWHUPRVWPXOWLSOLFDWLRQFDQ¦W
EHGRQHXQWLOWKHLQQHUPRVWPXOWLSOLFDWLRQVDOOFRPSOHWHVRWKHRSHUDWLRQLVQ¦WWDLO
UHFXUVLYH
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VWDFNRYHUIORZ
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/reduceleftright-script.scala

println((1 to 1000000) reduceLeft(_ + _))

println((1 to 1000000) reduceRight(_ + _))

6RZK\KDYHERWKNLQGVRIUHFXUVLRQ",I\RX¦UHQRWZRUULHGDERXWRYHUIORZDULJKW
UHFXUVLRQPLJKWEHWKHPRVWQDWXUDOILWIRUWKHRSHUDWLRQ\RXDUHGRLQJ5HFDOOWKDW
ZKHQZHXVHG foldLeftWRPDSLQWHJHUVWRVWULQJVZHKDGWRUHYHUVHWKHUHVXOW7KDW
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QRWDOZD\VEHHDV\WRFRQYHUWWRWKHULJKWIRUP

Functional Options
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QRW H[FOXVLYHO\ RQ FROOHFWLRQ FODVVHV 7KH DOZD\V KDQG\ Option FRQWDLQHU VXSSRUWV
filtermapflatMapDQGRWKHUIXQFWLRQDOO\RULHQWHGPHWKRGVWKDWDUHDSSOLHGRQO\LI
WKHOptionLVQ¦WHPSW\WKDWLVLILW¦VDSomeDQGQRWDNone
/HW¦VVHHWKLVLQSUDFWLFH
// code-examples/FP/datastructs/option-script.scala

val someNumber = Some(5)

val noneNumber = None

Traversing, Mapping, Filtering, Folding, and Reducing | 181

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 for (option <- List(noneNumber, someNumber)) {
option.map(n => println(n * 5))
}

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182 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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// code-examples/FP/partial/partial-script.scala

def concatUpper(s1: String, s2: String): String = (s1 + " " + s2).toUpperCase

val c = concatUpper _
println(c("short", "pants"))

val c2 = concatUpper("short", _: String)

println(c2("pants"))

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List("short", "pants").map(println)

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Partial Functions | 183

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// code-examples/FP/partial/orelse-script.scala

val truthier: PartialFunction[Boolean, String] = { case true => "truthful" }

val fallback: PartialFunction[Boolean, String] = { case x => "sketchy" }
val tester = truthier orElse fallback

println(tester(1 == 1))
println(tester(2 + 2 == 5))

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// code-examples/FP/partial/isdefinedat-script.scala

val pantsTest: PartialFunction[String, String] = {

case "pants" => "yes, we have pants!"
}

println(pantsTest.isDefinedAt("pants"))
println(pantsTest.isDefinedAt("skort"))

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def cat(s1: String)(s2: String) = s1 + s2

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184 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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:HFDQDOVRXVHWKHIROORZLQJV\QWD[WRGHILQHDFXUULHGIXQFWLRQ
def cat(s1: String) = (s2: String) => s1 + s2

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scala> cat("foo")("bar")
res1: java.lang.String = foobar

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scala> def cat(s1: String, s2: String) = s1 + s2
cat: (String,String)java.lang.String

scala> val curryCat = Function.curried(cat _)

curryCat: (String) => (String) => java.lang.String = <function>

scala> cat("foo", "bar") == curryCat("foo")("bar")

res2: Boolean = true

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scala> val partialCurryCat = curryCat("foo")(_)
partialCurryCat: (String) => java.lang.String = <function>

scala> partialCurryCat("bar")
res3: java.lang.String = foobar

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def multiplier(i: Int)(factor: Int) = i * factor
val byFive = multiplier(5) _
val byTen = multiplier(10) _

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Currying | 185

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,QWKH6FDODFRQVROHZHJHWSUHGLFWDEOHRXWSXWZKHQFDOOLQJRXUFXUULHGIXQFWLRQV
scala> byFive(2)
res4: Int = 10

scala> byTen(2)
res5: Int = 20

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Implicit Conversions
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val name: String = "scala"
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186 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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// code-examples/FP/implicits/implicit-conversion-script.scala
import scala.runtime.RichString

class FancyString(val str: String)

object FancyString2RichString {
implicit def fancyString2RichString(fs: FancyString) =
new RichString(fs.str)
}

import FancyString2RichString._

val fs = new FancyString("scala")

println(fs.capitalize.reverse)

Implicits | 187

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// code-examples/FP/implicits/implicit-parameter-script.scala
import scala.runtime.RichString

def multiplier(i: Int)(implicit factor: Int) {

println(i * factor)
}

implicit val factor = 2

multiplier(2)
multiplier(2)(3)

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188 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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def myCallByNameFunction(callByNameParameter: () => ReturnType)

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Call by Name, Call by Value | 189

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 // code-examples/FP/overrides/call-by-name-script.scala

def whileAwesome(conditional: => Boolean)(f: => Unit) {

if (conditional) {
f
whileAwesome(conditional)(f)
}
}

var count = 0

whileAwesome(count < 5) {
println("still awesome")
count += 1
}

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// code-examples/FP/overrides/trait-lazy-init-val-script.scala

trait AbstractT2 {
println("In AbstractT2:")
val value: Int
lazy val inverse = { println("initializing inverse:"); 1.0/value }
//println("AbstractT2: value = "+value+", inverse = "+inverse)
}

val c2d = new AbstractT2 {

println("In c2d:")
val value = 10
}

println("Using c2d:")
println("c2d.value = "+c2d.value+", inverse = "+c2d.inverse)

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In AbstractT2:
In c2d:
Using c2d:

190 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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 initializing inverse:
c2d.value = 10, inverse = 0.1

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192 | Chapter 8:—Functional Programming in Scala

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 CHAPTER 9
Robust, Scalable Concurrency
with Actors

The Problems of Shared, Synchronized State

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193

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// code-examples/Concurrency/simple-actor-script.scala

import scala.actors.Actor

class Redford extends Actor {

def act() {
println("A lot of what acting is, is paying attention.")
}
}

val robert = new Redford

robert.start

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194 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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 // code-examples/Concurrency/factory-actor-script.scala

import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._

val paulNewman = actor {

println("To be an actor, you have to be a child.")
}

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// code-examples/Concurrency/pattern-match-actor-script.scala

import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._

val fussyActor = actor {

loop {
receive {
case s: String => println("I got a String: " + s)
case i: Int => println("I got an Int: " + i.toString)
case _ => println("I have no idea what I just got.")
}
}
}

fussyActor ! "hi there"

fussyActor ! 23
fussyActor ! 3.33

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I got a String: hi there
I got an Int: 23
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Actors in Scala | 195

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The Mailbox
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// code-examples/Concurrency/actor-mailbox-script.scala

import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._

val countActor = actor {

loop {
react {
case "how many?" => {
println("I've got " + mailboxSize.toString + " messages in my mailbox.")
}
}
}
}

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countActor ! 2
countActor ! 3
countActor ! "how many?"
countActor ! "how many?"
countActor ! 4
countActor ! "how many?"

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I've got 3 messages in my mailbox.
I've got 3 messages in my mailbox.
I've got 4 messages in my mailbox.

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196 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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Actors in Depth
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// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/customer.scala

package sleepingbarber

import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._

case object Haircut

class Customer(val id: Int) extends Actor {

var shorn = false

def act() = {
loop {
react {
case Haircut => {
shorn = true
println("[c] customer " + id + " got a haircut")
}
}
}
}
}

)RUWKHPRVWSDUWWKLVVKRXOGORRNSUHWW\IDPLOLDUZHGHFODUHWKHSDFNDJHLQZKLFK
WKLVFRGHOLYHVZHLPSRUWFRGHIURPWKHscala.actorsSDFNDJHDQGZHGHILQHDFODVV
WKDWH[WHQGVActor7KHUHDUHDIHZGHWDLOVZRUWKQRWLQJKRZHYHU
)LUVWRIDOOWKHUH¦VRXUGHFODUDWLRQRI case object Haircut$FRPPRQSDWWHUQZKHQ
ZRUNLQJZLWK$FWRUVLQ6FDODLVWRXVHD case objectWRUHSUHVHQWDPHVVDJHZLWKRXW

Actors in Scala | 197

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LQWHUQDOGDWD,IZHZDQWHGWRLQFOXGHVD\WKHWLPHDWZKLFKWKHKDLUFXWZDVFRPSOHWHG
ZH¦GXVHDcase classLQVWHDG:HGHFODUHHaircutKHUHEHFDXVHLW¦VDPHVVDJHW\SHWKDW
ZLOOEHVHQWVROHO\WRFXVWRPHUV
1RWHDVZHOOWKDWZH¦UHVWRULQJRQHELWRIPXWDEOHVWDWHLQHDFK CustomerZKHWKHURU
QRWWKH\¦YHJRWWHQDKDLUFXW,QWKHLULQWHUQDOORRSHDFK CustomerZDLWVIRUD Haircut
PHVVDJHDQGXSRQUHFHLSWRIRQHZHVHWWKHshornERROHDQWRtrueCustomerXVHVWKH
DV\QFKURQRXVreactPHWKRGWRUHVSRQGWRLQFRPLQJPHVVDJHV,IZHQHHGHGWRUHWXUQ
WKHUHVXOWRISURFHVVLQJWKHPHVVDJHZHZRXOGXVH receiveEXWZHGRQ¦WDQGLQWKH
SURFHVVZHVDYHVRPHPHPRU\DQGWKUHDGXVHXQGHUWKHKRRG
/HW¦VPRYHRQWRWKHEDUEHUKLPVHOI%HFDXVHWKHUH¦VRQO\RQHEDUEHUZHFRXOGKDYH
XVHGWKHactorIDFWRU\PHWKRGWHFKQLTXHPHQWLRQHGHDUOLHUWRFUHDWHKLP)RUWHVWLQJ
SXUSRVHVZH¦YHLQVWHDGGHILQHGRXURZQBarberFODVV
// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/barber.scala

package sleepingbarber

import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._
import scala.util.Random

class Barber extends Actor {

private val random = new Random()

def helpCustomer(customer: Customer) {

if (self.mailboxSize >= 3) {
println("[b] not enough seats, turning customer " + customer.id + " away")
} else {
println("[b] cutting hair of customer " + customer.id)
Thread.sleep(100 + random.nextInt(400))
customer ! Haircut
}
}

def act() {
loop {
react {
case customer: Customer => helpCustomer(customer)
}
}
}
}

7KH FRUH RI WKH Barber FODVV ORRNV YHU\ PXFK OLNH WKH Customer :H ORRS DURXQG
reactZDLWLQJIRUDSDUWLFXODUW\SHRIREMHFW7RNHHSWKDWORRSWLJKWDQGUHDGDEOHZH
FDOODPHWKRG helpCustomerZKHQDQHZ CustomerLVVHQWWRWKHEDUEHU:LWKLQWKDW
PHWKRGZHHPSOR\DFKHFNRQWKHPDLOER[VL]HWRVHUYHDVRXU£FKDLUV¤WKDWFXVWRPHUV
PD\RFFXS\ZHFRXOGKDYHWKHBarberRUShopFODVVHVPDLQWDLQDQLQWHUQDOQueueEXW
ZK\ERWKHUZKHQHDFK$FWRU¦VPDLOER[DOUHDG\LVRQH"

198 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

Download at WoweBook.Com
,IWKUHHRUPRUHFXVWRPHUVDUHLQWKHTXHXHZHVLPSO\LJQRUHWKDWPHVVDJHLW¦VWKHQ
GLVFDUGHG IURP WKH EDUEHU¦V PDLOER[ 2WKHUZLVH ZH VLPXODWH D VHPLUDQGRP GHOD\
DOZD\VDWOHDVWPLOOLVHFRQGVIRUWKHWLPHLWWDNHVWRFXWDFXVWRPHU¦VKDLUWKHQ
VHQG RII D Haircut PHVVDJH WR WKDW FXVWRPHU :HUH ZH QRW WU\LQJ WR VLPXODWH D
UHDOZRUOGVFHQDULRZHZRXOGRIFRXUVHUHPRYHWKHFDOOWR Thread.sleep()DQGDOORZ
RXUEDUEHUWRUXQIXOOWLOW
1H[WXSZHKDYHDVLPSOHFODVVWRUHSUHVHQWWKHEDUEHUVKRSLWVHOI
// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/shop.scala

package sleepingbarber

import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._

class Shop extends Actor {

val barber = new Barber()
barber.start

def act() {
println("[s] the shop is open")

loop {
react {
case customer: Customer => barber ! customer
}
}
}
}

%\QRZWKLVVKRXOGDOOORRNYHU\IDPLOLDU(DFK ShopFUHDWHVDQGVWDUWVDQHZ Barber

SULQWVDPHVVDJHWHOOLQJWKHZRUOGWKDWWKHVKRSLVRSHQDQGVLWVLQDORRSZDLWLQJIRU
FXVWRPHUV:KHQDCustomerFRPHVLQKH¦VVHQWWRWKHEDUEHU:HQRZVHHDQXQH[
SHFWHGEHQHILWRI$FWRUVWKH\DOORZXVWRGHVFULEHFRQFXUUHQWEXVLQHVVORJLFLQHDVLO\
XQGHUVWRRGWHUPV£6HQGWKHFXVWRPHUWRWKHEDUEHU¤PDNHVSHUIHFWVHQVHPXFKPRUH
VRWKDQ£1RWLI\WKHEDUEHUXQORFNWKHPXWH[DURXQGWKHFXVWRPHUVHDWVLQFUHPHQW
WKHQXPEHURIIUHHVHDWV¤DQGVRIRUWK$FWRUVJHWXVFORVHUWRRXUGRPDLQ
)LQDOO\ZHKDYHDGULYHUIRURXUVLPXODWLRQ
// code-examples/Concurrency/sleepingbarber/barbershop-simulator.scala

package sleepingbarber

import scala.actors.Actor._
import scala.collection.{immutable, mutable}
import scala.util.Random

object BarbershopSimulator {
private val random = new Random()
private val customers = new mutable.ArrayBuffer[Customer]()
private val shop = new Shop()

Actors in Scala | 199

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 def generateCustomers {
for (i <- 1 to 20) {
val customer = new Customer(i)
customer.start()
customers += customer
}

println("[!] generated " + customers.size + " customers")

}

// customers arrive at random intervals

def trickleCustomers {
for (customer <- customers) {
shop ! customer
Thread.sleep(random.nextInt(450))
}
}

def tallyCuts {
// wait for any remaining concurrent actions to complete
Thread.sleep(2000)

val shornCount = customers.filter(c => c.shorn).size

println("[!] " + shornCount + " customers got haircuts today")
}

def main(args: Array[String]) {

println("[!] starting barbershop simulation")
shop.start()

generateCustomers
trickleCustomers
tallyCuts

System.exit(0)
}
}

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PHULF,'WRHDFKDQGVWRULQJWKHORWLQDQArrayBuffer1H[WZH£WULFNOH¤WKHFXVWRPHUV
LQE\VHQGLQJWKHPDVPHVVDJHVWRWKHVKRSDQGVOHHSLQJIRUDVHPLUDQGRPDPRXQWRI
WLPHEHWZHHQORRSV$WWKHHQGRIRXUVLPXODWHGGD\ZHWDOO\XSWKHQXPEHURIFXV
WRPHUVZKRJRWKDLUFXWVE\ILOWHULQJRXWWKHFXVWRPHUVZKRVHLQWHUQDO shornERROHDQ
ZDVVHWWRtrueDQGDVNLQJIRUWKHVL]HRIWKHUHVXOWLQJVHTXHQFH
&RPSLOHDQGUXQWKHFRGHZLWKLQWKHsleepingbarberGLUHFWRU\DVIROORZV
fsc *.scala
scala -classpath . sleepingbarber.BarbershopSimulator

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FODVVHVIURPZKLFKWKHPHVVDJHVZHUHSULQWHG:KHQZHORRNDWDQH[DPSOHUXQRIRXU
VLPXODWRULW¦VHDV\WRVHHZKHUHHDFKPHVVDJHFDPHIURP

200 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

Download at WoweBook.Com
 [!] starting barbershop simulation
[s] the shop is open
[!] generated 20 customers
[b] cutting hair of customer 1
[b] cutting hair of customer 2
[c] customer 1 got a haircut
[c] customer 2 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 3
[c] customer 3 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 4
[b] cutting hair of customer 5
[c] customer 4 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 6
[c] customer 5 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 7
[c] customer 6 got a haircut
[b] not enough seats, turning customer 8 away
[b] cutting hair of customer 9
[c] customer 7 got a haircut
[b] not enough seats, turning customer 10 away
[c] customer 9 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 11
[b] cutting hair of customer 12
[c] customer 11 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 13
[c] customer 12 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 14
[c] customer 13 got a haircut
[b] not enough seats, turning customer 15 away
[b] not enough seats, turning customer 16 away
[b] not enough seats, turning customer 17 away
[b] cutting hair of customer 18
[c] customer 14 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 19
[c] customer 18 got a haircut
[b] cutting hair of customer 20
[c] customer 19 got a haircut
[c] customer 20 got a haircut
[!] 15 customers got haircuts today

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EHUWDNHVDELWORQJHUWRFXWKDLUWKDQLWGRHVIRUVHYHUDOFXVWRPHUVWRHQWHUWKH£FKDLUV¤
WKHEDUEHU¦VPDLOER[TXHXHILOOXSDQGQHZFXVWRPHUVVLPSO\OHDYH
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UDQGRPYDOXHVDUHUHWULHYHGZLWKLQDPLOOLVHFRQGRIRQHDQRWKHU7KLVLVDE\SURGXFW
RIWKHZD\WKH-90JHQHUDWHVUDQGRPQXPEHUVDQGDJRRGUHPLQGHUWREHFDUHIXO
DERXWUDQGRPQHVVLQFRQFXUUHQWSURJUDPV<RX¦GDOVRZDQWWRUHSODFHWKHsleepLQVLGH
tallyCutsZLWKDFOHDUHUVLJQDOWKDWWKHYDULRXVDFWRUVLQWKHV\VWHPDUHGRQHGRLQJWKHLU
ZRUNSHUKDSVE\PDNLQJWKHBarbershopSimulationDQ$FWRUDQGVHQGLQJLWPHVVDJHV
WKDWLQGLFDWHFRPSOHWLRQ

Actors in Scala | 201

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7U\ PRGLI\LQJ WKH FRGH WR LQWURGXFH PRUH FXVWRPHUV DGGLWLRQDO PHVVDJH W\SHV
GLIIHUHQW GHOD\V RU WR UHPRYH WKH UDQGRPQHVV DOWRJHWKHU ,I \RX¦UH DQ H[SHULHQFHG
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LQ6FDODZLWK$FWRUVZLOOEHWHUVHUDQGHDVLHUWRPDLQWDLQ

Effective Actors
7RJHWWKHPRVWRXWRI$FWRUVWKHUHDUHIHZWKLQJVWRUHPHPEHU)LUVWQRWHWKDWWKHUH
DUHVHYHUDOPHWKRGV\RXFDQXVHWRJHWGLIIHUHQWW\SHVRIEHKDYLRURXWRI\RXU$FWRUV
7DEOHVKRXOGKHOSFODULI\ZKHQWRXVHHDFKPHWKRG
7DEOH$FWRUPHWKRGV
Method Returns Description
act Unit Abstract, top-level method for an Actor. Typically contains one of the
following methods inside it.
receive Result of processing Blocks until a message of matched type is received.
message
receiveWithin Result of processing Like receive, but unblocks after specified number of milliseconds.
message
react Nothing Requires less overhead (threads) than receive.
reactWithin Nothing Like react, but unblocks after specified number of milliseconds.

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FHVVLQJDPHVVDJHWKDWLV\RXQHHGDV\QFKURQRXVUHVSRQVHIURPVHQGLQJDPHVVDJH
WRDQ$FWRUXVHWKHreceiveWithinYDULDQWWRUHGXFH\RXUFKDQFHVRIEORFNLQJLQGHIL
QLWHO\RQDQ$FWRUWKDW¦VJRWWHQZHGJHG
$QRWKHUVWUDWHJ\WRNHHS\RXU$FWRUEDVHGFRGHDV\QFKURQRXVLVWKHXVHRIIXWXUHV$
IXWXUHLVDSODFHKROGHUREMHFWIRUDYDOXHWKDWKDVQ¦W\HWEHHQUHWXUQHGIURPDQDV\Q
FKURQRXVSURFHVV<RXFDQVHQGDPHVVDJHWRDQ$FWRUZLWKWKH!!PHWKRGDYDULDQW
RIWKLVPHWKRGDOORZV\RXWRSDVVDORQJDSDUWLDOIXQFWLRQWKDWLVDSSOLHGWRWKHIXWXUH
YDOXH$V\RXFDQVHHIURPWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOHUHWULHYLQJDYDOXHIURPD FutureLV
DVVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGDVLQYRNLQJLWV applyPHWKRG1RWHWKDWUHWULHYLQJDYDOXHIURPD
FutureLVDEORFNLQJRSHUDWLRQ
// code-examples/Concurrency/future-script.scala
import scala.actors.Futures._

val eventually = future(5 * 42)

println(eventually())

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202 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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ELOLWLHVDQGXVHPHVVDJHVXVXDOO\LQWKHIRUPRIDcase classRUcase objectWRGHOHJDWH
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FRPPXQLFDWHYLDPHVVDJHVWKHOHVV\RXKDYHWRZRUU\DERXWV\QFKURQL]DWLRQ$OOWKRVH
PHVVDJHVDQGLPPXWDEOHYDULDEOHVPLJKWDSSHDUWREHRYHUO\FRVWO\%XWZLWKWRGD\¦V
SOHQWLIXOKDUGZDUHWUDGLQJPHPRU\RYHUKHDGIRUFODULW\DQGSUHGLFWDELOLW\VHHPVPRUH
WKDQIDLUIRUPRVWDSSOLFDWLRQV
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7UDGLWLRQDOWKUHDGLQJDQGORFNLQJPD\EHWWHUVXLWZULWHKHDY\FULWLFDOSDWKVIRUZKLFK
DPHVVDJLQJDSSURDFKZRXOGLQFXUWRRPXFKRYHUKHDG,QRXUH[SHULHQFH\RXFDQXVH
DSXUHO\$FWRUEDVHGGHVLJQWRSURWRW\SHDFRQFXUUHQWVROXWLRQWKHQXVHSURILOLQJWRROV
WRVXVVRXWSDUWVRI\RXUDSSOLFDWLRQWKDWPLJKWEHQHILWIURPDGLIIHUHQWDSSURDFK

Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events

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WRGRVRLQ6FDOD$V6FDODLVLQWHURSHUDEOHZLWK-DYDWKHFRQFXUUHQF\FRQFHSWVWKDW
\RXPD\EHIDPLOLDUZLWKRQWKH-90VWLOODSSO\

One-Off Threads
)RUVWDUWHUV6FDODSURYLGHVDKDQG\ZD\WRUXQDEORFNRIFRGHLQDQHZWKUHDG
// code-examples/Concurrency/threads/by-block-script.scala

new Thread { println("this will run in a new thread") }

$VLPLODUFRQVWUXFWLVDYDLODEOHLQWKH scala.concurrentSDFNDJHDVDPHWKRGRQWKH
opsREMHFWWRUXQDEORFNDV\QFKURQRXVO\ZLWKspawn
// code-examples/Concurrency/threads/spawn.scala

import scala.concurrent.ops._

object SpawnExample {
def main(args: Array[String]) {
println("this will run synchronously")

spawn {
println("this will run asychronously")
}
}
}

Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events | 203

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Using java.util.concurrent
,I\RX¦UHIDPLOLDUZLWKWKHYHQHUDEOHjava.util.concurrentSDFNDJH\RX¦OOILQGLWMXVW
DVHDV\WRXVHIURP6FDODRUKDUGWRXVHGHSHQGLQJRQ\RXUSRLQWRIYLHZ/HW¦VXVH
ExecutorsWRFUHDWHDSRRORIWKUHDGV:H¦OOXVHWKHWKUHDGSRROWRUXQDVLPSOHFODVV
LPSOHPHQWLQJ-DYD¦VRunnableLQWHUIDFHIRUWKUHDGIULHQGO\FODVVHVWKDWLGHQWLILHVZKLFK
WKUHDGLW¦VUXQQLQJRQ
// code-examples/Concurrency/threads/util-concurrent-script.scala

import java.util.concurrent._

class ThreadIdentifier extends Runnable {

def run {
println("hello from Thread " + currentThread.getId)
}
}

val pool = Executors.newFixedThreadPool(5)

for (i <- 1 to 10) {

pool.execute(new ThreadIdentifier)
}

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(YHU\WLPHRXUpoolH[HFXWHVDQHZThreadIdentifierLWVrunPHWKRGLVLQYRNHG$ORRN
DWWKHRXWSXWWHOOVXVWKDWZH¦UHUXQQLQJRQWKHILYHWKUHDGVLQWKHSRROZLWK,'VUDQJLQJ
IURPWR
hello from Thread 9
hello from Thread 10
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hello from Thread 13
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WDVNVXVLQJOHVVFRGHZKLFKVKRXOGFRQWULEXWHWRPDLQWDLQDELOLW\DQGSURGXFWLYLW\

Events
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204 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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'HYHORSPHQWOLEUDU\VHH£6SHFV¤RQSDJH
// .../smtpd/src/test/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/SmtpDecoderSpec.scala

package com.programmingscala.smtpd

import java.nio.ByteOrder
import net.lag.naggati._
import org.apache.mina.core.buffer.IoBuffer
import org.apache.mina.core.filterchain.IoFilter
import org.apache.mina.core.session.{DummySession, IoSession}
import org.apache.mina.filter.codec._
import org.specs._
import scala.collection.{immutable, mutable}

object SmtpDecoderSpec extends Specification {

private var fakeSession: IoSession = null
private var fakeDecoderOutput: ProtocolDecoderOutput = null
private var written = new mutable.ListBuffer[Request]

def quickDecode(s: String): Unit = {

Codec.decoder.decode(fakeSession, IoBuffer.wrap(s.getBytes), fakeDecoderOutput)
}

"SmtpRequestDecoder" should {
doBefore {
written.clear()
fakeSession = new DummySession

Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events | 205

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 fakeDecoderOutput = new ProtocolDecoderOutput {
override def flush(nextFilter: IoFilter.NextFilter, s: IoSession) = {}
override def write(obj: AnyRef) = written += obj.asInstanceOf[Request]
}
}

"parse HELO" in {
quickDecode("HELO client.example.org\n")
written.size mustEqual 1
written(0).command mustEqual "HELO"
written(0).data mustEqual "client.example.org"
}

"parse QUIT" in {
quickDecode("QUIT\n")
written.size mustEqual 1
written(0).command mustEqual "QUIT"
written(0).data mustEqual null
}
}
}

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FRPPDQGVZH¦UHLQWHUHVWHGLQ7KHdoBeforeEORFNUXQVEHIRUHHDFKWHVWJXDUDQWHHLQJ
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VWULQJRIK\SRWKHWLFDOFOLHQWLQSXWWRRXUDV\HWXQLPSOHPHQWHG CodecWKHQYHULI\LQJ
WKDWWKHUHVXOWLQJRequestDcase classFRQWDLQVWKHFRUUHFWcommandDQGdataILHOGV
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VLPSO\FKHFNWKDWdataLVnull
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6073
// .../smtpd/src/main/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/Codec.scala

package com.programmingscala.smtpd

import org.apache.mina.core.buffer.IoBuffer
import org.apache.mina.core.session.{IdleStatus, IoSession}
import org.apache.mina.filter.codec._
import net.lag.naggati._
import net.lag.naggati.Steps._

case class Request(command: String, data: String)

case class Response(data: IoBuffer)

object Codec {
val encoder = new ProtocolEncoder {
def encode(session: IoSession, message: AnyRef, out: ProtocolEncoderOutput) = {
val buffer = message.asInstanceOf[Response].data
out.write(buffer)
}

def dispose(session: IoSession): Unit = {

206 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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 // no-op, required by ProtocolEncoder trait
}
}

val decoder = new Decoder(readLine(true, "ISO-8859-1") { line =>

line.split(' ').first match {
case "HELO" => state.out.write(Request("HELO", line.split(' ')(1))); End
case "QUIT" => state.out.write(Request("QUIT", null)); End
case _ => throw new ProtocolError("Malformed request line: " + line)
}
})
}

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RID HELOFRPPDQGZHDOVRJUDEWKHVXEVHTXHQWVWULQJRQWKDWOLQH7KHUHVXOWVDUH
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ZLWK$FWRUVWRZLUHXSDVHUYHU
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// .../smtpd/src/main/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/Main.scala

package com.programmingscala.smtpd

import net.lag.naggati.IoHandlerActorAdapter
import org.apache.mina.filter.codec.ProtocolCodecFilter
import org.apache.mina.transport.socket.SocketAcceptor
import org.apache.mina.transport.socket.nio.{NioProcessor, NioSocketAcceptor}
import java.net.InetSocketAddress
import java.util.concurrent.{Executors, ExecutorService}
import scala.actors.Actor._

object Main {
val listenAddress = "0.0.0.0"
val listenPort = 2525

def setMaxThreads = {
val maxThreads = (Runtime.getRuntime.availableProcessors * 2)
System.setProperty("actors.maxPoolSize", maxThreads.toString)
}

def initializeAcceptor = {
var acceptorExecutor = Executors.newCachedThreadPool()
var acceptor =

Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events | 207

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 new NioSocketAcceptor(acceptorExecutor, new NioProcessor(acceptorExecutor))
acceptor.setBacklog(1000)
acceptor.setReuseAddress(true)
acceptor.getSessionConfig.setTcpNoDelay(true)
acceptor.getFilterChain.addLast("codec",
new ProtocolCodecFilter(smtpd.Codec.encoder, smtpd.Codec.decoder))
acceptor.setHandler(
new IoHandlerActorAdapter(session => new SmtpHandler(session)))
acceptor.bind(new InetSocketAddress(listenAddress, listenPort))
}

def main(args: Array[String]) {

setMaxThreads
initializeAcceptor
println("smtpd: up and listening on " + listenAddress + ":" + listenPort)
}
}

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WKH actors.maxPoolSizeV\VWHPSURSHUW\WRWZLFHWKHQXPEHURIDYDLODEOHSURFHVVRUV
RQRXUPDFKLQH:HWKHQLQLWLDOL]HDQ NioSocketAcceptorDNH\SLHFHRI0,1$PD
FKLQHU\WKDWDFFHSWVQHZFRQQHFWLRQVIURPFOLHQWV7KHILQDOWKUHHOLQHVRIWKLVFRQILJ
XUDWLRQDUHFULWLFDODVWKH\SXWRXUFRGHFWRZRUNWHOOWKHDFFHSWRUWRKDQGOHUHTXHVWV
ZLWKDVSHFLDOREMHFWDQGVWDUWWKHVHUYHUOLVWHQLQJIRUQHZFRQQHFWLRQVRQSRUW
UHDO6073VHUYHUVUXQRQWKHSULYLOHJHGSRUW
7KHDIRUHPHQWLRQHGVSHFLDOREMHFWLVDQ$FWRUZUDSSHGLQDQIoHandlerActorAdapter
DEULGJLQJOD\HUEHWZHHQ6FDOD$FWRUVDQG0,1$WKDW¦VSURYLGHGE\1DJJDWL7KLVLV
WKHSLHFHRIRXUVHUYHUWKDWWDONVEDFNWRWKHFOLHQW1RZWKDWZHNQRZZKDWWKHFOLHQW
LVVD\LQJWKDQNVWRWKHGHFRGHUZHDFWXDOO\NQRZZKDWWRVD\EDFN
// .../smtpd/src/main/scala/com/programmingscala/smtpd/SmtpHandler.scala

package com.programmingscala.smtpd

import net.lag.naggati.{IoHandlerActorAdapter, MinaMessage, ProtocolError}

import org.apache.mina.core.buffer.IoBuffer
import org.apache.mina.core.session.{IdleStatus, IoSession}
import java.io.IOException
import scala.actors.Actor
import scala.actors.Actor._
import scala.collection.{immutable, mutable}

class SmtpHandler(val session: IoSession) extends Actor {

start

def act = {
loop {
react {
case MinaMessage.MessageReceived(msg) =>
handle(msg.asInstanceOf[smtpd.Request])
case MinaMessage.SessionClosed => exit()
case MinaMessage.SessionIdle(status) => session.close
case MinaMessage.SessionOpened => reply("220 localhost Tapir SMTPd 0.1\n")

208 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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 case MinaMessage.ExceptionCaught(cause) => {
cause.getCause match {
case e: ProtocolError => reply("502 Error: " + e.getMessage + "\n")
case i: IOException => reply("502 Error: " + i.getMessage + "\n")
case _ => reply("502 Error unknown\n")
}
session.close
}
}
}
}

private def handle(request: smtpd.Request) = {

request.command match {
case "HELO" => reply("250 Hi there " + request.data + "\n")
case "QUIT" => reply("221 Peace out girl scout\n"); session.close
}
}

private def reply(s: String) = {

session.write(new smtpd.Response(IoBuffer.wrap(s.getBytes)))
}

6WUDLJKWDZD\ZHVHHWKHVDPHSDWWHUQWKDWZHVDZLQWKH$FWRUVH[DPSOHVHDUOLHULQ
WKLVFKDSWHUORRSLQJDURXQGD reactEORFNWKDWSDWWHUQPDWFKHVRQDOLPLWHGVHWRI
FDVHV,Q SmtpHandlerDOORIWKRVHFDVHVDUHHYHQWVSURYLGHGE\0,1$)RUH[DPSOH
0,1$ ZLOO VHQG XV MinaMessage.SessionOpened ZKHQ D FOLHQW FRQQHFWV DQG
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FDQUHSO\ZLWKDQDFNQRZOHGJHPHQW:KHQWKHFOLHQWVD\VQUITZHVD\JRRGE\HDQG
GLVFRQQHFWKLP
1RZWKDWZH¦YHJRWDOOWKHSLHFHVLQSODFHOHW¦VKDYHDFRQYHUVDWLRQZLWKRXUVHUYHU
[al3x@jaya ~]$ telnet localhost 2525
Trying ::1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
220 localhost Tapir SMTPd 0.1
HELO jaya.local
250 Hi there jaya.local
QUIT
221 Peace out girl scout
Connection closed by foreign host.

Traditional Concurrency in Scala: Threading and Events | 209

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$EULHIFRQYHUVDWLRQWREHVXUHEXWRXUVHUYHUZRUNV1RZZKDWKDSSHQVLIZHWKURZ
VRPHWKLQJXQH[SHFWHGDWLW"
[al3x@jaya ~]$ telnet localhost 2525
Trying ::1...
Connected to localhost.
Escape character is '^]'.
220 localhost Tapir SMTPd 0.1
HELO jaya.local
250 Hi there jaya.local
BAD COMMAND
502 Error: Malformed request line: BAD COMMAND
Connection closed by foreign host.

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UHFHLYHGDMinaMessage.ExceptionCaughtLQRXUSmtpHandler$FWRU
2IFRXUVHZKDWZH¦YHEXLOWMXVWKDQGOHVWKHEHJLQQLQJDQGHQGRIDFRPSOHWH6073
FRQYHUVDWLRQ$VDQH[HUFLVHWU\ILOOLQJRXWWKHUHVWRIWKHFRPPDQGV2UWRVNLSDKHDG
WR VRPHWKLQJ YHU\ PXFK DNLQ WR ZKDW ZH¦YH EXLOW KHUH FKHFN RXW WKH RSHQ VRXUFH
0DLOVORWSURMHFWRQ*LW+XEVHH>0DLOVORW@

Recap and What’s Next

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OLEUDU\WKDWDYRLGWKHSUREOHPVRIWUDGLWLRQDODSSURDFKHVEDVHGRQV\QFKURQL]HGDFFHVV
WRVKDUHGPXWDEOHVWDWH:HDOVRGHPRQVWUDWHGWKDW-DYD¦VSRZHUIXOEXLOWLQWKUHDGLQJ
PRGHOLVHDVLO\DFFHVVLEOHIURP6FDOD)LQDOO\ZHOHDUQHGKRZWRFRPELQH$FWRUVZLWK
WKHSRZHUIXO0,1$1,2IUDPHZRUNDQG1DJJDWLWRGHYHORSHYHQWGULYHQDV\QFKUR
QRXVQHWZRUNVHUYHUVIURPWKHJURXQGXSLQMXVWDIHZOLQHVRIFRGH
7KHQH[WFKDSWHUH[DPLQHV6FDOD¦VEXLOWLQVXSSRUWIRUZRUNLQJZLWK;0/

210 | Chapter 9:—Robust, Scalable Concurrency with Actors

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 CHAPTER 10
Herding XML in Scala

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RQWKH,QWHUQHW7KHIRUPDW¦VFRPELQDWLRQRIKXPDQUHDGDELOLW\VWDQGDUGL]DWLRQDQG
WRROVXSSRUWKDVPDGHZRUNLQJZLWK;0/DQLQHYLWDELOLW\IRUSURJUDPPHUV<HWZULW
LQJFRGHWKDWGHDOVLQ;0/LVDQXQSOHDVDQWFKRUHLQPRVWSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHV
6FDODLPSURYHVWKLVVLWXDWLRQ
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LPSOHPHQWHGSDUWO\DVDOLEUDU\ZLWKVRPHEXLOWLQV\QWD[VXSSRUW,WIHHOVWRWKHSUR
JUDPPHU OLNH DQ HQWLUHO\ QDWXUDO SDUW RI WKH ODQJXDJH &RQYHQLHQW RSHUDWRUV DGG D
VSRRQIXORIV\QWDFWLFVXJDUWRWKHWDVNRIGLYLQJGHHSLQWRFRPSOH[GRFXPHQWVWUXF
WXUHV DQG SDWWHUQ PDWFKLQJ IXUWKHU VZHHWHQV WKH GHDO 2XWSXWWLQJ ;0/ LV MXVW DV
SOHDVDQW
8QXVXDOLQSURJUDPPLQJODQJXDJHVDQGSDUWLFXODUO\KDQG\6FDODDOORZVLQOLQH;0/
0RVWDQ\ZKHUH\RXPLJKWSXWDVWULQJ\RXFDQSXW;0/7KLVIHDWXUHPDNHVWHP
SODWLQJDQGFRQILJXUDWLRQDEUHH]HDQGOHWVXVWHVWRXUXVHRI;0/ZLWKRXWVRPXFK
DVRSHQLQJDILOH
/HW¦VH[SORUHZRUNLQJZLWK;0/LQ6FDOD)LUVWZH¦OOORRNDWUHDGLQJDQGQDYLJDWLQJDQ
;0/ GRFXPHQW )LQDOO\ ZH¦OO SURGXFH ;0/ RXWSXW SURJUDPPDWLFDOO\ DQG GHPRQ
VWUDWHXVHVIRULQOLQH;0/

Reading XML
:H¦OOVWDUWZLWKWKHEDVLFVKRZWRWXUQDVWULQJIXOORI;0/LQWRDGDWDVWUXFWXUHZH
FDQZRUNZLWK
// code-examples/XML/reading/from-string-script.scala

import scala.xml._

val someXMLInAString = """

<sammich>
<bread>wheat</bread>

211

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 <meat>salami</meat>
<condiments>
<condiment expired="true">mayo</condiment>
<condiment expired="false">mustard</condiment>
</condiments>
</sammich>
"""

val someXML = XML.loadString(someXMLInAString)

assert(someXML.isInstanceOf[scala.xml.Elem])

$OOILQHDQGZHOO:H¦YHWUDQVIRUPHGWKHVWULQJLQWRDNodeSeq6FDOD¦VW\SHIRUVWRULQJ
DVHTXHQFHRI;0/QRGHV:HUHRXU;0/GRFXPHQWLQDILOHRQGLVNZHFRXOGKDYH
XVHGWKHloadFilePHWKRGIURPWKHVDPHSDFNDJH
6LQFHZH¦UHVXSSO\LQJWKH;0/RXUVHOYHVZHFDQVNLSWKHXML.loadStringVWHSDQGMXVW
DVVLJQDFKXQNRIPDUNXSWRDvalRUvar
// code-examples/XML/reading/inline-script.scala

import scala.xml._

val someXML =
<sammich>
<bread>wheat</bread>
<meat>salami</meat>
<condiments>
<condiment expired="true">mayo</condiment>
<condiment expired="false">mustard</condiment>
</condiments>
</sammich>

assert(someXML.isInstanceOf[scala.xml.Elem])

Exploring XML
,IZHSDVWHWKHSUHYLRXVH[DPSOHLQWRWKHLQWHUSUHWHUZHFDQH[SORUHRXUVDQGZLFK
XVLQJVRPHKDQG\WRROVSURYLGHGE\NodeSeq
scala> someXML \ "bread"
res2: scala.xml.NodeSeq = <bread>wheat</bread>

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HOHPHQWVQDPHGbread¤:H¦OODOZD\VJHWDNodeSeqEDFNZKHQXVLQJDSURMHFWLRQIXQF
WLRQ,IZH¦UHRQO\LQWHUHVWHGLQZKDW¦VEHWZHHQWKHWDJVZHFDQXVHWKHtextPHWKRG
scala> (someXML \ "bread").text
res3: String = wheat

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WKHGRWEHIRUHWKHFDOOWR text<RX¦OOVWLOOJHWWKHVDPHUHVXOWEXWLW¦V
KDUGHUWRUHDG3DUHQWKHVHVPDNH\RXULQWHQWFOHDU

212 | Chapter 10:—Herding XML in Scala

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:H¦YHRQO\LQVSHFWHGWKHRXWHUPRVWOD\HURIRXUVDQGZLFK/HW¦VWU\WRJHWDNodeSeqRI
WKHFRQGLPHQWV
scala> someXML \ "condiment"
res4: scala.xml.NodeSeq =

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scala> someXML \\ "condiment"
res5: scala.xml.NodeSeq = <condiment expired="true">mayo</condiment>
<condiment expired="false">mustard</condiment>

0XFKEHWWHU:HVSOLWWKHVLQJOHRXWSXWOLQHLQWRWZROLQHVVRLWZRXOGILWRQWKHSDJH
:HGRYHLQWRWKHVWUXFWXUHDQGSXOOHGRXWWKHWZR <condiment>HOHPHQWV/RRNVOLNH
RQHRIWKHFRQGLPHQWVKDVJRQHEDGWKRXJK:HFDQILQGRXWLIDQ\RIWKHFRQGLPHQWV
KDVH[SLUHGE\H[WUDFWLQJLWV expiredDWWULEXWH$OOLWWDNHVLVDQ @EHIRUHWKHDWWULEXWH
QDPH
scala> (someXML \\ "condiment")(0) \ "@expired"
res6: scala.xml.NodeSeq = true

:HXVHGWKH(0)WRSLFNWKHILUVWRIWKHWZRFRQGLPHQWVWKDWZHUHUHWXUQHGE\(someXML
\\ "condiment")

Looping and Matching XML

7KHSUHYLRXVELWRIFRGHH[WUDFWHGWKHYDOXHRIWKHexpiredDWWULEXWHtrueLQWKLVFDVH
EXWLWGLGQ¦WWHOOXVZKLFKFRQGLPHQWLVH[SLUHG,IZHZHUHKDQGHGDQDUELWUDU\;0/
VDQGZLFKKRZZRXOGZHLGHQWLI\WKHH[SLUHGFRQGLPHQWV":HFDQORRSWKURXJKWKH
;0/
// code-examples/XML/reading/for-loop-script.scala

for (condiment <- (someXML \\ "condiment")) {

if ((condiment \ "@expired").text == "true")
println("the " + condiment.text + " has expired!")
}

%HFDXVH NodeSeqLQKHULWVWKHVDPHIDPLOLDUDWWULEXWHVWKDWPRVW6FDODFROOHFWLRQW\SHV
FDUU\WRROVOLNH forORRSVDSSO\GLUHFWO\,QWKHH[DPSOHMXVWVKRZQZHH[WUDFWWKH
<condiment>QRGHVORRSRYHUHDFKRIWKHPDQGWHVWZKHWKHURUQRWWKHLU expiredDW
WULEXWHHTXDOVWKHVWULQJ "true":HKDYHWRVSHFLI\WKDWZHZDQWWKH textRIDJLYHQ
condimentRWKHUZLVHZH¦GJHWDVWULQJUHSUHVHQWDWLRQRIWKHHQWLUHOLQHRI;0/
:HFDQDOVRXVHSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJRQ;0/VWUXFWXUHV&DVHVLQSDWWHUQPDWFKHVFDQEH
ZULWWHQLQWHUPVRI;0/OLWHUDOVH[SUHVVLRQVEHWZHHQFXUO\EUDFHV{}HVFDSHEDFNWR
VWDQGDUG6FDODSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJV\QWD[7RPDWFKDOO;0/QRGHVLQWKHHVFDSHGSRU
WLRQRIDSDWWHUQPDWFKXVHDQXQGHUVFRUHZLOGFDUGIROORZHGE\DQDVWHULVN _*7R
ELQGZKDW\RX¦YHPDWFKHGRQWRDYDULDEOHSUHIL[WKHPDWFKZLWKWKHYDULDEOHQDPH
DQGDQ@VLJQ

Reading XML | 213

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/HW¦VSXWDOOWKDWWRJHWKHULQWRRQHH[DPSOH:H¦OOLQFOXGHWKHRULJLQDO;0/GRFXPHQW
DJDLQVR\RXFDQIROORZDORQJDVZHSDWWHUQPDWFKRQ;0/
// code-examples/XML/reading/pattern-matching-script.scala

import scala.xml._

val someXML =
<sammich>
<bread>wheat</bread>
<meat>salami</meat>
<condiments>
<condiment expired="true">mayo</condiment>
<condiment expired="false">mustard</condiment>
</condiments>
</sammich>

someXML match {
case <sammich>{ingredients @ _*}</sammich> => {
for (cond @ <condiments>{_*}</condiments> <- ingredients)
println("condiments: " + cond.text)
}
}

+HUHZHELQGWKHFRQWHQWVRIRXU<sammich>VWUXFWXUHWKDWLVZKDW¦VLQVLGHWKHRSHQLQJ
DQGFORVLQJWDJWRDYDULDEOHFDOOHG ingredients7KHQDVZHLWHUDWHWKURXJKWKHLQ
JUHGLHQWVLQDforORRSZHDVVLJQWKHHOHPHQWVWKDWDUHEHWZHHQWKH<condiments>WDJV
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ZULWLQJ;0/ZKLFKZH¦OOH[SORUHLQWKHQH[WVHFWLRQ

Writing XML
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QLVPV6FDOD¦VVXSSRUWIRU;0/OLWHUDOVPDNHVZULWLQJ;0/IDUVLPSOHU(VVHQWLDOO\
ZKHQ\RXZDQW;0/MXVWZULWH;0/7RLQWHUSRODWHYDULDEOHVDQGH[SUHVVLRQVHVFDSH
RXWWR6FDODZLWKFXUO\EUDFHVDVZHGLGLQWKHSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJH[DPSOHVHDUOLHU
scala> var name = "Bob"
name: java.lang.String = Bob

scala> val bobXML =

| <person>
| <name>{name}</name>
| </person>
bobXML: scala.xml.Elem =
<person>
<name>Bob</name>
</person>

214 | Chapter 10:—Herding XML in Scala

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$VZHFDQVHHWKHnameYDULDEOHZDVVXEVWLWXWHGZKHQZHFRQVWUXFWHGWKH;0/GRFX
PHQWDVVLJQHGWR bobXML7KDWHYDOXDWLRQRQO\RFFXUVRQFHZHUH nameVXEVHTXHQWO\
UHGHILQHGWKH<name>HOHPHQWRIbobXMLZRXOGVWLOOFRQWDLQWKHVWULQJ£%RE¤

A Real-World Example
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ZRUOG¤DEORJJLQJV\VWHP:H¦OOVWDUWZLWKDFODVVWRUHSUHVHQWDQ$WRPIULHQGO\EORJ
SRVW
// code-examples/XML/writing/post.scala

import java.text.SimpleDateFormat
import java.util.Date

class Post(val title: String, val body: String, val updated: Date) {
lazy val dashedDate = {
val dashed = new SimpleDateFormat("yy-MM-dd")
dashed.format(updated)
}

lazy val atomDate = {

val rfc3339 = new SimpleDateFormat("yyyy-MM-dd'T'h:m:ss'-05:00'")
rfc3339.format(updated)
}

lazy val slug = title.toLowerCase.replaceAll("\\W", "-")

lazy val atomId = "tag:example.com," + dashedDate + ":/" + slug
}

%H\RQGWKHREYLRXVtitleDQGbodyDWWULEXWHVZH¦YHGHILQHGVHYHUDOOD]LO\ORDGHGYDOXHV
LQRXU PostFODVV7KHVHDWWULEXWHVZLOOFRPHLQKDQG\ZKHQZHWUDQVPXWHRXUSRVWV
LQWRDQ$WRPIHHGWKHVWDQGDUGZD\WRV\QGLFDWHEORJVEHWZHHQFRPSXWHUVRQWKH:HE
$WRPGRFXPHQWVDUHDIODYRURI;0/DQGDSHUIHFWDSSOLFDWLRQIRUGHPRQVWUDWLQJWKH
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:H¦OOGHILQHDQAtomFeedFODVVWKDWWDNHVDVHTXHQFHRIPostREMHFWVDVLWVVROHDUJXPHQW
// code-examples/XML/writing/atom-feed.scala

import scala.xml.XML

class AtomFeed(posts: Seq[Post]) {

val feed =
<feed xmlns="">
<title>My Blog</title>
<subtitle>A fancy subtitle.</subtitle>
<link href=""/>
<link href="" rel="self"/>
<updated>{posts(0).atomDate}</updated>
<author>
<name>John Doe</name>
<uri></uri>

Writing XML | 215

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 </author>
<id></id>
{for (post <- posts) yield
<entry>
<title>{post.title}</title>
<link href={"" + post.slug + ".html"} rel="alternate"/>
<id>{post.atomId}</id>
<updated>{post.atomDate}</updated>
<content type="html">{post.body}</content>
<author>
<name>John Doe</name>
<uri></uri>
</author>
</entry>
}
</feed>

def write = XML.saveFull("/tmp/atom-example.xml", feed, "UTF-8", true, null)

}

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216 | Chapter 10:—Herding XML in Scala

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 CHAPTER 11
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217

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218 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/api/payroll-api-script.scala

import payroll.api._
import payroll.api.DeductionsCalculator._
import payroll._
import payroll.Type2Money._

val buck = Employee(Name("Buck", "Trends"), Money(80000))

val jane = Employee(Name("Jane", "Doe"), Money(90000))

List(buck, jane).foreach { employee =>

// Assume annual is based on 52 weeks.
val biweeklyGross = employee.annualGrossSalary / 26.

val deductions = federalIncomeTax(employee, biweeklyGross) +

stateIncomeTax(employee, biweeklyGross) +
insurancePremiums(employee, biweeklyGross) +
retirementFundContributions(employee, biweeklyGross)

val check = Paycheck(biweeklyGross, biweeklyGross - deductions, deductions)

format("%s %s: %s\n", employee.name.first, employee.name.last, check)

}

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/paycheck.scala

package payroll

/** We're ignoring invalid (?) cases like a negative net

* when deductions exceed the gross.
*/
case class Paycheck(gross: Money, net: Money, deductions: Money) {

def plusGross (m: Money) = Paycheck(gross + m, net + m, deductions)

def plusDeductions (m: Money) = Paycheck(gross, net - m, deductions + m)
}

Internal DSLs | 219

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7KHEmployeeW\SHXVHVDNameW\SH
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/employee.scala

package payroll

case class Name(first: String, last: String)

case class Employee(name: Name, annualGrossSalary: Money)

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/money.scala

package payroll
import java.math.{BigDecimal => JBigDecimal,
MathContext => JMathContext, RoundingMode => JRoundingMode}

/** Most arithmetic is done using JBigDecimals for tighter control.

*/
class Money(val amount: BigDecimal) {

def + (m: Money) =

Money(amount.bigDecimal.add(m.amount.bigDecimal))
def - (m: Money) =
Money(amount.bigDecimal.subtract(m.amount.bigDecimal))
def * (m: Money) =
Money(amount.bigDecimal.multiply(m.amount.bigDecimal))
def / (m: Money) =
Money(amount.bigDecimal.divide(m.amount.bigDecimal,
Money.scale, Money.jroundingMode))

def < (m: Money) = amount < m.amount

def <= (m: Money) = amount <= m.amount
def > (m: Money) = amount > m.amount
def >= (m: Money) = amount >= m.amount

override def equals (o: Any) = o match {

case m: Money => amount equals m.amount
case _ => false
}

override def hashCode = amount.hashCode * 31

// Hack: Must explicitly call the correct conversion: double2Double

override def toString =
String.format("$%.2f", double2Double(amount.doubleValue))
}

object Money {
def apply(amount: BigDecimal) = new Money(amount)

220 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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 def apply(amount: JBigDecimal) = new Money(scaled(new BigDecimal(amount)))
def apply(amount: Double) = new Money(scaled(BigDecimal(amount)))
def apply(amount: Long) = new Money(scaled(BigDecimal(amount)))
def apply(amount: Int) = new Money(scaled(BigDecimal(amount)))

def unapply(m: Money) = Some(m.amount)

protected def scaled(d: BigDecimal) = d.setScale(scale, roundingMode)

val scale = 4
val jroundingMode = JRoundingMode.HALF_UP
val roundingMode = BigDecimal.RoundingMode.ROUND_HALF_UP
val context = new JMathContext(scale, jroundingMode)
}

object Type2Money {
implicit def bigDecimal2Money(b: BigDecimal) = Money(b)
implicit def jBigDecimal2Money(b: JBigDecimal) = Money(b)
implicit def double2Money(d: Double) = Money(d)
implicit def long2Money(l: Long) = Money(l)
implicit def int2Money(i: Int) = Money(i)
}

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sCalculator
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/api/deductions-calc.scala

package payroll.api
import payroll.Type2Money._

object DeductionsCalculator {
def federalIncomeTax(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = gross * .25

def stateIncomeTax(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = gross * .05

def insurancePremiums(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = Money(500)

def retirementFundContributions(empl: Employee, gross: Money) = gross * .10

}

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(665) $ scala -cp ... payroll-api-script.scala
Buck Trends: Paycheck($3076.92,$1346.15,$1730.77)
Jane Doe: Paycheck($3461.54,$1576.92,$1884.62)

Internal DSLs | 221

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A Payroll Internal DSL
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Rules to calculate an employee's paycheck:
employee's gross salary for 2 weeks
minus deductions for
federalIncomeTax, which is 25% of gross
stateIncomeTax, which is 5% of gross
insurancePremiums, which are 500. in gross's currency
retirementFundContributions are 10% of gross

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EHIRUH
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll-dsl-script.scala

import payroll._
import payroll.dsl._
import payroll.dsl.rules_

val payrollCalculator = rules { employee =>

employee salary_for 2.weeks minus_deductions_for { gross =>
federalIncomeTax is (25. percent_of gross)
stateIncomeTax is (5. percent_of gross)
insurancePremiums are (500. in gross.currency)
retirementFundContributions are (10. percent_of gross)
}

222 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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 }

val buck = Employee(Name("Buck", "Trends"), Money(80000))

val jane = Employee(Name("Jane", "Doe"), Money(90000))

List(buck, jane).foreach { employee =>

val check = payrollCalculator(employee)
format("%s %s: %s\n", employee.name.first, employee.name.last, check)
}

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RI6FDODWKDWDOORZXVWRLPSOHPHQWWKLV'6/

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employee salary_for 2.weeks minus_deductions_for { gross =>

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employee.salary_for(2.weeks).minus_deductions_for { gross =>

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employee salary for 2.weeks minus deductions for { gross =>

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Implicit Conversions and User-Defined Types

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Internal DSLs | 223

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 // code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/duration.scala

package payroll.dsl

case class Duration(val amount: Int) {

/** @return the number of work days in "amount" weeks. */
def weeks = amount * 5

/** @return the number of work days in "amount" years. */

def years = amount * 260
}

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Apply Methods
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WDNHVDIXQFWLRQOLWHUDOEmployee => Paycheck

Payroll Rules DSL Implementation

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll.scala

package payroll.dsl
import payroll._

object rules {

def apply(rules: Employee => Paycheck) = new PayrollBuilderRules(rules)

implicit def int2Duration(i: Int) = Duration(i)

implicit def employee2GrossPayBuilder(e: Employee) =

new GrossPayBuilder(e)

implicit def grossPayBuilder2DeductionsBuilder(b: GrossPayBuilder)

= new DeductionsBuilder(b)

implicit def double2DeductionsBuilderDeductionHelper(d: Double) =

new DeductionsBuilderDeductionHelper(d)
}

224 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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 import rules._
...

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val payrollCalculator = rules { employee => ...

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll.scala
...
class PayrollException(message: String, cause: Throwable)
extends RuntimeException(message, cause)

protected[dsl] class PayrollBuilderRules(rules: Employee => Paycheck) {

def apply(employee: Employee) = {
try {
rules(employee)
} catch {
case th: Throwable => new PayrollException(
"Failed to process payroll for employee: " + employee, th)
}
}
}
...

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WKHSD\UROO'6/ZKHUHWKHGHGXFWLRQVDUHVSHFLILHG
... { gross =>
federalIncomeTax is (25. percent_of gross)

Internal DSLs | 225

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 stateIncomeTax is (5. percent_of gross)
insurancePremiums are (500. in gross.currency)
retirementFundContributions are (10. percent_of gross)
}

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QLFDWLRQ¤EHWZHHQWKHIRXUOLQHVRIWKHIXQFWLRQOLWHUDO)XUWKHUPRUH federalIncome
Tax insurancePremiumsHWFDUHREMHFWVZLWKQRFRQQHFWLRQWR DeductionsBuilderDV
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... { builder =>
builder federalIncomeTax (25. percent_of gross)
builder stateIncomeTax (5. percent_of gross)
builder insurancePremiums 500.
builder retirementFundContributions (10. percent_of gross)
}

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+HUHLVGrossPayBuilder
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll.scala
...
import payroll.Type2Money._

protected[dsl] class GrossPayBuilder(val employee: Employee) {

var gross: Money = 0

226 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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 def salary_for(days: Int) = {
gross += dailyGrossSalary(employee.annualGrossSalary) * days
this
}

// Assume 260 working days: 52 weeks (including vacation) * 5 days/week.

def weeklyGrossSalary(annual: Money) = annual / 52.0
def dailyGrossSalary(annual: Money) = annual / 260.0
}
...

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E\WKHH[SUHVVLRQemployee salary_forVRWKHGrossPayBuilder.salary_forPHWKRGFDQ
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BuilderWRDDeductionsBuilder
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll.scala
...
protected[dsl] class DeductionsBuilder(gpb: GrossPayBuilder) {

val employee = gpb.employee

var paycheck: Paycheck = new Paycheck(gpb.gross, gpb.gross, 0)

def currency = this

def minus_deductions_for(deductionRules: DeductionsBuilder => Unit) = {

deductionRules(this)
paycheck
}

def addDeductions(amount: Money) = paycheck = paycheck plusDeductions amount

def addDeductionsPercentageOfGross(percentage: Double) = {

val amount = paycheck.gross * (percentage/100.)
addDeductions(amount)
}
}
...

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Internal DSLs | 227

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2XU UHPDLQLQJ WZR PHWKRGV DUH XVHG WR FDOFXODWH LQGLYLGXDO GHGXFWLRQV 7KH\ DUH
FDOOHGIURPDeductionsBuilderDeductionHelperZKLFKZHVKRZQRZ
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/dsl/payroll.scala
...
class DeductionCalculator {
def is(builder: DeductionsBuilder) = apply(builder)
def are(builder: DeductionsBuilder) = apply(builder)

def apply(builder: DeductionsBuilder) = {}

}

object federalIncomeTax extends DeductionCalculator

object stateIncomeTax extends DeductionCalculator
object insurancePremiums extends DeductionCalculator
object retirementFundContributions extends DeductionCalculator

protected[dsl] class DeductionsBuilderDeductionHelper(val factor: Double) {

def in (builder: DeductionsBuilder) = {
builder addDeductions Money(factor)
builder
}
def percent_of (builder: DeductionsBuilder) = {
builder addDeductionsPercentageOfGross factor
builder
}
}

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federalIncomeTax is (25. percent_of gross)
federalIncomeTax (25. percent_of gross)

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228 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
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paycheck for employee "Buck Trends" is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {
federal income tax is 25. percent of gross,
state income tax is 5. percent of gross,
insurance premiums are 500. in gross currency,
retirement fund contributions are 10. percent of gross
}

230 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
&RPSDUH WKLV H[DPSOH WR WKH LQWHUQDO '6/ ZH GHILQHG LQ £$ 3D\UROO ,QWHUQDO
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... = rules { employee =>
employee salary_for 2.weeks minus_deductions_for { gross =>
federalIncomeTax is (25. percent_of gross)
stateIncomeTax is (5. percent_of gross)
insurancePremiums are (500. in gross.currency)
retirementFundContributions are (10. percent_of gross)
}
}
...

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paycheck = empl gross deduct;

empl = "paycheck" "for" "employee" employeeName;

gross = "is" "salary" "for" duration;

deduct = "minus" "deductions" "for" "{" deductItems "}";

employeeName = "\"" name " " name "\"";

name = ...

duration = decimalNumber weeksDays;

weeksDays = "week" | "weeks" | "day" | "days";

External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 231

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 deductItems = R| deductItem { "," deductItem };

deductItem = deductKind deductAmount;

deductKind = tax | insurance | retirement;

tax = fedState "income" "tax";

fedState = "federal" | "state";

insurance = "insurance" "premiums";

retirement = "retirement" "fund" "contributions";

deductAmount = percentage | amount;

percentage = toBe doubleNumber "percent" "of" "gross";

amount = toBe doubleNumber "in" "gross" "currency";

toBe = "is" | "are";

decimalNumber = ...

doubleNumber = ...

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232 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
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A Scala Implementation of the External DSL Grammar

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb-v1.scala

package payroll.pcdsl
import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
import org.specs._
import payroll._
import payroll.Type2Money._

class PayrollParserCombinatorsV1 extends JavaTokenParsers {

def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct

def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName

def gross = "is" ~> "salary" ~> "for" ~> duration

def deduct = "minus" ~> "deductions" ~> "for" ~> "{" ~> deductItems <~ "}"

// stringLiteral provided by JavaTokenParsers

def employeeName = stringLiteral

// decimalNumber provided by JavaTokenParsers

def duration = decimalNumber ~ weeksDays

def weeksDays = "weeks" | "week" | "days" | "day"

def deductItems = repsep(deductItem, "," )

External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 233

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 def deductItem = deductKind ~> deductAmount

def deductKind = tax | insurance | retirement

def tax = fedState <~ "income" <~ "tax"

def fedState = "federal" | "state"

def insurance = "insurance" ~> "premiums"

def retirement = "retirement" ~> "fund" ~> "contributions"

def deductAmount = percentage | amount

def percentage = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "percent" <~ "of" <~ "gross"

def amount = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "in" <~ "gross" <~ "currency"

def toBe = "is" | "are"

// floatingPointNumber provided by JavaTokenParsers

def doubleNumber = floatingPointNumber
}

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def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct

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def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName

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def tax = fedState <~ "income" <~ "tax"

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GHGXFWLRQVLQGLFDWHVWKDWZHDUHQ¦WNHHSLQJWUDFNRIWKHVRXUFHRIHDFKGHGXFWLRQMXVW
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234 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
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def weeksDays = "weeks" | "week" | "days" | "day"

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def deduct = ... ~> "{" ~> repsep(deductItem, "," ) <~ "}"

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb-v1-spec.scala

package payroll.pcdsl
import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
import org.specs._
import payroll._
import payroll.Type2Money._

object PayrollParserCombinatorsV1Spec
extends Specification("PayrollParserCombinatorsV1") {

"PayrollParserCombinatorsV1" should {
"parse rules when there are no deductions" in {
val input = """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}"""
val p = new PayrollParserCombinatorsV1
p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input) match {
case p.Success(r,_) => r.toString mustEqual
"""(("Buck Trends"~(2~weeks))~List())"""
case x => fail(x.toString)
}
}

"calculate the gross, net, and deductions for the pay period" in {
val input =
"""paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {

External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 235

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 federal income tax is 25. percent of gross,
state income tax is 5. percent of gross,
insurance premiums are 500. in gross currency,
retirement fund contributions are 10. percent of gross
}"""
val p = new PayrollParserCombinatorsV1
p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input) match {
case p.Success(r,_) => r.toString mustEqual
"""(("Buck Trends"~(2~weeks))~List(25., 5., 500., 10.))"""
case x => fail(x.toString)
}
}
}
}

7KLVSDUWRIWKHVSHFLILFDWLRQVKRZVXVKRZWRLQVWDQWLDWHDQGXVHWKHSDUVHU
val p = new PayrollParserCombinatorsV1

p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input) match {

case p.Success(r,_) => r.toString mustEqual "..."
case x => fail(x.toString)
}

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236 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
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scala> import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
import scala.util.parsing.combinator._

scala> import payroll.pcdsl._

import payroll.pcdsl._

scala> val p = new PayrollParserCombinatorsV1

p: payroll.pcdsl.PayrollParserCombinatorsV1 = \
payroll.pcdsl.PayrollParserCombinatorsV1@79e84310

scala> p.empl
res0: p.Parser[String] = Parser (~>)

scala> p.weeksDays
res2: p.Parser[String] = Parser (|)

scala> p.doubleNumber
res3: p.Parser[String] = Parser ()

scala> p.deduct
res1: p.Parser[List[String]] = Parser (<~)

scala> p.paycheck
res4: p.Parser[p.~[p.~[String,p.~[String,String]],List[String]]] = Parser (~)

scala> p.parseAll(p.weeksDays, "weeks")

res5: p.ParseResult[String] = [1.6] parsed: weeks

scala> val input = """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"

| is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}"""
input: java.lang.String =

External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 237

Download at WoweBook.Com
 paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}

scala> p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input)

res6: p.ParseResult[p.~[p.~[String,p.~[String,String]],List[String]]] = \
[2.53] parsed: (("Buck Trends"~(2~weeks))~List())

scala>

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case class ~[+a, +b](_1: a, _2: b) {
override def toString = "("+ _1 +"~"+ _2 +")"
}

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238 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

Download at WoweBook.Com
GLVFDUGpaycheck for employeeDQGis salary forNHHSLQJRQO\WKHBuck TrendsDQG
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+HUHLVRXUILQDOPayrollParserCombinators
// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb.scala

package payroll.pcdsl
import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
import org.specs._
import payroll._
import payroll.Type2Money._

class UnknownEmployee(name: Name) extends RuntimeException(name.toString)

class PayrollParserCombinators(val employees: Map[Name, Employee])

extends JavaTokenParsers {

var currentEmployee: Employee = null

External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 239

Download at WoweBook.Com
 var grossAmount: Money = Money(0)

/** @return Parser[(Employee, Paycheck)] */

def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct ^^ {
case e ~ g ~ d => (e, Paycheck(g, g-d, d))
}

/** @return Parser[Employee] */

def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName ^^ { name =>
val names = name.substring(1, name.length-1).split(" ") // remove ""
val n = Name(names(0), names(1));
if (! employees.contains(n))
throw new UnknownEmployee(n)
currentEmployee = employees(n)
currentEmployee
}

/** @return Parser[Money] */

def gross = "is" ~> "salary" ~> "for" ~> duration ^^ { dur =>
grossAmount = salaryForDays(dur)
grossAmount
}

def deduct = "minus" ~> "deductions" ~> "for" ~> "{" ~> deductItems <~ "}"

/**
* "stringLiteral" provided by JavaTokenParsers
* @return Parser[String]
*/
def employeeName = stringLiteral

/**
* "decimalNumber" provided by JavaTokenParsers
* @return Parser[Int]
*/
def duration = decimalNumber ~ weeksDays ^^ {
case n ~ factor => n.toInt * factor
}

def weeksDays = weeks | days

def weeks = "weeks?".r ^^ { _ => 5 }

def days = "days?".r ^^ { _ => 1 }

/** @return Parser[Money] */

def deductItems = repsep(deductItem, ",") ^^ { items =>
items.foldLeft(Money(0)) {_ + _}
}

/** @return Parser[Money] */

def deductItem = deductKind ~> deductAmount

def deductKind = tax | insurance | retirement

240 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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 def tax = fedState <~ "income" <~ "tax"

def fedState = "federal" | "state"

def insurance = "insurance" ~> "premiums"

def retirement = "retirement" ~> "fund" ~> "contributions"

def deductAmount = percentage | amount

/** @return Parser[Money] */

def percentage = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "percent" <~ "of" <~ "gross" ^^ {
percentage => grossAmount * (percentage / 100.)
}

def amount = toBe ~> doubleNumber <~ "in" <~ "gross" <~ "currency" ^^ {
Money(_)
}

def toBe = "is" | "are"

def doubleNumber = floatingPointNumber ^^ { _.toDouble }

// Support method. Assume 260 (52 * 5) paid work days/year

def salaryForDays(days: Int) =
(currentEmployee.annualGrossSalary / 260.0) * days
}

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External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 241

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&RQVLGHUWKHQHZpaycheckSURGXFWLRQ
/** @return Parser[(Employee, Paycheck)] */
def paycheck = empl ~ gross ~ deduct ^^ {
case e ~ g ~ d => (e, Paycheck(g, g-d, d))
}

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/** @return Parser[Employee] */
def empl = "paycheck" ~> "for" ~> "employee" ~> employeeName ^^ { name =>
val names = name.substring(1, name.length-1).split(" ") // remove ""
val n = Name(names(0), names(1));
if (! employees.contains(n))
throw new UnknownEmployee(n)
currentEmployee = employees(n)
currentEmployee
}

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242 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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// code-examples/DSLs/payroll/pcdsl/payroll-parser-comb-spec.scala

package payroll.pcdsl
import scala.util.parsing.combinator._
import org.specs._
import payroll._
import payroll.Type2Money._

// Doesn't test "sad path" scenarios...

object PayrollParserCombinatorsSpec
extends Specification("PayrollParserCombinators") {

val salary = Money(100000.1) // for a full year

val gross = salary / 26. // for two weeks
val buck = Employee(Name("Buck", "Trends"), salary)
val employees = Map(buck.name -> buck)

implicit def money2double(m: Money) = m.amount.doubleValue

"PayrollParserCombinators" should {
"calculate the gross == net when there are no deductions" in {
val input = """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {}"""
val p = new PayrollParserCombinators(employees)
p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input) match {
case p.Success(Pair(employee, paycheck),_) =>
employee mustEqual buck
paycheck.gross must beCloseTo(gross, Money(.001))
paycheck.net must beCloseTo(gross, Money(.001))
// zero deductions?
paycheck.deductions must beCloseTo(Money(0.), Money(.001))
case x => fail(x.toString)
}
}

"calculate the gross, net, and deductions for the pay period" in {
val input =

External DSLs with Parser Combinators | 243

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 """paycheck for employee "Buck Trends"
is salary for 2 weeks minus deductions for {
federal income tax is 25. percent of gross,
state income tax is 5. percent of gross,
insurance premiums are 500. in gross currency,
retirement fund contributions are 10. percent of gross
}"""

val p = new PayrollParserCombinators(employees)

p.parseAll(p.paycheck, input) match {
case p.Success(Pair(employee, paycheck),_) =>
employee mustEqual buck
val deductions = (gross * .4) + Money(500)
val net = gross - deductions
paycheck.gross must beCloseTo(gross, Money(.001))
paycheck.net must beCloseTo(net, Money(.001))
paycheck.deductions must beCloseTo(deductions, Money(.001))
case x => fail(x.toString)
}
}
}
}

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244 | Chapter 11:—Domain-Specific Languages in Scala

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Recap and What’s Next

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Recap and What’s Next | 245

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Download at WoweBook.Com
 CHAPTER 12
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248 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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Understanding Parameterized Types

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Understanding Parameterized Types | 249

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RIManifestV
// code-examples/TypeSystem/manifests/manifest-script.scala

import scala.reflect.Manifest

object WhichList {
def apply[B](value: List[B])(implicit m: Manifest[B]) = m.toString match {
case "int" => println( "List[Int]" )
case "double" => println( "List[Double]" )
case "java.lang.String" => println( "List[String]" )
case _ => println( "List[???]" )
}
}

WhichList(List(1, 2, 3))
WhichList(List(1.1, 2.2, 3.3))
WhichList(List("one", "two", "three"))

List(List(1, 2, 3), List(1.1, 2.2, 3.3), List("one", "two", "three")) foreach {

WhichList(_)
}

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250 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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Parameterized Methods
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val languages = List("Scala", "Java", "Ruby", "C#", "C++", "Python", ...)
val positiveInts = List(1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, ...)

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Variance Under Inheritance

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Variance Under Inheritance | 251

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7DEOH7\SHYDULDQFHDQQRWDWLRQVDQGWKHLUPHDQLQJV
Annotation Java equivalent Description
+ ? extends T Covariant subclassing. E.g., List[Tsub] is a subtype of List[T].
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none T Invariant subclassing. E.g., Can’t substitute Y[Tsup] or Y[Tsub] for Y[T].

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val f: Function1[T, T] = new Function1[Tsup, Tsub] { ... }

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/func-script.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

class CSuper { def msuper = println("CSuper") }

class C extends CSuper { def m = println("C") }
class CSub extends C { def msub = println("CSub") }

var f: C => C = (c: C) => new C // #1

f = (c: CSuper) => new CSub // #2
f = (c: CSuper) => new C // #3
f = (c: C) => new CSub // #4
f = (c: CSub) => new CSuper // #5: ERROR!

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OLQH

252 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/func2-script.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

class CSuper { def msuper = println("CSuper") }

class C extends CSuper { def m = println("C") }
class CSub extends C { def msub = println("CSub") }

def useF(f: C => C) = {

val c1 = new C // #1
val c2: C = f(c1) // #2
c2.msuper // #3
c2.m // #4
}

useF((c: C) => new C) // #5

useF((c: CSuper) => new CSub) // #6
useF((c: CSub) => {println(c.msub); new CSuper}) // #7: ERROR!

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Variance Under Inheritance | 253

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trait MyFunction2[+T1, +T2, -R] {
def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2): R = { ... }
...
}

254 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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7KHFRPSLOHUZRXOGWKURZWKHIROORZLQJHUURUVIRUWKHapplyPHWKRG
... error: contravariant type R occurs in covariant position in type (T1,T2)R
def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2):R
^
... error: covariant type T1 occurs in contravariant position in type T1 ...
def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2):R
^
... error: covariant type T2 occurs in contravariant position in type T2 ...
def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2):R
^

Variance of Mutable Types

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/mutable-type-variance-script.scala
// WON'T COMPILE: Mutable parameterized types can't have variance annotations

class ContainerPlus[+A](var value: A) // ERROR

class ContainerMinus[-A](var value: A) // ERROR

println( new ContainerPlus("Hello World!") )

println( new ContainerMinus("Hello World!") )

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of parameter of setter value_=
class ContainerPlus[+A](var value: A) // ERROR
^
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of method value
class ContainerMinus[-A](var value: A) // ERROR
^
two errors found

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Variance Under Inheritance | 255

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/Option.java

package variances;

abstract public class Option<T> {

abstract public boolean isEmpty();

abstract public T get();

public T getOrElse(T t) {
return isEmpty() ? t : get();
}
}
// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/Some.java

package variances;

public class Some<T> extends Option<T> {

public Some(T value) {

this.value = value;

256 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 }

public boolean isEmpty() { return false; }

private T value;

public T get() { return value; }

public String toString() {

return "Option(" + value + ")";
}
}
// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/None.java

package variances;

public class None<T> extends Option<T> {

public boolean isEmpty() { return true; }

public T get() { throw new java.util.NoSuchElementException(); }

public String toString() {

return "None";
}
}

+HUHLVDQH[DPSOHWKDWXVHVWKLV-DYDOptionKLHUDUFK\
// code-examples/TypeSystem/variances/OptionExample.java

package variances;
import java.io.*;
import shapes.*; // From "Introducing Scala" chapter

public class OptionExample {

static String[] shapeNames = {"Rectangle", "Circle", "Triangle", "Unknown"};
static public void main(String[] args) {

Option<? extends Shape> shapeOption =

makeShape(shapeNames[0], new Point(0.,0.), 2., 5.);
print(shapeNames[0], shapeOption);

shapeOption = makeShape(shapeNames[1], new Point(0.,0.), 2.);

print(shapeNames[1], shapeOption);

shapeOption = makeShape(shapeNames[2],
new Point(0.,0.), new Point(2.,0.), new Point(0.,2.));
print(shapeNames[2], shapeOption);

shapeOption = makeShape(shapeNames[3]);
print(shapeNames[3], shapeOption);
}

static public Option<? extends Shape> makeShape(String shapeName,

Variance Under Inheritance | 257

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 Object... args) {
if (shapeName == shapeNames[0])
return new Some<Rectangle>(new Rectangle((Point) args[0],
(Double) args[1], (Double) args[2]));
else if (shapeName == shapeNames[1])
return new Some<Circle>(new Circle((Point) args[0], (Double) args[1]));
else if (shapeName == shapeNames[2])
return new Some<Triangle>(new Triangle((Point) args[0],
(Point) args[1], (Point) args[2]));
else
return new None<Shape>();
}

static void print(String name, Option<? extends Shape> shapeOption) {

System.out.println(name + "? " + shapeOption);
}
}

OptionExample.mainXVHVWKH ShapeKLHUDUFK\IURP&KDSWHUEXWZHKDYHXSGDWHGLW
VOLJKWO\WRH[SORLWIHDWXUHVWKDWZH¦YHOHDUQHGVLQFHWKHQVXFKDVcaseFODVVHV
// code-examples/TypeSystem/shapes/shapes.scala

package shapes {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double) {
override def toString() = "Point(" + x + "," + y + ")"
}

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)

extends Shape {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
}

5XQQLQJ OptionExample ZLWK scala -cp ... variances.OptionExample SURGXFHV WKH

IROORZLQJRXWSXW
Rectangle? Option(Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,5.0))
Circle? Option(Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0))
Triangle? Option(Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(2.0,0.0),Point(0.0,2.0)))
Unknown? None

258 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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Implementation Notes
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object Array {
...
def apply[A <: AnyRef](xs: A*): Array[A] = {
val array = new Array[A](xs.length)

Type Bounds | 259

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 var i = 0
for (x <- xs.elements) { array(i) = x; i += 1 }
array
}
...
}

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DW\SHSDUDPHWHUZKHQLQVWDQWLDWLQJDW\SHIURPDSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SH)RUH[DPSOH
def apply[A <: AnyRef]...VD\VWKDWDQ\W\SHXVHGIRUAPXVWEHDVXEW\SHRIAnyRef

Lower Type Bounds

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typesRIDSDUWLFXODUW\SHDUHDOORZHG5HFDOOWKDWDW\SHLVDOVRDVXSHUW\SHRILWVHOI
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class List[+A] {
...
def ::[B >: A](x : B) : List[B] = new scala.::(x, this)

260 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 ...
}

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/list-ab-script.scala

val languages = List("Scala", "Java", "Ruby", "C#", "C++", "Python")

val list = 3.14 :: languages
println(list)

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QDPHAbbrevList
// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/abbrev-list.scala
// Adapted from scala/List.scala in the Scala version 2.7.5 distribution.

package bounds.abbrevlist

sealed abstract class AbbrevList[+A] {

def isEmpty: Boolean

def head: A

Type Bounds | 261

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 def tail: AbbrevList[A]

def ::[B >: A] (x: B): AbbrevList[B] = new bounds.abbrevlist.::(x, this)

final def foreach(f: A => Unit) = {

var these = this
while (!these.isEmpty) {
f(these.head)
these = these.tail
}
}
}

// The empty AbbrevList.

case object AbbrevNil extends AbbrevList[Nothing] {

override def isEmpty = true

def head: Nothing =

throw new NoSuchElementException("head of empty AbbrevList")

def tail: AbbrevList[Nothing] =

throw new NoSuchElementException("tail of empty AbbrevList")
}

// A non-empty AbbrevList characterized by a head and a tail.

final case class ::[B](private var hd: B,

private[abbrevlist] var tl: AbbrevList[B]) extends AbbrevList[B] {

override def isEmpty: Boolean = false

def head : B = hd
def tail : AbbrevList[B] = tl
}

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262 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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$ scala -cp ...
Welcome to Scala version 2.7.5.final ...
Type in expressions to have them evaluated.
Type :help for more information.

scala> import bounds.abbrevlist._

import bounds.abbrevlist._

scala> 1 :: 2 :: 3 :: AbbrevNil
res1: bounds.abbrevlist.AbbrevList[Int] = ::(1,::(2,::(3,AbbrevNil)))

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Type Bounds | 263

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def m [A <% B](arglist): R = ...

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def m [A](arglist)(implicit viewAB: A => B): R = ...

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264 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 // code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/node.scala

package bounds

abstract trait Node[+A] {

def payload: A
def next: Node[A]
}

case class ::[+A](val payload: A, val next: Node[A]) extends Node[A] {

override def toString =
String.format("(%s :: %s)", payload.toString, next.toString)
}

object NilNode extends Node[Nothing] {

def payload = throw new NoSuchElementException("No payload in NilNode")
def next = throw new NoSuchElementException("No next in NilNode")

override def toString = "*"

}

7KLVW\SHKLHUDUFK\LVPRGHOHGDIWHUListDQGAbbrevListHDUOLHU7KH::W\SHUHSUHVHQWV
LQWHUPHGLDWH QRGHV DQG NilNode LV DQDORJRXV WR Nil IRU Lists :H DOVR RYHUULGH
toStringWRJLYHXVFRQYHQLHQWRXWSXWZKLFKZH¦OOH[DPLQHVKRUWO\
7KHIROORZLQJVFULSWGHILQHVDLinkedListW\SHWKDWXVHVNodes
// code-examples/TypeSystem/bounds/view-bounds-script.scala

import bounds._

implicit def any2Node[A](x: A): Node[A] = bounds.::[A](x, NilNode)

case class LinkedList[A <% Node[A]](val head: Node[A]) {

def ::[B >: A <% Node[B]](x: Node[B]) =

LinkedList(bounds.::(x.payload, head))

override def toString = head.toString

}

val list1 = LinkedList(1)

val list2 = 2 :: list1
val list3 = 3 :: list2
val list4 = "FOUR!" :: list3

println(list1)
println(list2)
println(list3)
println(list4)

,WVWDUWVZLWKDGHILQLWLRQRIDSDUDPHWHUL]HGLPSOLFLWPHWKRGany2NodeWKDWFRQYHUWV
AWRNode[A],WZLOOEHXVHGDVWKHLPSOLFLWYLHZDUJXPHQWZKHQZHZRUNZLWKLinked
Lists,WFUHDWHVD£OHDI¤QRGHXVLQJDbounds.::QRGHZLWKDUHIHUHQFHWRNilNodeDVWKH
£QH[W¤HOHPHQWLQWKHOLVW

Type Bounds | 265

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$QDOWHUQDWLYHZRXOGEHDIXQFWLRQYDOXHWKDWFRQYHUWVAnyWRNode[Any]
implicit val any2Node = (a: Any) => bounds.::[Any](a, NilNode)

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EHXVLQJNode[Any]UDWKHUWKDQNode[Int]
/RRNDWWKHGHFODUDWLRQRILinkedList
case class LinkedList[A <% Node[A]](val head: Node[A]) { ... }

,WGHILQHVDYLHZERXQGRQADQGWDNHVDVLQJOHDUJXPHQWWKHKHDGNodeRIWKHOLVWZKLFK
PD\EHWKHKHDGRIDFKDLQRI Nodes$VZHVHHODWHULQWKHVFULSWHYHQWKRXJKWKH
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any2NodeZLOOJHWLQYRNHG7KHEHDXW\RIWKLVDSSURDFKLVWKDWDFOLHQWQHYHUKDVWRZRUU\
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7KHFODVVDOVRKDVD£FRQV¤RSHUDWRU
def ::[B >: A <% Node[B]](x: Node[B]) = ...

7KHW\SHSDUDPHWHUPHDQVCCBLVORZHUERXQGHGE\LHLVDVXSHUW\SHRIADQGBDOVR

KDVDYLHZERXQGRIB <% Node[B]$VZHVDZIRUListDQGAbbrevListWKHORZHUERXQG
DOORZVXVWRSUHSHQGLWHPVRIGLIIHUHQWW\SHVIURPWKHRULJLQDOAW\SH7KLVPHWKRGZLOO
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any2NodeZLOOEHXVHGIRUWKLVDUJXPHQWWRR
:HPHQWLRQHGSUHYLRXVO\WKDWLI\RXGRQ¦WKDYHDYLHZLQVFRSH\RXFRXOGSDVVD£QRQ
LPSOLFLW¤FRQYHUWHUDVWKHVHFRQGDUJXPHQWOLVWH[SOLFLWO\7KLVDFWXDOO\ZRQ¦WZRUNLQ
RXUH[DPSOHEHFDXVHWKHFRQVWUXFWRUDQG::PHWKRGLQLinkedListWDNHNode[A]DUJX
PHQWV EXW ZH FDOO WKHP ZLWK Ints DQG Strings :H ZRXOG KDYH WR FDOO WKHP ZLWK
Node[Int]DQGNode[String]DUJXPHQWVH[SOLFLWO\:HZRXOGDOVRKDYHWRLQYRNH::LQ
DQXJO\ZD\¢val list2 = list1.::(2)(converter)IRUH[DPSOH
/HW¦VFODULI\WKHV\QWD[DELW:KHQ\RXVHHB >: A <% Node[B]LW¦VWHPSWLQJWRDVVXPH
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IRUW\SHSDUDPHWHUVLQFOXGLQJYLHZERXQGVLVWKHIROORZLQJVHH>6FDOD6SHF@
TypeParam ::= (id | â~@~X_â~@~Y) [TypeParamClause] [â~@~X>:â~@~Y Type] [â~@~X<:â~@~Y Type] [â~@~X<%â~@~Y
TypeParamClause ::= â~@~X[â~@~Y VariantTypeParam {â~@~X,â~@~Y VariantTypeParam} â~@~X]â~@~Y
VariantTypeParam ::= [â~@~X+â~@~Y | â~@~Xâ~@~Y] TypeParam

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BWKHTypeParamClauseLVHPSW\DQGZHKDYHWKH>: ADQG<% Node[B]H[SUHVVLRQVRQ
WKHULJKW$JDLQDOOWKHERXQGVH[SUHVVLRQVDSSO\WRWKHILUVWidBRUWKHXQGHUVFRUH
 _ 
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7\SHV¤RQSDJH
)LQDOO\ZHFUHDWHDLinkedListLQWKHVFULSWSUHSHQGVRPHYDOXHVWRFUHDWHQHZOLVWV
DQGWKHQSULQWWKHPRXW

266 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 1 :: *
2 :: 1 :: *
3 :: 2 :: 1 :: *
FOUR! :: 3 :: 2 :: 1 :: *

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LPSOHPHQWDWLRQKDQGOHGWKHQHFHVVDU\FRQYHUVLRQVWRNodes
9LHZERXQGVDUHQRWXVHGDVRIWHQDVXSSHUDQGORZHUERXQGVEXWWKH\SURYLGHDQ
HOHJDQWPHFKDQLVPIRUWKRVHWLPHVZKHQDXWRPDWLFFRHUFLRQIURPRQHW\SHLQWRDQRWKHU
LVXVHIXO$VDOZD\VXVHLPSOLFLWVZLWKFDXWLRQLPSOLFLWFRQYHUVLRQVDUHIDUIURPRE
YLRXVZKHQUHDGLQJFRGHDQGGHEXJJLQJP\VWHULRXVEHKDYLRU

Nothing and Null

,Q£7KH6FDOD7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJHZHPHQWLRQHGWKDWNullLVDVXEW\SHRIDOO
AnyRefW\SHVDQGNothingLVDVXEW\SHRIDOOW\SHVLQFOXGLQJNull
NullLVGHFODUHGDVDfinal traitVRLWFDQ¦WEHVXEW\SHGDQGLWKDVRQO\RQHLQVWDQFH
null6LQFHNullLVDVXEW\SHRIDOOAnyRefW\SHV\RXFDQDOZD\VDVVLJQnullDVDQLQVWDQFH
RIDQ\RIWKRVHW\SHV-DYDLQFRQWUDVWVLPSO\WUHDWV nullDVDNH\ZRUGZLWKVSHFLDO
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NothingLVDOVRD final traitEXWLWKDVQRLQVWDQFHV+RZHYHULWLVVWLOOXVHIXOIRU
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W\SHList[Nothing]%HFDXVHOLVWVDUHFRYDULDQWLQ6FDODDVZHVDZHDUOLHUWKLVPDNHV
NilDQLQVWDQFHRIList[T]IRUDQ\W\SH7:HDOVRH[SORLWHGWKLVIHDWXUHLQRXUAbbrev
ListDQGLinkedListLPSOHPHQWDWLRQV

Understanding Abstract Types

%HVLGHVSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVZKLFKDUHFRPPRQLQVWDWLFDOO\W\SHGREMHFWRULHQWHG
ODQJXDJHV 6FDOD DOVR VXSSRUWV DEVWUDFW W\SHV ZKLFK DUH FRPPRQ LQ IXQFWLRQDO
ODQJXDJHV :H LQWURGXFHG DEVWUDFW W\SHV LQ £$EVWUDFW 7\SHV $QG 3DUDPHWHUL]HG
7\SHV¤RQSDJH
7KHVHWZRIHDWXUHVRYHUODSVRPHZKDW7HFKQLFDOO\\RXFRXOGLPSOHPHQWDOPRVWDOO
WKHLGLRPVWKDWSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVVXSSRUWXVLQJDEVWUDFWW\SHVDQGYLFHYHUVD+RZ
HYHULQSUDFWLFHHDFKIHDWXUHLVDQDWXUDOILWIRUGLIIHUHQWGHVLJQSUREOHPV
5HFDOORXUYHUVLRQRIObserverWKDWXVHVDEVWUDFWW\SHVLQ&KDSWHU
// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/observer2.scala

package observer

Understanding Abstract Types | 267

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 trait AbstractSubject {
type Observer

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (notify(_))

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit

}

trait SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer.receiveUpdate(this)

}

trait SubjectForFunctionalObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = (AbstractSubject) => Unit

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer(this)

}

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GHULYHG WUDLWV ,Q SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers LW LV GHILQHG WR EH D VWUXFWXUDO
W\SH,QSubjectForFunctionalObserversLWLVGHILQHGWREHDIXQFWLRQW\SH:H¦OOKDYH
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:HFDQDOVRXVHW\SHERXQGVZKHQZHGHFODUHRUUHILQHWKHGHFODUDWLRQRIDEVWUDFW
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ZHKDGDGHFODUDWLRQtype t <: AnyRef7KDWLVtKDGDQXSSHUW\SHERXQGVXSHUFODVV
RIAnyRefAnyValW\SHVZHUHQ¦WDOORZHG
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/abstracttypes/abs-type-examples-script.scala

trait exampleTrait {
type t1 // Unconstrained
type t2 >: t3 <: t1 // t2 must be a supertype of t3 and a subtype of t1
type t3 <: t1 // t3 must be a subtype of t1
type t4 // Unconstrained
type t5 = List[t4] // List of t4, whatever t4 will eventually be...

val v1: t1 // Can't initialize until t1 defined.

val v3: t3 // etc.
val v2: t2 // ...
val v4: t4 // ...
val v5: t5 // ...
}

trait T1 { val name1: String }

268 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 trait T2 extends T1 { val name2: String }
class C(val name1: String, val name2: String) extends T2

object example extends exampleTrait {

type t1 = T1
type t2 = T2
type t3 = C
type t4 = Int

val v1 = new T1 { val name1 = "T1"}

val v3 = new C("C1", "C2")
val v2 = new T2 { val name1 = "T1"; val name2 = "T2" }
val v4 = 10
val v5 = List(1,2,3,4,5)
}

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KDYHVRPHLQWHUHVWLQJSRLQWV)LUVWWKHGHFODUDWLRQRIt2VD\VWKDWLWPXVWEH£EHWZHHQ¤
t1DQGt3:KDWHYHUt1EHFRPHVLWPXVWEHDVXSHUFODVVRIt2RUHTXDOWRLWDQGt3
PXVWEHDVXEFODVVRIt2RUHTXDOWRLW
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/abstracttypes/abs-type-variances-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

trait T1 { val name1: String }

trait T2 extends T1 { val name2: String }
class C(val name1: String, val name2: String) extends T2

trait T {
type t: +T1 // ERROR, no +/- type variance annotations
val v
}

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Understanding Abstract Types | 269

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RWKHUPHPEHUVDEVWUDFWW\SHVFDQEHGHFODUHGDEVWUDFWRUFRQFUHWH+RZHYHUWKH\FDQ
DOVREHUHILQHGLQVXEW\SHVZLWKRXWEHLQJIXOO\GHILQHGXQOLNHYDULDEOHVDQGPHWKRGV
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GHILQLWLRQV

Parameterized Types Versus Abstract Types

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case final class Some[+A](val x : A) { ... }

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case final class Some(val x : ???) {
type A
...
}

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RFFXU
class List[+A] {
...
def ::[B >: A](x : B) : List[B] = new scala.::(x, this)
...
}

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270 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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DQRWKHUW\SHDVRSSRVHGWRDSDUDPHWHUXVHGWRFRQVWUXFWQHZW\SHVIURPDSDUDPH
WHUL]HGW\SH5HILQLQJDQDEVWUDFWW\SHGHFODUDWLRQWKURXJKDVHULHVRIHQFORVLQJW\SH
UHILQHPHQWVFDQEHTXLWHHOHJDQW
trait T1 {
type t
val v: t
}
trait T2 extends T1 {
type t <: SomeType1
}
trait T3 extends T2 {
type t <: SomeType2 // where SomeType2 <: SomeType1
}
class C extends T3 {
type t = Concrete // where Concrete <: SomeType2
val v = new Concrete(...)
}
...

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£$EVWUDFW7\SHV$QG3DUDPHWHUL]HG7\SHV¤RQSDJH
// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/abstract-types-script.scala

import java.io._

abstract class BulkReader {

type In
val source: In
def read: String
}

class StringBulkReader(val source: String) extends BulkReader {

type In = String
def read = source
}

class FileBulkReader(val source: File) extends BulkReader {

type In = File
def read = {
val in = new BufferedInputStream(new FileInputStream(source))
val numBytes = in.available()
val bytes = new Array[Byte](numBytes)

Understanding Abstract Types | 271

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 in.read(bytes, 0, numBytes)
new String(bytes)
}
}

println( new StringBulkReader("Hello Scala!").read )

println( new FileBulkReader(new File("abstract-types-script.scala")).read )

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PHWHUL]HGW\SHVPRUHRIWHQWKDQDEVWUDFWW\SHV7KH6FDODVWDQGDUGOLEUDU\WHQGVWR
HPSKDVL]HSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVWRR6WLOO\RXVKRXOGOHDUQWKHPHULWVRIDEVWUDFWW\SHV
DQGXVHWKHPZKHQWKH\PDNHVHQVH

Path-Dependent Types
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YLGHVDULFKV\QWD[IRUSDWKGHSHQGHQWW\SHV$OWKRXJK\RXZLOOSUREDEO\XVHWKHP
UDUHO\LW¦VXVHIXOWRXQGHUVWDQGWKHEDVLFVDVFRPSLOHUHUURUVRIWHQFRQWDLQW\SHSDWKV
&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
// code-examples/TypeSystem/typepaths/type-path-wont-compile.scala
// ERROR: Won't compile

trait Service {
trait Logger {
def log(message: String): Unit
}
val logger: Logger

def run = {
logger.log("Starting " + getClass.getSimpleName + ":")
doRun
}

protected def doRun: Boolean

}

object MyService1 extends Service {

class MyService1Logger extends Logger {
def log(message: String) = println("1: "+message)
}
override val logger = new MyService1Logger
def doRun = true // do some real work...
}

object MyService2 extends Service {

override val logger = MyService1.logger // ERROR
def doRun = true // do some real work...
}

272 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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,I\RXFRPSLOHWKLVILOH\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
...:27: error: error overriding value logger in trait Service of type \
MyService2.Logger;
value logger has incompatible type MyService1.MyService1Logger
override val logger = MyService1.logger // ERROR
^
one error found

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C.this
)RUDFODVVC\RXFDQXVHC.thisRUthisLQVLGHWKHERG\WRUHIHUWRWKHFXUUHQWLQVWDQFH
class C1 {
var x = "1"
def setX1(x:String) = this.x = x
def setX2(x:String) = C1.this.x = x
}

%RWKsetX1DQGsetX2KDYHWKHVDPHHIIHFWEHFDXVHC1.thisLVHTXLYDOHQWWRthis
,QVLGHDW\SHERG\DQGRXWVLGHDPHWKRGGHILQLWLRQthisUHIHUVWRWKHW\SHLWVHOI
trait T1 {
class C
val c1 = new C
val c2 = new this.C
}

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C.super
<RXFDQUHIHUVSHFLILFDOO\WRWKHSDUHQWRIDW\SHZLWKsuper
class C2 extends C1
class C3 extends C2 {
def setX3(x:String) = super.setX1(x)
def setX4(x:String) = C3.super.setX1(x)

Path-Dependent Types | 273

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 def setX5(x:String) = C3.super[C2].setX1(x)
}

C3.superLVHTXLYDOHQWWRsuperLQWKLVH[DPSOH,I\RXZDQWWRUHIHUVSHFLILFDOO\WRRQH
RIWKHSDUHQWVRIDW\SH\RXFDQTXDOLI\superZLWKWKHW\SHDVVKRZQLQsetX57KLVLV
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PHWKRG
class C4 {
class C5
}
class C6 extends C4 {
val c5a = new C5
val c5b = new super.C5
}

%RWKc5aDQGc5bKDYHWKHVDPHW\SH

path.x
<RXFDQUHDFKDQHVWHGW\SHZLWKDSHULRGGHOLPLWHGSDWKH[SUHVVLRQ
package P1 {
object O1 {
object O2 {
val name = "name"
}
}
}
class C7 {
val name = P1.O1.O2.name
}

C7.name XVHV D SDWK WR WKH name YDOXH LQ O2 7KH HOHPHQWV RI D W\SH SDWK PXVW EH
VWDEOHZKLFKURXJKO\PHDQVWKDWDOOHOHPHQWVLQWKHSDWKPXVWEHSDFNDJHVVLQJOHWRQ
REMHFWVRUW\SHGHFODUDWLRQVWKDWDOLDVWKHVDPH7KHODVWHOHPHQWLQWKHSDWKFDQEHD
FODVVRUWUDLW6HH>6FDOD6SHF@IRUWKHGHWDLOV
object O3 {
object O4 {
type t = java.io.File
class C
trait T
}

274 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

Download at WoweBook.Com
 class C2 {
type t = Int
}
}
class C8 {
type t1 = O3.O4.t
type t2 = O3.O4.C
type t3 = O3.O4.T
// type t4 = O3.C2.t // ERROR: C2 is not a "value" in O3
}

Value Types
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W\SHVUHIHUVWRDOOWKHGLIIHUHQWIRUPVWKHVHW\SHVWDNHVRLWHQFRPSDVVHVPDQ\IRUPV
WKDWDUHQRZIDPLOLDUWRXVSOXVDIHZQHZRQHVZHKDYHQ¦WHQFRXQWHUHGXQWLOQRZ

:HDUHXVLQJWKHWHUPYDOXHW\SHKHUHLQWKHVDPHZD\WKHWHUPLVXVHG
E\>6FDOD6SHF@+RZHYHUHOVHZKHUHLQWKHERRNZHDOVRIROORZWKH
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AnyVal

Type Designators
7KHFRQYHQWLRQDOW\SH,'VZHFRPPRQO\XVHDUHFDOOHGW\SHGHVLJQDWRUV
class Person // "Person" is a type designator
object O { type t } // "O" and "t" are type designators
...

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Tuples
$YDOXHRIWKHIRUP(x, ... x1)LVDWXSOHYDOXHW\SH

Parameterized Types
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IURPList[A]WKHW\SHVList[Int]DQGList[String]DUHYDOXHW\SHVEHFDXVHWKH\DUH
DVVRFLDWHGZLWKGHFODUHGYDOXHVHJval names = List[String]()

Annotated Types
:KHQZHDQQRWDWHDW\SHHJ@serializable @cloneable class C(val x:String)WKH
DFWXDOW\SHLQFOXGHVWKHDQQRWDWLRQV

Value Types | 275

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Compound Types
$GHFODUDWLRQRIWKHIRUPT extends T with T { R }ZKHUHRLVWKHUHILQHPHQWERG\
GHFODUHVDFRPSRXQGW\SH$Q\GHFODUDWLRQVLQWKHUHILQHPHQWDUHSDUWRIWKHFRPSRXQG
W\SHGHILQLWLRQ7KHQRWLRQRIFRPSRXQGW\SHVDFFRXQWVIRUWKHIDFWWKDWQRWDOOW\SHV
DUHQDPHGVLQFHZHFDQKDYHDQRQ\PRXVW\SHVVXFKDVWKLVH[DPSOHscalaVHVVLRQ
scala> val x = new T1 with T2 {
type z = String
val v: z = "Z"
}
x: java.lang.Object with T1 with T2{type z = String; def zv: this.z} = \
$anon$1@9d9347d

1RWHWKDWSDWKGHSHQGHQWW\SHthis.zLQWKHRXWSXW
$ SDUWLFXODUO\ LQWHUHVWLQJ FDVH LV D GHFODUDWLRQ RI WKH IRUP val x = new { R } LH
ZLWKRXWDQ\W\SH,'V7KLVLVHTXLYDOHQWWRval x = new AnyRef { R }

Infix Types
6RPHSDUDPHWHUL]HGW\SHVWDNHWZRW\SHDUJXPHQWVHJ scala.Either[+A,+B]6FDOD
DOORZV\RXWRGHFODUHLQVWDQFHVRIWKHVHW\SHVXVLQJDQLQIL[QRWDWLRQHJ a Either
b&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJVFULSWWKDWXVHVEither
// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/infix-types-script.scala

def attempt(operation: => Boolean): Throwable Either Boolean = try {

Right(operation)
} catch {
case t: Throwable => Left(t)
}

println(attempt { throw new RuntimeException("Boo!") })

println(attempt { true })
println(attempt { false })

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Boolean UHVXOW ZUDSSHG LQ D Right RU DQ\ Throwable WKDW LV FDXJKW ZUDSSHG LQ D
Left7KHVFULSWSURGXFHVWKLVRXWSXW
Left(java.lang.RuntimeException: Boo!)
Right(true)
Right(false)

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Either[Throwable, Boolean]5HFDOOIURP£7KH6FDOD7\SH+LHUDUFK\¤RQSDJHWKDW
ZKHQXVLQJWKLVH[FHSWLRQKDQGOLQJLGLRPZLWK EitherLWLVFRQYHQWLRQDOWRXVH Left
IRUWKHH[FHSWLRQDQGRightIRUWKHQRUPDOUHWXUQYDOXH

276 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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Function Types
7KHIXQFWLRQVZHKDYHEHHQZULWLQJDUHDOVRW\SHG(T, T, ... T1) => RLVWKHW\SH
IRUDOOIXQFWLRQVWKDWWDNHNDUJXPHQWVDQGUHWXUQDYDOXHRIW\SHR
:KHQWKHUHLVRQO\RQHDUJXPHQW\RXFDQGURSWKHSDUHQWKHVHV T => R$IXQFWLRQ
WKDWWDNHVDFDOOE\QDPHSDUDPHWHUDVGLVFXVVHGLQ&KDSWHUKDVWKHW\SH (=>T) =>
R:HXVHGDFDOOE\QDPHDUJXPHQWLQRXUattemptH[DPSOHLQWKHSUHYLRXVVHFWLRQ
5HFDOOWKDWHYHU\WKLQJLQ6FDODLVDQREMHFWHYHQIXQFWLRQV7KH6FDODOLEUDU\GHILQHV
WUDLWVIRUHDFKFunctionNIRUNIURP0WR22LQFOXVLYH+HUHIRUH[DPSOHLVWKHYHUVLRQ
VRXUFHIRUscala.Function3RPLWWLQJPRVWFRPPHQWVDQGDIHZRWKHUGHWDLOVWKDW
GRQ¦WFRQFHUQXVQRZ
// From Scala version 2.7.5: scala.Function3 (excerpt).
package scala

trait Function3[-T1, -T2, -T3, +R] extends AnyRef {

def apply(v1:T1, v2:T2, v3:T3): R
override def toString() = "<function>"

/** f(x1,x2,x3) == (f.curry)(x1)(x2)(x3)

*/
def curry: T1 => T2 => T3 => R = {
(x1: T1) => (x2: T2) => (x3: T3) => apply(x1,x2,x3)
}
}

$VZHGLVFXVVHGLQ£9DULDQFH8QGHU,QKHULWDQFH¤RQSDJHWKHFunctionNWUDLWVDUH
FRQWUDYDULDQWLQWKHW\SHSDUDPHWHUVIRUWKHDUJXPHQWVDQGFRYDULDQWLQWKHUHWXUQW\SH
SDUDPHWHU
5HFDOOWKDWZKHQ\RXUHIHUHQFHDQ\REMHFWIROORZHGE\DQDUJXPHQWOLVW6FDODFDOOVWKH
applyPHWKRGRQWKHREMHFW,QWKLVZD\DQ\REMHFWZLWKDQapplyPHWKRGFDQDOVREH
FRQVLGHUHGDIXQFWLRQSURYLGLQJDQLFHV\PPHWU\ZLWKWKHREMHFWRULHQWHGQDWXUHRI
6FDOD
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/function-types-script.scala

val capitalizer = (s: String) => s.toUpperCase

val capitalizer2 = new Function1[String,String] {

def apply(s: String) = s.toUpperCase
}

println( List("Programming", "Scala") map capitalizer)

println( List("Programming", "Scala") map capitalizer2)

7KHcapitalizerDQGcapitalizer2IXQFWLRQYDOXHVDUHHIIHFWLYHO\WKHVDPHZKHUHWKH
ODWWHUPLPLFVWKHFRPSLOHU¦VRXWSXW

Value Types | 277

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:HGLVFXVVHGWKHcurryPHWKRGSUHYLRXVO\LQ£&XUU\LQJ¤RQSDJH,WUHWXUQVDQHZ
IXQFWLRQZLWK NDUJXPHQWOLVWVHDFKRIZKLFKKDVDVLQJOHDUJXPHQWWDNHQIURPWKH
RULJLQDODUJXPHQWOLVWRINDUJXPHQWV1RWHWKDWWKHVDPHapplyPHWKRGLVLQYRNHG
// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/curried-function-script.scala

val f = (x: Double, y: Double, z: Double) => x * y / z

val fc = f.curry

val answer1 = f(2., 5., 4.)

val answer2 = fc(2.)(5.)(4.)
println( answer1 + " == " + answer2 + "? " + (answer1 == answer2))

val fc1 = fc(2.)

val fc2 = fc1(5.)
val answer3 = fc2(4.)
println( answer3 + " == " + answer2 + "? " + (answer3 == answer2))

7KLVVFULSWSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
2.5 == 2.5? true
2.5 == 2.5? true

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WKDWERWKIXQFWLRQVFDOOWKHVDPHapplyPHWKRGVRWKH\PXVWUHWXUQWKHVDPHYDOXH
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(T2 => (T3 => R)):HVHHWKLVLQWKHVFULSW,QWKHVWDWHPHQW val fc1 = fc(2.)ZH
FDOOfcZLWKMXVWWKHILUVWDUJXPHQWOLVWFRUUHVSRQGLQJWRT1HTXDOVDouble,WUHWXUQVD
QHZIXQFWLRQRIW\SHT2 => (T3 => R)RUDouble => (Double => Double)LQRXUFDVH
1H[W LQ val fc2 = fc1(5.) ZH VXSSO\ WKH VHFRQG T2 DUJXPHQW UHWXUQLQJ D QHZ
IXQFWLRQRIW\SHT3 => RWKDWLVDouble => Double)LQDOO\LQval answer3 = fc2(4.)
ZHVXSSO\WKHODVWDUJXPHQWWRFRPSXWHWKHYDOXHRIW\SHRWKDWLVDouble

$W\SHT1 => T2 => T3 => RLVHTXLYDOHQWWRT1 => (T2 => (T3 => R))
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W\SHV,QWKH6FDODOLEUDU\Seq[+A]LVDVXEFODVVRIPartialFunction[Int,A]ZKLFKLVD
VXEFODVVRI(Int) => ALHFunction1[Int,A]

278 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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Type Projections
7\SHSURMHFWLRQVDUHDZD\WRUHIHUWRDW\SHGHFODUDWLRQQHVWHGLQDQRWKHUW\SH
// code-examples/TypeSystem/valuetypes/type-projection-script.scala

trait T {
type t <: AnyRef
}
class C1 extends T {
type t = String
}
class C2 extends C1

val ic1: C1#t = "C1"

val ic2: C2#t = "C2"
println(ic1)
println(ic2)

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FDQ¦WXVHLWLQDGHFODUDWLRQEHFDXVHLWLVDEVWUDFW

Singleton Types
,I\RXKDYHDYDOXH vRIDVXEW\SHRI AnyRefLQFOXGLQJ null\RXFDQJHWLWVVLQJOHWRQ
W\SHXVLQJWKHH[SUHVVLRQv.type7KHVHH[SUHVVLRQVFDQEHXVHGDVW\SHVLQGHFODUDWLRQV
7KLVIHDWXUHLVXVHIXORQUDUHRFFDVLRQVWRZRUNDURXQGWKHIDFWWKDWW\SHVDUHSDWK
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DQREMHFWPD\KDYHDSDWKGHSHQGHQWW\SHWKDWDSSHDUVWREHLQFRPSDWLEOHZLWKDQRWKHU
SDWKGHSHQGHQWW\SHZKHQLQIDFWWKH\DUHFRPSDWLEOH8VLQJWKH v.typeH[SUHVVLRQ
UHWULHYHVWKHVLQJOHWRQW\SHD£XQLTXH¤W\SHWKDWHOLPLQDWHVWKHSDWKGHSHQGHQF\7ZR
YDOXHVv1DQGv2PD\KDYHGLIIHUHQWSDWKGHSHQGHQWW\SHVEXWWKH\FRXOGKDYHWKHVDPH
VLQJOHWRQW\SH
7KLVH[DPSOHXVHVWKHVLQJOHWRQW\SHIRURQHYDOXHLQDGHFODUDWLRQRIDQRWKHU
class C {
val x = "Cx"
}
val c = new C
val x: c.x.type = c.x

Self-Type Annotations
<RXFDQXVHthisLQDPHWKRGWRUHIHUWRWKHHQFORVLQJW\SHZKLFKLVXVHIXOIRUUHIHU
HQFLQJDPHPEHURIWKHW\SH8VLQJthisLVQRWXVXDOO\QHFHVVDU\IRUWKLVSXUSRVHEXW
LW¦VXVHIXORFFDVLRQDOO\IRUGLVDPELJXDWLQJDUHIHUHQFHZKHQVHYHUDOYDOXHVDUHLQVFRSH
ZLWKWKHVDPHQDPH%\GHIDXOWWKHW\SHRIthisLVWKHVDPHDVWKHHQFORVLQJW\SHEXW
WKLVLVQRWUHDOO\HVVHQWLDO

Self-Type Annotations | 279

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6HOIW\SHDQQRWDWLRQVOHW\RXVSHFLI\DGGLWLRQDOW\SHH[SHFWDWLRQVIRUthisDQGWKH\FDQ
EHXVHGWRFUHDWHDOLDVHVIRUthis/HW¦VFRQVLGHUWKHODWWHUFDVHILUVW
// code-examples/TypeSystem/selftype/this-alias-script.scala

class C1 { self =>

def talk(message: String) = println("C1.talk: " + message)
class C2 {
class C3 {
def talk(message: String) = self.talk("C3.talk: " + message)
}
val c3 = new C3
}
val c2 = new C2
}
val c1 = new C1
c1.talk("Hello")
c1.c2.c3.talk("World")

,WSULQWVWKHIROORZLQJ
C1.talk: Hello
C1.talk: C3.talk: World

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WKHQDPHselfLVDUELWUDU\EXWLWLVVRPHZKDWFRQYHQWLRQDO,QIDFW\RXFRXOGVD\this
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// code-examples/TypeSystem/selftype/selftype-script.scala

trait Persistence {
def startPersistence: Unit
}

trait Midtier {
def startMidtier: Unit
}

trait UI {
def startUI: Unit
}

trait Database extends Persistence {

def startPersistence = println("Starting Database")
}

trait ComputeCluster extends Midtier {

def startMidtier = println("Starting ComputeCluster")
}

trait WebUI extends UI {

def startUI = println("Starting WebUI")

280 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 }

trait App {
self: Persistence with Midtier with UI =>

def run = {
startPersistence
startMidtier
startUI
}
}

object MyApp extends App with Database with ComputeCluster with WebUI

MyApp.run

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YHUVXVIDLOXUHRIVWDUWXSHWF(DFKDEVWUDFWWLHULVLPSOHPHQWHGE\DFRUUHVSRQGLQJ
FRQFUHWHWUDLWQRWDFODVVVRZHFDQXVHWKHPDVPL[LQV:HKDYHWUDLWVIRUGDWDEDVH
SHUVLVWHQFHVRPHVRUWRIFRPSXWDWLRQFOXVWHUWRGRWKHKHDY\OLIWLQJIRUWKHEXVLQHVV
ORJLFDQGDZHEEDVHG8,
7KHAppWUDLWZLUHVWKHWLHUVWRJHWKHU)RUH[DPSOHLWGRHVWKHZRUNRIVWDUWLQJWKHWLHUV
LQWKHrunPHWKRG
1RWHWKHVHOIW\SHDQQRWDWLRQself: Persistence with Midtier with UI =>,WKDVWZR
SUDFWLFDOHIIHFWV
 7KHERG\RIWKHWUDLWFDQDVVXPHLWLVDQLQVWDQFHRIPersistenceMidtierDQGUI
VR LW FDQ FDOO PHWKRGV GHILQHG LQ WKRVH W\SHV ZKHWKHU RU QRW WKH\ DUH DFWXDOO\
GHILQHGDWWKLVSRLQW:H¦UHGRLQJMXVWWKDWLQrun
 7KHFRQFUHWHW\SHWKDWPL[HVLQWKLVWUDLWPXVWDOVRPL[LQWKHVHWKUHHRWKHUWUDLWV
RUGHVFHQGDQWVRIWKHP
,QRWKHUZRUGVWKHVHOIW\SHLQAppVSHFLILHVGHSHQGHQFLHVRQRWKHUFRPSRQHQWV7KHVH
GHSHQGHQFLHVDUHVDWLVILHGLQMyAppZKLFKPL[HVLQWKHFRQFUHWHWUDLWVIRUWKHWKUHHWLHUV
:HFRXOGKDYHGHFODUHGAppXVLQJLQKHULWDQFHLQVWHDG
trait App with Persistence with Midtier with UI {

def run = { ... }

}

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Self-Type Annotations | 281

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:K\WKHQDUHVHOIW\SHVXVHIXOLIWKH\DSSHDUWREHHTXLYDOHQWWRLQKHULWDQFH"7KHUH
DUHVRPHWKHRUHWLFDOUHDVRQVDQGDIHZVSHFLDOFDVHVZKHUHVHOIW\SHDQQRWDWLRQVRIIHU
XQLTXHEHQHILWV,QSUDFWLFH\RXFRXOGXVHLQKHULWDQFHIRUDOPRVWDOOFDVHV%\FRQYHQ
WLRQSHRSOHXVHLQKHULWDQFHZKHQWKH\ZDQWWRLPSO\WKDWDW\SHEHKDYHVDVLQKHULWV
IURPDQRWKHUW\SHDQGWKH\XVHVHOIW\SHDQQRWDWLRQVZKHQWKH\ZDQWWRH[SUHVVD
GHSHQGHQF\EHWZHHQDW\SHDQGRWKHUW\SHVVHH>0F,YHU@
,QRXUFDVHZHGRQ¦WUHDOO\WKLQNRIDQAppDVEHLQJD8,GDWDEDVHHWF:HWKLQNRIDQ
AppDVEHLQJFRPSRVHGRIWKRVHWKLQJV1RWHWKDWLQPRVWREMHFWRULHQWHGODQJXDJHV
\RXZRXOGH[SUHVVWKLVFRPSRVLWLRQDOGHSHQGHQF\ZLWKPHPEHUILHOGVHVSHFLDOO\LI
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ZULWHAppLQ-DYDWKLVZD\
// code-examples/TypeSystem/selftype/JavaApp.java

package selftype;

public abstract class JavaApp {

public interface Persistence {
public void startPersistence();
}

public interface Midtier {

public void startMidtier();
}

public interface UI {
public void startUI();
}

private Persistence persistence;

private Midtier midtier;
private UI ui;

public JavaApp(Persistence persistence, Midtier midtier, UI ui) {

this.persistence = persistence;
this.midtier = midtier;
this.ui = ui;
}

public void run() {

persistence.startPersistence();
midtier.startMidtier();
ui.startUI();
}
}

:HQHVWHGWKHFRPSRQHQWLQWHUIDFHVLQVLGHJavaAppWRDYRLGFUHDWLQJVHSDUDWHILOHVIRU
HDFKRQH<RXFDQFHUWDLQO\ZULWHDSSOLFDWLRQVWKLVZD\LQ6FDOD+RZHYHUWKHVHOI
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282 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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// code-examples/Traits/observer/observer.scala

package observer

trait Subject {
type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this))
}

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Structural Types | 283

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/existentials/type-erasure-wont-work.scala
// WARNINGS: Does not work as you might expect.

object ProcessList {
def apply[B](list: List[B]) = list match {
case lInt: List[Int] => // do something
case lDouble: List[Double] => // do something
case lString: List[String] => // do something
case _ => // default behavior
}
}

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284 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 case l: List[_] => // do something "generic" with the list

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List[_] List[T] forSome { type T } T can be any subtype of Any.
List[_ <: List[T] forSome { type T <: T can be any subtype of
scala.actors.AbstractActor] scala.actors.AbstractActor } AbstractActor.
List[_ >: MyFancyActor <: List[T] forSome { type T >: T can be any subtype of
scala.actors.AbstractActor] MyFancyActor <: AbstractActor up to and
scala.actors.AbstractActor } including the subtype
MyFancyActor.

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def fib(n: Int): Int = n match {
case 0 | 1 => n
case _ => fib(n-1) + fib(n-2)
}

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Infinite Data Structures and Laziness | 285

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 fibonacci_sequence = for (i <- 0 to infinity) yield fib(i)

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/lazy/lazy-ints-script.scala

def from(n: Int): Stream[Int] = Stream.cons(n, from(n+1))

lazy val ints = from(0)

lazy val odds = ints.filter(_ % 2 == 1)
lazy val evens = ints.filter(_ % 2 == 0)

odds.take(10).print
evens.take(10).print

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1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 19, Stream.empty
0, 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, Stream.empty

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/lazy/lazy-fibonacci-script.scala

lazy val fib: Stream[Int] =

Stream.cons(0, Stream.cons(1, fib.zip(fib.tail).map(p => p._1 + p._2)))

fib.take(10).print

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0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, Stream.empty

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286 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, ...

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// code-examples/TypeSystem/lazy/lazy-range-danger-script.scala

def mkRandomInts() = {
val randInts = for {
i <- 1 to 3
val rand = i + (new scala.util.Random).nextInt
} yield rand
randInts
}
val ints1 = mkRandomInts

println("Calling first on ints1 Seq:")

for (i <- 1 to 3) {
println( ints1.first)
}

val ints2 = ints1.toList

println("Calling first on List created from ints1 Seq:")
for (i <- 1 to 3) {
println( ints2.first)
}

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Calling first on ints1 Seq:
-1532554511
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Calling first on List created from ints1 Seq:
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Infinite Data Structures and Laziness | 287

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288 | Chapter 12:—The Scala Type System

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 CHAPTER 13
Application Design

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Annotations
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// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/Pre.java

package org.contract4j5.contract;
import java.lang.annotation.Documented;
import java.lang.annotation.ElementType;
import java.lang.annotation.Retention;
import java.lang.annotation.RetentionPolicy;
import java.lang.annotation.Target;

289

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 @Documented
@Retention(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME)
@Target({ElementType.PARAMETER, ElementType.METHOD, ElementType.CONSTRUCTOR})
public @interface Pre {
/**
* The "value" is the test expression, which must evaluate to true or false.
* It must be a valid expression in the scripting language you are using.
*/
String value() default "";

/**
* An optional message to print with the standard message when the contract
* fails.
*/
String message() default "";
}

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messageSDUDPHWHUV
// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/pre-example.scala

import org.contract4j5.contract._

class Person(
@Pre( "name != null && name.length() > 0" )
val name: String,
@Pre{ val value = "age > 0", val message = "You're too young!" }
val age: Int,
@Pre( "ssn != null" )
val ssn: SSN)

class SSN(
@Pre( "valid(ssn)" ) { val message = "Format must be NNN-NN-NNNN." }
val ssn: String) {

private def valid(value: String) =

value.matches("""^\s*\d{3}-\d{2}-\d{4}\s*$""")
}

290 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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package scala

class SerialVersionUID(uid: Long) extends StaticAnnotation

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Annotations | 291

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// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/anno-example.scala

import scala.StaticAnnotation

class Persist(tableName: String, params: Map[String,Any])

extends StaticAnnotation

// Doesn't compile:
//@Persist("ACCOUNTS", Map("dbms" -> "MySql", "writeAutomatically" -> true))
@Persist("ACCOUNTS", Map(("dbms", "MySql"), ("writeAutomatically", true)))
class Account(val balance: Double)

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...: warning: implementation restriction: subclassing Classfile does not
make your annotation visible at runtime. If that is what
you want, you must write the annotation class in Java.
...

292 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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Name Java equivalent Description
ClassfileAnnotation Annotate with @Retention The parent trait for annotations that should be retained
(RetentionPolicy.RUNTIME) in the class file for runtime access, but it doesn’t actually
work on the JDK!
BeanDescription BeanDescriptor (class) An annotation for JavaBean types or members that
associates a short description (provided as the anno-
tation argument) that will be included when gener-
ating bean information.
BeanDisplayName BeanDescriptor (class) An annotation for JavaBean types or members that
associates a name (provided as the annotation argu-
ment) that will be included when generating bean
information.
BeanInfo BeanInfo (class) A marker that indicates that a BeanInfo class should
be generated for the marked Scala class. A val
becomes a read-only property. A var becomes a read-
write property. A def becomes a method.
BeanInfoSkip N.A. A marker that indicates that bean information should
not be generated for the annotated member.
StaticAnnotation Static fields, The parent trait of annotations that should be visible
@Target(ElementType.TYPE) across compilation units and define “static” metadata.

Annotations | 293

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 Name Java equivalent Description
TypeConstraint N.A. An annotation trait that can be applied to other an-
notations that define constraints on a type, relying
only on information defined within the type itself, as
opposed to external context information where the
type is defined or used. The compiler can exploit this
restriction to rewrite the constraint. There are currently
no library annotations that use this trait.
unchecked N.A. A marker annotation for the selector in a match state-
ment (e.g., the x in x match {...}) that sup-
presses a compiler warning if the case clauses are not
“exhaustive.” You can still have a runtime MatchEr
ror occur if a value of x fails to match any of the
case clauses. See the upcoming example.
unsealed N.A. Deprecated, use @unchecked instead.

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Name Java equivalent Description
BeanProperty JavaBean convention A marker for a field (including a constructor argument with
the val or var keyword) that tells the compiler to generate
a JavaBean-style “getter” and “setter” method. The setter is
only generated for var declarations. See the discussion in
“JavaBean Properties” on page 374.
cloneable java.lang.Cloneable A class marker indicating that a class can be cloned.
(interface)
cps N.A. (version 2.8) Generate byte code using continuation passing
style.
deprecated java.lang.Deprecated A marker for any definition indicating that the defined “item”
is obsolete. The compiler will issue a warning when the item
is used.
inline N.A. A method marker telling the compiler that it should try
“especially hard” to inline the method.
native native (keyword) A method marker indicating the method is implemented as
“native” code. The method body will not be generated by the
compiler, but usage of the method will be type checked.
noinline N.A. A method marker that prevents the compiler from inlining the
method, even when it appears to be safe to do so.
remote java.rmi.Remote A class marker indicating that the class can be invoked from a
(interface) remote JVM.
serializable java.io.Serializable A class marker indicating that the class can be serialized.
(interface)
SerialVersionUID serialVersionUID static Defines a globally unique ID for serialization purposes. The
field in a class annotation’s constructor takes a Long argument for the UID.

294 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 Name Java equivalent Description
switch N.A. (version 2.8) An annotation to be applied to a match expression,
e.g., (x: @switch) match {...}. When present, the
compiler will verify that the match has been compiled to a
table-based or lookup-based switch statement. If not, it will
issue an error if it instead compiles into a series of conditional
expressions, which are less efficient.
specialized N.A. (version 2.8) An annotation applied to type parameters in par-
ameterized types and methods. It tells the compiler to generate
optimized versions of the type or method for the AnyVal types
corresponding to platform primitive types. Optionally, you can
limit the AnyVal types for which specialized implementations
will be generated. See the upcoming discussion.
tailRec N.A. (version 2.8) A method annotation that tells the compiler to
verify that the method will be compiled with tail-call optimi-
zation. If it is present, the compiler will issue an error if the
method cannot be optimized into a loop. This happens, for
example, when the method is not private or final, when
it could be overridden, and when recursive invocations are not
true tail calls.
throws throws (keyword) Indicates which exceptions are thrown by the annotated
method. See the upcoming discussion.
transient transient (keyword) Marks a method as “transient.”
uncheckedStable N.A. A marker for a value that is assumed to be stable even though
its type is volatile (i.e., annotated with @volatile).
uncheckedVariance N.A. A marker for a type argument that is volatile, when it is used
in a parameterized type, to suppress variance checking.
volatile volatile (keyword, A marker for an individual field or a whole type, which affects
for fields only) all fields, indicating that the field may be modified by a separate
thread.

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ODWHU&RQVLGHU@tailrecDVXVHGLQWKHIROORZLQJH[DPSOH
import scala.annotation.tailrec

@tailrec
def fib(i: Int): Int = i match {
case _ if i <= 1 => i
case _ => fib(i-1) + fib(i-2)
}
println(fib(5))

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UHFXUVLYHEHFDXVHWKHFDOOWRLWVHOILVQRWWKHYHU\ODVWWKLQJWKDWKDSSHQVLQWKHVHFRQG
FDVHFODXVH5DWKHUDIWHUFDOOLQJLWVHOIWZLFHLWGRHVDQDGGLWLRQ+HQFHDWDLOFDOORS
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Annotations | 295

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... 4: error: could not optimize @tailrec annotated method
def fib(i: Int): Int = i match {
^
one error found

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import scala.annotation.switch

def fib(i: Int): Int = (i: @switch) match {

case _ if i <= 1 => i
case _ => fib(i-1) + fib(i-2)
}
println(fib(5))

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... 3: error: could not emit switch for @switch annotated match
def fib(i: Int): Int = (i: @switch) match {
^
one error found

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...
def process(x: Option[int]) = x match {
case Some(value) => ...
}
...

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...: warning: does not cover case {object None}
def f(x: Option[int]) = x match {
^
one warning found

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def process(x: Option[int]) = (x: @unchecked) match {
case Some(value) => ...
}
...

296 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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class SpecialCollection[@specialized +T](...) {
...
}

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Annotations | 297

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FRGH"
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7KHIROORZLQJ6FDODFODVVSULQWVRXWWKHFRQWHQWVRIDjava.io.File
// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/file-printer.scala

import java.io._

class FilePrinter(val file: File) {

@throws(classOf[IOException])
def print() = {
var reader: LineNumberReader = null
try {
reader = new LineNumberReader(new FileReader(file))
loop(reader)
} finally {
if (reader != null)
reader.close
}
}

private def loop(reader: LineNumberReader): Unit = {

val line = reader.readLine()
if (line != null) {
format("%3d: %s\n", reader.getLineNumber, line)
loop(reader)
}
}
}

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298 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

Download at WoweBook.Com
+HUHLVD-DYDFODVVWKDWXVHVFilePrinter,WSURYLGHVWKHmainURXWLQH
// code-examples/AppDesign/annotations/FilePrinterMain.java

import java.io.*;

public class FilePrinterMain {

public static void main(String[] args) {
for (String fileName: args) {
try {
File file = new File(fileName);
new FilePrinter(file).print();
} catch (IOException ioe) {
System.err.println("IOException for file " + fileName);
System.err.println(ioe.getMessage());
}
}
}
}

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scala -cp build FilePrinterMain annotations/FilePrinterMain.java

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1: import java.io.*;
2:
3: public class FilePrinterMain {
4: public static void main(String[] args) {
5: for (String fileName: args) {
6: try {
7: File file = new File(fileName);
8: new FilePrinter(file).print();
9: } catch (IOException ioe) {
10: System.err.println("IOException for file " + fileName);
11: System.err.println(ioe.getMessage());
12: }
13: }
14: }
15: }

1RZUHWXUQLQJWRWKHFilePrinterFODVVVXSSRVH\RXFRPPHQWRXWWKH@throwsOLQH
7KLVILOHZLOOFRQWLQXHWRFRPSLOHEXWZKHQ\RXFRPSLOH FilePrinterMain.java\RX
ZLOOJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
annotations/FilePrinterMain.java:9: exception java.io.IOException is never
thrown in body of corresponding try statement
} catch (IOException ioe) {
^
1 error

Annotations | 299

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(YHQWKRXJK java.io.IOExceptionPD\JHWWKURZQE\ FilePrinterWKDWLQIRUPDWLRQ
LVQ¦WLQWKHE\WHFRGHJHQHUDWHGE\ scalacVRWKHDQDO\VLVGRQHE\ javacPLVWDNHQO\
FRQFOXGHVWKDWIOExceptionLVQHYHUWKURZQ
6RWKHSXUSRVHRI@throwsLVWRLQVHUWWKHLQIRUPDWLRQRQWKURZQFKHFNHGH[FHSWLRQV
LQWRWKHE\WHFRGHWKDWjavacZLOOUHDG

,Q D PL[HG -DYD6FDOD HQYLURQPHQW FRQVLGHU DGGLQJ WKH @throws

DQQRWDWLRQIRUDOO\RXU6FDODPHWKRGVWKDWFDQWKURZ-DYDFKHFNHGH[
FHSWLRQV (YHQWXDOO\ VRPH -DYD FRGH ZLOO SUREDEO\ FDOO RQH RI WKRVH
PHWKRGV

Enumerations Versus Pattern Matching

(QXPHUDWLRQVDUHDZD\RIGHILQLQJDILQLWHVHWRIFRQVWDQWYDOXHV7KH\DUHDOLJKWZHLJKW
DOWHUQDWLYHWRFDVHFODVVHV<RXFDQUHIHUHQFHWKHYDOXHVGLUHFWO\LWHUDWHWKURXJKWKHP
LQGH[LQWRWKHPZLWKLQWHJHULQGLFHVHWF
-XVWDVIRUDQQRWDWLRQV6FDOD¦VIRUPRIHQXPHUDWLRQVDUHFODVVEDVHGZLWKDSDUWLFXODU
VHWRILGLRPVUDWKHUWKDQUHO\LQJRQVSHFLDONH\ZRUGVIRUGHILQLQJWKHPDVLVXVHGIRU
HQXPHUDWLRQVLQ-DYDDQG1(7+RZHYHU\RXFDQDOVRXVHHQXPHUDWLRQVGHILQHGLQ
WKRVHODQJXDJHV
6FDODHQXPHUDWLRQVDUHGHILQHGE\VXEFODVVLQJWKHDEVWUDFW scala.EnumerationFODVV
7KHUHDUHVHYHUDOZD\VWRFRQVWUXFWDQGXVHDQHQXPHUDWLRQ:H¦OOGHPRQVWUDWHRQH
LGLRPWKDWPRVWFORVHO\PDWFKHVWKH-DYDDQG1(7IRUPV\RXPD\DOUHDG\NQRZ
5HFDOO WKH +773 PHWKRGV VFULSWV WKDW ZH ZURWH LQ £6HDOHG &ODVV +LHUDU
FKLHV¤RQSDJH:HGHILQHGWKHVHWRI+773PHWKRGVXVLQJDVHDOHGFDVHFODVV
KLHUDUFK\
// code-examples/ObjectSystem/sealed/http-script.scala

sealed abstract class HttpMethod()

case class Connect(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Delete (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Get (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Head (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Options(body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Post (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Put (body: String) extends HttpMethod
case class Trace (body: String) extends HttpMethod

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect (body) => println("connect: " + body)
case Delete (body) => println("delete: " + body)
case Get (body) => println("get: " + body)
case Head (body) => println("head: " + body)
case Options (body) => println("options: " + body)
case Post (body) => println("post: " + body)

300 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 case Put (body) => println("put: " + body)
case Trace (body) => println("trace: " + body)
}

val methods = List(

Connect("connect body..."),
Delete ("delete body..."),
Get ("get body..."),
Head ("head body..."),
Options("options body..."),
Post ("post body..."),
Put ("put body..."),
Trace ("trace body..."))

methods.foreach { method => handle(method) }

,QWKDWH[DPSOHHDFKPHWKRGKDGDbodyDWWULEXWHIRUWKHPHVVDJHERG\:H¦OODVVXPH
KHUHWKDWWKHERG\LVKDQGOHGWKURXJKRWKHUPHDQVDQGZHRQO\FDUHDERXWLGHQWLI\LQJ
WKH NLQG RI +773 PHWKRG 6R KHUH LV D 6FDOD Enumeration FODVV IRU WKH +773 
PHWKRGV
// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-enum-script.scala

object HttpMethod extends Enumeration {

type Method = Value
val Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace = Value
}

import HttpMethod._

def handle (method: HttpMethod.Method) = method match {

case Connect => println("Connect: " + method.id)
case Delete => println("Delete: " + method.id)
case Get => println("Get: " + method.id)
case Head => println("Head: " + method.id)
case Options => println("Options: " + method.id)
case Post => println("Post: " + method.id)
case Put => println("Put: " + method.id)
case Trace => println("Trace: " + method.id)
}

HttpMethod foreach { method => handle(method) }

println( HttpMethod )

7KLVVFULSWSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Connect: 0
Delete: 1
Get: 2
Head: 3
Options: 4
Post: 5
Put: 6
Trace: 7
{Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(0), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(1),
Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(2), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(3),

Enumerations Versus Pattern Matching | 301

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 Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(4), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(5),
Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(6), Main$$anon$1$HttpMethod(7)}

:H ZUDSSHG WKH OLQHV IRU WKH RXWSXW EHWZHHQ WKH {...} 7KHUH DUH WZR XVHV RI
ValueLQWKHGHILQLWLRQRIHttpMethod7KHILUVWXVDJHLVDFWXDOO\DUHIHUHQFHWRDQDEVWUDFW
FODVVEnumeration.ValueZKLFKHQFDSVXODWHVVRPHXVHIXORSHUDWLRQVIRUWKH£YDOXHV¤
LQ WKH HQXPHUDWLRQ :H GHILQH D QHZ type Method WKDW IXQFWLRQV DV DQ DOLDV IRU
Value:HVHHLWXVHGLQWKHW\SHRIWKHDUJXPHQWSDVVHGWRWKHhandlePHWKRGZKLFK
GHPRQVWUDWHVHttpMethodLQXVHHttpMethod.MethodLVDPRUHPHDQLQJIXOQDPHWRWKH
UHDGHU WKDQ WKH JHQHULF HttpMethod.Value 1RWH WKDW RQH RI WKH ILHOGV LQ Enumera
tion.ValueLVidZKLFKZHDOVRXVHLQhandle
7KHVHFRQGXVHRIValueLVDFWXDOO\DFDOOWRDPHWKRG7KHUHLVQRQDPHVSDFHFROOLVLRQ
EHWZHHQWKHVHWZRQDPHV7KHOLQHval Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post,
Put, Trace = ValueGHILQHVWKHVHWRIYDOXHVIRUWKHHQXPHUDWLRQ7KHValuePHWKRGLV
FDOOHGIRUHDFKRQH,WFUHDWHVDQHZEnumeration.ValueIRUHDFKRQHDQGDGGVLWWRWKH
PDQDJHGVHWRIYDOXHV
,QWKHFRGHEHORZWKHGHILQLWLRQZHLPSRUWWKHGHILQLWLRQVLQHttpMethodDQGZHGHILQH
DhandlePHWKRGWKDWSDWWHUQPDWFKHVRQHttpMethod.MethodREMHFWV,WVLPSO\SULQWVD
PHVVDJHIRUHDFKYDOXHDORQJZLWKLWVid1RWHWKDWZKLOHWKHH[DPSOHKDVQR£GHIDXOW¤
FDVHFODXVHHJ case _ º...QRQHLVUHTXLUHGLQWKLVFDVH+RZHYHUWKHFRPSLOHU
GRHVQ¦WDFWXDOO\NQRZWKDWDOOWKHSRVVLEOHYDOXHVDUHFRYHUHGLQFRQWUDVWWRDVHDOHG
FDVHFODVVKLHUDUFK\,I\RXFRPPHQWRXWRQHRIWKHFDVHVWDWHPHQWVLQhandle\RXZLOO
JHWQRZDUQLQJVEXW\RXZLOOJHWDMatchError

:KHQSDWWHUQPDWFKLQJRQHQXPHUDWLRQYDOXHVWKHFRPSLOHUFDQ¦WWHOO
LIWKHPDWFKLV£H[KDXVWLYH¤

<RXPLJKWZRQGHUZK\ZHKDUGFRGHGVWULQJVOLNH£&RQQHFW¤LQWKHprintlnVWDWHPHQWV
LQWKHFDVHFODXVHV&DQ¦WZHJHWWKHQDPHIURPWKH HttpMethod.MethodREMHFWLWVHOI"
$QGZK\GLGQ¦WWKHRXWSXWRIprintln(HttpMethod)LQFOXGHWKRVHQDPHVLQVWHDGRIWKH
XJO\LQWHUQDOREMHFWQDPHV"
<RXDUHSUREDEO\DFFXVWRPHGWRXVLQJVXFKQDPHVZLWK-DYDRU1(7HQXPHUDWLRQV
8QIRUWXQDWHO\ZHFDQ¦WJHWWKRVHQDPHVIURPWKHYDOXHVLQWKH6FDODHQXPHUDWLRQDW
OHDVWJLYHQWKHZD\WKDWZHGHFODUHGHttpMethod+RZHYHUWKHUHDUHWZRZD\VZHFDQ
FKDQJHWKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQWRJHWQDPHVWULQJV,QWKHILUVWDSSURDFKZHSDVVWKHQDPH
WRValueZKHQFUHDWLQJWKHILHOGV
// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-enum2-script.scala

object HttpMethod extends Enumeration {

type Method = Value
val Connect = Value("Connect")
val Delete = Value("Delete")
val Get = Value("Get")

302 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 val Head = Value("Head")
val Options = Value("Options")
val Post = Value("Post")
val Put = Value("Put")
val Trace = Value("Trace")
}

import HttpMethod._

def handle (method: HttpMethod.Method) = method match {

case Connect => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Delete => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Get => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Head => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Options => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Post => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Put => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Trace => println(method + ": " + method.id)
}

HttpMethod foreach { method => handle(method) }

println( HttpMethod )

,WLVDELWUHGXQGDQWWRKDYHWRXVHWKHVDPHZRUGWZLFHLQGHFODUDWLRQVOLNHval Connect
= Value("Connect")
5XQQLQJWKLVVFULSWSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJQLFHURXWSXW
Connect: 0
Delete: 1
Get: 2
Head: 3
Options: 4
Post: 5
Put: 6
Trace: 7
{Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace}

,QWKHVHFRQGDSSURDFKZHSDVVWKHOLVWRIQDPHVWRWKHEnumerationFRQVWUXFWRU
// code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-enum3-script.scala

object HttpMethod extends Enumeration(

"Connect", "Delete", "Get", "Head", "Options", "Post", "Put", "Trace") {
type Method = Value
val Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace = Value
}

import HttpMethod._

def handle (method: HttpMethod.Method) = method match {

case Connect => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Delete => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Get => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Head => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Options => println(method + ": " + method.id)

Enumerations Versus Pattern Matching | 303

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 case Post => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Put => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Trace => println(method + ": " + method.id)
}

HttpMethod foreach { method => handle(method) }

println( HttpMethod )

7KLVVFULSWSURGXFHVLGHQWLFDORXWSXW1RWHWKDWZHKDYHDUHGXQGDQWOLVWRIQDPHVWULQJV
DQGQDPHVRIWKHvals,WLVXSWR\RXWRNHHSWKHLWHPVLQWKHOLVWDQGWKHLURUGHUFRQVLVWHQW
ZLWKWKHGHFODUHGYDOXHV7KLVYHUVLRQKDVIHZHUFKDUDFWHUVEXWLWLVPRUHHUURUSURQH
,QWHUQDOO\EnumerationSDLUVWKHVWULQJVZLWKWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJValueLQVWDQFHVDVWKH\
DUHFUHDWHG
7KHRXWSXWZKHQSULQWLQJWKHZKROH HttpMethodREMHFWLVEHWWHUIRUHLWKHUDOWHUQDWLYH
LPSOHPHQWDWLRQ:KHQWKHYDOXHVKDYHQDPHVWKHLUtoStringUHWXUQVWKHQDPH,QIDFW
RXU ILQDO WZR H[DPSOHV KDYH EHFRPH TXLWH DUWLILFLDO EHFDXVH ZH QRZ KDYH LGHQWLFDO
VWDWHPHQWVIRUHDFKFDVHFODXVH2IFRXUVHLQDUHDOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ\RXZRXOGKDQGOH
WKHGLIIHUHQW+773PHWKRGVGLIIHUHQWO\

Thoughts On Annotations and Enumerations

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6FDODDSSURDFKZKHUHZHXVHUHJXODUFODVVEDVHGPHFKDQLVPVUDWKHUWKDQLQYHQWLQJ
FXVWRPNH\ZRUGVDQGV\QWD[7KHDGYDQWDJHVLQFOXGHIHZHUVSHFLDOFDVHVLQWKHODQ
JXDJH &ODVVHV DQG WUDLWV DUH XVHG LQ PRUH RU OHVV WKH VDPH ZD\V WKH\ DUH XVHG IRU
£QRUPDO¤ FRGH 7KH GLVDGYDQWDJHV LQFOXGH WKH QHHG WR XQGHUVWDQG DQG XVH DG KRF
FRQYHQWLRQVWKDWDUHQRWDOZD\VDVFRQYHQLHQWWRXVHDVWKHFXVWRPV\QWD[PHFKDQLVPV
UHTXLUHGLQ-DYDDQG1(7$OVR6FDOD¦VLPSOHPHQWDWLRQVDUHQRWDVIXOOIHDWXUHG
6RVKRXOGWKH6FDODFRPPXQLW\UHOHQWDQGLPSOHPHQWDGKRFEXWPRUHIXOOIHDWXUHG
PHFKDQLVPVIRUDQQRWDWLRQVDQGHQXPHUDWLRQV"0D\EHQRW6FDODLVDPRUHIOH[LEOH
ODQJXDJHWKDQPRVWODQJXDJHV0DQ\RIWKHIHDWXUHVSURYLGHGE\-DYDDQG1(7DQ
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YLGHDPRUHIOH[LEOHVROXWLRQLQPDQ\FDVHV

Enumerations Versus Case Classes and Pattern Matching

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WKHYHUVLRQZHZURWHSUHYLRXVO\WKDWXVHVDQEnumeration6LQFHWKHHQXPHUDWLRQYHU
VLRQGRHVQ¦WKDQGOHWKHPHVVDJHERG\OHW¦VZULWHDPRGLILHGYHUVLRQRIWKHVHDOHGFDVH
FODVV YHUVLRQ WKDW LV FORVHU WR WKH HQXPHUDWLRQ YHUVLRQ LH LW DOVR GRHVQ¦W KROG WKH
PHVVDJHERG\DQGLWKDVnameDQGidPHWKRGV

304 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 // code-examples/AppDesign/enumerations/http-case-script.scala

sealed abstract class HttpMethod(val id: Int) {

def name = getClass getSimpleName
override def toString = name
}

case object Connect extends HttpMethod(0)

case object Delete extends HttpMethod(1)
case object Get extends HttpMethod(2)
case object Head extends HttpMethod(3)
case object Options extends HttpMethod(4)
case object Post extends HttpMethod(5)
case object Put extends HttpMethod(6)
case object Trace extends HttpMethod(7)

def handle (method: HttpMethod) = method match {

case Connect => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Delete => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Get => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Head => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Options => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Post => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Put => println(method + ": " + method.id)
case Trace => println(method + ": " + method.id)
}

List(Connect, Delete, Get, Head, Options, Post, Put, Trace) foreach {

method => handle(method)
}

1RWHWKDWZHXVHG case objectIRUDOOWKHFRQFUHWHVXEFODVVHVWRKDYHDWUXHVHWRI

FRQVWDQWV7RPLPLFWKHHQXPHUDWLRQ idZHDGGHGDILHOGH[SOLFLWO\EXWQRZLW¦VXS
WRXVWRSDVVLQYDOLGXQLTXHYDOXHV7KHhandlePHWKRGVLQWKHWZRLPSOHPHQWDWLRQV
DUHQHDUO\LGHQWLFDO
7KLVVFULSWRXWSXWVWKHIROORZLQJ
Main$$anon$1$Connect$: 0
Main$$anon$1$Delete$: 1
Main$$anon$1$Get$: 2
Main$$anon$1$Head$: 3
Main$$anon$1$Options$: 4
Main$$anon$1$Post$: 5
Main$$anon$1$Put$: 6
Main$$anon$1$Trace$: 7

7KHREMHFWQDPHVDUHXJO\EXWZHFRXOGSDUVHWKHVWULQJDQGUHPRYHWKHVXEVWULQJZH
UHDOO\FDUHDERXW
%RWKDSSURDFKHVVXSSRUWWKHFRQFHSWRIDILQLWHDQGIL[HGVHWRIYDOXHVDVORQJDVWKH
FDVHFODVVKLHUDUFK\LVVHDOHG$QDGGLWLRQDODGYDQWDJHRIDVHDOHGFDVHFODVVKLHUDUFK\
LV WKH IDFW WKDW WKH FRPSLOHU ZLOO ZDUQ \RX LI SDWWHUQ PDWFKLQJ VWDWHPHQWV DUHQ¦W

Thoughts On Annotations and Enumerations | 305

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H[KDXVWLYH7U\UHPRYLQJRQHRIWKHFDVHFODXVHVDQG\RX¦OOJHWWKHXVXDOZDUQLQJ7KH
FRPSLOHUFDQ¦WGRWKLVZLWKHQXPHUDWLRQVDVZHVDZ
7KHHQXPHUDWLRQIRUPDWLVPRUHVXFFLQFWGHVSLWHWKHQDPHGXSOLFDWLRQZHKDGWRXVH
DQGLWDOVRVXSSRUWVWKHDELOLW\WRLWHUDWHWKURXJKWKHYDOXHV:HKDGWRGRWKDWPDQXDOO\
LQWKHFDVHFODXVHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
7KHFDVHFODVVLPSOHPHQWDWLRQQDWXUDOO\DFFRPPRGDWHVRWKHUILHOGVHJWKHbodyDV
LQWKHRULJLQDOLPSOHPHQWDWLRQZKLOHHQXPHUDWLRQVFDQRQO\DFFRPPRGDWHFRQVWDQW
ValuesZLWKDVVRFLDWHGQDPHVDQG,'V

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IL[HGVHWVRIPRUHFRPSOH[FRQVWDQWREMHFWVXVHVHDOHGFDVHREMHFWV

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QXOOV¤RQSDJHZHEULHIO\GLVFXVVHGKRZLWHQFRXUDJHVDYRLGLQJnullUHIHUHQFHVLQ
\RXUFRGHZKLFK7RQ\+RDUHZKRLQWURGXFHGWKHFRQFHSWRInullLQFDOOHGKLV
£ELOOLRQGROODUPLVWDNH¤VHH>+RDUH@
6FDODKDVWRVXSSRUWnullEHFDXVHnullLVVXSSRUWHGRQERWKWKH-90DQG1(7DQG
RWKHUOLEUDULHVXVHnull,QIDFWnullLVXVHGE\VRPH6FDODOLEUDULHV
:KDWLI nullZHUHQRWDYDLODEOH"+RZZRXOGWKDWFKDQJH\RXUGHVLJQV"7KH Map$3,
RIIHUVVRPHXVHIXOH[DPSOHV&RQVLGHUWKHVHWZRMapPHWKRGV
trait Map[A,+B] {
...
def get(key: A) : Option[B]
def getOrElse [B2 >: B](key : A, default : => B2) : B2 = ...
...
}

$PDSPD\QRWKDYHDYDOXHIRUDSDUWLFXODUNH\%RWKRIWKHVHPHWKRGVDYRLGUHWXUQLQJ
nullLQWKDWFDVH&RQFUHWHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQVRI getLQVXEFODVVHVUHWXUQD NoneLIQR
YDOXHH[LVWVIRUWKHNH\2WKHUZLVHWKH\UHWXUQDSomeZUDSSLQJWKHYDOXH7KHPHWKRG
VLJQDWXUHWHOOV\RXWKDWDYDOXHPLJKWQRWH[LVWDQGLWIRUFHV\RXWRKDQGOHWKDWVLWXDWLRQ
JUDFHIXOO\
val stateCapitals = Map("Alabama" -> "Montgomery", ...)
...

stateCapitals.get("North Hinterlandia") match {

case None => println ("No such state!")
case Some(x) => println(x)
}

306 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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6LPLODUO\getOrElseIRUFHV\RXWRGHVLJQGHIHQVLYHO\<RXKDYHWRVSHFLI\DGHIDXOWYDOXH
IRUZKHQDNH\LVQ¦WLQWKHPDS1RWHWKDWWKHGHIDXOWYDOXHFDQDFWXDOO\EHDQLQVWDQFH
RIDVXSHUW\SHUHODWLYHWRWKHPDS¦VYDOXHW\SH
println(stateCapitals.getOrElse("North Hinterlandia", "No such state!"))

$ORWRI-DYDDQG1(7$3,VDOORZnullPHWKRGDUJXPHQWVDQGFDQUHWXUQnullYDOXHV
<RXFDQZULWH6FDODZUDSSHUVDURXQGWKHPWRLPSOHPHQWDQDSSURSULDWHVWUDWHJ\IRU
KDQGOLQJnulls
)RU H[DPSOH OHW¦V UHYLVLW RXU SUHYLRXV ILOH SULQWLQJ H[DPSOH IURP £$QQRWD
WLRQV¤ RQ SDJH  :H¦OO UHIDFWRU RXU FilePrinter FODVV DQG WKH -DYD GULYHU LQWR D
FRPELQHGVFULSW:H¦OODGGUHVVWZRLVVXHVZUDSLineNumberReader.readLineZLWKD
PHWKRGWKDWUHWXUQVDQ OptionLQVWHDGRI nullDQGZUDSFKHFNHG IOExceptionsLQ
RXURZQXQFKHFNHGH[FHSWLRQFDOOHGScalaIOException
// code-examples/AppDesign/options-nulls/file-printer-refactored-script.scala

import java.io._

class ScalaIOException(cause: Throwable) extends RuntimeException(cause)

class ScalaLineNumberReader(in: Reader) extends LineNumberReader(in) {

def inputLine() = readLine() match {
case null => None
case line => Some(line)
}
}

object ScalaLineNumberReader {
def apply(file: File) = try {
new ScalaLineNumberReader(new FileReader(file))
} catch {
case ex: IOException => throw new ScalaIOException(ex)
}
}

class FilePrinter(val file: File) {

def print() = {
val reader = ScalaLineNumberReader(file)
try {
loop(reader)
} finally {
if (reader != null)
reader.close
}
}

private def loop(reader: ScalaLineNumberReader): Unit = {

reader.inputLine() match {
case None =>
case Some(line) => {
format("%3d: %s\n", reader.getLineNumber, line)
loop(reader)

Using Nulls Versus Options | 307

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 }
}
}
}

// Process the command-line arguments (file names):

args.foreach { fileName =>
new FilePrinter(new File(fileName)).print();
}

7KH ScalaLineNumberReader FODVV GHILQHV D QHZ PHWKRG inputLine WKDW FDOOV

LineNumberReader.readLine DQG SDWWHUQ PDWFKHV WKH UHVXOW ,I null WKHQ None LV UH
WXUQHG2WKHUZLVHWKHOLQHLVUHWXUQHGZUDSSHGLQDSome[String]
ScalaIOExceptionLVDVXEFODVVRI RuntimeExceptionVRLWLVXQFKHFNHG:HXVHLWWR
ZUDSDQ\IOExceptionsWKURZQLQScalaLineNumberReader.apply
7KH UHIDFWRUHG FilePrinter FODVV XVHV ScalaLineNumberReader.apply LQ LWV print
PHWKRG,WXVHVScalaLineNumberReader.inputLineLQLWVloopPHWKRG:KLOHWKHRULJ
LQDOYHUVLRQSURSHUO\KDQGOHGWKHFDVHRI LineNumberReader.readLineUHWXUQLQJ null
QRZWKHXVHURIScalaLineNumberReaderKDVQRFKRLFHEXWWRKDQGOHDNoneUHWXUQYDOXH
7KHVFULSWHQGVZLWKDORRSRYHUWKHLQSXWDUJXPHQWVZKLFKDUHVWRUHGDXWRPDWLFDOO\
LQWKHargsYDULDEOH(DFKDUJXPHQWLVWUHDWHGDVDILOHQDPHWREHSULQWHG7KHVFULSW
ZLOOSULQWLWVHOIZLWKWKHIROORZLQJFRPPDQG
scala file-printer-refactored-script.scala file-printer-refactored-script.scala

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// code-examples/AppDesign/options-nulls/option-for-comp-v1-script.scala

case class User(userName: String, name: String, email: String, bio: String)

val newUserProfiles = List(

Map("userName" -> "twitspam", "name" -> "Twit Spam"),
Map("userName" -> "bucktrends", "name" -> "Buck Trends",
"email" -> "[email protected]", "bio" -> "World's greatest bloviator"),
Map("userName" -> "lonelygurl", "name" -> "Lonely Gurl",
"bio" -> "Obviously fake..."),
Map("userName" -> "deanwampler", "name" -> "Dean Wampler",
"email" -> "[email protected]", "bio" -> "Scala passionista"),
Map("userName" -> "al3x", "name" -> "Alex Payne",
"email" -> "[email protected]", "bio" -> "Twitter API genius"))

// Version #1

var validUsers = for {

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 user <- newUserProfiles
if (user.contains("userName") && user.contains("name") && // #1
user.contains("email") && user.contains("bio")) // #1
userName <- user get "userName"
name <- user get "name"
email <- user get "email"
bio <- user get "bio" }
yield User(userName, name, email, bio)

validUsers.foreach (user => println(user))

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User(deanwampler,Dean Wampler,[email protected],Scala passionista)
User(al3x,Alex Payne,[email protected],Twitter API genius)

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...
var validUsers = for {
user <- newUserProfiles
userName <- user get "userName"
name <- user get "name"
email <- user get "email"
bio <- user get "bio" }
yield User(userName, name, email, bio)

validUsers.foreach (user => println(user))

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 for (p1 <- e1) e2 // for comprehension

e1 foreach ( case p1 => e2 ) // translation

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var validUsers = newUserProfiles flatMap {
case user => user.get("userName") flatMap {
case userName => user.get("name") flatMap {
case name => user.get("email") flatMap {
case email => user.get("bio") map {
case bio => User(name, userName, email, bio) // #1
}
}
}
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/encoded-string.scala

package encodedstring {

trait EncodedString {
protected[encodedstring] val string: String
val separator: EncodedString.Separator.Delimiter

override def toString = string

def toTokens = string.split(separator.toString).toList

}

object EncodedString {
object Separator extends Enumeration {
type Delimiter = Value
val COMMA = Value(",")
val TAB = Value("\t")
}

def apply(s: String, sep: Separator.Delimiter) = sep match {

case Separator.COMMA => impl.CSV(s)
case Separator.TAB => impl.TSV(s)
}

def unapply(es: EncodedString) = Some(Pair(es.string, es.separator))

}

package impl {
private[encodedstring] case class CSV(override val string: String)
extends EncodedString {
override val separator = EncodedString.Separator.COMMA
}

private[encodedstring] case class TSV(override val string: String)

extends EncodedString {
override val separator = EncodedString.Separator.TAB
}
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/encoded-string-script.scala

import encodedstring._
import encodedstring.EncodedString._

def p(s: EncodedString) = {

println("EncodedString: " + s)
s.toTokens foreach (x => println("token: " + x))
}

val csv = EncodedString("Scala,is,great!", Separator.COMMA)

val tsv = EncodedString("Scala\tis\tgreat!", Separator.TAB)

p(csv)
p(tsv)

println( "\nExtraction:" )
List(csv, "ProgrammingScala", tsv, 3.14159) foreach {
case EncodedString(str, delim) =>
println( "EncodedString: \"" + str + "\", delimiter: \"" + delim + "\"" )
case s: String => println( "String: " + s )
case x => println( "Unknown Value: " + x )
}

Scalable Abstractions | 315

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,WSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
EncodedString: Scala,is,great!
token: Scala
token: is
token: great!
EncodedString: Scala is great!
token: Scala
token: is
token: great!

Extraction:
EncodedString: "Scala,is,great!", delimiter: ","
String: ProgrammingScala
EncodedString: "Scala is great!", delimiter: " "
Unknown Value: 3.14159

+RZHYHULIZHWU\WRXVHWKHCSVFODVVGLUHFWO\IRUH[DPSOHZHJHWWKHIROORZLQJHUURU
scala> import encodedstring._
import encodedstring._

scala> val csv = impl.CSV("comma,separated,values")

<console>:6: error: object CSV cannot be accessed in package encodedstring.impl
val csv = impl.CSV("comma,separated,values")
^

scala>

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DQGZHDUHIUHHWRPRGLI\WKHLPSOHPHQWDWLRQDVZHVHHILWZLWKOLWWOHULVNRIIRUFLQJ
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FRPHGLIILFXOWWRPRGLI\VLQFHWKH\IRUFHFKDQJHVWRFOLHQWFRGH6RIRUODUJHUPRUH
VRSKLVWLFDWHGFRPSRQHQWVWKLVFOHDUVHSDUDWLRQRIDEVWUDFWLRQIURPLPSOHPHQWDWLRQ
FDQNHHSWKHFRGHPDLQWDLQDEOHDQGUHXVDEOHIRUDORQJWLPH

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:KHQLQVWDQFHVDUHFRQVWUXFWHGFODVVHVDQGWUDLWVFDQEHFRPELQHGWRFRPSRVHWKH
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/observer/observer2.scala

package observer

trait AbstractSubject {

316 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 type Observer

private var observers = List[Observer]()

def addObserver(observer:Observer) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (notify(_))

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit

}

trait SubjectForReceiveUpdateObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = { def receiveUpdate(subject: Any) }

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer.receiveUpdate(this)

}

trait SubjectForFunctionalObservers extends AbstractSubject {

type Observer = (AbstractSubject) => Unit

def notify(observer: Observer): Unit = observer(this)

}

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EHIRUHEHFDXVHRXUVLPSOHH[DPSOHVQHYHUQHHGHGWRDFFHVVButtonVWDWHLQIRUPDWLRQ
RUPHWKRGV
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FRYDULDQWO\)RUH[DPSOHZKHQZH¦UHREVHUYLQJ ButtonsZHH[SHFWRXUREVHUYHUVWR
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7RVLPSOLI\WKHH[DPSOHOHW¦VIRFXVRQMXVWWKH receiveUpdateIRUPRIWKH Observer
ZKLFKZHLPSOHPHQWHGZLWK SubjectForReceiveUpdateObserversEHIRUH+HUHLVDUH
ZRUNLQJRIRXUSDWWHUQORRVHO\IROORZLQJDQH[DPSOHLQ>2GHUVN\@1RWHWKDWWKH
6FDODV\QWD[KDVFKDQJHGVRPHZKDWVLQFHWKDWSDSHUZDVZULWWHQ

Scalable Abstractions | 317

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 // code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/observer3-wont-compile.scala
// WON'T COMPILE

package observer

abstract class SubjectObserver {

type S <: Subject
type O <: Observer

trait Subject {
private var observers = List[O]()
def addObserver(observer: O) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this)) // ERROR
}

trait Observer {
def receiveUpdate(subject: S)
}
}

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... 10: error: type mismatch;
found : SubjectObserver.this.Subject
required: SubjectObserver.this.S
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(this))
^
one error found

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318 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 // code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/observer3.scala

package observer

abstract class SubjectObserver {

type S <: Subject
type O <: Observer

trait Subject {
self: S => // #1
private var observers = List[O]()
def addObserver(observer: O) = observers ::= observer
def notifyObservers = observers foreach (_.receiveUpdate(self)) // #2
}

trait Observer {
def receiveUpdate(subject: S)
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/button-observer3.scala

package ui
import observer._

object ButtonSubjectObserver extends SubjectObserver {

type S = ObservableButton
type O = ButtonObserver

class ObservableButton(name: String) extends Button(name) with Subject {

override def click() = {
super.click()
notifyObservers

Scalable Abstractions | 319

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 }
}

trait ButtonObserver extends Observer {

def receiveUpdate(button: ObservableButton)
}
}

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DUHUHTXLUHG
// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/button-click-observer3.scala

package ui
import observer._

class ButtonClickObserver extends ButtonSubjectObserver.ButtonObserver {

val clicks = new scala.collection.mutable.HashMap[String,Int]()

def receiveUpdate(button: ButtonSubjectObserver.ObservableButton) = {

val count = clicks.getOrElse(button.label, 0) + 1
clicks.update(button.label, count)
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/button-observer3-spec.scala

package ui
import org.specs._
import observer._

object ButtonObserver3Spec extends Specification {

320 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 "An Observer counting button clicks" should {
"see all clicks" in {
val button1 = new ButtonSubjectObserver.ObservableButton("button1")
val button2 = new ButtonSubjectObserver.ObservableButton("button2")
val button3 = new ButtonSubjectObserver.ObservableButton("button3")
val buttonObserver = new ButtonClickObserver
button1.addObserver(buttonObserver)
button2.addObserver(buttonObserver)
button3.addObserver(buttonObserver)
clickButton(button1, 1)
clickButton(button2, 2)
clickButton(button3, 3)
buttonObserver.clicks("button1") mustEqual 1
buttonObserver.clicks("button2") mustEqual 2
buttonObserver.clicks("button3") mustEqual 3
}
}

def clickButton(button: Button, nClicks: Int) =

for (i <- 1 to nClicks)
button.click()
}

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WKRVHSUREOHPVLVWKHVRFDOOHGGLDPRQGRIGHDWKZKLFKLVLOOXVWUDWHGLQ)LJXUH

Effective Design of Traits | 321

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)LJXUH'LDPRQGRIGHDWKLQODQJXDJHVZLWKPXOWLSOHLQKHULWDQFH

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FOLFNVRFFXUUHG2XUVLPSOH ButtonFODVVFRQWULEXWHGRQO\D labelGLPHQVLRQZKLOH

322 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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VetoableClicksFRQWULEXWHGD countGLPHQVLRQDQGD maxAllowedFRQVWDQW+HUHLVD
UHFDSRIWKHVHW\SHVFROOHFWHGWRJHWKHULQWRDVLQJOHVFULSWWKDWDOVRH[HUFLVHVWKHFRGH
// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/vetoable-clicks1-script.scala

trait Clickable {
def click()
}

class Widget
class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {
def click() = println("click!")
}

trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

val maxAllowed = 1
private var count = 0
abstract override def click() = {
if (count < maxAllowed) {
count += 1
super.click()
}
}
}

val button1 = new Button("click me!")

println("new Button(...)")
for (i <- 1 to 3 ) button1.click()

val button2 = new Button("click me!") with VetoableClicks

println("new Button(...) with VetoableClicks")
for (i <- 1 to 3 ) button2.click()

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new Button(...)
click!
click!
click!
new Button(...) with VetoableClicks
click!

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WKHSDUHQWFODVV,QWKHVFULSWClickableLVWULYLDOO\VWDWHOHVVLJQRULQJWKHEXWWRQ¦VODEHO

Effective Design of Traits | 323

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ZKLOH VetoableClicksFRQWULEXWHV maxAllowedDQG count7UDLWVZLWKRUWKRJRQDOVWDWH
RIWHQKDYHRUWKRJRQDOPHWKRGVWRR)RUH[DPSOHWKH2EVHUYHU3DWWHUQWUDLWVZHXVHG
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VHHDQH[DPSOHOHW¦VUHIDFWRUWKHVFULSWWRPRYHWKHFOLFNcountWRWKHClickableWUDLW
// code-examples/AppDesign/abstractions/vetoable-clicks2-script.scala

trait Clickable {
private var clicks = 0
def count = clicks

def click() = { clicks += 1 }

}

class Widget
class Button(val label: String) extends Widget with Clickable {
override def click() = {
super.click()
println("click!")
}
}

trait VetoableClicks extends Clickable {

val maxAllowed = 1
abstract override def click() = {
if (count < maxAllowed)
super.click()
}
}

val button1 = new Button("click me!")

println("new Button(...)")
for (i <- 1 to 3 ) button1.click()

val button2 = new Button("click me!") with VetoableClicks

println("new Button(...) with VetoableClicks")
for (i <- 1 to 3 ) button2.click()

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324 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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Design Patterns
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// code-examples/AdvOOP/shapes/shapes-case.scala

package shapes {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

abstract class Shape() {

def draw(): Unit
}

case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {

def draw() = println("Circle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}

case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape() {
def draw() = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}
}

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326 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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)LUVWZHUHIDFWRUWKHShapeKLHUDUFK\WRVXSSRUWWKH9LVLWRU3DWWHUQIROORZLQJWKHH[
DPSOHLQ>*2)@
// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-visitor.scala

package shapes {
trait ShapeVisitor {
def visit(circle: Circle): Unit
def visit(rect: Rectangle): Unit
def visit(tri: Triangle): Unit
}

case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

sealed abstract class Shape() {

def accept(visitor: ShapeVisitor): Unit
}

case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape() {

def accept(visitor: ShapeVisitor) = visitor.visit(this)
}

case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)

extends Shape() {
def accept(visitor: ShapeVisitor) = visitor.visit(this)
}

case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape() {
def accept(visitor: ShapeVisitor) = visitor.visit(this)
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-visitor.scala

package shapes {
class ShapeDrawingVisitor extends ShapeVisitor {
def visit(circle: Circle): Unit =
println("Circle.draw: " + circle)

Design Patterns | 327

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 def visit(rect: Rectangle): Unit =
println("Rectangle.draw: " + rect)

def visit(tri: Triangle): Unit =

println("Triangle.draw: " + tri)
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-visitor-script.scala

import shapes._

val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)

val list = List(Circle(p00, 5.0),

Rectangle(p00, 2.0, 3.0),
Triangle(p00, p10, p01))

val shapesDrawer = new ShapeDrawingVisitor

list foreach { _.accept(shapesDrawer) }

,WSURGXFHVWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
Circle.draw: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)
Rectangle.draw: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,3.0)
Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes.scala

package shapes2 {
case class Point(x: Double, y: Double)

sealed abstract class Shape()

case class Circle(center: Point, radius: Double) extends Shape()

328 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 case class Rectangle(lowerLeft: Point, height: Double, width: Double)
extends Shape()

case class Triangle(point1: Point, point2: Point, point3: Point)

extends Shape()
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-implicit.scala

package shapes2 {
class ShapeDrawer(val shape: Shape) {
def draw = shape match {
case c: Circle => println("Circle.draw: " + c)
case r: Rectangle => println("Rectangle.draw: " + r)
case t: Triangle => println("Triangle.draw: " + t)
}
}

object ShapeDrawer {
implicit def shape2ShapeDrawer(shape: Shape) = new ShapeDrawer(shape)
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-implicit-script.scala

import shapes2._

val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)

val list = List(Circle(p00, 5.0),

Rectangle(p00, 2.0, 3.0),
Triangle(p00, p10, p01))

import shapes2.ShapeDrawer._

list foreach { _.draw }

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Design Patterns | 329

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-pattern-script.scala

import shapes2._

val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)

val list = List(Circle(p00, 5.0),

Rectangle(p00, 2.0, 3.0),
Triangle(p00, p10, p01))

val drawText = (shape:Shape) => shape match {

case circle: Circle => println("Circle.draw: " + circle)
case rect: Rectangle => println("Rectangle.draw: " + rect)
case tri: Triangle => println("Triangle.draw: " + tri)
}

def pointToXML(point: Point) =

"<point><x>%.1f</x><y>%.1f</y></point>".format(point.x, point.y)

val drawXML = (shape:Shape) => shape match {

case circle: Circle => {
println("<circle>")
println(" <center>" + pointToXML(circle.center) + "</center>")
println(" <radius>" + circle.radius + "</radius>")
println("</circle>")
}
case rect: Rectangle => {
println("<rectangle>")
println(" <lower-left>" + pointToXML(rect.lowerLeft) + "</lower-left>")
println(" <height>" + rect.height + "</height>")
println(" <width>" + rect.width + "</width>")

330 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 println("</rectangle>")
}
case tri: Triangle => {
println("<triangle>")
println(" <point1>" + pointToXML(tri.point1) + "</point1>")
println(" <point2>" + pointToXML(tri.point2) + "</point2>")
println(" <point3>" + pointToXML(tri.point3) + "</point3>")
println("</triangle>")
}
}

list foreach (drawText)

println("")
list foreach (drawXML)

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Circle.draw: Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)
Rectangle.draw: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,3.0)
Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))

<circle>
<center><point><x>0.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></center>
<radius>5.0</radius>
</circle>
<rectangle>
<lower-left><point><x>0.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></lower-left>
<height>2.0</height>
<width>3.0</width>
</rectangle>
<triangle>
<point1><point><x>0.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></point1>
<point2><point><x>1.0</x><y>0.0</y></point></point2>
<point3><point><x>0.0</x><y>1.0</y></point></point3>
</triangle>

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Design Patterns | 331

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-factory.scala

package shapes2 {
trait Drawing {
def draw: Unit
}

trait CircleDrawing extends Drawing {

def draw = println("Circle.draw " + this)
}
trait RectangleDrawing extends Drawing {
def draw = println("Rectangle.draw: " + this)
}
trait TriangleDrawing extends Drawing {
def draw = println("Triangle.draw: " + this)
}

object ShapeFactory {
def makeShape(args: Any*) = args(0) match {
case "circle" => {
val center = args(1).asInstanceOf[Point]
val radius = args(2).asInstanceOf[Double]
new Circle(center, radius) with CircleDrawing
}
case "rectangle" => {
val lowerLeft = args(1).asInstanceOf[Point]
val height = args(2).asInstanceOf[Double]
val width = args(3).asInstanceOf[Double]
new Rectangle(lowerLeft, height, width) with RectangleDrawing
}
case "triangle" => {
val p1 = args(1).asInstanceOf[Point]
val p2 = args(2).asInstanceOf[Point]
val p3 = args(3).asInstanceOf[Point]
new Triangle(p1, p2, p3) with TriangleDrawing
}
case x => throw new IllegalArgumentException("unknown: " + x)
}
}
}

:HGHILQHD DrawingWUDLWDQGFRQFUHWHGHULYHGWUDLWVIRUHDFK ShapeFODVV7KHQZH

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VKDSHZLWKWKHFRUUHVSRQGLQJGUDZLQJWUDLWPL[HGLQ$VLPLODUIDFWRU\FRXOGEHZULWWHQ

332 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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// code-examples/AppDesign/patterns/shapes-drawing-factory-script.scala

import shapes2._

val p00 = Point(0.0, 0.0)

val p10 = Point(1.0, 0.0)
val p01 = Point(0.0, 1.0)

val list = List(

ShapeFactory.makeShape("circle", p00, 5.0),
ShapeFactory.makeShape("rectangle", p00, 2.0, 3.0),
ShapeFactory.makeShape("triangle", p00, p10, p01))

list foreach { _.draw }

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RQHDFKVKDSH$VEHIRUHWKHRXWSXWLVWKHIROORZLQJ
Circle.draw Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)
Rectangle.draw: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,3.0)
Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))

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$ scala -cp ...
Welcome to Scala version 2.8.0.final (Java ...).
Type in expressions to have them evaluated.
Type :help for more information.

scala> :load design-patterns/shapes-drawing-factory-script.scala

Loading design-patterns/shapes-drawing-factory-script.scala...
import shapes2._
p00: shapes2.Point = Point(0.0,0.0)
p10: shapes2.Point = Point(1.0,0.0)
p01: shapes2.Point = Point(0.0,1.0)
list: List[Product with shapes2.Shape with shapes2.Drawing] = List(...)
Circle.draw Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)
Rectangle.draw: Rectangle(Point(0.0,0.0),2.0,3.0)
Triangle.draw: Triangle(Point(0.0,0.0),Point(1.0,0.0),Point(0.0,1.0))

scala>

Design Patterns | 333

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shapes2.Drawing]7KLVOLQHZDVSULQWHGDIWHUWKHOLVWRIVKDSHVZDVSDUVHG7KHLQIHUUHG
FRPPRQVXSHUW\SHLVProduct with shapes2.Shape with shapes2.DrawingProductLVD
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LQWHUDFWLYHscalaVHVVLRQ
scala> val s: Shape with Drawing = ShapeFactory.makeShape("circle", p00, 5.0)
s: shapes2.Shape with shapes2.Drawing = Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)

scala> s.draw
Circle.draw Circle(Point(0.0,0.0),5.0)

scala>

Dependency Injection in Scala: The Cake Pattern

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334 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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// code-examples/AppDesign/dep-injection/twitter-client.scala

package twitterclient
import java.util.Date
import java.text.DateFormat

class TwitterUserProfile(val userName: String) {

override def toString = "@" + userName
}

case class Tweet(

val tweeter: TwitterUserProfile,
val message: String,
val time: Date) {

override def toString = "(" +

DateFormat.getDateInstance(DateFormat.FULL).format(time) + ") " +
tweeter + ": " + message
}

trait Tweeter {
def tweet(message: String)
}

Design Patterns | 335

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 trait TwitterClientUIComponent {
val ui: TwitterClientUI

abstract class TwitterClientUI(val client: Tweeter) {

def sendTweet(message: String) = client.tweet(message)
def showTweet(tweet: Tweet): Unit
}
}

trait TwitterLocalCacheComponent {
val localCache: TwitterLocalCache

trait TwitterLocalCache {
def saveTweet(tweet: Tweet): Unit
def history: List[Tweet]
}
}

trait TwitterServiceComponent {
val service: TwitterService

trait TwitterService {
def sendTweet(tweet: Tweet): Boolean
def history: List[Tweet]
}
}

trait TwitterClientComponent {
self: TwitterClientUIComponent with
TwitterLocalCacheComponent with
TwitterServiceComponent =>

val client: TwitterClient

class TwitterClient(val user: TwitterUserProfile) extends Tweeter {

def tweet(msg: String) = {
val twt = new Tweet(user, msg, new Date)
if (service.sendTweet(twt)) {
localCache.saveTweet(twt)
ui.showTweet(twt)
}
}
}
}

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FODVVHV

336 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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self: TwitterClientUIComponent with
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TwitterServiceComponent =>

Design Patterns | 337

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// code-examples/AppDesign/dep-injection/twitter-text-client.scala

package twitterclient

class TextClient(userProfile: TwitterUserProfile)

extends TwitterClientComponent
with TwitterClientUIComponent
with TwitterLocalCacheComponent
with TwitterServiceComponent {

// From TwitterClientComponent:

val client = new TwitterClient(userProfile)

// From TwitterClientUIComponent:

val ui = new TwitterClientUI(client) {

def showTweet(tweet: Tweet) = println(tweet)
}

// From TwitterLocalCacheComponent:

val localCache = new TwitterLocalCache {

private var tweets: List[Tweet] = Nil

def saveTweet(tweet: Tweet) = tweets ::= tweet

def history = tweets

}

// From TwitterServiceComponent

val service = new TwitterService() {

def sendTweet(tweet: Tweet) = {
println("Sending tweet to Twitter HQ")

338 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 true
}
def history = List[Tweet]()
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/dep-injection/twitter-text-client-script.scala

import twitterclient._

val client = new TextClient(new TwitterUserProfile("BuckTrends"))

client.ui.sendTweet("My First Tweet. How's this thing work?")
client.ui.sendTweet("Is this thing on?")
client.ui.sendTweet("Heading to the bathroom...")
println("Chat history:")
client.localCache.history.foreach {t => println(t)}

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Sending tweet to Twitter HQ
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: My First Tweet. How's this thing work?
Sending tweet to Twitter HQ
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Is this thing on?
Sending tweet to Twitter HQ
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Heading to the bathroom...
Chat history:
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Heading to the bathroom...

Design Patterns | 339

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 (Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: Is this thing on?
(Sunday, May 3, 2009) @BuckTrends: My First Tweet. How's this thing work?

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Better Design with Design By Contract

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340 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 // code-examples/AppDesign/design-by-contract/bank-account.scala

class BankAccount(val balance: Double) {

require(balance >= 0.0)
def debit(amount: Double) = {
require(amount > 0.0, "The debit amount must be > 0.0")
assume(balance - amount > 0.0, "Overdrafts are not permitted")
new BankAccount(balance - amount)
}
def credit(amount: Double) = {
require(amount > 0.0, "The credit amount must be > 0.0")
new BankAccount(balance + amount)
}
}

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// code-examples/AppDesign/design-by-contract/bank-account-spec.scala

import org.specs._

object BankAccountSpec extends Specification {

"Creating an account with a negative balance" should {
"fail because the initial balance must be positive." in {
new BankAccount(-100.0) must throwAn[IllegalArgumentException]
}
}

"Debiting an account" should {

"fail if the debit amount is < 0" in {
val account = new BankAccount(100.0)
(account.debit(-10.0)) must throwAn[IllegalArgumentException]
}
}

"Debiting an account" should {

"fail if the debit amount is > the balance" in {
val account = new BankAccount(100.0)
(account.debit(110.0)) must throwAn[AssertionError]
}
}
}

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342 | Chapter 13:—Application Design

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 CHAPTER 14
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Option Description
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(version 2.8)
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344 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 Option Description
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Command-Line Tools | 345

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 scala [options ...] [script-or-object] [arguments]

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scala -cp . Upper Hello World!

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Welcome to Scala version 2.8.0.final (Java ...).
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346 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 scala> "Programming Scala" foreach { c => println(c) }
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Command-Line Tools | 347

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\RXFDQDOVRSLSHWKHFRGHLQWRscalaDVVKRZQLQWKHIROORZLQJVRPHZKDWFRQWULYHG
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#!/usr/bin/env bash
# code-examples/ToolsLibs/pipe-example.sh

h=Hello
w=World
function commands {
cat <<-EOF
println("$h")
println("$w")
EOF
}

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348 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/script-wrapper.scala

object Script {
def main(args: Array[String]): Unit = {
new AnyRef {
// Your script code is inserted here.
}
}
}

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// code-examples/TypeLessDoMore/package-example1.scala

package com.example.mypkg

class MyClass {
// ...
}

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case class Message(name: String)

def printMessage(msg: Message) = {

println(msg)
}

printMessage(new Message(
"Must compile this script with scalac -Xscript <name>!"))

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example-script.scala:3: error: expected class or object definition
def printMessage(msg: Message) = {
^
example-script.scala:7: error: expected class or object definition
printMessage(new Message("Must compile this script with scalac -Xscript <name>!"))
^
two errors found

Command-Line Tools | 349

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350 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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352 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

Download at WoweBook.Com
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354 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

Download at WoweBook.Com
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356 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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358 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-test.scala

import org.scalatest.FunSuite

class ComplexSuite extends FunSuite {

val c1 = Complex(1.2, 3.4)

Test-Driven Development in Scala | 361

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 val c2 = Complex(5.6, 7.8)

test("addition with (0, 0)") {

assert(c1 + Complex(0.0, 0.0) === c1)
}

test("subtraction with (0, 0)") {

assert(c1 - Complex(0.0, 0.0) === c1)
}

test("addition") {
assert((c1 + c2).real === (c1.real + c2.real))
assert((c1 + c2).imaginary === (c1.imaginary + c2.imaginary))
}

test("subtraction") {
assert((c1 - c2).real === (c1.real - c2.real))
assert((c1 - c2).imaginary === (c1.imaginary - c2.imaginary))
}
}

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scalac -classpath ../lib/scalatest-0.9.5.jar -d build complex.scala complex-test.scala
scala -classpath build:../lib/scalatest-0.9.5.jar org.scalatest.tools.Runner \
-p build -o -s ComplexSuite

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Run starting. Expected test count is: 4
Suite Starting - ComplexSuite: The execute method of a nested suite is \
about to be invoked.
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: addition with (0, 0)
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: addition with (0, 0)
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: subtraction with (0, 0)
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: subtraction with (0, 0)
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: addition
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: addition
Test Starting - ComplexSuite: subtraction
Test Succeeded - ComplexSuite: subtraction
Suite Completed - ComplexSuite: The execute method of a nested suite \
returned normally.
Run completed. Total number of tests run was: 4
All tests passed.

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Specs
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-spec.scala

import org.specs._

object ComplexSpec extends Specification {

"Complex addition with (0.0, 0.0)" should {
"return a number N' that is identical to original number N" in {
val c1 = Complex(1.2, 3.4)
(c1 + Complex(0.0, 0.0)) mustEqual c1
}
}
"Complex subtraction with (0.0, 0.0)" should {
"return a number N' that is identical to original number N" in {
val c1 = Complex(1.2, 3.4)
(c1 - Complex(0.0, 0.0)) mustEqual c1
}
}
"Complex addition" should {
"""return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the sums of the
input values' real and imaginary parts, respectively.""" in {
val c1 = Complex(1.2, 3.4)
val c2 = Complex(5.6, 7.8)
(c1 + c2).real mustEqual (c1.real + c2.real)
(c1 + c2).imaginary mustEqual (c1.imaginary + c2.imaginary)
}
}
"Complex subtraction" should {
"""return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the differences of the
input values' real and imaginary parts, respectively.""" in {
val c1 = Complex(1.2, 3.4)
val c2 = Complex(5.6, 7.8)
(c1 - c2).real mustEqual (c1.real - c2.real)
(c1 - c2).imaginary mustEqual (c1.imaginary - c2.imaginary)
}

Test-Driven Development in Scala | 363

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 }
}

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scala -classpath ../lib/specs-1.4.3.jar:build ComplexSpec

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Specification "ComplexSpec"
Complex addition with (0.0, 0.0) should
+ return a number N' that is identical to original number N

Total for SUT "Complex addition with (0.0, 0.0)":

Finished in 0 second, 0 ms
1 example, 1 expectation, 0 failure, 0 error

Complex subtraction with (0.0, 0.0) should

+ return a number N' that is identical to original number N

Total for SUT "Complex subtraction with (0.0, 0.0)":

Finished in 0 second, 0 ms
1 example, 1 expectation, 0 failure, 0 error

Complex addition should

+ return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the sums of the
input values real and imaginary parts, respectively.

Total for SUT "Complex addition":

Finished in 0 second, 0 ms
1 example, 2 expectations, 0 failure, 0 error

Complex subtraction should

+ return a new number where
the real and imaginary parts are the differences of the

364 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

Download at WoweBook.Com
 input values real and imaginary parts, respectively.

Total for SUT "Complex subtraction":

Finished in 0 second, 0 ms
1 example, 2 expectations, 0 failure, 0 error

Total for specification "ComplexSpec":

Finished in 0 second, 37 ms
4 examples, 6 expectations, 0 failure, 0 error

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+ return a number N' that is identical to original number N
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-check-script.scala

import org.scalacheck._
import org.scalacheck.Prop._

def toD(i: Int) = i * .1

implicit def arbitraryComplex: Arbitrary[Complex] = Arbitrary {

Gen.sized {s =>
for {
r <- Gen.choose(-toD(s), toD(s))
i <- Gen.choose(-toD(s), toD(s))
} yield Complex(r, i)
}
}

object ComplexSpecification extends Properties("Complex") {

Test-Driven Development in Scala | 365

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 def additionTest(a: Complex, b: Complex) =
(a + b).real.equals(a.real + b.real) &&
(a + b).imaginary.equals(a.imaginary + b.imaginary)

def subtractionTest(a: Complex, b: Complex) =

(a - b).real.equals(a.real - b.real) &&
(a - b).imaginary.equals(a.imaginary - b.imaginary)

val zero = Complex(0.0, 0.0)

specify("addition with (0,0)", (a: Complex) => additionTest(a, zero))

specify("subtraction with (0,0)", (a: Complex) => subtractionTest(a, zero))

specify("addition", (a: Complex, b: Complex) => additionTest(a,b))

specify("subtraction", (a: Complex, b: Complex) => subtractionTest(a,b))
}
ComplexSpecification.check

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366 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 scala -classpath ../lib/scalacheck.jar:build complex-check-script.scala

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+ Complex.addition with (0,0): OK, passed 100 tests.
+ Complex.addition: OK, passed 100 tests.
+ Complex.subtraction with (0,0): OK, passed 100 tests.
+ Complex.subtraction: OK, passed 100 tests.

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Other Notable Scala Libraries and Tools | 367

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Name Description and URL
Kestrel A tiny, very fast queue system (http://github.com/robey/kestrel/tree/master).
ScalaModules Scala DSL to ease OSGi development (http://code.google.com/p/scalamodules/).
Configgy Managing configuration files and logging for “daemons” written in Scala (http://www.lag.net/configgy/).
scouchdb Scala interface to CouchDB (http://code.google.com/p/scouchdb/).
Akka A project to implement a platform for building fault-tolerant, distributed applications based on REST, Actors,
etc. (http://akkasource.org/).
scala-query A type-safe database query API for Scala (http://github.com/szeiger/scala-query/tree/master).

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368 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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Java Interoperability
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Java and Scala Generics

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java.lang.StringDQGYDULRXVMDYDFROOHFWLRQFODVVHV,QVWDQWLDWLQJ-DYDJHQHULFW\SHV
LVVWUDLJKWIRUZDUGLQ6FDODVLQFH6FDODYHUVLRQ&RQVLGHUWKHIROORZLQJYHU\VLP
SOH-DYDJHQHULFFODVVJStack
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/JStack.java

import java.util.*;

public class JStack<T> {

private List<T> stack = new ArrayList<T>();
public void push(T t) {
stack.add(t);
}
public T pop() {
return stack.remove(stack.size() - 1);
}
}

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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/JStack-spec.scala

import org.specs._

object JStackSpec extends Specification {

"Calling a Java generic type from Scala" should {
"Support parameterization" in {
val js = new JStack[String]
js must notBe(null) // Dummy check...
}

Java Interoperability | 369

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 "Support invoking the the type's methods" in {
val js = new JStack[String]
js.push("one")
js.push("two")
js.pop() mustEqual "two"
js.pop() mustEqual "one"
}
}
}

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ORZLQJ-8QLWWHVWZKLFKVKRZVVRPHRIWKHLGLRV\QFUDVLHV\RXPLJKWHQFRXQWHU
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/SMapTest.java

import org.junit.*;
import static org.junit.Assert.*;
import scala.*;
import scala.collection.mutable.LinkedHashMap;

public class SMapTest {

static class Name {
public String firstName;
public String lastName;

public Name(String firstName, String lastName) {

this.firstName = firstName;
this.lastName = lastName;
}
}

LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name> map;

@Before
public void setup() {
map = new LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name>();
map.update(1, new Name("Dean", "Wampler"));
map.update(2, new Name("Alex", "Payne"));
}

@Test
public void usingMapGetWithWarnings() {
assertEquals(2, map.size());
Option<Name> n1 = map.get(1); // warning
Option<Name> n2 = map.get(2); // warning
assertTrue(n1.isDefined());
assertTrue(n2.isDefined());
assertEquals("Dean", n1.get().firstName);
assertEquals("Alex", n2.get().firstName);
}

@Test
public void usingMapGetWithoutWarnings() {
assertEquals(2, map.size());
Option<?> n1 = map.get(1);

370 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 Option<?> n2 = map.get(2);
assertTrue(n1.isDefined());
assertTrue(n2.isDefined());
assertEquals("Dean", ((Name) n1.get()).firstName);
assertEquals("Alex", ((Name) n2.get()).firstName);
}
}

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javac -Xlint:unchecked \
-cp $SCALA_HOME/lib/scala-library.jar:$JUNIT_HOME/junit-4.4.jar SMapTest.java

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FRPSLOHVZLWKRXWZDUQLQJV
SMapTest.java:29: warning: [unchecked] unchecked conversion
found : scala.Option
required: scala.Option<SMapTest.Name>
Option<Name> n1 = map.get(1); // warning
^
SMapTest.java:30: warning: [unchecked] unchecked conversion
found : scala.Option
required: scala.Option<SMapTest.Name>
Option<Name> n2 = map.get(2); // warning
^
2 warnings

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Using Scala Functions in Java

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IURP-DYDZKHUH6FDODIXQFWLRQVDUHUHTXLUHG
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/SMapTestWithFunctions.java

Java Interoperability | 371

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 import org.junit.*;
import static org.junit.Assert.*;
import scala.*;
import scala.collection.mutable.LinkedHashMap;
import static scala.collection.Map.Projection;

public class SMapTestWithFunctions {

static class Name {
public String firstName;
public String lastName;

public Name(String firstName, String lastName) {

this.firstName = firstName;
this.lastName = lastName;
}

public static Name emptyName = new Name("","");

public static Function0<Name> empty = new Function0<Name>() {

public Name apply() { return emptyName; }

public int $tag() { return 0; }

};
}

LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name> map;

@Before
public void setup() {
map = new LinkedHashMap<Integer, Name>();
map.update(1, new Name("Dean", "Wampler"));
map.update(2, new Name("Alex", "Payne"));
}

@Test
public void usingMapGetOrElse() {
assertEquals(2, map.size());
assertEquals("Dean", ((Name) map.getOrElse(1, Name.empty)).firstName);
assertEquals("Alex", ((Name) map.getOrElse(2, Name.empty)).firstName);
}

Function1<Integer, Boolean> filter = new Function1<Integer, Boolean>() {

public Boolean apply(Integer i) { return i.intValue() <= 1; }

public <A> Function1<A,Boolean> compose(Function1<A,Integer> g) {

return Function1$class.compose(this, g);
}

public <A> Function1<Integer,A> andThen(Function1<Boolean,A> g) {

return Function1$class.andThen(this, g);
}

public int $tag() { return 0; }

};

372 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 @Test
public void usingFilterKeys() {
assertEquals(2, map.size());
Projection<Integer, Name> filteredMap =
(Projection<Integer, Name>) map.filterKeys(filter);
assertEquals(1, filteredMap.size());
assertEquals("Dean", filteredMap.getOrElse(1, Name.empty).firstName);
assertEquals("", filteredMap.getOrElse(2, Name.empty).firstName);
}
}

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usingMapGetOrElse7KHVLJQDWXUHRIgetOrElseLVWKHIROORZLQJ
def getOrElse[B2 >: B](key : A, default : => B2) : B2

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Java Interoperability | 373

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JavaBean Properties
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VWUXFWRUDUJXPHQWZKLFKLVDILHOGLQWKHcaseFODVV
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/complex-javabean.scala

case class ComplexBean(

@scala.reflect.BeanProperty real: Double,
@scala.reflect.BeanProperty imaginary: Double) {

def +(that: ComplexBean) =

new ComplexBean(real + that.real, imaginary + that.imaginary)
def -(that: ComplexBean) =
new ComplexBean(real - that.real, imaginary - that.imaginary)
}

,I\RXFRPSLOHWKLVFODVVWKHQGHFRPSLOHLWZLWK javap -classpath ... ComplexBean

\RXJHWWKHIROORZLQJRXWSXW
public class ComplexBean extends java.lang.Object
implements scala.ScalaObject,scala.Product,java.io.Serializable{
public ComplexBean(double, double);
public java.lang.Object productElement(int);
public int productArity();
public java.lang.String productPrefix();
public boolean equals(java.lang.Object);
public java.lang.String toString();
public int hashCode();
public int $tag();
public ComplexBean $minus(ComplexBean);
public ComplexBean $plus(ComplexBean);
public double imaginary();
public double real();
public double getImaginary();
public double getReal();
}

1RZFRPSDUHWKLVRXWSXWZLWKWKHUHVXOWRIGHFRPSLOLQJWKHRULJLQDO&RPSOH[FODVVILOH

374 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 public class Complex extends java.lang.Object
implements scala.ScalaObject,scala.Product,java.io.Serializable{
public Complex(double, double);
public java.lang.Object productElement(int);
public int productArity();
public java.lang.String productPrefix();
public boolean equals(java.lang.Object);
public java.lang.String toString();
public int hashCode();
public int $tag();
public Complex $minus(Complex);
public Complex $plus(Complex);
public double imaginary();
public double real();
}

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void

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7DEOH(QFRGLQJRIRSHUDWRUFKDUDFWHUV
Operator Encoding
= $eq
> $greater
< $less
+ $plus

Java Interoperability | 375

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 Operator Encoding
- $minus
* $times
/ $div
\ $bslash
| $bar
! $bang
? $qmark
: $colon
% $percent
^ $up
& $amp
@ $at
# $hash
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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/all-op-chars.scala

trait AllOpChars {
def == : Unit // $eq$eq
def > : Unit // $greater
def < : Unit // $less
def + : Unit // $plus
def - : Unit // $minus
def * : Unit // $times
def / : Unit // $div
def \ : Unit // $bslash
def | : Unit // $bar
def ! : Unit // $bang
def ? : Unit // $qmark
def :: : Unit // $colon$colon
def % : Unit // $percent
def ^ : Unit // $up
def & : Unit // $amp
def @@ : Unit // $at$at
def ## : Unit // $hash$hash
def ~ : Unit // $tilde
}

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376 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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LQWHUIDFH:HKDYHUHDUUDQJHGWKHRXWSXWRUGHURIWKHPHWKRGVWRPDWFKWKHRUGHULQ
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Compiled from "all-op-chars.scala"
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public abstract void $eq$eq();
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public abstract void $plus();
public abstract void $minus();
public abstract void $times();
public abstract void $div();
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}

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Java Library Interoperability | 377

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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/aspectj/complex.scala

package example.aspectj

case class Complex(real: Double, imaginary: Double) {

def +(that: Complex) =
new Complex(real + that.real, imaginary + that.imaginary)
def -(that: Complex) =
new Complex(real - that.real, imaginary - that.imaginary)
}

+HUHLVDQobjectWKDWXVHVComplex
// code-examples/ToolsLibs/aspectj/complex-main.scala

package example.aspectj

object ComplexMain {
def main(args: Array[String]) {
val c1 = Complex(1.0, 2.0)
val c2 = Complex(3.0, 4.0)
val c12 = c1 + c2
println(c12)
}
}

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LQVWDQFHVDQGDQRWKHUSRLQWFXWIRULQYRFDWLRQVRIWKH+PHWKRG

378 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 // code-examples/ToolsLibs/aspectj/LogComplex.aj

package example.aspectj;

public aspect LogComplex {

public pointcut newInstances(double real, double imag):
execution(Complex.new(..)) && args(real, imag);

public pointcut plusInvocations(Complex self, Complex other):

execution(Complex Complex.$plus(Complex)) && this(self) && args(other);

before(double real, double imag): newInstances(real, imag) {

System.out.println("new Complex(" + real + "," + imag + ") called.");
}

before(Complex self, Complex other): plusInvocations(self, other) {

System.out.println("Calling " + self + ".+(" + other + ")");
}

after(Complex self, Complex other) returning(Complex c):

plusInvocations(self, other) {
System.out.println("Complex.+ returned " + c);
}
}

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Java Library Interoperability | 379

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,I\RXKDYH$VSHFW-LQVWDOOHGLQDQaspectj-homeGLUHFWRU\\RXFDQFRPSLOHWKLVILOHDV
IROORZV
ajc -classpath .:aspectj-home/lib/aspectjrt.jar:../lib/scala-library.jar \
aspectj/LogComplex.aj

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<!-- code-examples/ToolsLibs/META-INF/aop.xml -->

<aspectj>
<aspects>
<aspect name="example.aspectj.LogComplex" />
<include within="example.aspectj.*" />
</aspects>

<weaver options="-verbose">
<dump within="example.aspectj.*" beforeandafter="true">
<include within="example.aspectj.*" />
</dump>
</weaver>
</aspectj>

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java -classpath .:aspectj-home/lib/aspectjrt.jar:../lib/scala-library.jar \
-javaagent:aspectj-home/lib/aspectjweaver.jar example.aspectj.ComplexMain

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new Complex(1.0,2.0) called.
new Complex(3.0,4.0) called.
Calling Complex(1.0,2.0).+(Complex(3.0,4.0))
new Complex(4.0,6.0) called.
Complex.+ returned Complex(4.0,6.0)
Complex(4.0,6.0)

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380 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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The Spring Framework

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Java Library Interoperability | 381

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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/spring/object-bean.scala

package example.spring

case class NamedObject(name: String)

trait Factory {
@scala.reflect.BeanProperty
var nameOfFactory = "unknown"

def make(name: String): AnyRef

}

object NamedObjectFactory extends Factory {

def make(name: String) = NamedObject(name)
}

case class FactoryUsingBean(factory: Factory)

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<!-- code-examples/ToolsLibs/spring/scala-spring.xml -->

<beans xmlns=""
xmlns:xsi=""
xsi:schemaLocation="
">

<bean id="factory" class="example.spring.NamedObjectFactory$">

<property name="nameOfFactory" value="Factory for Named Objects" />
</bean>

382 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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 <bean id="factoryUsingBean" class="example.spring.FactoryUsingBean">
<constructor-arg ref="factory" />
</bean>
</beans>

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// code-examples/ToolsLibs/spring/object-bean-script.scala

import example.spring._
import org.springframework.context.support._

val context = new ClassPathXmlApplicationContext("spring/scala-spring.xml");

val bean = context.getBean("factoryUsingBean").asInstanceOf[FactoryUsingBean]

println("Factory Name: " + bean.factory.nameOfFactory)

val obj = bean.factory.make("Dean Wampler")

println("Object: " + obj)

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scala -cp \
spring-home/dist/spring.jar:spring-home/.../commons-logging.jar:. \
spring/object-bean-script.scala

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Java Library Interoperability | 383

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384 | Chapter 14:—Scala Tools, Libraries, and IDE Support

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Recap and What’s Next

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Recap and What’s Next | 385

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References

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