Module 9: Language and

Animals
This module is going to focus on languages that animals use,
as well as their ability to learn human words. It will cover:

An overview of language and animals, with an experiment

The types of communication
The ability to speak
Training the human language
13 language features

9.1 Introduction
Language and animals have been a constant
interest to scientists.

As humans, we are the only primates with a complex language.

Researchers also consider our language to be the most
expressive. It could be said that, as humans, we do not
understand the language of other animals. Therefore, we are
making assumptions as to the complexity and expressiveness of
animal communication. Rather than get marred down by the
debate, it is better for you to understand that language and
animals are a part of animal psychology. Language occurs in
many forms, thus being able to read behavior in animals, as
well as the different tones of sound used, is very important.

A mother recognizes certain cries from her baby. You might

have heard a mother say, “oh that’s my child’s hungry cry” or
“my baby needs to be changed.” Yet the crying action/sounds
are the same for both needs. A mother is able to listen to the
differences in sound and can differentiate what her baby
requires.

A pet owner can do the same with their pet.

They can listen to the nuances of a bark, meow, squawk or

other sounds to determine what their pet needs. Try an
experiment with a pet you have.

For this example, a cat will be used. Say you have a cat and
you are about to get a treat for your pet. Your pet realizes
you have the treat bag from the sound. A ‘desperate’ meow is
heard as the cat waits for you to open the bag. As the cat
waits it tries to get to the bag or circles around your legs.
After a treat is given, there is a second meow combined with a
purr. The first behavior is asking for a treat not only with
the meow, but the use of its body to get closer to the treat
bag or to wrap around your legs. The second meow is
appreciation coupled with their purring response to show they
are happy.
If you do not have a cat, then for one week study any pet you
have. Listen to their responses at different times such as
when you feed your pet, return home, sit on the couch, go to
bed, play with your pet or ignoring your pet. Record the
sounds and body language your pet uses to get your attention.
You will start to notice your pet’s language.

9.2 Types of Communication

Humans have various types of communication:
interpersonal, nonverbal, written and oral.

Interpersonal communication is a way to communicate between

groups of people. Typically, this type of communication is
used when individuals are familiar with each other.

Nonverbal communication is sign language and body language.

Written communication is defined by any written words, symbols

or images created with the intent of making an idea clear to
another person.

Oral communication is a speech or formal communication between

strangers with a desire to teach or share important
information.

Animals display mostly verbal and nonverbal communication.

However, certain animals such as primates are capable of
sharing a written form of language. You could also interpret
certain vocal signals between animals as oral communication,
particularly when an adult animal is teaching their offspring.
A command can be given to a group or to offspring to elicit
certain responses as a way to learn or to keep the group safe.
It is different from interpersonal communication that may be
meowing, barking or other noises among animals.

A good example of interpersonal communication among animals is

with birds. Several birds have mating calls that the male will
use to try to woo the female. By our definition, this is more
of an interpersonal communication, because it is between two
individuals who are close to each, other or at least trying to
be. Think of it as flirtation between two humans, with the
goal of becoming better acquainted.
If you do not want to break down communication into oral and
interpersonal, then you can consider any sound an animal makes
as a verbal type of communication, versus nonverbal. Nonverbal
communication in primates also includes hand signals. Chimps
are able to learn human sign language, but they can also use
their hands, arms and appendages as a means of communicating
in their own language. We might see these arm movements as
wayward gestures, but those who study primates recognise them
as gestures that are indicative of communication.
Written communication is generally a trait seen in animals
being trained for such communication. For example, elephants
and primates that paint can communicate through written or
drawn images. It does not mean we, as humans, will understand
the images but animals can still use tools to create images.

In the wild, you can see verbal and nonverbal communication.

Most pets, except for birds that can learn words, will have
verbal communication in their own language. Birds can be
taught phrases; however, science has yet to confirm their
understanding of these words from our language. It is known
that American scientist, Irene Pepperberg, taught an African
Grey Parrot, 100 words of our vocabulary, but she could not
determine if the parrot understood the words in context.
Although certain birds can mimic our words, there is a major
debate regarding certain bird species and their ability to
actually comprehend our language.

It is known that primates, dogs and cats can learn words.

Primates show a degree of understanding through sign language.
However, there is also a theory that it is more of a
conditioned response to words and phrases taught to primates.
Obviously, cats and dogs cannot respond in our language, but
they can respond to commands, tone of voice and their names.

If you call a dog’s name and follow the name with a command,
the dog will eventually learn to pay attention to their name
and complete the command.

A cat is less responsive with regards to commands, but it is

another matter of debate as to whether they understand and
ignore their human teachers. The general theory is that cats
have great comprehension and memory recall, but they are
stubborn and tend to ignore what they do not want to do.

Academic engineer, J.M. Pearce wrote An Introduction to Animal

Cognition, in which it is stated that animal communication is
the “transmission of a signal from one animal to another,”
where the sender will benefit from a response received from
the “recipient.” If you are analyzing animal communication
strictly by animal definition and not in comparison to a
human’s, the types would differ.
Pearce labels animal communication types as the following:

Chemical signals
Smell
Movement
Touch
Posture
Sound
Visual Signals.

Chemical communication
Animals communicate very strongly using scent. They use scent
to ward off predators, mark their territories and attract
mates. Young deer will sniff at their mother’s glands to
identify them. Mule deer sniff at each other’s hind legs. Many
animals have scent glands in their claws and will leave behind
some scent when they scratch at a tree.

Tactile communication
Tactile communication is using touch to convey emotions or
needs. Dogs may nuzzle you out of affection while horses kick
each other to establish dominance or compete for a mate. Some
species of primates will clean each other to bond better.

Specific movements of animals like their posture and facial

gestures are communications to others.

For example, a cat’s tail has several movements that it will

make. Certain signals indicate they are willing to play, while
other movements are a direct warning to another animal not to
approach. A curved body with hair standing up and a cat being
on their tiptoes means the cat is posturing in defensive
attack.
Auditory communication
Sound is by far the most common form of communication from
Pearce’s list based on the various calls, meows and other
verbal signals like a dog’s bark, groundhog’s chirping and a
big cat’s roar.

In addition to the obvious dog and cat sounds, there are

thousands of ways animals communicate using sounds. A
hippopotamus, for instance, has its ears positioned on top of
its head so that they can hear even while they’re underwater.

Similarly, while dolphins use ultrasonic sounds (too high

frequency for our ears), blue whales use infrasonic sounds
(too low frequency for our ears).

Visual communication
Visual animal communication can be categorised into two:
Badges and displays. Badges are the natural shape and colour
of an animal that the species uses to communicate (usually for
mating purposes).

For example:

The bright yellow feathers of a male goldfinch attracts

females.

Displays are when an animal or bird invests efforts into

displaying their attractions. For instance, a male peacock
will open out his feathers to attract the peahens.

FACT
When your cat rubs up against you, she is actually marking you
as “hers” with her scent.

Source: oddrob.com

9.3 Animal Speech

Several studies have tried to teach various
animals how to understand the human
language.

Primates like chimps, are typically used in these experiments

because their minds are capable of understanding complex
communication. Yet, chimps are unable to form the words they
learn in sign language. In the 1970s a researcher analyzed
dolphins and their complexity of signals with echolocation, as
well as the vocal chords of dolphins. It was postulated that
if dolphins had vocal chords they would be able to understand
human language and use it. Of course, it is a study that
cannot be proven and it was largely dismissed. The point is:
an animal’s ability to communicate in human language is
hindered by their anatomy, at the very least.

This inability to use the human language does not mean there
is no complexity in their form of communication.
Animal language, as we understand it, has the ability to
attract mates, repel enemies, signal submission or aggression,
advertise their species, warn of predators approaching, and
communicate about food. Pearce believes certain signals or
communications are instinctive, while others had to be learned
from others.

9.4 13 Language Features

Noam Chomsky, an American cognitive scientist and historian,
is one of the most important researchers and linguists of the
human language. He postulated that animal communication is
nowhere near the complexity of human language because there is
no universal grammar used by other species. MacPhail, who also
studied Chomsky’s work, went further to say non-humans cannot
acquire human language because there is a lack of mechanism
such as vocal chords.

American linguist, C.F. Hockett created a list of 13 “design

features” that are specific to human language.
They are as follows:

Vocal-auditory channel – sound is emitted from the mouth

and heard by an auditory system. This feature applies to
many animals, but there are exceptions and even sign
language does not fall under this first feature.
Rapid fading – a signal that lasts for a short period of
time. It is specific to sounds and does not include
chemicals or smells that would fade slowly.
Broadcast transmission and directional reception – this
type of feature is where the recipient is able to tell
which direction the signal came from and thus determine
the originating person or animal of the signal.
 Interchangeability – this type of language or
communication is about male and female behaviors, which
differ and are not interchangeable between sexes.
Specialization – is a signal produced for communication,
but not a result of certain behavior. In other words, a
dog that is panting has a sound that goes along with
panting, but it is an incidental sound.
Total feedback – as humans, we hear what we are saying
and certain animals can hear their sounds, but not all
can perceive their own messages.
Semantics – is a signal that has meaning.
Discreteness – in language there are discrete units,
where different units change the meaning of the signal.
Arbitrariness – there is an arbitrary relationship that
forms between the meaning and the signal given. The
signal is in some way related to the meaning like words
in various human languages can mean the same thing.
Displacement – this is in relation to space or time,
based on things or events.
Traditional transmission – is where each generation
“learns a system of communication from the preceding
generation.”
Productivity – is where language is an open system, with
an infinite amount of different ways to create messages.
Duality of patterning – this is where words are units,
which are used to make up a longer phrase with a meaning
behind the phrase. The meaning can change based on the
words used. It is this 13th item that separates human
language from all other animals.

Certain features in this list apply to certain animals, but

not one animal other than humans have them all.

Assignment
Animal Communication
Time: 20+ minutes

This assignment will allow you to consider various methods of

animal communication.

Download the worksheet below, print out and complete.

Download Worksheet

Summary
Animals have their form of language that science considers
less complex than human language.

There are 13 features of human language and animal species may

have one or more of these features, but they never have all 13
according to C.F. Hockett.

Despite the limitations in species, with regards to forming

actual words, there are animals capable of understanding the
words humans use. Dogs, cats and other primates, for example,
are able to learn words. Primates are also able to use sign
language.

The ability to understand the human language may be there

based on brain capability and learning abilities; however,
there are certain mechanisms animals do not have. Without
these mechanisms, an animal is unable to form words, even
though they can form sounds.

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