European J of Physics Education Vol.

4 Issue 2 2013 Singh

How The Laser Helped to Improve the Test of Special Theory of Relativity?

Satya Pal Singh

Department of Applied Sciences

Madan Mohan Malaviya Engineering College
Gorakhpur
Uttar Pradesh, India 273017
[email protected] /[email protected]

(Received: 01.12. 2012, Accepted: 05.02.2013)

Abstract
In this paper of I have reviewed the test done for validating the special theory of relativity using masers and lasers in last
one century. Michelson-Morley did the first experimental verification for the isotropy of space for the propagation of light
in 1887. It has an accuracy of 1/100 th of a fringe shift. The predicted fringe shift on the basis of propagation of light through
ether was 0.4 but Michelson-Morley did not observe any fringe shift and came up with a negative result. Their experiment
was repeated with modern and more sophisticated versions using highly monochromatic masers and lasers which have kept
any ether drag to the limit of < 1/1000th of the earth’s orbital velocity and validated the isotropy of the space to the
extraordinary limit of one part in1015. The necessary discussion on masers, lasers, its properties and applications with brief
definition of beats is also given in this paper for the completeness of the discussion apart of the experimental method for
validating the constant speed of light in different directions using masers and lasers.
Keywords: Second relativity principle, isotropy of space, laser resonators, ether drag, Michelson-Morley experiment,
Thorndike experiment, cryostat

A Brief History and Introduction to Special Relativity

Far before A. Einstein postulated the constancy of speed of light in 1905, Michelson examined for the
presence of absolute rest frame of ether in 1881 in which the speed of light remains invariant. It was
said to have a constant value c, which might vary with the relative motion of the source and the
observer in this frame following the analogy with the mechanical waves. A. A. Michelson repeated his
experiment with his student E. Morley in 1887 (figure-1) and improved his accuracy to 1/100th shift of
a fringe. The negative results removed the centuries old classical conceptions of Omni present ether
that was first proposed by Newton and his disciples in the early seventeenth century. The contemporary
physicist of Michelson, James Clarke Maxwell gave his electromagnetic theory in 1865 twenty years
earlier to Michelson when no experimental evidence was there in favor of constant speed of light. The
Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory argued for the existence of electromagnetic waves which travel with
1
constant speed c  and it does not require any medium to propagate in. Later light was also
0 0
proven to be an electromagnetic wave. There was a period of conflict between the theories of
mechanics and electrodynamics. The electromagnetic theory suffered inconsistency because of
disobeying the Galilean transformation. In parallel Hertz produced electromagnetic waves and proven
that those travel with a constant speed c irrespective of the motion of the source or the observer.
Galilean transformation fails for electromagnetic waves as it throws extra terms in the equation? In
1904 H. A. Lorentz proposed a new set of transformation equations in four-dimensional world by

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partially mixing and transforming the space and time co-ordinates among each other. But he lacked any
deeper physical insight and consequences as Einstein had. It was Albert Einstein who proposed these
transformations in form of special theory of relativity based on two fundamental postulates called
principles of relativity. The first relativity principle (FRP) states that laws of physics must hold in all
inertial frames of reference. The constancy of speed of light is called the second relativity principle
(SRP). SRP gives a special status to the speed of light (Singh, 2012), (Singh, 2009), (Singh, 2011).
Thus Einstein has discarded the existence of any universal rest frame of ether by giving a constant
value to the speed of light. Special theory of relativity hammered the foundations of classical concepts
by stating that the mass and length are no longer universal constants for a body but must depend on the
relative motion of the object and the observer. The pace of time also depends on the relative motion of
the clocks. Fortunately, the Lorentz transformations were in favor of electromagnetic theory. The
Maxwell’s equations for electromagnetic waves are invariant under Lorentz transformation. I have
done this exercise to show that electromagnetic waves show Lorentz invariance. The theory of
electromagnetism argued for the constant speed of light (Robert, 2000).

Maxwell’s equations in differential form can be written as:

   E  B
.E  , .B  0,   B  0  j  0  and   E   (1)
0  t  t

The spatial components of the above vector equation can be written as:

E z E y B Ex Ez B E y Ex B

  x;   y ;   z (2)
y z t z x t x y t

This gives,

Bx By Bz

  0 (3)
t t t

The one set of variables (x, y, z, t) in frame ∑ is related to another set of variables in frame ∑' moving
with velocity v along X-axis with respect to the rest frame ∑ and is given by Lorentz transformation:

 x 
x'   x t ' y'  y' z'  z and t '    t  2  (4)
 c 

We have

 x'  y'  z '  t ' 

    (5)
x x x ' x y' x z ' x t '

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 European J of Physics Education Vol.4 Issue 2 2013 Singh

From Lorentz transformation equations:

1/ 2
x'   2  y ' z ' t ' 
   1     ,  0,  0 and  2 (6)
x   c   x x x c

Now
              
  2 ,  ,  and  v  (7)
x  x' c t '  y y' z z ' t  t ' x' 
 vE 
  By  2z 


E x   E z  vBy  
 
c 
(8)
z x' t '

And

E x' E ' By '

 z  (9)
z ' x' t '

On comparison we get
E x'  E x ' By'    By  2z  and Ez'   Ez  vBy 
 vE 
(10)
 c 

These equations are exactly the transformations for the electromagnetic field components obtained
using relativity. So, the electromagnetic waves show Lorentz invariance.
Because of the earlier discussed reasons, the second relativity principle has been tested again and
again with newer and more sophisticated instruments. More than four hundred experiments have been
performed to test the constancy of the speed of light till last decade and fortunately the premises of the
special theory of relativity still stand unparallel. It has been a very intriguing question since Einstein

Figure 1. Ray diagram of set up of original Michelson-Morley experiment is as shown in the figure. They placed
their interferometer arrangement over a slab of stone floating on mercury. They have holders that could fix the
rotation in particular direction.

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 European J of Physics Education Vol.4 Issue 2 2013 Singh

Figure 2. Speed of light along two different directions alongside the stream of the ether and one across the
stream.

published his special theory of relativity in 1905 and the isotropy of the space for the propagation of
light has been proven to be true with the accuracy of one part in 1015. The constancy of the speed of
light is directly related to the isotropy of the space because for anisotropic space the speed of light must
vary. When C. H. Town invented MASER (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated Emission of
Radiation) he decided to test the speed of light (i.e. electromagnetic waves) using infrared and light
maser in place of light as it was in the case of Michelson-Morley experiment because the maser is
highly monochromatic radiation which allows for more accurate measurements. Even the early
versions of the maser-based interferometers gave three times better results than Michelson-Morley
experiment (figure-2). In fact, Ali Jawan and C. H. Towns were the first to do the more precise
Michelson-Morley experiment (Townes, 1964). Highly monochromatic frequencies of optical and
infrared maser allows for very sensitive detection of any change in distance travelled by light in round
trip- one along the direction of the orbital velocity of the earth and that one perpendicular to the earlier.
The experiments done with highly monochromatic maser and laser have proven that there is no
anisotropy in space for the propagation of light in different directions and no effect of any ether drift
larger than 1/1000th of the small fractional term (v/c)2 associated with the earth’s orbital velocity
through ether is possible. A brief introduction to lasers and its applications can be cited to validate the
Second Relativity Principle i.e. the constancy of speed of light as below.

Introduction to the Laser

Year 2010 marked the 50th anniversary of the creation of Laser. Stimulated emission was first
theoretically predicted by A. Einstein in 1917 when he introduced the term for stimulated emission.
Charles H. Townes (the father of Maser) won the Nobel Prize for pioneering the concept which led to
Laser phenomena. In 1960, Theodore Maiman, a physicist at Hughes Research Laboratory constructed
the first Laser of visible wavelength. Laser is supposed to be one of the best 100 inventions of man.
The invention of the laser, which stands for light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation, can
be dated to 1958 with the publication of the scientific paper, Infrared and Optical Masers, by Arthur L.
Schawlow, then a Bell Labs researcher, and Charles H. Townes, a consultant to Bell Labs. That paper

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published in the Physical Review journal of the American Physical Society, launched a new scientific
field and opened the door to a multibillion-dollar industry. Maser (Microwave Amplification by
Stimulated Emission of Radiation) was invented first (Singh, 2010). In 1960, Theodore Maiman, a
physicist at Hughes Research Laboratory constructed the first Laser of visible wavelength. Laser is a
nearly monochromatic and coherent beam of photons (figure-3).

Figure 3. Schematic sketch of lasing phenomenon in Ruby Laser

It has a property of spatial and temporal coherence by virtue of which it does not spread even
traveling thousands of kilometers and the light signals remain in phase and are not distorted in any
manner (figure-4). The most stringent test of the coherence of lasers can be learnt by citing the example
of Apolo-11 mission to moon in which laser signals were sent to moon and reflected rays were received
on earth station. It has established the earth-moon distance with an extraordinary accuracy of < 10 cm.
A schematic diagram is shown to represent laser phenomenon for recalling it in brief (White, 1981).

  ( x1 , t )  ( x2 , t )  Const or 0 i.e. Spatial Coherence

  ( x, t1)  ( x, t 2)  0 i.e. Temporal Coherence

Figure 4. The spatial and temporal coherence of lasers

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Figure 5. The He-Ne laser set up

Some important commercial applications of Laser:

• Laser can check out our groceries (reading bar codes). These bar codes help to check the
genuinity of the items and the price and other related information can also be encoded and read
using laser devices.
• It can read or write CDs and DVDs. The memory devices work on flip-flop techniques of spins
or their domains. These spin states are used to code the message. When matching quanta of
some radiation preferably laser falls on such domains it changes the spin states and allows us to
read and write the messages.
• It can guide commercial aircraft. The laser properties of maintaining its coherence to longer
distances are very beneficial for guiding commercial aircrafts with more safety.
• Laser can guide for eye surgery and for dental repairs. The laser has drastically improved the
diagnosis and micro surgery methods and has emerged as new area in medical sciences. Where
as it’s intense, narrow and focused beams can break the gall bladder stones, the infra red
radiations can help in mapping the diseased part of any organ of the body including brain.
• Laser (based communication) is used for transmitting and receiving information/data packets
using optical fibers with a much faster speed of light.
• Laser printers are used for quality and faster printing jobs. Laser is directed on a charged
rotating drum coated with selenium. It makes the exposed region neutral because of
photoconductivity principle as per the digitally encrypted image of the original data/page to be
xeroxed. The toner particles (i.e. ink of the printer) are punched on to the charged area and a
duplicate comes out on paper.
• It is used for cutting metal sheets. A 2 kilowatts laser (power used by your hair dryer) can cut
through 1 inch of carbon steel.
• Laser guns and laser directed bombs have been developed using which one can accurately target
and destroy the target in a fraction of seconds.
• More recently American scientists have started projects for inducing and controlling fusion of
hydrogen atoms using high energy intense extremely narrow pencil beams of lasers.

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Some important research applications of Laser:

 In the initial phase of its inventions the laser concept was not taken very seriously. Most of the
scientist could only guess its dark side of the applications as beam of death rays. In the 1960s
there occurred a huge expansion in laser research which included the development of high-
power gas lasers (figure-5), chemical lasers and semiconductor lasers. The entire fundamental
field of cold atoms would never have opened up without the advent of lasers. Research in this
area has led to the several discoveries including Bose–Einstein condensates (BEC). The lasers
have become indispensible research tools.
 Dye lasers can be tuned over a nearly continuous range of frequencies. The laser spectroscopy
requires a continuous range of frequency and the absorption occurs when the frequency matches
the energy gap. Laser spectroscopy has advanced the precision measurement of the spectral
lines. This has enriched our fundamental understanding of basic atomic processes. This
precision is obtained by passing two laser beams through the absorption sample in opposite
directions. This selectively triggers absorption only in those atoms that have a zero velocity
component in the direction of the beams. This eliminates the Doppler broadening of spectral
lines efficiently from the distribution of atomic velocities present in the sample.
 Laser interaction with matter at quantum levels have become important probe in research. They
can be used to follow chemical reactions and elucidate structure at the atomic and molecular
scale giving information about the back bone chain, functional groups and the presence of other
radicals. Life scientists are also employing lasers in new types of microscopy designed to
highlight cellular structures.
 The Scientists at University of St Andrews, New Zealand have developed laser optical tweezers
to manipulate biological cells to contribute to the burgeoning area of bio-photonics. Several UK
research groups have developed a new semiconductor laser called the quantum cascade laser,
which can be an excellent source of terahertz radiation (between infrared and microwaves). It
can be introduced for national security screening. New laser technology will also play a role in
developing the all-optical computer.
 Fibre lasers can be made to emit low-power light allowing physicists to manipulate single
photons. These are required for fundamental experiments aiming to development of the concept
of quantum computing which would allow the processing of unbelievable amounts of data
several thousands of order more than the present day. It would also improve the quantum
cryptography offering an ultra-secure means of transmitting data.
 In this paper we have already an ongoing discussion of the masers and laser that how these have
helped to improve the test of special theory of relativity. In fact laser and special relativity both
are listed among the 100 top discoveries of last century. It is interesting to learn that one has
helped to improve the other. The validation of special theory of relativity proves the important
role of the application of the laser in the development of science.

The Beat Frequency

Let us consider two waves given by:

y1  aSin1t  k1 x  (11)
y2  aSin2t  k2 x  (12)

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According to the superposition principle, the resultant displacement caused by the two waves will be
the vector sum of displacement caused by the two waves at any point in space which gives,

y  y1  y2  2aSin  2 t / 2  k1  k2 x / 2 Cos1  2 t / 2  k1  k2 x / 2 (13)

It can be written as-
y  ASinavt  kav x (14)

4 4

2 2

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

-2 -2

-4 -4

(a) (b)
4 4

2 2

5 10 15 20 5 10 15 20

-2
-2

-4
-4

(c) (d)
Figure 6. The superposition of two waves of angular frequencies ω1 –ω2 with a) 8% b) 12% c) 16% and d) 20%.

Here A is the resultant amplitude given by- A=2 a Cos [Δω t/2 – Δk x /2]. The amplitude A is a time
varying function which varied very slowly in case if Δω= ω1 - ω2 is small. Δω= ω1 - ω2 i.e. Δ2π f= 2π f1
- 2π f2. f1 - f2 is called the beat frequency at a fix x. The beat frequencies with x=0 are plotted as in
figure-6 for different cases of relative frequency difference. In case of audible beat tone for ear the
relative frequencies should vary for more than 6% so that the fundamental and the beat tones are heard
separately. This principle acts in a similar fashion for the case of light producing beats if there occurs
any relative change because of the propagation of the light rays along and across the ether wind.

Experimental Method to Test The Isotropy Of Space

After learning the necessary part of laser and beat phenomenon we shall discuss its use to validate
Second Relativity Principle.

In four dimensional Euclidean space and time, one can write the space time metric as,

ds2  c 2 dt2  dx2  dy2  dz2  (15)

In a rest frame at earth say- ∑. In another frame ∑ ' moving with constant velocity v along X-
axis with respect to ∑ the metric becomes,

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 
ds 2  g02c 2 dt '2  g12 dx'2  g 22 dy'2 dz '2  (16)

The transformation between the two equations (15) and (16) which satisfies the Lorentz equation
can be written as,

1/ 2
  v 
g 0  1    a00 (17)
  c 
1/ 2
  v 2 
g1  1     a11 (18)
  c  
1/ 2
  v 2 
g 2  1     a22 (19)
  c  

Here a00, a11and a22 represents the transformation coefficients for dt↔dt', dx↔dx' and dy↔dy'
respectively. For the case of special relativity g0=g1=g2=1. This also means that the space-time is
isotropic. This condition is generally met locally. Because of this reason the invariance is also called
Local Lorentz Invariance. Thus precise determination of ratios of g0, g1 and g2 serves as a strong test of
isotropy of the space and also validates the Local Lorentz Invariance. Any deviation from this
condition breaks the Local Lorentz Invariance which means that the space-time is anisotropic for the
propagation of light. The transformation of time was tested by Ives and Stilwell with an accuracy of
about one part in 30 in the year 1938. They determined this

Figure 7. Some common Laser resonators

1 v 2
quantity 1  a00 
2 c

. More high precision experiments were done with two ammonia masers
mounted in two perpendicular directions – one in the direction of the orbital velocity of the earth and
the other perpendicular the first one. No significant changes in the relative frequency of the two masers

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are observed. The beat frequency of the two masers (ν1~ ν2 ) also verifies the value of g0. The

improved experiments with masers have verified 1  a00 

1 v 2
2 c

to an accuracy of one part in 1000.
This imposes a limit on the ether drag as it should not be more than 1/1000th of the earth’s orbital
velocity. The frequencies remain unchanged when two maser rays travel in two perpendicular
directions and do not vary more than 1 part in 1012. On the basis of ether theory one can predict a shift
in relative frequencies according to the formula

1/ 2
  v 2    v 2 
Change in two optical lengths = 2 L0 a11 1      2 L0 a22 1     (20)
  c     c  

Here L0 is the length of the Febry-Perot Etalon Interferometer. This allows one to infer that

1/ 2
  v 2 
a22  a11 1     (21)
  c  

The most precise experiment was done by Joos who estimated

a  a   1
a
22
222
11

v 2
c
with an

accuracy of one part in 375.

The relation between the beat frequency and the term v/c can be obtained as follows- An optical
or infrared maser consisting of excited atoms between two parallel reflecting planes of a cavity or a
resonator oscillates with a frequency given by-

  cQc  aQa  / Qc  Qa  (22)

Here νa and νc are the atomic and resonance frequency of the cavity. νc = n/∆t . Here n is a large
integer and ∆t=2L0/c is the time taken by the round trip for light rays between two reflectors. So, ν c =
nc/2L0. Usually Qc >> Qa so that the frequency of the maser is νc nc/2L0 (Townes, 1964), (Anderson,
1990). If maser or laser – I is placed parallel to the streaming velocity v of the ether νc1 = nc/2L0. For
the maser or laser- II perpendicular to the ether streaming νc2 = n c (1-v2/c2) ½ / 2 L0. Two such masers
or lasers at perpendicular directions (figure-8) would give rise to a beat frequency as follows

 
2
v
2     
1
c
2
c (23)
c

(v/c)2 is equal to 10-8. Thus this must give a frequency change of 3 × 106 cps for infrared light of
wavelength λ= 1 micron i.e. ν= 3 × 1014. The measured frequency difference was observed as-
  Beat
  10 8 . Dieter Hils and J. L. Hall carried out a more precise experiment by observing the

sidereal variations between the frequency of a laser to an I2 reference line and one He-Ne laser λ= 6328

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A0 locked to the resonance frequency of a highly stable cavity (Hall , 1979), (Hall, 1990). They
 Beat
obtained a fractional frequency shift of   2.5 10 15 with 90 % confidence limit. They

obtained a result 300 fold more accurate than the previously taken best measurement of Kennedy and
Thorndike in 1932. They have taken the fundamental standard of length as the length of the Febry-
Perot Etalon interferometer as- L0=30.0 cm, diameter=15.0 cm. The radii of curvature in their
experiment were taken as- R1=575 cm, and R2=∞ with transmission ratio T=30 part per million (figure-
7). The beat frequency is equal to v2/2c2 thus beat frequency also measures any variation of the v2/2c2
associated with the earth’s orbital motion in the rest frame of the ether. Ali Javan and C. H. Town
observed no anisotropy of space-time or effect of ether drag larger than 1/1000th associated with the
earth’s orbital velocity in the ether. The experimental determination of the ratios of g0, g1 and g2 using
highly monochromatic lasers has established the test of the isotropy of the space with great accuracy as
one part in 1015.

Figure 8. The arrangement of two masers for measuring their beat frequency caused by the motion of the earth
through the hypothetical ether medium.

The fundamental quantity indicating anisotropy due to violation of Local Lorentz Invariance is
the variation in the beat frequency of the two masers or lasers. The amplitude of the beat signal is
modulated due to earth’s rotation ω and earth’s orbital motion Ω. The beat frequency can be written as
the Fourier sum of the dominant contribution of the earth’s angular velocity ω (Schiller, 2005), (Peters,
1997). (as follows)

 Beat
 C t sin 2t  K t cos 2t (24)

Ct   C0  C11 sint  C12 cost  sin 2t  C22 cos2t  .......... (25)
K t   K0  K11 sint  K12 cost  sin 2t  K22 cos2t  .......... (26)

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Figure 9. More sophisticated arrangement of two lasers for measuring their beat frequency caused by the
motion of the earth through the hypothetical ether medium. Uses of ultra-cold cryostat at temperature around 4
mK restrict any variation in length of the two cavities.

Figure 10: View of the open

cryostat. The grey cylinder on the
top is parts of the pulse tube
cooler. Vertical size is about 1.2
m. Detail view of the optical
components inside cryostat. An
optical fiber (green) brings the
laser light to the core (located
inside the box)

Source Website for the images: http://www.exphy.uni-duesseldorf.de/ResearchInst/WelcomeFP.html

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Figure 11. A sinusoidal variation in the sampled beat frequency with sidereal rotation of one of the cavities with
reference to one of the cavities fixed along the orbital motion of the earth.

The Fourier coefficients {Ci, Ki} are determined by fitting the sampled variations in beat

frequency. The anisotropy in speed of light is obtained from c  B

v 2 2
c

sin  where θ is the direction
of propagation of light with respect to the earth’s orbital motion (Peters, 1997). The coefficient B is
obtained from the Fourier coefficients from the beat observed using two laser resonators or cavities
along and across the motion of ether.

Conclusion

Even though there have been various technical difficulties as controlling the positions and angle of
rotation of the cavity, the variation in length because of minor temperature variations (controlled using
ultra cold cryostat as shown in figure-9 &10) in the vicinity apart of stabilizing the laser in cavity (i.e.
making the two cavity walls parallel else the laser becomes unstable in successive collisions with the
glass windows and power and phase is lost) the uses of masers and lasers have restricted the anisotropy
of space to 10-15. It has validated the special theory of relativity with extraordinary limits and
confidence. The speed of light is still an upper bound except some recent measurements done with
neutrinos which have exceeded this with negligible fractions may be attributed to the mysterious
fluctuations in the space time (Singh, 2009). The existence of high energy cosmic rays has also
imposed strong limits on the violations of Local Lorentz Invariance as c  1  1.5 10 15 (Glashow,
1997). Thus the results obtained with the masers and lasers are still at the frontier edge for the
verification of Local Lorentz Invariance or the validation of special theory of relativity.

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References

Singh, S. P. (2012). Introduction to special relativity and space science (1st ed.). New Delhi: Wiley
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