Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE
BSGE COURSE NO. GE 24
PROGRAM
SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE GEODETIC ASTRONOMY
YEAR LEVEL 5TH Year TIME FRAME 10 WK NO. 1 IM NO. 2

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

2. Celestial Sphere

II. LESSON TITLE

2.1. The Celestial Sphere
2.2. Astronomic Triangle
2.3. Definition of Terms
2.4. Observation of Polaris
2.5. Ephemerides
2.6. Parallels and Meridians

II. LESSON OVERVIEW

1. Discuss the concept and relationship of of Celestial Sphere, Astronomic triangle suns’s apparent
motion.
2. Discuss the important terms used in field of astronomy
3. Discuss the uses of ephemerides and different variety of ephemerides for obtaining sun and star
positions.
4. Discuss the difference between parallels and meridians

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

1. Know and Understand the concept of Celestial sphere, astronomic triangle sun’s apparent motion
2. Know the different terms used in astronomy
3. Know the different variety of ephemerides
4. Differentiate between parallels and meridians

V. LESSON CONTENT
Lesson 2.1. The Celestial Sphere
The distance from the earth to the nearest star is more than 109 earth radii, thus the
dimensions of the earth can be considered as negligible compared to the distances to the stars. For
example, the closest star is estimated to be 4 light years (40x1012 km) from the earth (a CENTAURI),
while " others are VEGA at 30 light years, a USAE MINORIS (Polaris) at 50 light years. Our sun is
only 8.25 light minutes (155xl106 km) from the earth. The speed of rotation of the Celestial Sphere is
360° 59.14’ per 24 hours, thus making slightly more than one revolution per day.As a consequence
of those great distances, stars, considered to be moving at near the velocity of light, are perceived
by an observer on earth to be moving very little. Therefore, the relationship between the earth and
stars can be closely approximated by considering the stars all to be equidistant from the earth and
lying on the surface of a celestial sphere, the dimension of which is so large that the earth, and
indeed the solar system, can be considered to be a dimensionless point at its centre. Although this
point may be considered dimensionless, relationships between directions on the earth and in the
solar system can be extended to the celestial sphere.

In surveying, out interest in astronomy is basically with respect to the sides and angles of
spherical triangles on the Celestial Sphere. When observations are made for latitudes, longitude or
azimuths, surveyors and engineers are not concerned with the distances between celestial bodies.
Their observations are more on determination of angular relations which are measured on earth
between celestial bodies or between some points on earth and the celestial body being observed.
Hence, the assumption made is that the universe is spherical in shape and that celestial bodies are
points on the celestial sphere.
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021

Figure 2-1
“THE CELESTIAL SPHERE”

The instantaneous rotation axis of the earth intersects the celestial sphere at the north and south
celestial poles (NCP and SCP respectively) (Figure 2-1).

The earth's equitorial plane extented outward intersects the celestial sphere at the celestial equator
(Figure 2-1).

The vertical (local-astronomic normal) intersects the celestial sphere at a point above the observer,
the zenith, and a point beneath. the observer, the nadir (Figure 2-1).

A great circle containing the poles, and is thus perpendicular to the celestial equator, is called an
hour circle (Figure 2-1).

The observer's vertical plane, containing the poles, is the hour circle through the zenith and is the
observer's 'celestial meridian (figure 2-1).

A small circle parallel to the celestial equator is called a celestial parallel.

Another very important plane is that which is normal to the local astronomic vertical and contains the
observer (centre of the celestial sphere); it is the celestial horizon (Figure 2-1).

The plane normal to the horizon passing through the zenith is the vertical plane.

A small circle parallel to the celestial horizon is called an almucantar.

The vertical plane normal to the celestial meridian is called the prime vertical.

The intersection points of the prime vertical and the celestial horizon are the east and west points.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
Lesson 2.2. Astronomical Triangle

Figure 2-2
“ASTRONOMIC TRIANGLE”

Due to the rotation of the earth, the zenith (nadir), vertical planes, almucantars, the celestial horizon
and meridian continuously change their positions on the celestial sphere, the effects of which will be
studied later. If at any instant we select a point S on the celestial sphere (a star), then the celestial
meridian & the hour and vertical circles form a spherical triangle called the astronomic triangle of
S.Its verticies are the zenith (Z), the north celestial pole (NCP) and S(Figure 2-2).

There are also some important features on the celestial sphere related the revolution of the earth
about the sun, or in the reversed concept, the apparent motion of the sun about the earth. The most
important of these is the ecliptic, which may be described as the approximate (within 2" [Mueller,
1969]) apparent path of the sun about the earth.(Figure 2-3). The ecliptic intersects the celestial
equator in a line connecting the eqtiinoxes.

The vernal equinox is that point intersection where the apparent sun crosses the celestial equator
from south to north. The other equinox is the autumnal equinox. The acute angle between the
celestial equator and the ecliptic is termed the obliquity of the ecliptic (e:=23°27') (Figure 2-3). The
points at 90° from either equinox are the points where the sun reaches its greatest angular distance
from the celestial equator, and they are the summer solstice (north) and winter solstice (south).

Figure 2-23
“SUN’S APPARENT MOTION”

We should note that the celestial sphere is only an approximation of the true relationship between
the stars and an observer onthe earth's surface. Like all approximations, a number of corrections are
required to give a precise representation of the true relationship. These corrections represent the
facts that: the stars are not stationary points on the celestial sphere but are really moving (proper
motion); the earth's rotation axis is not stationary with respect to the stars (precesion, nutation); the
earth is displaced from the centre of the celestial sphere (which is taken as the centre of the sun)
and the observer is displaced from the mass centre of the earth (parallax); the earth is in motion
around the centre of the celestial sphere (aberration); and directions measured through the earth's
atmosphere are bent by refraction. All of these effects are discussed in detail in these notes.

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
2.3. Definition of Terms

a. CELESTIAL POLE - the points on the surface of the celestial sphere pierced by the extensionof
the earth’s polar axis.
b. CELESTIAL AXIS -the prolongation of the earh's polar axis.
c. ZENITH -the point where the plumb line at the place of observation projected above the horizon
meets the celestial sphere. It is also defined as the point on the celestial sphere vertically
above the observer.
d. NADIR -that point on the Celestial Sphere directly beneath the observe, and directly opposite the
zenith.
e. GREAT CIRCLE - - the trace on the surface of the intersection of a plane passing through the
center of the sphere.
f. OBSERVER’S HORIZON - - a great circle of the celestial sphere where a plane, perpendicular to
the plumb line at the place of observation and passing through the center of the earth,
cuts the celestial sphere. This circle is halfwaythe observer's zenith and nadir and is the
plane in which azimuth is measured. It is shown by four fixed point (N, E, W, S), standing
for points of the magnetic compass.
g. OBSERVER’S VERTICAL -a vertical line at the location of the observer which coincides with the
plumb line and is normal to the observer's horizon.
h. CELESTIAL EQUATOR -great circle which is perpendicular to the polar axis of the celestial
sphere. It is an extension of the plane of the earth’s equator outward until it intersects the
celestial sphere.
i. VERTICAL CIRCLE -a great circle passing through the observer's zenith and any celestial body.
Such a circle is perpendicular to the observee's horizon, and represents the line of
intersection of a vertical plane with the celestial sphere.
j. HOUR CIRCLE -a great cirlce joining the celestial poles and passing through a celestial body and
whose plane is perpendicular to the plane of the celestial equator.
k. MERIDIAN -a great circle of the celestial sphere which passes through the celestial poles and the
observer's zenith. This circle is both a vertical and an hour circle.
l. CELESTIAL PARALLEL- A small circle parallel to the celestial equator.

m. VERTICAL PLANE- The plane normal to the horizon passing through the zenith

n. PRIME VERTICAL- The vertical plane normal to the celestial meridian is called the

2.4. Observation of Polaris

In surveying, the use of true astronomical directions has several advantages over the use of
assumed of magnetic directions. One reason is that permanence is given to the direction of
boundaries of land as compared to magnetic directions which are constantly changing. Also,
astronomical directions are useful for correlating surveys, checking angles of traverse and
triangulations lines , and in orienting important maps as well as radio and radar antennae.

A point in the sky that corresponds with Earth's own North Pole. Because this point always lies
directly above the Earth's pole, the bright star that lies close to it, Polaris, always lies due north from
an observer's point of view. From the surface of the Earth, it appear that all celestial objects, from
the Sun to the stars, rotate around this point once each day. This illusion is due to the fact that it is
the observer who is carried round the Earth's own poles by the planet's rotation.
The declination of the Pole Star (its angular distance from the Celestial Equator) is fixed, by
definition, at +90°. However, its altitude (the angle it makes with the horizon) is not fixed, but varies
according to the latitude of the observer. This is very useful for navigation in the northern
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
hemisphere, since the altitude of the Northern Celestial Pole is always equal to the observer's own
latitude: by measuring the Pole's angle to the horizon, it's possible to exactly calculate your own
distance from the Earth's equator.

From the Northern Hemisphere, all the stars in the sky go full circle around the north celestial
pole once a day – or more precisely, go full circle every 23 hours and 56 minutes. And from the
Southern Hemisphere, all the stars in the sky go full circle around the south celestial pole in 23
hours and 56 minutes.

For northern navigators, this measurement is made particularly straightforward by the fact
that a bright and easily distinguishable star lies very close to the Celestial Pole (navigators south of
the equator have no such luxury). This star is Polaris, the brightest of the stars in Ursa Minor, which
is easily located by the two Pointer stars in Ursa Major. Polaris is presently some 44' (about three
quarters of a degree) from the Northern Celestial Pole itself.

Polaris hasn't always been the Pole Star. In fact, it has only been close to the Pole for the
last thousand years or so, and over the next millennium it will gradually move further away. This is
because the Earth's motion is constantly affected by the pull of other bodies in the Solar System,
especially the Moon and the Sun, which causes a 'wobble' in its orbit. This, in turn, causes the Pole
to move relative to the stars.
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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
The SUN and POLARIS (north star) - - the most useful celestial bodies for observations made in the
northern hemisphere.
CIRCUMPOLAR STAR- a star which rotates around the celestial north pole and never goes below
the observer's horizon.
POLARIS- a circumpolar star commonly used by engineers and surveyors to determine the true
direction of lines on the earth's surface, which is also the last star in the tail of the constellation Ursa
Minor (Little Bear) and is located in the sky by first finding the Big Dipper in Ursa Major.
- is fairly bright star found about 1° from the North Celestial Pole. It is the last star in the tail
of the constellation URSA Minor (Little bear) and is located in the sky by first finding the BIG
DIPPER in the URSA MAJOR. The two stars (MERAK and DUBHE) of the dipper farthest from the
handle are the pointers, the Polaris is the nearest bright star along the line through the pointers.
-Polaris actually lies just a short distance away from where Earth's axis points. Polaris is
located about 1 degree off to the side of the north celestial pole, so Polaris does move a little, tracing
a very small arc in the night sky, around which the other visible stars make wider circles.

Circumpolar stars always reside above the horizon, and for that reason, never rise or set. All the
stars at the Earth’s North and South Poles are circumpolar. Meanwhile, no star is circumpolar at the
equator

Apparent motion of Polaris

A. Upper and Lower Culmination

Culmination is when a star (or other body) reaches the observer's meridian.

A star will do this twice each day.

Upper Culmination is at its the highest point.
Lower Culmination is at its the highest point.

These will mean different views depending on the location of the observer.
 A circumpolar star will be reach upper and lower culmination in the sky.
 A seasonal star will reach upper culmination in the sky and lower transit below the horizon.
 A star never visible from a location will technically culminate but both types will be beneath
the horizon.
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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
The word transit is sometimes used instead of culmination. In the specification upper culmination is
called upper transit or just culmination so if you are asked 'when a star culminates… it means upper
culmination.

B. Eastern and Western Elongation

In astronomy, a planet's elongation is the angular separation between the Sun and the planet,
with Earth as the reference point. The greatest elongation of a given inferior planet occurs when this
planet's position, in its orbital path around the Sun, is at tangent to the observer on Earth. Since an
inferior planet is well within the area of Earth's orbit around the Sun, observation of its elongation
should not pose that much a challenge (compared to deep-sky objects, for example). When a planet
is at its greatest elongation, it appears farthest from the Sun as viewed from Earth, so its apparition
is also best at that point.

When an inferior planet is visible after sunset, it is near its greatest eastern elongation. When
an inferior planet is visible before sunrise, it is near its greatest western elongation. The angle of the
maximum elongation (east or west) for Mercury is between 18° and 28°, while that for Venus is
between 45° and 47°. These values vary because the planetary orbits are elliptical rather than
perfectly circular. Another factor contributing to this inconsistency is orbital inclination, in which each
planet's orbital plane is slightly tilted relative to a reference plane, like the ecliptic and invariable
planes.

The exact time of UC,WE, LC and EE for Polaris are provided in an Ephemeris. A few simple
calculations have to performed to determine the corresponding times at other locations since the
data given applies only to the Greenwich meridian.

2.5. Ephemerides

An ephemeris an astronomical almanac containing tables giving the computed positions of

the sun, the planets and various stars for everyday of a given period. Since values tabulated are
given in Greenwich civil time (GCT), standard times normally recorded for observations must be
reduced GCT before appropriate values are extracted.

In astronomy and celestial navigation, an ephemeris (plural: ephemerides) gives

the trajectory of naturally occurring astronomical objects as well as artificial satellites in the sky, i.e.,
the position (and possibly velocity) over time. The etymology is from Latin ephemeris, meaning
'diary' and from Greek ἐφημερίς (ephemeris), meaning 'diary, journal'. Historically, positions were
given as printed tables of values, given at regular intervals of date and time. The calculation of these
tables was one of the first applications of mechanical computers. Modern ephemerides are often

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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
computed electronically, from mathematical models of the motion of astronomical objects and the
Earth. However, printed ephemerides are still produced, as they are useful when computational
devices are not available.

The astronomical position calculated from an ephemeris is given in the spherical polar coordinate
system of right ascension and declination. Some of the astronomical phenomena of interest to
astronomers are eclipses, apparent retrograde motion/planetary stations,
planetary ingresses, sidereal time, positions for the mean and true nodes of the moon, the phases of
the Moon, and the positions of minor celestial bodies such as Chiron.
Ephemerides are used in celestial navigation and astronomy. They are also used by
some astrologers.

Some of the most useful variety of Ephemerides that are available to surveyors for obtaining sun
and star positions:
a. The Nautical Almanac, published by the U.S. Naval Observatory, Washington, D.C., USA.
b. The Ephemeris of the Sun, Polaris and other Selected Stars, published by the U.S. Naval
Observatory, Washington, D.C., USA.
c. Apparent Places of Fundamental Stars, published by Astronomisches Rechen Institute,
Heidelberg, Germany.
d. Solar Ephemeris, published by K & E, New Jersey, USA.
e. Almanac for Geodetic Engineers, published by Philippine Atmospheric, Geographical and
Astronomical Services Administration, Manila, Philippines.

2.6. Parallels and Meridians

Parallels are lines formed by passing a series of imaginary planes perpendicular to the axis of the
earth. One such plane which passes through the center of the earth and halfway between the
poles forms on the great circle called the equator when the plane is passed through the earth,
parallel to the equator without passing through its center, parallels are formed.

They used to express distances of points above or below the equator in degrees, minutes, and
seconds. They are numbered from 0° to 90° north and south of the equator with the equator being
designated as the 0° parallel. In expressing a particular distance, the term latitude is used instead of
parallel.

The latitude of a point is said to be north or south of the equator where north latitudes are
considered positive and south latitudes are negative. Accordingly, a “+ or - “ sign is indicated

Parallels of Latitude: The parallels of latitude are the boundary lines of imaginary circles drawn
around the earth. They run in the east-west direction and are parallel to each other. Parallels are of
different length. Equator is the longest parallel and it divides the earth into the Northern Hemisphere
and Southern Hemisphere.The parallels are numbered. The equator is marked zero degree. The
North Pole and the South Pole is marked 90 degree North and 90 degree South respectively. Arctic
Circle and Tropic of Cancer parallel lie between North Pole and the equator. Antarctic Circle and
Tropic of Capricorn parallel lie between South Pole and the equator.
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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
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INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
Meridians are formed by passing a series of imaginary planes through the Earth's poles. There are
360° around the earth and one numbered meridians for each degree. Meridians are numbered from
0° to 180° eastward as well as westward. For the greater portion of its length, the 180° meridian
forms the International Date Line.

The meridian which passes through the former site of the British Royal Observatory near Greenwich,
England, is designated as the 0° meridian-called prime meridian. Longitudes are generally used in
expressing meridian distances, defined as the angular distance of the point east or west of the
reference meridian, from 0° to 180°; and can be expressed either in terms of arc or time measure.

Meridians of Longitude: Meridian is an imaginary semicircle that runs in the north-south direction
and joins the two poles. All meridians are of the same length and meet at the poles. Prime
Meridian is an imaginary line which divides the earth into eastern and western hemispheres. It is
sometimes referred to as the Greenwich Meridian. The Prime Meridian which passes through
Greenwich, England, is considered 0 degrees longitude.Places on different meridians have a time
difference because they have sunrise and sunset at different times.

International Date Line: The longitude at 180 degrees from the Greenwich Time Line is known as
International Date Line. It was designated in 1884. If you travel west from the International Date Line,
you add a day, and if you travel east from the International Date Line, you subtract a day.

Longitudes can be expressed either in terms of arc or time measure. When it is expressed in
degrees, minutes and seconds, it is said to be measured in arc. Longitudes which are expressed in
hours, minutes and seconds are said to be measured in time. Thus the longitude of a point in La
Trinidad Benguet, Philippines, is 120° 35’ 20” Easr or 8h 02m 21s of angle or arc are indicated by the
symbols, °, ‘, “ respectively, while hours, minutes and seconds of time are abbreviated h, m, and s.

The following tabulations should serve as a useful summary of time and arc relations:
24h = 360° 1m = 15’ 1° = 4m
1h = 15° 1s = 15” 1’ = 4s

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 Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: N240 -1STSEM-2020-2021
VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES
1. Assignment
2. Quiz
3. Problem Sets
4. Research

VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

VIII. ASSIGNMENT

IX. REFERENCES

A) Book/Printed Resources
1. La Putt, J.P. Higher Surveying (2nd Edition)
2. Besavilla. Geodetic Engineer’s Manual for Board Examination
3. Besavilla. Geodetic Engineering Computerized Lizensure Exams Geodesy and Cartography

B) Resources
1. https://kids.playquiz2win.com/class-5/parallels-and-meridians-class-5
2. https://www.worldmapsonline.com/parallels-and-meridians-lesson-7-grade-4-5/
3. https://www.flightliteracy.com/latitude-and-longitude-meridians-and-parallels-part-one/
4. https://quizizz.com/admin/quiz/59fc507f0f30dc100014e14d/parallels-and-meridians

Prepared by:

EFRENJOY AGBISIT-HAWETE
Faculty

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