KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO POWER SUPPLY

2. POWER CONDITIONERS

3. SWITCHGEARS

4. ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS

5. VOLTAGE STABILISERS

6. BACKUP POWER SUPPLY(UPS)

7. CASE STUDY

8. ELECTRICAL FIRE SAFETY

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

1. INTRODUCTION TO POWER SUPPLY

1.1 POWER SUPPLY

1.2 CURRENT
1.3 POWER FACTOR
1.4 DIFFERENT TYPES OF ELECTRICAL LOADS

1.1 DEFINITION OF POWER SUPPLY

1.11 General primary electrical distribution

1.12 Overhead distribution

The Electrical and Electronics devices require Electrical Power for their operation.
These devices are designed for specific quality of Power supply. But in our system of
generation and transmission of the electrical power contain many problems and break
downs. This will damage the Connected devices and equipments.

Many of the Electronics devices works for the DC power supply. Other Electrical
equipments are designed for AC power Supply( In India , The standard AC Power
supply is 230 Volt in Single Phase and 415 Volts for 3 Phase).

The AC power is used in the Transmission and distribution system to fulfill the following
requirements.
- The Voltage at the consumer`s premises must be maintained +/- 6% of the
declare voltage.
- The Loss of Power in the in the system itself should be a less than 10%
percentage of the power transmitted.
- The transmission cost should not be unduly excessive.
- The maximum current passing through the conductor should be limited.
Also AC voltage can be efficiently and conveniently raised or lowered for economic
Transmission and distribution.

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Station Bus Sub Station Bus

HT HT LT
66KV/ 3Phase 11KV 415V/4Wire

Transmission Line
Alternators

Consumer
POWER SUPPLY DISTRIBUTION SCHEMATIC Distribution Bus

Fig1.1 The Transmission schematic.

1.11 General primary electrical distribution

Primary electrical distribution system is defined in this manual to be the electrical
system operating above 600 Vac. Secondary distribution system is defined as 600 Vac
and below. Without electrical power to operate equipment, provide illumination, etc., site
operations would be very difficult or impossible; therefore, correct operation and
maintenance of the primary electrical distributions system is essential.

Substations:

Substations control the flow of power into a facility. They are comprised of transformers
for stepping down the voltage, high-voltage insulators, and large air/oil circuit breakers
capable of interrupting tremendous amounts of current during fault conditions.

a. Transformers. A transformer utilizes electromagnetic (EM) induction between circuits

of the same frequency, usually with changed values of voltage and current.
Transformers can be classified in various ways, but their basic construction consists of
windings, magnetic cores on which windings are coiled, insulation, and any special
connections applying to the type of load. Substation transformers can range in
size from a garbage can to a small house. Their main purpose is to transform
alternating voltage and current from one level to another. At the power plant the voltage
is brought up to a higher voltage for efficiency in transmitting the power to the end user.
At the end user's locale the voltage is brought down to a level that is suitable for
operations.

i. The basic design of a transformer consists of electrical coils wrapped around

an iron or steel core. By controlling the number of windings, or tapping into
the windings, various levels of voltage change can occur. Nameplate
information for each transformer will help in identifying the primary coil and
the secondary coil ratings, in addition to how the transformer is configured.
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ii. Transformers rated above 500 kVA are classed as power transformers.
Transformers rated at 500 kVA or less are classed as distribution
transformers, as they usually have low tension windings of less than 600
volts.
iii. American National Standards Institute/Institute of Electrical and Electronic
Engineers (ANSI/IEEE) C57.12.80, Standard Terminology for Power and
Distribution Transformers 91992), identifies several classes of insulation
systems for power and distribution transformers. Insulation classifications are
based upon the insulation’s temperature rating and the method of cooling
needed to remove the heat from the transformer. The core and the coils of dry
type transformers are in a gaseous or dry-compound insulating material. The
core and the coils of liquid-immersed transformers are contained in an
insulating liquid. A flammable mineral oil insulation is the most frequently
used liquid. Various less flammable liquids are used to meet National
Electrical Code (NEC) code requirements. Only flammable and less
flammable liquids are acceptable on military installations. Non-flammable
insulated liquids, though available, are not considered environmentally
acceptable. Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) insulated transformers should be
removed to meet Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) requirements.
Replacement of liquid-filled transformers in or near buildings must take into
account the latest applicable NEC code restrictions, which might require an
existing installation to be modified or a different type of insulating medium to
be provided.
iv. An outdoor transformer is constructed of weather-resistant construction,
suitable for service without additional protection from the weather. Industry
standards also classify transformers as indoor units, which must be protected
from the weather. A pole type transformer is an outdoor transformer that is
suitable for mounting on a pole or a similar structure. A pad-mounted
transformer is a unitized or compartmental type transformer, with enclosed
compartments for medium-voltage and low-voltage cables entering from
below, and is mounted on a pad.
v. Transformers can maintain an acceptable voltage ratio of about a 2 percent
voltage drop from zero to rated output in most cases. Most distribution
transformers and smaller power transformers have tapped windings, which
permit adjusting the output voltage to broaden the range of primary voltage
inputs. The transformer will have a manual tap changer, which can be
operated if the transformer is deenergized. However, on substations which
serve varying loads, such as pumping facilities, or on large installations with
long primary feeder lines, taps may not provide sufficient voltage regulation
and other means are necessary.
vi. An automatic load tap changing (LTC) feature installed on a transformer
provides automatic tap changing under load, and normally varies the voltage
to plus or minus 10 percent of the system’s rated voltage by changing tap
connections using a motor-driven, tap-changing switch.
vii. Sometimes voltage regulation is needed and the system transformers do not
include the LTC feature. Voltage regulators are used to supply the control for
the variations in load. A voltage regulator needs similar servicing to that
required for a power transformer. A step-voltage regulator operates on the
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same principal as the LTC mechanism. An induction voltage regulator has a

series winding and a shunt winding, and uses a motor to rotate the shunt
winding to either add to (boost) or subtract from (buck) the series winding
voltage. The action provided is dependent upon the voltage induced in the
series winding and the respective polarities of each winding (that is, the
respective instantaneous directions of currents entering the primary and
leaving the secondary terminals during most of each half cycle). The
switching mechanism in most new voltage regulators is practically
maintenance free, but many of the older units require considerable servicing.
The manufacturer’s recommendations should be followed for all maintenance
and servicing requirements.
b. Insulators. The function of an insulator is to support a conductor or conducting device
safely. An insulator, being of a non-conductive material, physically and electrically
separates the supported item from any grounded or energized conductors or devices.
Insulators are composed of porcelain, glass, fiberglass, or a composite compound.
Maintenance is necessary to preserve their insulating ability that can be degraded by
contamination or other damaging actions. Most insulator damage will result from gun
shots; lightning, surge, or contamination flashovers; and wind damage. Defective
insulators can also cause visible corona or interference voltage propagation.
c. Bushings. A bushing is an insulating structure that provides a conducting path though
its center while its body isolates contact to the support structure. A bushing has a
provision for mounting on a barrier (conducting or otherwise). The bushing insulates the
conductor from the barrier and conducts current from one side of the barrier to the other
side. The primary function of a bushing is to provide an insulated entrance for an
energized conductor into an apparatus tank.
d. Instrument transformers. Current and potential (voltage) transformers are used to
enable ammeters and watt meters to monitor power conditions. An instrument
transformer is designed to reproduce in its secondary circuit (in a definite and known
proportion) the current or voltage of its primary circuit with the phase relations and
waveform substantially preserved.

i. A current transformer is a constant-current transformer that reduces line

currents into values suitable for standard measuring devices such as
ammeters and wattmeters and standard protective and control devices. It also
isolates these devices from line voltages. The primary winding is connected in
series with the circuit carrying the line current, or as a window type
arrangement linked magnetically with the line conductor which eliminates the
need for an integral primary winding.
ii. A potential transformer is basically a conventional constant-voltage
transformer with primary and secondary windings on a common core
connected in shunt or parallel to the power supply circuit to be measured or
controlled. The secondary winding insulates devices from the power circuit.
e. Switches. Substation switches can be operated manually or power operated.
Insulation for the voltage and current interrupting level may be provided by operating the
contacts in air, oil, vacuum, or in a sulfur hexafluoride (SF6) gas medium. Switches are
classified by their ability to interrupt load.

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i. A disconnecting switch is a device used to open, close, or change the

connections in a circuit or system. It has no interrupting rating and is used for
isolating equipment only after the circuit has been opened by some other
means. Two special types are as follows.
ii. A grounding switch is a switch used to connect a circuit or piece of equipment
to ground.
iii. A horn-gap switch is a switch provided with arcing horns to aid in dispersing
any arc that may occur when the switch is operated. This combination is
sometimes referred to as an air-break switch. It should not be operated
except to interrupt the charging current of a short length of line, or the
magnetizing current of a de-energized transformer. Oil switches should
always be considered as disconnect switches, unless the switch nameplate
indicates a fault closing rating suitable for the system’s maximum available
fault.
iv. Interrupter switches have specific capabilities for switching one or more of the
following type of loads: 0.8 minimum lagging power factor load, parallel or
loop load, transformer magnetizing load, line charging load, cable charging
load, and capacitor bank load. Follow the manufacturer’s instructions when
operating interrupter switches.
v. Non-fault closing type switches are equipped with means of interrupting
current, at rated voltage, not in excess of the switch’s continuous rated
current. Interrupter switches, which do not have a fault-closing rating, may be
damaged if inadvertently closed on a short circuit. Appropriate precautions
should be taken to avoid danger to the operator.
vi. Fault closing type switches are equipped with means for interrupting current,
at rated voltage, in excess of the switch’s continuous rated current. Interrupter
switches with fault-closing ratings are intended to provide adequate personnel
protection, when closing into a short circuit, up to the asymmetrical fault-
closing rating of the switch and when applied in accordance with the
manufacturer’s recommendation.
f. Bus structures. A bus structure is an assembly of bus conductors with associated
connection joints and insulating supports. It can have bare or insulated conductors. A
busway is a grounded metal enclosure, containing factory-mounted bare or insulated
conductors, that are usually copper or aluminum bars, rods, or tubes. Each serves as a
common connection between two or more circuits.

1.12 Overhead distribution

Overhead electrical distribution at all voltages most often uses open wire construction,
although aerial cables of various types are employed to some extent. Poles, towers, and
other supporting structures define overhead distribution. When several different
voltages are found on these structures the hierarchy is the highest voltage is at the top.
Voltages drop as the circuits descend downward.

a. Open wire construction. The basic features of open wire construction are single
conductors, insulated supports, and wide separation, with little or no conductor covering
on the conductors. The air space around the conductors must be large enough to allow

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relative conductor movement without a flashover. Open wire construction is mounted on

insulators, either as armless or cross arm construction.
b. Armless construction. Armless construction consists of insulators on supporting
brackets mounted directly on the pole. When possible, this construction is preferred for
use on pole replacements because of its more attractive appearance and lower
maintenance cost. Triangular tangent construction is preferred over vertical tangent
construction, as it requires the least conductor space and is more economical.
Triangular construction is not suitable for configurations that require an overhead
ground wire. It is not recommended except for the tangent and minor angle
construction.
c. Poles. Poles are constructed of wood, metal, or concrete. Extending out from these
structures are crossarms that support the overhead cable. The poles can be self-
supporting or may require guys (stranded galvanized wire) or braces to hold the pole in
position.
d. Crossarm construction. Unless it conflicts with facility practice, crossarm construction
should be phased out whenever possible, but may be necessary where equipment or
line installations, utilizing armless construction, would result in excessive pole heights.
Facility practice usually matches the local utility company’s open wire construction.
e. Overhead cable. Aerial cable has its individual conductors insulated and supported
by a messenger (support wire) along its length. The cable is then lashed and clamped
to the insulators mounted on the poles or towers.
f. Overvoltage protection. Overhead lines are extremely vulnerable to direct strokes or
to induced voltage influences. Underground systems derived from aerial lines may also
be affected. Lightning results from the potential difference between clouds or between a
cloud and earth. A lightning stroke may be in direct contact with an electric line and
equipment. The charged clouds of a passing lightning storm may also cause an
electrostatically induced voltage.

i. The high voltage of a lightning surge, imposed on lines and devices without
surge protection, will flash over the insulation in the majority of cases. Where
flashover occurs, through air or on insulators, it rarely causes permanent
damage, but flashover occurring through the solid insulation on equipment or
cable can result in permanent damage.
ii. A surge limiting protective device must limit transient over-voltages or surge
voltages that could damage apparatus. The device must bypass the surge to
ground and discharge severe surge currents of high magnitude and long
duration without injury. The device must continuously withstand the rated
power voltage for which it is designed. The device’s protective ratio is the
maximum surge voltage it will discharge, compared to the maximum crest
power voltage it will withstand following discharge. Surge arresters provide
the most accepted method of surge limiting protection, since they provide the
highest degree of surge elimination. Other methods include shielding lines
and equipment from direct lightning strokes; and providing devices designed
to divert or change the waveform of the surge, such as protective gaps, surge
capacitors, and bypass resistors. A surge arrester is a protective device for
limiting surge voltages on equipment by discharging or bypassing surge
current. Surge arresters allow only minimal flow of the 50 hertz power current
to ground. After the high-frequency lightning surge current has been
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discharged, a surge arrester, correctly applied, will be capable of repeating its

protective function until another surge voltage must be discharged.
iii. Surge arresters used for protection of exterior electrical distribution lines will
be either of the metal-oxide or gapped silicon-carbide type. Expulsion type
units are no longer used.

Electrical Power =Voltage x Current x Power Factor

a) AC Power = Voltage x Current x Power Factor

Root mean Square Value : The r.m.s value of an Alternating current is given
by that steady(DC) current which when flowing through a given circuit for a
given time produces the same heat as produces by the alternating current
when flowing through the same circuit for the same time.

b) DC Power = Voltage x Current

VOLTAGE

The potential difference between two reference points is Voltage. Denoted by the
symbol “V”. The unit for measurement is Volts.

1.2 CURRENT

1.21 DEFINITION
1.22 AC/DC CURRENT

1.21 Definition
The Flow of Electrons through the conductor from high electrical potential to low
electrical potential is called current.

1.22 AC/DC Current

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The DC(Direct Current) the flow of electrons through conductor takes place in one
direction. The AC(Alternating Current) the flow of electrons through the conductor in one
direction and then it changes direction and starts flow in reverse direction.

DC Current AC Current
+
V + V
I I
Fixed Voltage
t t

- -
1 Cycle 50Hz

V= Voltage
t=1/f=1/50=20millisec
I=Current
f=Frequency in Hertz

Fig 1.2

The Positive and negative waveform is complete Cycle. The number of cycles per
second is frequency. Denoted by f. the measuring unit is hertz.( The Indian Standard
AC power supply is 50 Hertz)

Fig 1.3

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Fig 1.4

Fig.1.5
RMS and Effective Values
Circuit currents and voltages in AC circuits are generally stated as root-mean-square or rms
values rather than by quoting the maximum values. The root-mean-square for a current is defined
by

That is, you take the square of the current and average it, then take the square root. When this
process is carried out for a sinusoidal current

This is just the effective value needed in the expression for average power to put the AC power
in the same form as the expression for DC power in a resistor. In a resistor where the power
factor is equal to 1:

1.3 POWER FACTOR

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1.31 DEFINITION
1.32 DIFFERENT TYPE OF POWERFACTOR
1.33 EFFECT POWER FACTOR FOR DIFFERENT TYPE OF ELECTRICAL
LOADS

1.31 DEFINITION
The Cosine of the phase angle difference between Voltage and Current wave
form. The Ratio of true Power and apparent Power. Ie., Watts/ Volt- Aps.

1.32 TYPES OF POWER FACTOR

a) Lead Power factor = Voltage is leading Current
b) Lag Power Factor =Voltage is lagging behind Current
c) Unity Power Factor =Voltage and Current starting same time
1.33 EFFECT OF POWER FACTOR FOR DIFFERENT
TYPE OF ELECTRICAL LOADS

Resistive: The Property of a substance due to which it opposes the flow of

Electrons. Denoted by Symbol “R” an the measuring unit is Ohms
R = L/ A,
 = Specific resistivity,
L= Length of a conductor,
A =Area of cross section of a conductor

A.C.Power through Resistance

IR
VR
I R

P R VR

VR =Voltage across resistance

IR = Current through resistance
Phase angle difference between Voltage & Current waveform
P=VIcos
cos0 = 1
(Power factor =1)
Unity power factor

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Fig 1.6

Inductive: The property of the Coil due to which it opposes the increase or
decrease of current or flux through it, is known as Inductance, Denoted by
symbol “L” and the measuring unit is Henry.
L=NQ/I, N: Number of Turns,
Q: Flux density,
I : Current

A.C.Power through Inductance

I L

V L
I L

P L V L


VL=Voltage across Inductance

I L=Current across Inductance
 =Phase angle diff between voltage & current
Current lags behind voltage waveform this is lagging Power factor.

Fig 1.7

Capacitive: The Property of capacitor to ‘store electricity’ may be called its

capacitance. Denoted by Symbol “C” and the measuring unit is Farad
C = Q/V= Charge / Potential Difference

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A.C.Power through Capacitance

IC
VC
IC
P C VC


VC=Voltage across Inductance

I C=Current across Inductance
 =Phase angle diff between voltage & current
Current leads behind voltage waveform this is leading Power factor.

Fig 1.8

2 POWER CONDITIONING

2.1 POWER SUPPLY DISTURBACES

2.2 POWER CONDITIONINERS

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Power Protection
Despite numerous advances in the capabilities of PCs, a momentary power interruption
Is all it takes to lose your data- or much worse, your system. And if your PC was saving
a file at instant of power failure, the damage could range from the loss of a single file to
the entire contents of the hard disk.

Quality Of Power
Through power plants may produce good quality electricity, what you receive at your
wall outlet is a mess-thanks to upstream users who inject all kinds of noise and
disturbances in to the power lines. And these disturbances have a detrimental effect on
the life of your equipment and its performance.
Power problems can be broadly classified into amplitude (or voltage) related problems
and frequency related ones. In the first category you have blackouts, brown outs,
surges, noise and spikes, while frequency related ones deal with frequency variation
and waveform distortion.

2.1 POWER SUPPLY DISTURBACES

2.11 BROWNOUT OR SAG

2.12 ELECTRICAL SPIKES/IMPULSES
2.13 HARMONICS
2.14 SURGES
2.15 EMI/RFI NOISE
2.16 FREQUENCY INSTBILITY
2.17 BLOAKOUTS

2.11 Brownout or Sag

These are decreases in voltage levels, which can last from a few minutes to many
days. Short duration sags are typically caused by the start-up power demands of heavy
equipment like motors, AC s and Copiers. During summers or other periods of heavy
demand, the state electricity boards may deliberately lower the voltage. Sags can cause
locked keyboards and unexpected system hang-ups. They also reduce the efficiency
and life of electrical equipment.

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Fig 2.1

Solution- Proper rating of the supply side Transformer, Load Management strategies,
Line conditioners, Un interrupted power supplies(UPS)

2.12 Electrical Spike or Impulse

A spike is an instantaneous and dramatic increase in voltage caused by lighting strike
or sudden renewal of power supply. Other reasons for spike are static discharge,
Switching ON/OFF of large Electrical loads etc.,. Depending on the magnitude, it can
cause catastrophic damage to hardware, including burnt motherboards and
components.

Fig .2.2
Solution- Spike Suppressors, Uninterrupted power supplies

2.13 Harmonics
The Sinosoidal waveform is an ideal one. But it is nearly impossible to realize such
waveform in practice. All the waveforms deviate from the ideal shape, Such a waveform
are called non sinusoidal or distorted or complex wave form.

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Complex waveforms are produced due to the superposition of sinusoidal waves of

different frequencies. Fundamental wave (say f=50 hz) other frequencies like 2f,3f and
4f etc., The fundamental and its higher frequencies like 100 Hz, 150 Hz and so on are
called Harmonics.

Complex Waveform(50Hz)

Fundamental (50Hz)
2nd harmonic(100Hz)

3rd Harmonic(150Hz)
Current

Fig 2.3

Fundamental (50Hz)
Complex Waveform(50Hz)

3rd Harmonic(150Hz)

Current 0.02
0.005 0.01

Fig 2.4

This fault in the power line can disrupt the working of many of sensitive electrical/
electronics equipments such as computer, telecommunication devices and medical
devices etc.,

Solution: Filtering Circuits, Specialize transformer, Line conditioners, UnInterrupted

power supply.

2.14 Surge
This is a short-term increase in voltage, typically lasting at least 1/100 of a second.
Surges are generally caused by high-powered electrical motors in AC`s, Lightning
discharge or other equipment switched operation and electrostatic discharge. They can

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range from 50 to 1000 volts any surge imposes a tremendous electrical stress on the
components in the computer.
Since computer manufacturers are aware of power surges and its effect on the PC`s,
they design them to withstand typical surge activity. In fact, a well-designed computer
SMPS (Switched Mode Power Supplies) is intrinsically immune to surges. Surge
suppressors do not eliminate surges they only reduce them in size.

Fig 2.5

Solutions:
Surge suppressors, Isolation transformers, Line conditioners , Uninterrupted power
supply.

2.15 EMI/RFI Noise

More technically called Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Radio Frequency
Interference (RFI). Electrical noise is caused by many factors including load switching,
generators, and industrial equipment. Noise introduces glitches and errors in executable
code and data in the memory of the PC.

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Fig 2.6

Solutions: EMI/RFI Filters

2.16 Frequency instability

The Frequency variation is one more problem in the power supply. This is caused by
load switching, Arcing contacts, machine tools, poor grounding etc

Solution: Constant Voltage and constant Frequency (CVCF), Uninterrupted Power

supply.

2.17 Blackout
this is a total loss of power, which causes an abrupt shutdown of the computer and loss
of current work in RAM or cache. Other effects include a possible loss of FAT (File
Allocation Table) leading to loss of data on disk.

Fig 2.7

Solution: Uninterrupted Power supply, Backup power supply , Generators etc

2.2 POWER CONDITIONERS

2.21 DEFINITION OF POWERCONDITIONER

2.22 DIFFERENT TYPES OF POWERCONDITIONERS

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One way to deal with power related problems is to employ power conditioning
equipment.

2.21 WHAT IS POWERCONDITIONER

The equipments used to regulate the variation of the Voltage, Current, Power
Factor, Frequency and Waveform is called Power conditioner

2.22 DIFFERENT TYPES OF POWERCONDITIONERS

2.22.1 VOLTAGE STABILISERS
2.22.2 HARMONIC FILTER
2.22.3 SPIKE AND SURGE VOLTAGE PROTECTION
2.22.4 EMI/RFI FILTERS
2.22.5 BACKUP POWER SUPPLY (UPS)
2.22.6 POWERFACTOR CORRECTORS

The various devices available for the same are:

a) Voltage Conditioner (voltage Stabilizer)

b) Power factor controller
c) Spike suppressors
d) Surge protectors
e) Harmonic Filters
f) Frequency controller- CVCF
g) Lighting Inverter
h) UN INTERRUPTED POWERSUPPLY(UPS)

2.22.1 Voltage Stabilizers

These are magnetic devices, which alter Voltages. Many transformers –based devices
currently available in the market have AVR (Automatic Voltage Regulation). These kind
of transformers are common in the voltage stabilizers used with refrigerators and ACs.
An improved from of this voltage stabilizers is a servo stabilizers, which uses built –in

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electronics to provide smooth control over the output voltage. Transformers cannot
solve frequency –related problems.

Constant Voltage Transformers (CVT ): These are special grade transformers, which
provide a fixed out put voltage for an extremely wide input range. Since it is based on a
resonating design, it can also modify the input waveform-but not the frequency. The
drawback with this device is that the out put voltage tends to vary with input frequency.
A CVT is ideal for correcting most power quality problems.

Isolation Transformers: Used to electrically isolate the incoming mains and create a
fixed reference voltage or ground. The need for fixed reference is essential for data
communication applications.
Due to the properties of the material used in the design of isolation transformers, high
frequency spikes also get attenuated.

2.22.2 Harmonics Filter

The basic concept
A pure sinusoidal voltage is a conceptual quantity produced by an ideal AC generator
built with finely distributed stator and field windings that operator in a uniform magnetic
field.
Since neither the winding distribution nor the magnetic field is uniform in a working AC
machine, voltage waveform distortions are created and the voltage-time relationship
deviates from the pure sine function. The distortion at the point generation is very small
(about 1to2 percent) but nonetheless it exists. Because this is a deviation from a pure
sine wave, the deviation is in the form of a periodic function, and by definition, the
voltage distortion contains harmonics.

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a certain type of load, the current drawn by the
load is proportional to the voltage and impedance, and follows the envelope of the
voltage waveform. These loads are referred to as linear loads (loads where the voltage
and current follow one another without any distortion to their pure sine waves).
Examples of linear loads are resistive heaters, incandescent lamps, and constant speed
induction and synchronous motors.

In contrast, some loads cause the current to very disproportionately with the voltage
during each half cycle. These loads are classified as non-linear loads. The current and
voltage have waveforms that are non-sinusoidal, containing distortions, whereby the 50
Hz waveform has numerous additional waveforms superimposed upon it, creating
multiple frequencies within the normal 50 Hz sine wave. The multiple frequencies are
harmonics of the fundamental frequency.

Normally, current distortions produce voltage distortions. However, when there is a stiff
sinusoidal voltage source (when there is a low impedance path from the power source,

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which has sufficient capacity so that loads placed upon it will not effect the voltage), you
need to be concerned about current distortions producing voltage distortion.

Examples of non-linear loads are battery charges, electronic ballast variable frequency
drives, and switching mode power supplies. As non-linear currents flow through a
facility’s electrical system and the distribution –transmission lines, additional voltage
distortions are produced due to the impedance associated with the electrical network.
So, as electrical power generated, distributed and used, voltage and current waveform
distortions are produced.

Power systems designed to function at the fundamental frequency, which is 50Hz in

India, are prone to unsatisfactory operation and, at times, failure when subjected to
voltages and currents that contain substantial harmonic frequency elements. Very often,
the operation of electrical equipment may seem normal but under a certain combination
of conditions, the impact of harmonics is enhanced, with damaging results.

The effects
The actual problems any building/ industry will vary, depending on the types and
number of installed harmonic producing loads. Most electrical networks can withstand
non-linear loads of up to 15% of the total; electrical system capacity without concern,
but when non-linear loads exceed 15%, some non-apparent negative consequences
can be expected. For electrical networks that have non-linear loading of more than 25%,
particular problems can be apparent. The following is a short summary of most
problems caused by harmonics.
 Blinking of incandescent lights transformer saturation
 Capacitor failure-harmonic resonance
 Circuit breakers tripping-inductive heating and overload
 Computer malfunction or lockup-voltage distortion
 Conductor failure-inductive heating
 Electronic equipment shutting down- voltage distortion
 Flickering of fluorescent lights-transformer saturation
 Fuses blowing for no apparent reason-inductive heating and overload
 Motor failures (over heating)-voltage drops
 Neutral conductor and terminal failures
 Electromagnetic load failures-inductive heating
 Overheating of metal enclosures-inductive heating
 Power interference on voice communication-harmonic noise
 Transformer failures-inductive heating
The heating effects of harmonic currents can cause destruction of equipments and
conductors and cause fires. The results can have unpredictable legal and financial
ramifications apart from safety risks. Voltage distortions can lead to overheating of
equipment, electronic equipment failure, expensive downtime and maintenance
difficulties. Harmonic current and voltage distortion are becoming the most serve and
complex electrical challenge for the electrical industry. The problems associated with
non-linear loads were once limited to isolated devices and computer rooms, but these
can now appear throughout the network and utility system.

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The solution:
Think of harmonic currents as the symptoms of the common cold- there is no cure but
you can treat the symptoms. Before we apply any treatment or carry out preventive
measures, we must understand these symptoms and their cause.

First step-measurements

Measurements of harmonic currents and voltages at various transformer outputs

and feeder lines:
By using a true RMS meter, an experienced engineer should take measurements at the
various points mentioned above at various load cycles, and with/without power factor
improving capacitive, in the network.

Why an ordinary ammeter can’t be used of measuring harmonic currents:

Standard and normal ammeters are only accurate when measuring 50 Hz loads that
have sinusoidal current waveforms and cannot accurately measure the current of non-
linear loads. The reason is that non-linear loads draw current in a non-sinusoidal
manner, which produces reflective harmonic currents that operate above 50hz; both
these conditions are beyond the meter’s design criteria. When a normal standard
ammeter is used to measure non-linear load current, the result can be inaccurate
readings of as much as 25%to 50% below the actual true- RMS current. As a result, the
actual current of a circuit can exceed the rating of conductors and equipment. The
actual current cannot be detected with the average-responding ammeter!.

In order to perform basic electrical trouble shooting for today’s electrical systems, we
must have an ammeter that provides true-RMS and instantaneous peak current ratings
of the circuit. This meter must have the capacity of measuring the electrical
characteristics of the waveform by sampling many points along the waveform. True-
RMS meters are designed for just that and they are accurate for both simple
(sinusoidal) and complex (non-sinusoidal) alternating and direct current waveforms.
Average response meters are only accurate with simple sinusoidal alternating current
waveforms; not the complex waveforms resulting from non-linear loads.

Second step-a tuned harmonic filter system

Data recorded by the true RMS power analyzer is analyzed and evaluated. If the
harmonics distortion is more than the limit prescribed by the international standard
IEEE-519, 1992, then a tuned filter system is to be installed at the various feeder lines/
load centers.. the filter system basically consists of capacitor banks along with a series
reactor, tuned to the predominant harmonic frequency- beyond the harmonic frequency,
the same will be inductive.

The benefits
 Savings in energy costs
 Reduced kVA demand
 Improved system efficiency
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 Reduces work interruption

 Improved safety
 Enhanced life of electrical systems

2.22.3 SPIKE AND SURGE VOLTAGE PROTECTION

These devices have magnetic and electronic components, which are used diminish high
voltage spikes. They, however, cannot handle high-energy voltage surges. Most spikes
busters have components, which get damage in the process of arresting the spike, so
their utility is suspect after a spike has occurred.

Surge voltages often destroy electronic equipment and systems to a large extent. The
damage is not just restricted to industrial and commercial systems. Building automation
and everyday household appliances are also affected. Without effective protective
measures against surge voltages, you would end up paying a lot towards repairing or
replacing the facilities hit by such surges.
Surge voltages often destroy devices with sensitive electronic circuits. This underscores
the need for protective measures not just in private households but in the commercial or
industrial sector as well. An effective surge voltage protection concept for building
automation/process industries/telecom installations include the fields of power supply,
telephone systems, antenna and receiver stations, data processing and control
technology.
It is of particular importance that all conductors that are connected to a device be
connected with a suitable surge voltage arrestor. almost all devices have power supply
unit. A telecom site, for example, also needs an antenna cable and it is of little
importance whether the antenna signal is taken from an antenna or a broadband cable.
The antenna input and power supply of the telecom site should be protected. Consistent
all –round protection along these lines can be applied to all other devices and systems.
If we consider the total value of the equipment to be protected, the installation of
suitable protective devices usually pays of it prevents the destruction of an electro
technical system or device even ones. As long as the output capacities are not
exceeded, surge voltage protection devices are effective time and again, providing the
user with a considerably higher benefit of system availability and a longer life.

Basics.
Transient surge voltages arise as a result of lightning discharge, switching operations in
electric systems and electrostatic discharge. without protective measures, including
lightning current and surge voltage arrestors, the power involved in a lightning discharge
is too much for even the sturdily built low-voltage power supply of a building or industrial
plant. The surge voltages occur for only brief periods-in the range of millionth second. In
spite of this, very high voltages are capable of destroying electronic circuits or the
insulation between printed circuits.
Even if electric or electronic equipment has passed the voltage resistance test (in
accordance with IEC 61000-4-5 necessary for granting the CE-mark) it is still not
capable of resisting all environmental influences with respect to EMC (electro magnetic
compatibility), without damage.
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Figure :2.8 A low-intensity surge

superimposed on normal AC
supply voltage

In order to prevent surge voltages from destroying electrical systems, all the interfaces
at risk, such as signal inputs and low voltage supplies, must be connected to surge
voltage protection devices. Depending on the application components, such as spark
gaps, gas-filled surge voltage arrestors, varistors and suppressor diodes, are arranged
individually or combined in protective circuits, as the components differ in arresting and
discharging data.

Table1: Equipment effected by surges

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Building automation Office Household Industries

and industry equipment
 Heating  Computer  Dishwasher  DCS
control
 Exterior  Printer  Washing-m/c  PLCs
lighting
 Controller for  Telecom-  Drier  CNCs
central system
control
system
 Air  Photocopie  Refrigerator  VSAT
conditioning r
 Alarm  Antenna  Freezer  Computer
system amplifier control
centers
 Fire alarm  Computer  Microwave  UPS
system
 Video  CB radio  Electric  Process
monitoring system cooker automation
& electronic
instruments
 Process  Video  Telephone
computer recorder system
 Coffee  Television
machine set
 Hifi (high
fidelity)
systems
 Elect.
Musical
instrument

Table 2.1

Protection concept
Efficient protective circuit’ means complete protection against surge voltages. The first
step to be taken in such a protection concepts is to list all the devices and the areas of
the system that need to be protected. This is followed by an evaluation of the level of
protection required for all devices registered. The various types of circuits are
differentiated in the following areas:
 Power supply
 Measurement and control technology (MCR)
 Data processing systems
 Telecommunications

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Transceiver System
One must think of the systems or devises to be protected zone. At all intersections Line
protective circuit surge voltage protective devices should be installed to match the
nominal data of the particular type of circuit or interface of the devices to be protected.
The area within the protective circuit is thus rendered very safe so that surge voltage
coupling from outside is not possible.
The measures required protecting the power supply of systems and devices are divided
into two or three stages depending on the arrestors chosen and the environmental
influences to be expected.
Interfaces in the area of MCR are far more sensitive to surge voltages than power
supply systems. Arrestors with combined protective circuits are hence used for the
protection
These are installed directly before the signal inputs to be protected. This avoids the risk
of surge voltage coupling along the conductor route between the arrestor and the
interface.
The choice of arrestors depends on the type of signal processing, such as two three or
four conductor technology, the maximum signal voltage, the surge voltage withstand
capability and transmission frequency.
The basic circuit is the indirect, i.e. decoupled, parallel circuit consisting of gas filled
surge voltage arrestor, varistor and suppressor diode. A surge arresting capacity of up
to 10 kA with very accurate voltage, limited to extremely low values and very short
response time can thus be archived. Inductivities or ohmic resistors are used for
decoupling.
In protective circuits for the signal inputs of data and tele- communications terminals,
combinations with fast-reacting suppresser diodes and high capacity gas-filled surge
voltage arrestors are used. If required for switching purpose, ohmic resistors are used
as decoupling elements. Interface-specific protective circuits limit surge voltages to such
voltages to such a low value that the residual voltage no longer poses a risk to the
interface. The protective circuit generally functions in both the normal mode and
common mode voltage branch, i.e., between the signal cores to the ground.
Not only must the electrical specifications be observed, but the protective devices must
also be mechanically adapted to the interfaces to be protected. In practice, a large
number of different connection techniques will be encountered. Almost as many
different types of arrestors are available for system-specific solutions.

Causes
Surge voltages usually arise from switching operations in electrical systems and during
electrostatic discharge.
Damage due to electromagnetic interferences in electrical and electronic systems via
lightning discharge is also high on the list of the damage statistics of insurance
company across the globe.
The coupling of surge voltages from one system to another can be galvanic, inductive or
capacitive. Different types of coupling are explained here using the example of a
lightning discharge.

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Galvanic coupling
Surge voltages couple directly from the interferences source to the susceptible
equipment using common impedances.
High lightning current amplitudes a surge voltage at the grounding resistance, which in
turn couples in to the connected lines via the equipotential bus bar. A surge voltage
also occurs along lines carrying lightning currents and due to the fast rise time of the
current, this voltage surge can mainly be traced back to the inductive component
according to the law UL=L di /dt

Inductive coupling
Inductive coupling into a conductor occurs through the magnetic field of another current-
carrying conductor, following the transformers principle.
A directly coupled –in surge current in the affected conductor with high -rise times, di/dt.
At the same time, a correspondingly high magnetic field is built up around this conductor
(primary winding function of transformer). In other conductors ,e.g. for the transmission
of signals that are within the range of the magnetic field, a voltage or surge voltage is
induced (secondary winding function of a transformer). The surge voltage reaches the
connected equipment along the conductor.

Capacitive coupling
Capacitive coupling –in always occurs via the electric field between two points with a
high potential difference.
A high load is generated in a conductive part or operating equipment, i.e., the lightning
rod of a lightning arrestor, as result of a strike by lightning. An electrical field is created
between operating equipments and other parts with a lower potential ; e.g. a conductor
for the power supply or signal transmission within the building. The voltage between
operating equipment and parts with lower potential strives to equalise and there is a
charge transfer. This leads either to an increase in voltage or to a surge voltage in the
conductor affected and the equipment connected to it.

Damage
Surge voltages considerably endanger or destroy electric &electronic installations. As a
result, the frequency of damage have risen significantly in the past years.
Damage to or destruction of equipment frequently occurs at precisely the moment when
one is dependent on permanent availability. A part from the costs for replacement or
repairs, further costs are caused as result of the downtime of the system parts or even
due to the loss of software and data.
In general, the damage is manifested in destroyed conductors, PCB’s or switchgear and
even obvious mechanical damage to the building installation.
How much energy can your equipment stand without damage? How much damage will
a power surge cause? That depends on the magnitude of the surge voltage and on the
kind of equipment and/or components it reaches. For example, heavy industrial
equipment can withstand far greater surge energy with minimal or no damage
compared to more sensitive electronic and computer- controlled systems. The
increasing integration of electronic circuits on to smaller packages has led to an
increased sensitivity to transient voltage conditions. Damage to integrated circuits isn’t
always immediately destructive Dissipative and disruptive damages are also costly
effects of surge events. The figure of the frequency of damage caused by surge
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voltages have been considerably higher in recent years. Damage to or destruction of

equipment frequently occurs at precisely the moment when one is dependent on its
permanent availability. On top of the purchase of new equipment, or repair work, further
costs are incurred as a result of down times of the affected parts of the systems or even
as a result of the loss of data.

IB

RE UE = RE X I B

Surge path through building

Fig 2.9

IB

Surge path through building and conductors

Fig 2.10

Disruptive: symptoms include confused logic, lost files data stream disruption and/or
corruption , system lock-up. Disruptive effects are commonplace to most computer
users but are generally blamed on software or hardware problems.

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IB

Capacitive Coupling

Fig 2.11

Dissipative: symptoms include little or no visible damage, but components will not
function properly. ‘Bad IC’s’ are usually the diagnosis.
Dissipative effects are the cumulative result of electronic stress usually caused by
internally generated, lower energy, but constantly present switching events.

Destructive: symptoms include very visible damage such as burnt boards, traces and
components are literally blown of the board. Wire insulation is welted and metallic
parts get deformed. Destructive effects are generally associated with severe impulse
(lightning activity) events.

Waveform and surge energy:

The latest test standards such as the VDE (German standard), International Electronic
Commission (IEC), etc, address the long duration lightning energies and switching
surge energies that occur naturally. A surge current pulse is defined by the time taken
by the surge to reach its maximum value and then the time taken by the surge to reach
half of the maximum value. The surges created due lightning effects are primarily
treated as 10/350us. Similarly the switching surges are addressed by a waveform
reaching the peak in 8us, coming down to half value in 20 us. Hence these two
parameters, i.e. amplitude and the waveform of the surge, are incomplete without each
other. So graphically, the area under the curve is the damaging energy content of a
surge. If we compare the level of energy between the 15 KA 8/20 us switching surges
and the 25KA 10/350us lightning impulses, we would find that the latter yields many
times more surge energy.

Existing technology to combat surges:

A number of surge voltage limiting components are used today protect system
equipment from damage. During a surge arresting process, a discharge current of many
thousand amperes can occur. At the same time a surge protective device is often
expected to limit the output voltage to a minimum despite the high discharge current.
For these reasons components, such as gas- filled surge voltage arrestors, varistors
and diodes , are used in a protective module.
All these technologies have specific advantages /characteristics that differ according to;

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 Savings in energy costs

 Continues operating voltage
 Surge arresting capacity
 Voltage level protection level
 Operating behaviour

Protection requirements

Power supply protection. The necessary surge voltage protection for power is basically
a multi-stage protection concept. Lightning current arrestors, surge voltage arrestors
and equipment protection are needed for power supply. The first protection stage for a
power supply is created with a spark gap-based lightning current arrestor either placed
at the entrance of a building or in the main distribution or meter board. Further, they
may also be placed in sub-distribution areas, such as a floor distribution board or
connection boxes of large electronic system. The MOV-based surge voltage arrestor is
generally installed as the second stage of protection. The MOV-based arrestor is made
of zinc oxide fragments compressed under very high pressure and has disconnection
and indication elements. The third stage of equipment protection is surge voltage
arrestor where disconnection and indication can be used immediately before the
equipment.

Data/communication line protection. Interfaces in the area of data/telecommunication

lines are significantly equally sensitive as the power supply input of the terminal
equipment. The most common occurrences are near by lightning strikes, which effect
data lines through induction. Fine protection for the data interface is hence very
necessary. Arrestors for applications have to fulfill the electrical and mechanical
requirements of the corresponding interface. Industrial transients caused by the
switching and commuting of electrical motors and electrostatic discharges are other
sources of electrical surges that can cause problems in PLCs Muxs, Hubs, RTUs,
SCADA, telemetry equipment, etc. these events may cause burnt-line cards, loss of
memory, problems in retrieving data, altered data and garbling. So protection devices
that are adapted to the given transmission standards of the interfaces to be protected,
should be installed.

Antenna line protection. Antenna lines entering transmission equipment are considered
to be particularly susceptible to surge voltages due lightning. Antenna cables that
extend beyond a building are generally long. Also, the antennae themselves are directly
exposed to atmospheric discharges. Hence surge arrestors, with specific connectors
and frequency bandwidth, are used for the protection of antenna lines.

Signal line protection. For the protection of control and signal lines, surge arrestor
should be chosen as per the specifications of the signals that are being transmitted
through these lines. this is important because when the right surge arrestor is used,
once inserted in the line it does not change or attenuate the original signals going in to
the system. Protective devices with a connection technique, which suit the system, are
installed before the control cables from system, for analogue as well as digital signal
lines.

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Why are power surges dangerous?

Power surges are transient voltages or currents that exceed the electrical limits of a
system or equipment. These surges are often caused by lightning discharges or man-
made interferences such as inductive load switching and power grid switching.
Lightning can cause power surges in several ways. In some cases, lightning may
directly hit an installation. More commonly, however, near by lightning strikes induce
transient /surge conditions on to electrical circuits, which can damage electronic
equipment.

SN/KA

25
10/350

15
12.5

7.5 s
8/20s
s
8 20
10 100 200 300 400

Peak Pulse Test curve kilo amps vs time (s)

Fig 2.12

For example, when lightning strikes cloud-to-cloud, the discharge creates a sudden
change in the surrounding electric field, which can induce damaging voltage on to
power and signal lines, which may be located miles away from the flash.

When lightning strikes cloud- to- cloud, the resulting charge travels along the earth.
These current transients from a nearby strike can end up traveling through a building’s /
factory’s external cables, causing power surges within the building/ plant.

Surge voltages from lightning can ultimately reach any electronic equipment through
such pathways as power lines, data lines and signal lines. Therefore, all cable routs into
a plant must be considered when protecting from transient surges. Examples include
field-mounted instrumentation and control systems, RTU ’s security and fire alarm
systems, and SCADA systems, computer servers, UPS systems, etc.

In addition, facilities often experience large voltage transients when inductive loads are
switched. If unprotected, this can lead to premature equipment interruption and eventual
damage resulting in costly downtime and repairs.

The AVR, UPS, isolation transformers are used with a belief that the surges come from
external sources only, i.e. through the power utility, and they are able to filter the same.
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But the facts are as follows:

Most of this equipment is suitable for over –voltage events occurring in millisecond
ranges or above, but is not suited for the commonly occurring surge voltages that occur
in microsecond time periods.

A majority of the surges are generated by the operation of the consumer’s external load
equipment and often bounce between the transformers and the inductive loads within
the consumer’s distribution system, due to which even the UPS systems can get
premature failures.

Surge Voltage often destroy electronic equipment and system to a large extent. In
ordered to prevent surge voltages from destroying electrical systems, all the interfaces
at risk, such as signal inputs and low voltage supplies, must be connected to surge
voltage protection devices. Depending on the application components, such as spark
gaps, gas filled surge voltage arrestors, varistors and suppressor diodes, are arranged
individually or combined in protective circuits, as the components differ in arresting and
discharging data.

2.22.4 EMI/RFI NOISE FILTER

In the use of Inverters, several types of emission may be generated on the power line.
These might include low-order harmonics, or EMI/RFI noise. To provide a complete
power line noise solution, frequencies from the 50Hz power line and above must be
considered. This includes EMI/RFI noise in the 150kHz to 30MHz band which may
interfere with TV’s, radios, computers, meters and controllers.
EMI/RFI Noise Reduction
Inverters produce noise in the 150kHz to 30MHz band, primarily contained in the
switching edges of the PWM controller. To reduce noise in that band, a filter containing
a combination of high frequency inductors and capacitors may be utilized. To put it
simply, inductors act as open circuits and the capacitors act as short circuits at high
frequencies while passing the lower power line frequencies untouched. Thus the noise
must pass through a nearly open circuit and what little gets through is then shorted out.
Together, these parts can decrease noise to less that one one-thousandth (-60dB) of its
original value in the critical band. The following graphic demonstrates basic operation.

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Fig 2.13

Design Challenges
Reducing EMI/RFI (Electromagnetic/Radio-frequency Interference) noise using filtering
technologies presents significant design challenges. Since high frequency energy can
"jump" around components and travel along leads, filter designers must use high
permeability ferrites, specialty capacitors, short, large diameter leads and small
enclosures. As Inverters produce noise primarily on the line with respect to ground,
designers should focus on what is called "Common Mode" insertion loss. A 60dB-noise
reduction from 150kHz to 30MHz should provide enough EMI/RFI noise reduction in the
noted frequency band to limit the disturbance of other equipment on the power line.

Compliance to Noise Standards

Considering equipment disturbances that EMI conducted emissions can cause,
industrial power line noise standards have been established worldwide. Among these
are the American FCC15 subpart J class A, German VDE0871A and European
CISPR11A and B (CE-EMI Directive) specifications.

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Fig 2.14

Although each specification limits noise in a range, an overview shows that the main
focus is on frequencies from 150kHz to 30MHz with a noise maximum of around 66dBm
V (2mV) on the power line. A filter would need to bring noise signals down in the order
of 2V down to the critical 2mV level. 

To do this, a 1000:1 (60dB) reduction ratio is needed. This can be illustrated in a highly
simplified model. If a 600V source is providing 16A, it has an effective impedance of
600/16=38 ohm . If the noise on the power line is 2V, then the noise current can be
represented as 2/38=0.05A. The noise current to total current ratio is 0.05/16=0.33%.
An effective filter would have a minimum insertion loss of 60dB into an ideal 50ohm
resistor to match the reduction ratio needed and would be designed to accommodate a
noise current ratio of 2-3%. This could theoretically provide 60dB reduction for up to a
15V line noise which could result in as large as a 15A noise current for a similarly
designed 600A filter. One should choose filters with generous design margins to help
reduce even the most difficult noise to meet world noise standards.

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Fig 2.15

Correct Filter Application

An EMI/RFI filter will be most effective when installed correctly. Although the filter
reduces noise on the power lines (conducted emissions), it should be located as close
as practical to the drive to reduce broadcasting of the noise (radiated emissions) from
the power lines themselves. As noise is shorted to ground through the capacitors, that
short must be maintained by good grounding of the filter. A short, heavy, stranded
conductor from the filter chassis to the drive’s main ground bus can achieve this. 

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Fig 2.16
A battery braid, Litz wire, or flexible welding cable with many fine strands is
recommended for best grounding performance. Radiation of noise is also a concern for
power line routing as it can effectively bypass the filter. Input and output filter leads
should be separated by a maximum practical distance within enclosures and should be
routed separately in interconnecting conduits when used.

A combination of good grounding and input/output lead separation will assure the best
possible filter operation.

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Fig 2.17

Part of the Complete Solution

As transistors in drives switch at higher frequencies, drives will come down in size and
price. However, EMI/RFI emissions and the filtering technologies to address them are
an important concern in good drive installations. EMI/RFI filters will become a part of the
complete drive system. They will reduce power line emissions and interference
associated with drives by reducing noise to limits that will not disturb nearby equipment
and allow for compliance with agency guidelines.

2.22.5 Uninterrupted Power Supply (UPS)

These devices provide backup power during power failures, and the more sophisticated
ones provide power conditioning too. UPS is also normally regarded as the ultimate
solution to power problems. Refer chapter 6 for more details

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2.22.6 Power Factor corrector:

Power factor is the ratio between the KW and the KVA drawn by an electrical load
where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a
measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and
more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of
the supply system.

All current will causes losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a power
factor of 1.0 results in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power
factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system.
A poor power factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference between
the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it can be due to a high harmonic
content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform.
Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an
induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace.
A distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive,
switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.

A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power
factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform requires
an change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable
improvement. Many inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95
when in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is
based on the Cosine of the angle between the voltage and current but does not take
into account that the current waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to
increased losses on the supply.

Power Factor Correction.

Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include induction
motors as a means of reducing the inductive component of the current and
thereby reduce the losses in the supply. There should be no effect on the
operation of the motor itself.
  An induction motor draws current from the supply, that is made up of resistive
components and inductive components. The resistive components are:
    1)  Load current.
    2)  Loss current.
and the inductive components are:
    3)  Leakage reactance.
    4)  Magnetizing current.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 2.18

The current due to the leakage reactance is dependant on the total current drawn by the
motor, but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The
magnetizing current will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current
of the motor. The magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron
and is very necessary if the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current does not
actually contribute to the actual work output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the
motor to work properly. The magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be
considered passenger components of current that will not affect the power drawn by the
motor, but will contribute to the power dissipated in the supply and distribution system.
Take for example a motor with a current draw of 100 Amps and a power factor of 0.75
The resistive component of the current is 75 Amps and this is what the KWh meter
measures. The higher current will result in an increase in the distribution losses of (100
x 100) /(75 x 75) = 1.777  or a 78% increase in the supply losses.
  In the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power factor correction
is added to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the motor. Typically, the
corrected power factor will be 0.92 - 0.95  Some power retailers offer incentives for
operating with a power factor of better than 0.9, while others penalize consumers with a
poor power factor. There are many ways that this is metered, but the net result is that in
order to reduce wasted energy in the distribution system, the consumer will be
encouraged to apply power factor correction.
    Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the
connected motor circuits and can be applied at the starter, or applied at the switchboard
or distribution panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to
cancel the lagging inductive current flowing from the supply.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 2.19

Capacitors connected at each starter and controlled by each starter is known as "Static
Power Factor Correction" while capacitors connected at a distribution board and
controlled independently from the individual starters is known as "Bulk Correction".

Bulk Correction.
The Power factor of the total current supplied to the distribution board is monitored by a
controller which then switches capacitor banks In a fashion to maintain a power factor
better than a preset limit. (Typically 0.95) Ideally, the power factor should be as close to
unity as possible. There is no problem with bulk correction operating at unity.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 2.20

Static Correction.
As a large proportion of the inductive or lagging current on the supply is due to the
magnetizing current of induction motors, it is easy to correct each individual motor by
connecting the correction capacitors to the motor starters. With static correction, it is
important that the capacitive current is less than the inductive magnetizing current of the
induction motor. In many installations employing static power factor correction, the
correction capacitors are connected directly in parallel with the motor windings. When
the motor is Off Line, the capacitors are also Off Line. When the motor is connected to
the supply, the capacitors are also connected providing correction at all times that the
motor is connected to the supply. This removes the requirement for any expensive
power factor monitoring and control equipment. In this situation, the capacitors remain
connected to the motor terminals as the motor slows down. An induction motor, while
connected to the supply, is driven by a rotating magnetic field in the stator which
induces current into the rotor. When the motor is disconnected from the supply, there is
for a period of time, a magnetic field associated with the rotor. As the motor decelerates,
it generates voltage out its terminals at a frequency which is related to it's speed. The
capacitors connected across the motor terminals, form a resonant circuit with the motor
inductance. If the motor is critically corrected, (corrected to a power factor of 1.0) the
inductive reactance equals the capacitive reactance at the line frequency and therefore
the resonant frequency is equal to the line frequency. If the motor is over corrected, the
resonant frequency will be below the line frequency. If the frequency of the voltage
generated by the decelerating motor passes through the resonant frequency of the
corrected motor, there will be high currents and voltages around the motor/capacitor
circuit. This can result in severe damage to the capacitors and motor. It is imperative
that motors are never over corrected or critically corrected when static correction is
employed.
Static power factor correction should provide capacitive current equal to 80% of the
magnetizing current, which is essentially the open shaft current of the motor.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

The magnetizing current for induction motors can vary considerably. Typically,
magnetizing currents for large two pole machines can be as low as 20% of the rated
current of the motor while smaller low speed motors can have a magnetizing current as
high as 60% of the rated full load current of the motor. It is not practical to use a
"Standard table" for the correction of induction motors giving optimum correction on all
motors. Tables result in under correction on most motors but can result in over
correction in some cases. Where the open shaft current can not be measured, and the
magnetizing current is not quoted, an approximate level for the maximum correction that
can be applied can be calculated from the half load characteristics of the motor. It is
dangerous to base correction on the full load characteristics of the motor as in some
cases, motors can exhibit a high leakage reactance and correction to 0.95 at full load
will result in over correction under no load, or disconnected conditions.

Fig 2.21

Static correction is commonly applied by using on e contactor to control both the motor
and the capacitors. It is better practice to use two contactors, one for the motor and one
for the capacitors. Where one contactor is employed, it should be up sized for the
capacitive load. The use of a second contactor eliminates the problems of resonance
between the motor and the capacitors.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 2.22

Inverter Source
Static Power factor correction must not be used when the motor is controlled by a
variable speed drive or inverter. The connection of capacitors to the output of an
inverter can cause serious damage to the inverter and the capacitors due to the high
frequency switched voltage on the output of the inverters.
The current drawn from the inverter has a poor power factor, particularly at low load, but
the motor current is isolated from the supply by the inverter. The phase angle of the
current drawn by the inverter from the supply is close to zero resulting in very low
inductive current irrespective of what the motor is doing. The inverter does not however,
operate with a good power factor. Many inverter manufacturers quote a cos Ø of better
than 0.95 and this is generally true, however the current is non sinusoidal and the
resultant harmonics cause a power factor (KW/KVA) of closer to 0.7 depending on the
input design of the inverter. Inverters with input reactors and DC bus reactors will exhibit
a higher true power factor than those without.
The connection of capacitors close to the input of the inverter can also result in damage
to the inverter. The capacitors tend to cause transients to be amplified, resulting in
higher voltage impulses applied to the input circuits of the inverter, and the energy
behind the impulses is much greater due to the energy storage of the capacitors. It is
recommended that capacitors should be at least 75 Meters away from inverter inputs to
elevate the impedance between the inverter and capacitors and reduce the potential
damage caused.
Switching capacitors, Automatic bank correction etc, will cause voltage transients and
these transients can damage the input circuits of inverters. The energy is proportional to
the amount of capacitance being switched. It is better to switch lots of small amounts of
capacitance than few large amounts.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Solid State Soft Starter

Static Power Factor correction capacitors must not be connected to the output of a
solid state soft starter. When a solid state soft starter is used, the capacitors must be
controlled by a separate contactor, and switched in when the soft starter output voltage
has reached line voltage. Many soft starters provide a "top of ramp" or "bypass
contactor control" which can be used to control the power factor correction capacitors.
The connection of capacitors close to the input of the soft starter can also result in
damage to the soft starter if an isolation contactor is not used. The capacitors tend to
cause transients to be amplified, resulting in higher voltage impulses applied to the
SCRs of the Soft Starter, and the energy behind the impulses is much greater due to
the energy storage of the capacitors. It is recommended that capacitors should be at
least 50 Meters away from Soft starters to elevate the impedance between the inverter
and capacitors and reduce the potential damage caused.
Switching capacitors, Automatic bank correction etc, will cause voltage transients and
these transients can damage the SCRs of Soft Starters if they are in the Off state
without an input contactor. The energy is proportional to the amount of capacitance
being switched. It is better to switch lots of small amounts of capacitance than few large
amounts.

Fig 2.23

Capacitor selection.
Static Power factor correction must neutralize no more than 80% of the magnetizing
current of the motor. If the correction is too high, there is a high probability of over
correction which can result in equipment failure with severe damage to the motor and
capacitors. Unfortunately, the magnetizing current of induction motors varies
considerably between different motor designs. The magnetizing current is almost
always higher than 20% of the rated full load current of the motor, but can be as high as
60% of the rated current of the motor. Most power factor correction is too light due to

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

the selection based on tables which have been published by a number of sources.
These tables assume the lowest magnetizing current and quote capacitors for this
current. In practice, this can mean that the correction is often less than half the value
that it should be, and the consumer is unnecessarily penalized.
Power factor correction must be correctly selected based on the actual motor being
corrected. The Busbar software provides two methods of calculating the correct value of
KVAR correction to apply to a motor. The first method requires the magnetizing current
of the motor. Where this figure is available, then this is the preferred method. Where the
magnetizing current is not available, the second method is employed and is based on
the half load power factor and efficiency of that motor. These figures are available from
the motor data sheets.
For example:
Motor A is a 200 KW 6 pole motor with a magnetizing current of 124A. From tables, the
correction applied would be 37KVAR. From the calculations, this would require a
correction of 68.7 KVAR
Motor B is a 375KW 2 pole motor with a half load efficiency of 93.9% and a half load
power factor of 0.805, the correction recommended by the tables is 44 KVAR while the
calculations reveal that the correction should be 81.3KVAR

Busbar.exe is a shareware program which means that you can try it before you buy it.
You can freely distribute copies to anyone you please, but if you find it to be useful, as
I'm sure you will, then you must purchase it at $NZ35.00 Registered copies of Busbar
will be eligible for continued updates, and registered users will be advised of all major
upgrades as they become available.
Static Power factor correction can be calculated from known motor characteristics for
any given motor, either the magnetizing current and supply voltage (method 1) or half
load efficiency and half load power factor(method 2), or, as a last resort, table values
can be used. These will almost always result in under correction.
 
Bulk power factor correction can be calculated from known existing power factor,
required new power-factor, line voltage and line current.
 

Supply Harmonics.

Harmonics on the supply cause a higher current to flow in the capacitors. This is
because the impedance of the capacitors goes down as the frequency goes up. This
increase in current flow through the capacitor will result in additional heating of the
capacitor and reduce it's life. The harmonics are caused by many non linear loads, the
most common in the industrial market today, are the variable speed controllers and
switch mode power supplies. Harmonic voltages can be reduced by the use of a
harmonic compensator, which is essentially a large inverter that cancels out the
harmonics. This is an expensive option. Passive harmonic filters comprising resistors,
inductors and capacitors can also be used to reduce harmonic voltages. This is also an
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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

expensive exercise.
In order to reduce the damage caused to the capacitors by the harmonic currents, it is
becoming common today to install detuning reactors in series with the power factor
correction capacitors. These reactors are designed to make the correction circuit
inductive to the higher frequency harmonics. Typically, a reactor would be designed to
create a resonant circuit with the capacitors above the third harmonic, but sometimes it
is below. (Never tuned to a harmonic frequency!!) Adding the inductance in series with
the capacitors will reduce their effective capacitance at the supply frequency. Reducing
the resonant or tuned frequency will reduce the effective capacitance further. The object
is to make the circuit look as inductive as possible at the 5th harmonic and higher, but
as capacitive as possible at the fundamental frequency. Detuning reactors will also
reduce the chance of the tuned circuit formed by the capacitors and the inductive supply
being resonant on a supply harmonic frequency, thereby reducing damage due to
supply resonance amplifying harmonic voltages caused by non linear loads.

Supply Resonance.
Capacitive Power factor correction connected to a supply causes resonance between
the supply and the capacitors. If the fault current of the supply is very high, the effect of
the resonance will be minimal, however in a rural installation where the supply is very
inductive and can be a high impedance, the resonance`s can be very severe resulting in
major damage to plant and equipment. Voltage surges and transients of several times
the supply voltage are not uncommon in rural areas with weak supplies, especially
when the load on the supply is low. As with any resonant system, a transient or sudden
change in current will result in the resonant circuit ringing, generating a high voltage.
The magnitude of the voltage is dependant on the 'Q' of the circuit, which in turn is a
function of the circuit loading. One of the problems with supply resonance is that the
'reaction' is often well remove from the 'stimulus' unlike a pure voltage drop problem due
to an overloaded supply. This makes fault finding very difficult and often damaging
surges and transients on the supply are treated as 'just one of those things'.
To minimize supply resonance problems, there are a few steps that can be taken, but
they do need to be taken by all on the particular supply.
1) Minimize the amount of power factor correction, particularly when the load is light.
The power factor correction minimizes losses in the supply. When the supply is lightly
loaded, this is not such a problem.
2) Minimize switching transients. Eliminate open transition switching - usually
associated with generator plants and alternative supply switching, and with some
electromechanical starters such as the star/delta starter.
3) Switch capacitors on to the supply in lots of small steps rather than a few large steps.
4) Switch capacitors on o the supply after the load has been applied and switch off the
supply before or with the load removal.

Harmonic Power Factor correction is not applied to circuits that

draw either discontinuous or distorted current waveforms.
Most electronic equipment includes a means of creating a DC supply. This involves
rectifying the AC voltage, causing harmonic currents. In some cases, these harmonic
currents are insignificant relative to the total load current drawn, but in many
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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

installations, a large proportion of the current drawn is rich in harmonics. If the total
harmonic current is large enough, there will be a resultant distortion of the supply
waveform which can interfere with the correct operation of other equipment. The
addition of harmonic currents results in increased losses in the supply.
Power factor correction for distorted supplies can not be achieved by the addition of
capacitors. The harmonics can be reduced by designing the equipment using active
rectifiers, by the addition of passive filters (LCR) or by the addition of electronic power
factor correction inverters which restore the waveform back to its undistorted state. This
is a specialist area requiring either major design changes, or specialized equipment to
be used.

Power factor is the ration between the KW and the KVA drawn by an electrical load
where the KW is the actual load power and the KVA is the apparent load power. It is a
measure of how effectively the current is being converted into useful work output and
more particularly is a good indicator of the effect of the load current on the efficiency of
the supply system.

All current will causes losses in the supply and distribution system. A load with a power
factor of 1.0 results in the most efficient loading of the supply and a load with a power
factor of 0.5 will result in much higher losses in the supply system.
A poor power factor can be the result of either a significant phase difference between
the voltage and current at the load terminals, or it can be due to a high harmonic
content or distorted/discontinuous current waveform.
Poor load current phase angle is generally the result of an inductive load such as an
induction motor, power transformer, lighting ballasts, welder or induction furnace.
A distorted current waveform can be the result of a rectifier, variable speed drive,
switched mode power supply, discharge lighting or other electronic load.

A poor power factor due to an inductive load can be improved by the addition of power
factor correction, but, a poor power factor due to a distorted current waveform requires
an change in equipment design or expensive harmonic filters to gain an appreciable
improvement. Many inverters are quoted as having a power factor of better than 0.95
when in reality, the true power factor is between 0.5 and 0.75. The figure of 0.95 is
based on the Cosine of the angle between the voltage and current but does not take
into account that the current waveform is discontinuous and therefore contributes to
increased losses on the supply.

Power Factor Correction.

Capacitive Power Factor correction is applied to circuits which include induction
motors as a means of reducing the inductive component of the current and
thereby reduce the losses in the supply. There should be no effect on the
operation of the motor itself.
  An induction motor draws current from the supply, that is made up of resistive
components and inductive components. The resistive components are:
    1)  Load current.
    2)  Loss current.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

and the inductive components are:

    3)  Leakage reactance.
    4)  Magnetizing current.

Fig 2.24

The current due to the leakage reactance is dependant on the total current drawn by the
motor, but the magnetizing current is independent of the load on the motor. The
magnetizing current will typically be between 20% and 60% of the rated full load current
of the motor. The magnetizing current is the current that establishes the flux in the iron
and is very necessary if the motor is going to operate. The magnetizing current does not
actually contribute to the actual work output of the motor. It is the catalyst that allows the
motor to work properly. The magnetizing current and the leakage reactance can be
considered passenger components of current that will not affect the power drawn by the
motor, but will contribute to the power dissipated in the supply and distribution system.
Take for example a motor with a current draw of 100 Amps and a power factor of 0.75
The resistive component of the current is 75 Amps and this is what the KWh meter
measures. The higher current will result in an increase in the distribution losses of (100
x 100) /(75 x 75) = 1.777  or a 78% increase in the supply losses.
  In the interest of reducing the losses in the distribution system, power factor correction
is added to neutralize a portion of the magnetizing current of the motor. Typically, the
corrected power factor will be 0.92 - 0.95  Some power retailers offer incentives for
operating with a power factor of better than 0.9, while others penalize consumers with a
poor power factor. There are many ways that this is metered, but the net result is that in
order to reduce wasted energy in the distribution system, the consumer will be
encouraged to apply power factor correction.
    Power factor correction is achieved by the addition of capacitors in parallel with the
connected motor circuits and can be applied at the starter, or applied at the switchboard
or distribution panel. The resulting capacitive current is leading current and is used to
cancel the lagging inductive current flowing from the supply.

48
 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 2.25

Capacitors connected at each starter and controlled by each starter is known as "Static
Power Factor Correction" while capacitors connected at a distribution board and
controlled independently from the individual starters is known as "Bulk Correction".

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

3. SWITCHGEAR

3.1 INTRODUCTION
3.2 CIRCUIT BREAKERS
3.3 RELAYS
3.4 CONTACTORS
3.5 FUSES

3.1 INTRODUCTION

3.11 DEFINITION
3.12 MEDIUM VOLTAGE SWITCHGEAR
3.13 CIRCUIT INTRUPTERS
3.14 FUSES
3.15 LIGHTNING ARRESTORS
3.16 PROTECTIVE RELAYS
3.17 ALARMS
3.18 INERLOCKS

Switchgear is a general term covering switching and interrupting devices that control,
meter, and protect the flow of electric power. The component parts include circuit
breakers, instrument transformers, transfer switches, voltage regulators, instruments,
and protective relays and devices. Switchgear includes associated interconnections and
supporting or enclosing structures. The various configurations range in size from a
single panel to an assembly of panels and enclosures. The latter is normally
constructed into cubicles with a circuit interrupter in one and auxiliary equipment in the
others. It is then normally connected to a transformer. Equipment rated up to 1000 volts
alternating current (AC) is classed as low voltage. Equipment equal to or greater than
1000 volts but less than 100,000 volts AC is classed as medium voltage.

3.12 Medium voltage switchgear

Major elements of medium voltage switchgear are circuit breakers, potential
transformers, current transformers, and control circuits. Construction of circuit breakers
employed in the two types of switchgear and the methods to accomplish breaker
tripping are the primary differences. The service entrance conductors and main bus are

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

typical heavy-duty conductors rated for use between 601 volts AC and 38,000 volts AC,
as required.

3.13 Circuit interrupters

These interrupters can be air circuit breakers, arc interrupters, vacuum circuit breakers,
or oil circuit breakers. Some can be removed from their cubicle while others must be
checked in place.

3.14 Fuses
High voltage fuses can provide current or non-current limiting features. Their use can
be dictated by the manufacturer or end user requirements. Available types are sand
filled, liquid filled, or vented expulsion type.

3.15 Lightning (surge) arrestors

Arrestors are provided to pass high energy surges directly to ground thereby protecting
the other electrical equipment downstream.

3.16 Protective relays

Protective relays provide quick isolation of power systems under fault conditions. They
can detect over current, over voltage, under-voltage, current balance, current flow,
frequency, and impedance.

3.17 Alarms
Various alarms available are transformer over temperature, high or low pressure, circuit
breaker trip, ground fault, or switchgear over temperature.

3.18 Interlocks
Interlocks are provided for personnel safety to prevent operation of equipment in an
unsafe manner.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

3.2 CIRCUIT BREAKERS

3.21 MINIATURE CIRCUIT BREAKER(MCB)

3.22 MOULDED CIRCUIT BREAKER(MCCB)
3.23 AIR CIRCUIT BREAKERS (ACB)

Circuit breakers are a special form of switching mechanism, which can open and close
circuits under both normal and abnormal conditions. When they are electrically
controlled, they can be operated locally or remotely, or by both modes. Oil, SF6,
vacuum, and air are the insulating mediums used on most installations. The selection of
the insulation generally relates to the voltage level being interrupted. Usually the air
circuit breakers have draw-out construction. This feature permits removal of an
individual breaker from the switchgear enclosure for inspection or maintenance without
de-energizing the main bus.

a. High-voltage breakers. Until recently most installed high-voltage circuit breakers were
of the oil-insulated type. However, the use of SF6 gas insulated units is increasing as
these take less space for a given voltage and are environmentally preferable.

b. Medium-voltage breakers. Newly installed medium-voltage switchgear utilizes

vacuum construction which provides a considerable space saving over air-magnetic
units.

3.21 Miniature Circuit Breakers

Description

Thermal-magnetic miniature circuit breakers (MCBs) offer superior supplemental

overload and short circuit protection. In the applications for which they are designed,
they give you the best combination of small size, modularity and current limitation
available today.

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 3.1

The Power factor of the total current supplied to the distribution board is monitored by a
controller which then switches capacitor banks In a fashion to maintain a power factor
better than a preset limit. (Typically 0.95) Ideally, the power factor should be as close to

Mini circuit breaker is mainly suitable for overload and short circuit protection. It is
especially used for illumination and distribution in industry and commerce. It has the
charateristic of pleasing outlook & high breaking capacity. It’s frame and parts adopts
plastic of light weight, reliable performance, high inflammable resistance and shock
resistance that is for long service life. It is mainly used for overload and short circuit
protection in the circuit of AC50/60Hz,rated voltage of single pole up to 230V,two ,three
or four pole up to 400V.It can also be used for infrequent switch over of the circuit and
illumination under normal conditions

Miniature circuit breakers are physically small and protect relatively low amperages:
usually 10 - 63A. They are available in 1, 2, and 3-poles, and used in 240V, and 415V.
They usually have a toggle operating mechanism for manual disconnect and to show
the breaker status.

Features and Benefits

 Current limiting design
 Compact size
 DIN rail mounting for easy, flexible installation
 Choice of instantaneous trip characteristics
 AC and DC models

Applications
 Power supplies/UPS
 PLC I/O points
 Lighting circuits Solenoids
 Relay/contactor coils
 Appliances
 Control circuits
 Motor circuits

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

Fig 3.2

The Power factor of the total current supplied to the distribution board is monitored by a
controller which then switches capacitor banks In a fashion to maintain a power factor
better than a preset limit. (Typically 0.95) Ideally, the power factor should be as close to

Product Scope
 Molded Case
 Thermal Magnetic Trip
 Din rail mounting
 AC & DC

International standards required by world-wide markets, including EN60898, IEC 947-2

and VDE 0641 part 11

Hydraulic/Magnetic Circuit Breakers

The M-Series miniature hydraulic/magnetic circuit breakers are designed for those
demanding applications where space, aesthetics and snap-in front panel mounting are
important. These circuit breakers are available in a choice of rocker actuator styles and

Fig 3.3

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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

colors, including paddle and baton style handle actuators, push-to-reset and push-pull
pushbutton actuators, Visi-Rocker two color actuators as well as non-illuminated or
illuminated rocker versions with LED or neon bulbs. The exclusive Rockerguard bezel
helps prevent inadvertent actuation. Wiping contact design insures long term reliability.
Various styling options allow design flexibility. M Series circuit breakers are offered in 1
& 2 poles, 0.02 to 30 amps, up to 250VAC or 80VDC. They are available with a choice
of time delays, terminals, panel hardware, actuator styles, colors, & imprinting.

3.22 Moulded Circuit Breaker

MCCB, in which a circuit breaker and trip device are assembled in a mould case, can
manually or electrically open and close the electric circuit. MCCB can automatically cut
off electric power in case of overload and short circuit.

A cutaway view of the molded case circuit breaker is shown in Figure 3.4

 Cutaway View of Molded Case Circuit Breaker A  circuit  can  be  connected  or
disconnected  using  a  circuit  breaker  by  manually  moving  the operating handle to
the ON or OFF position.  All breakers, with the exception of very small ones, have a
linkage between the operating handle and contacts that allows a quick make (quick
break contact action) regardless of how fast the operating handle is moved.  The handle
is also designed so that it cannot be held shut on a short circuit or overload condition.  If
the circuit breaker opens under one of these conditions, the handle will go to the trip-
free position.  The trip-free position is midway between the ON and OFF positions and
cannot be re-shut until the handle is pushed to the OFF position and reset. A circuit
breaker will automatically trip when the current through it exceeds a pre-determined
value.  In lower current ratings, automatic tripping of the circuit breaker is accomplished

Fig 3.4
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 KUVEMPU UNIVERSITY DISTANCE EDUCATION POWER ENHANCEMENT TECHNICS CPE-13

by use of thermal tripping devices.   Thermal trip elements consist of a bimetallic

element that can be calibrated  so  that  the  heat  from  normal  current  through  it
does  not  cause  it  to  deflect.    An abnormally  high  current,  which  could  be  caused
by  a  short  circuit  or  overload  condition,  will cause the element to deflect and trip the
linkage that holds the circuit breaker shut.   The circuit breaker will then be opened by
spring action.   This bimetallic element, which is responsive to the  heat  produced  by
current  flowing  through  it,  has  an  inverse-time  characteristic.    If  an extremely high
current is developed, the circuit breaker will be tripped very rapidly

For moderate overload currents, it will operate more slowly.   Molded case breakers with
much larger current ratings also have a magnetic trip element to supplement the
thermal trip element. The magnetic unit utilizes the magnetic force that surrounds the
conductor to operate the circuit breaker tripping linkage. When the separable contacts
of an air circuit breaker are opened, an arc develops between the two contacts.
Different manufacturers use many designs and arrangements of contacts and their
surrounding chambers.   The most common design places the moving contacts inside of
an arc chute.  The construction of this arc chute allows the arc formed as the contacts
open to draw out into the arc chute.   When the arc is drawn into the arc chute, it is
divided into small segments and quenched.  This action extinguishes the arc rapidly,
which minimizes the chance of a fire and also minimizes damage to the breaker
contacts. Molded case circuit breakers come in a wide range of sizes and current
ratings.   There are six frame sizes available:   100, 225, 400, 600, 800, and 2,000
amps.   The size, contact rating, and current  interrupting  ratings  are  the  same  for  all
circuit  breakers  of  a  given  frame  size.    The continuous  current  rating  of  a
breaker  is  governed  by  the  trip  element  rating.    The  range  of voltage available is
from 120 to 600 volts, and interrupting capacity ranges as high as 100,000 amps. Much

larger air circuit breakers are used in large commercial and industrial distribution
systems. These circuit breakers are available in much higher continuous current and
interrupting ratings than the molded case circuit breaker.  Breakers of this type have
current ratings as high as 4,000 amps, and interrupting ratings as high as 150,000
amps. Most large air circuit breakers use a closing device, known as a "stored energy
mechanism," for fast, positive closing action.   Energy is stored by compressing large
powerful coil springs that are attached to the contact assembly of a circuit breaker.
Once these springs are compressed, the latch may be operated to release the springs,
and spring pressure will shut the circuit breaker. Circuit  breaker  closing  springs  may
be  compressed  manually  or  by  means  of  a  small  electric motor.  This type of
circuit breaker can be classified as either a manually- or electrically-operated circuit
breaker. When a large air circuit breaker is closed, the operating mechanism is latched.
As the circuit breaker is closed, a set of tripping springs, or coils, are compressed, and
the circuit breaker may then  be  tripped  by  means  of  a  trip  latch.    The  trip  latch
mechanism  may  be  operated  either manually or remotely by means of a solenoid trip
coil. As   previously   stated,   circuit   breakers   may   be   operated   either   manually
or   electrically. Electrically-operated circuit breakers are used when circuit breakers are
to be operated at frequent intervals or when remote operation is required.

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3.23 Large Air Circuit Breaker

When the electrically-operated stored energy circuit breaker is tripped, the spring is
recharged by the spring charging  motor so that the  breaker is ready for the  next
closing operation.   The manually-operated circuit breaker closing springs are normally
compressed by a hand crank just prior to operation of the breaker.   Figure 6 shows a
large air circuit breaker which is classified as  a  manually-operated  stored  energy
circuit  breaker.   The  closing  springs  are  compressed  by pulling downward on the
large operating handle on the front of the breaker.  Closing this circuit breaker is
accomplished manually by depressing the small closing lever.   Tripping this circuit
breaker is done by means of the tripping lever, located at the bottom front of the
breaker. Figure 3.5

Fig 3.5

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3.3 RELAYS
3.31 INTRODUCTION
3.32 CONSTRUCTION OF RELAY
3.33 RELAYS IN CIRCUIT
3.34 SINGLE, DOUBLE, TRIPPLE POLE RELAYS
3.35 RELAYS CLASSIFICATION
3.36 RELAYS OPERATING SPEED
3.37 SOLID STATE RELAYS

3.31 INTRODUCTION
The link between electricity and magnetism was discovered by Oersted in 1824, who
found that the current in wire could move a magnetic compass needle. The needle
remained deflected as long as the current continued to flow in the wire and it return to
its original state when the current was switched off.

This established that current carrying wire has an associated magnetic field. The license
of forces of this magnetic field is strongest near the wire and its strength decrease as
the distance from the wire increases.

The direction of magnetic lines of forces depends on the direction of current through the
wire and can be determined by the right hand rule.

RIGHT HAND HOLDINGH DIRECTION OF

CONDUCTOR WIRE LINE OF FORCE

DIRECTION OF
CURRENT FLOW

CONDUCTOR
WIRE

Fig 3.6
The magnetic field associated with a single wire is very week. If the wire is wound in the
shape of coil, the magnetic fields produced by different turns add up and produce a
strong magnetic field. The strength of magnetic field is directly proportional to the
number of turns in the coil.
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When the coil of wire is wound with air as core, magnetic field of certain strength is
developed in the core. This strength of magnetic field can be increased, without
increasing the current through the coil or the number of turns in the coil, by inserting a
soft iron core into the coil.

This happens because magnetic field line of force, which where scattered over a large
area try to pass through the soft iron core, which provides an easier path to the
magnetic field. This happens because of high permeability of soft iron core as compared
to the permeability of the air.

The magnetic lines of forces coming out of a magnet tend to spread in the open space
as they repel each other. Placing of nonmagnetic materials such as wood, paper, air,
plastic etc. around the magnet does not have any effect in the path of these magnetic
lines; the path remains same, as if these materials do not exist.

But, when a magnetic material such as iron or steel is placed in the path of these
magnetic line of force, the force lines around these materials become concentrated
inside them.
This ability of material to concentrate magnetic field lines in them is called permeability.
Any material that is easily magnetized has high permeability.

When the coil of wire is wound on a nonmagnetic material such as plastic, paper etc., it
is called a air-core solenoid. Or simply a solenoid. If a soft iron core is inserted into the
coil, it becomes an electromagnet.

This electromagnet is the basic component for relay and many other electromechanical
devices such as electric bell, circuit breaker etc.

A small piece of magnetic material such as iron, when placed inside solenoid, will try to
move with force towards the center of solenoid, where the magnetic intensity is
maximum. This happens as soon as the electric current is applied to the solenoid.

The term solenoid is commonly used to refer to a setup like this, where a moving iron
core can center itself lengthwise into a coil of wire, when current is supplied to the coil.
A simple circuit to demonstrate the use of solenoid is shown in the above figure. In this
circuit a soft iron core is suspended on a spring under suitable tension, it can be moved
in and out of a solenoid coil when current is applied to the coil.

When the current to the coil switched on, the soft iron core is pulled inside the solenoid.
When the current is switched off, the spring pulls the core back, out of the solenoid.
This property of solenoid is the operating principle of relays and a number of other
electromechanical devices.

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SOLENOID
IRON
CORE

SPRING

BATTERY

- +

Fig 3.7

A electromagnetic relay is basically a switch operated by magnetic force. This magnetic

force is generated by flow of current through a coil in the relay. The relay open or close
a circuit, when current through the coil is started or stopped.

The basic working principal of relay in a circuit is shown in the following figure .As can
be seen in this figure, a circuit-using relay has two separate circuits. One circuit, which
controls the relay, is called switching circuit. This circuit drives the relay to switch on/off
another circuit, which is known as switched circuit.

Let us see how this circuit works. Initially when the on/off switch S1 is open, there is no
current through the switching circuit. In this situation the electromagnet in the relay will
not energize and the relay contact will stay in off position. In this position current will not
flow in the load / switched circuit and the bulb in the load circuit will remain off.

When the switch S1 in the relay circuit is closed, the current will flow through the coil
and the electromagnet will pull the relay armature down. This will connect the relay
contact to the on position.

The connection of armature to the on position will start the flow of current in the
load/switched circuit and the bulb in this circuit will start to glow.

Once again if the switch S1 is opened, current in the relay coil will stop, the
electromagnet will lose its magnetism and the relay armature will go back to its off
position. This will stop the flow of current in the load/ switching circuit and turn off the
bulb.

So, by the above description and by looking at the figure, its must be clear that in this
type of circuit, where a relay is used to control another circuit, there is no electrical
connection between the switching circuit i.e. the load circuit.

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Also, a relay circuit which uses small current can switch on/off a switched circuit having
heavy current.

In this circuit the relay is basically works as a SPDT (Single Pole Double Throw) switch.
Only difference is, in a switch, the on/off switching is done manually, whereas in a relay
controlled circuit it is done using an electromagnet.

3.32 Construction of Relay

A relay basically consists of four parts,
 An electromagnet made of a coil and a magnetic circuit,
 A movable armature
 A set of contacts and
 A frame to mount all these components.
As you can see in the following figure 3.8, a relay contains a core surrounded by a coil.
This core and coil assembly is mounted on a metal frame.
On top of this core/coil assembly, an armature attached to a return spring keeps the
armature in tension by pulling it downward. This downward pull of armature by the
spring makes armature contact arm to touch a terminal known as top contact.

When current flows through the relay coil, the coil is energized and when the force of
attraction of electromagnet generated in the coil is sufficient to overcome the opposition
of the tension of return spring, the armature and the armature contact arm, is pulled
downwards. This makes the armature contact arm to touch another terminal known as
bottom contact.

Controlling a circuit with the relay is shown in detail in the next figure. As you can in this
figure, the relay circuit has no direct electrical connection with the circuit being
controlled.

Current in the relay circuit will energize the electromagnet of the relay and pull the
armature down from the top contact to the bottom contact. When the armature contact
arm touches the bottom contact, the circuit being driven by the relay becomes complete,
and current starts to flow from the pole to the bottom contact and into the circuit. This
will glow the lamp in our example circuit.

When the relay circuit is de-energized by switching off the switch and cutting supply to
the relay, the electromagnet will lose its magnetism. This will make the return spring to
pull the armature, once again, back to the top contact position.

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TOP CONTACT
ARMATURE (NORMALLY CLOSED-N/C)
CONTACT ARM

BOTTOM
CONTACT
ARMATURE ARMATURE
(NORMALLY
HINGE
OPEN-N/O)

TERMINAL

POLE

RETURN
SPRING
COIL
TERMINALS

TENSION
ADJUSTMENT
FRAME

Fig 3.8

This movement of armature will remove the armature contact arm from the bottom
contact and open the lamp circuit, which in turn, will switch off the lamp.

In a relay the armature is not allowed to touch the core of coil, as this may make the
armature to stick to the core because of permanent magnetism in the core. As small
gap is left between the armature and the core, when the armature contact arm touches
the bottom contact.

Sometimes a small rivet of nonmagnetic material such as brass is fixed on top of core,
so that the armature does not touch the core.

3.33 Relays in circuit

Let us now see how a relay is represented in a circuit. Next figure shows a double pole
relay with its internal construction and pin configuration. the contact on which the
movable armature of relay normally rests is commonly known as N/C (Normally Closed
or Normally Connected) contact.

The other contact to which the magnetized coil pulls the armature is known as O/C
(Orderly Connected) or N/O (Normally Open) contact.

The N/C contact is called Normally Closed or Normally Connected contact, because in
normal condition, when the relay is off, the armature is connected to this contact.

The other contact which stays open in normal condition, when there is no current
through the relay, is called N/O Normally Open contact. This contact is also called O/C
Orderly Connected contact, because this contact is connected when the relay receives
an order to connect it. The order to connect/ close this contact is given by giving supply
to the relay coil.

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RELAY

ON

S1(SWITCH)
SWITCHED
OFF SWITCHED CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
SUPPLY FOR

MAGNET
ELECTRO
BATTERY LOAD LOAD

- + - +

RELAY

ON

S1(SWITCH)
SWITCHED
OFF SWITCHED CIRCUIT
CIRCUIT
SUPPLY FOR
ELECTRO
MAGNET

BATTERY LOAD LOAD

- + - +

Fig 3.9

In a relay the armature is normally connected to the N/C contact. By providing supply to
the relay circuit, this connection of armature is changed to the O/C contact to complete
the circuit being driven by the relay.

When the supply to the relay is stopped, the armature returns back to the N/C
connection, this will once again open the circuit being driven by the relay and stop flow
of current in the load circuit.

3.34 Single, Double &Triple pole Relays

Relays are available in single double and triple pole configuration. One, Two and Three-
pole relay with their internal construction and bottom view showing the pin configuration
is given in the following figure.

As the names suggest, a single pole relay contains a single pole, with its N/C & O/C
connection.

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O/C1 N/C1

O/C2 N/C2

O/C1 N/C1

O/C2 N/C2

O/C3 N/C3
N/C1

O/C1

P1

P2

P1

P2
P1

P3
SUPPLY SUPPLY SUPPLY

SINGLE POLE RELAY DOUBLE POLE RELAY TRIPLE POLE RELAY

N/C-3 O/C-3

N/C-1 N/C-1 N/C-2 N/C-1 N/C-2

POL-1 POL-1 POL-2 POL-1 POL-2

O/C-1 O/C-1 O/C-2 O/C-1 O/C-2

POL-3

SUPPLY SUPPLY SUPPLY

Fig 3.10

Normally the armature rests on N/C connection and when current is passed to the relay
coil, armature touches the O/C connection.

In double pole relay, two poles, each pole with its N/C and O/C connection are
available. Initially the armature of relay rests on the N/C of the both the poles, when
current is passed through the relay coil the armature will move to the O/C contact of
both poles.

One can not independently control the armature movement for each of these poles
because only one coil is provided for both the poles.

In triple pole relay, three poles and N/C and O/C connections for each of them are
provided. Initially the armature rests on the N/C of all the three poles. When current is
passed through the relay coil, the armature rests on the N/C of all the three poles. When
current is passed through the relay coil, when current is passed through the relay coil,
the armature will connect with the O/c connection of all the three poles. In this three-
pole relay also, one cannot control the armature movement for different poles
individually.

3.35 Relay classification

There are different kind of relays such as voltage operated, current operated &sensitive
or marginal relays. Some features of these different types of relays are
 Voltage operated relays usually have high resistance coils and are
connected in parallel with the supply voltage in a circuit. They draw very

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little current from the source of supply. Any change in coil voltage affects
the current through the coil which energizes or de-energizes the relay
 Current operated relays usually have coils of few turns of thick wire and
have very low resistance. They are connected in series with the current
that is to be sensed. The voltage loss across the relay coil is very small. A
change in the level of current energizes or de-energizes the relay.
 Sensitive relays operate on a very small change in voltage or current.
They are used when relay is required to operate over a wide range of
power, such as output power from an amplifier with a variable input signal.
These relays permit adjustment of operate and release points within very
close limits. They have delicate mechanism and need critical adjustment
for operation. As these relays are costly, in many applications one can use
ordinary relay with a transistor in place of these sensitive relays.
Other than this, relays can also be classified according to the mechanism that operate
their contact, their coil design, contact structure etc.

3.36 Relay Operating Speed

When an energizing voltage is applied to the coil of a relay does not pickup
instantaneously, because of self inductance in the coil, the current in coil grows slowly
and so does the magnetic field due that current.

The armature takes time to move from one position to another. The time taken for these
actions are usually very small and are measured in milliseconds.

Generally relays are made for voltages 6,12,18,24,48,110,240V AC or DC. Coil

resistance is usually given which helps in calculating the coil current and power
dissipation in the coil. For ex. a coil of 200 when operating on 12V will draw
12/600=60mA and power dissipated in the coil is 12V x 0.60A=0.72W
some other parameters that one need to know about a relay are

Hold current
It is the minimum coil current which when reduced from a higher current values will
continue to hold the relay energized. A small reduction in this current will release the
relay.

Operating Current.

It is the minimum current which will energized a relay when applied after switching off
the coil current.

Non-operating Current

It is the maximum current that does not energize the relay. A small increase in this
current will energize the relay.

Release Current
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It is the maximum current which when suddenly reduced form a higher value, releases
the relay.

A relay can safely perform a limited number of makes and breaks per minute. This is
referred as maximum Operations Per Minute (OPM). Service life of relay is expressed
in millions of make/break operation. Relays for high voltage operation are designed
specially to minimize the possibility of breakdown due to high voltage.

The coils are electrically insulated from the frame of the relay. The electrical resistance
between the coil and the body is a measure of isolation of driving voltage from ground
potential, similarly the electrical resistance between the coil and the contacts is a
measure of electrical isolation between the driving and the driven circuits.

These are usually in the hundreds or thousands of mega ohms However, a maximum
DC voltage is specified beyond which isolation may breakdown due to high voltage.

Relays for high voltage operation are specially designed to make sure that arching does
not occur in the presence of high voltage. For this extra insulation and wide separation
between their terminals are provided.

3.37 Bigger Role for Solid State Relays

Dramatic improvements in switching speed and increased capacity now enable solid-
state relays to take on more functions in control systems

Fig 3.11

A lot of engineers have the idea that solid state relays (SSR’s0 are slowly and
completely displacing electromechanical relays (EMRs). But this impression is wrong.
Though SSR technology continues to improve, experts say SSRs are not wholly
replacing EMRs. Rather, SSR utility and demand increases with each new and unique
application that takes advantage of their speed, size and life.

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SSR Basics
An electromechanical relay (EMR) switches an output load on and off with
isolated switch contacts. In a solid state relay (SSR), on the other hand, a
semiconductor switch in the output controls a load. Like all relays, SSRs require low
input voltage or current to handle a large load. But the power gain or sensitivity of an
SSR is substantially greater than an EMR.

Three types of SSRs dominate the industry today. The type name comes from
the kind of coupling used between the sensitive input and the power switching output.
The most common is the optical-coupled SSR (Fig 3.12). The control signal is applied
to an input light, infrared source (light-emitting diode or LED) or photovoltaic cell. The
light-emitting source then couples to a photosensitive diode, transistor or thyristor that
switches the load. Some circuits use an intermediate coupling stage between input
circuit and output MOSFETs, while others, such as the photovoltaic (which produces a
small dc voltage), connect directly to the MOSFET gate.

Fig 3.12

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The anther most widely used type is the direct-control ac or dc SSR. Direct control ac
(Fig. 3.13) types operate a circuit that uses the same power as the load. The ac control
circuit triggers a triac or a pair of back-to-back SCRs. While this circuit is simpler and
less expensive than the others, it suffers from lack of isolation between the control and
load circuits.

Fig 3.13

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Similarly, the direct-control dc (Fig. 3.14) type uses the same dc power as the
load circuit. In this case, a transistor is the power device energized by the control circuit.
Probably the simplest and least expensive, it also lacks input-to-output isolation

Fig 3.14

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3.4 CONTACTORS

3.41 INTRODUCTION
3.42 REVIEW
3.43 WORKING FUNCTION OF THIS CIRCUIT
3.44 A CONTACTOR IN STAR-DELTA STARTER FUNCTION TO SWITCH ON MOTOR.
3.45 CONSTRUCTION OF CONTACTOR
3.46 TIME-DELAY RELAYS

3.41 Introduction
When a relay is used to switch a large amount of electrical power through its contacts, it
is designated by a special name: contactor. Contactors typically have multiple contacts,
and those contacts are usually (but not always) normally-open, so that power to the load
is shut off when the coil is de-energized. Perhaps the most common industrial use for
contactors is the control of electric motors.

Fig 3.15

The top three contacts switch the respective phases of the incoming 3-phase AC power,
typically at least 480 Volts for motors 1 horsepower or greater. The lowest contact is an
"auxiliary" contact which has a current rating much lower than that of the large motor
power contacts, but is actuated by the same armature as the power contacts. The
auxiliary contact is often used in a relay logic circuit, or for some other part of the motor
control scheme, typically switching 120 Volt AC power instead of the motor voltage. One
contactor may have several auxiliary contacts, either normally-open or normally-closed,
if required.
The three "opposed-question-mark" shaped devices in series with each phase going to
the motor are called overload heaters. Each "heater" element is a low-resistance strip of
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metal intended to heat up as the motor draws current. If the temperature of any of these
heater elements reaches a critical point (equivalent to a moderate overloading of the
motor), a normally-closed switch contact (not shown in the diagram) will spring open.
This normally-closed contact is usually connected in series with the relay coil, so that
when it opens the relay will automatically de-energize, thereby shutting off power to the
motor. We will see more of this overload protection wiring in the next chapter. Overload
heaters are intended to provide overcurrent protection for large electric motors, unlike
circuit breakers and fuses which serve the primary purpose of providing overcurrent
protection for power conductors.
Overload heater function is often misunderstood. They are not fuses; that is, it is not
their function to burn open and directly break the circuit as a fuse is designed to do.
Rather, overload heaters are designed to thermally mimic the heating characteristic of
the particular electric motor to be protected. All motors have thermal characteristics,
including the amount of heat energy generated by resistive dissipation (I 2R), the thermal
transfer characteristics of heat "conducted" to the cooling medium through the metal
frame of the motor, the physical mass and specific heat of the materials constituting the
motor, etc. These characteristics are mimicked by the overload heater on a miniature
scale: when the motor heats up toward its critical temperature, so will the heater toward
its critical temperature, ideally at the same rate and approach curve. Thus, the overload
contact, in sensing heater temperature with a thermo-mechanical mechanism, will
sense an analogue of the real motor. If the overload contact trips due to excessive
heater temperature, it will be an indication that the real motor has reached its critical
temperature (or, would have done so in a short while). After tripping, the heaters are
supposed to cool down at the same rate and approach curve as the real motor, so that
they indicate an accurate proportion of the motor's thermal condition, and will not allow
power to be re-applied until the motor is truly ready for start-up again.
Shown here is a contactor for a three-phase electric motor, installed on a panel as part
of an electrical control system at a municipal water treatment plant:

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Fig 3.16

Three-phase, 480 volt AC power comes in to the three normally-open contacts at the
top of the contactor via screw terminals labeled "L1," "L2," and "L3" (The "L2" terminal is
hidden behind a square-shaped "snubber" circuit connected across the contactor's coil
terminals). Power to the motor exits the overload heater assembly at the bottom of this
device via screw terminals labeled "T1," "T2," and "T3."
The overload heater units themselves are black, square-shaped blocks with the label
"W34," indicating a particular thermal response for a certain horsepower and
temperature rating of electric motor. If an electric motor of differing power and/or
temperature ratings were to be substituted for the one presently in service, the overload
heater units would have to be replaced with units having a thermal response suitable for
the new motor. The motor manufacturer can provide information on the appropriate
heater units to use.
A white pushbutton located between the "T1" and "T2" line heaters serves as a way to
manually re-set the normally-closed switch contact back to its normal state after having
been tripped by excessive heater temperature. Wire connections to the "overload"
switch contact may be seen at the lower-right of the photograph, near a label reading
"NC" (normally-closed). On this particular overload unit, a small "window" with the label
"Tripped" indicates a tripped condition by means of a colored flag. In this photograph,
there is no "tripped" condition, and the indicator appears clear.
As a footnote, heater elements may be used as a crude current shunt resistor for
determining whether or not a motor is drawing current when the contactor is closed.
There may be times when you're working on a motor control circuit, where the contactor

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is located far away from the motor itself. How do you know if the motor is consuming
power when the contactor coil is energized and the armature has been pulled in? If the
motor's windings are burnt open, you could be sending voltage to the motor through the
contactor contacts, but still have zero current, and thus no motion from the motor shaft.
If a clamp-on ammeter isn't available to measure line current, you can take your
multimeter and measure millivoltage across each heater element: if the current is zero,
the voltage across the heater will be zero (unless the heater element itself is open, in
which case the voltage across it will be large); if there is current going to the motor
through that phase of the contactor, you will read a definite millivoltage across that
heater:

Fig 3.17
This is an especially useful trick to use for troubleshooting 3-phase AC motors, to see if
one phase winding is burnt open or disconnected, which will result in a rapidly
destructive condition known as "single-phasing." If one of the lines carrying power to the
motor is open, it will not have any current through it (as indicated by a 0.00 mV reading
across its heater), although the other two lines will (as indicated by small amounts of
voltage dropped across the respective heaters).

3.42 REVIEW
 A contactor is a large relay, usually used to switch current to an electric motor or
other high-power load.
 Large electric motors can be protected from overcurrent damage through the use
of overload heaters and overload contacts. If the series-connected heaters get
too hot from excessive current, the normally-closed overload contact will open,
de-energizing the contactor sending power to the motor.

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The Contactor Electromagnetic device operated by magnetic force. The flow of the
current in the Contactor excitation coil will magnetise the solenoid which operates the
movement of the contactor poles. The pole releases back through the spring tension
when the coil power supply removed.

The basic working principal of the contactor in a circuit is shown in figure.1

In this figure , a circuit using contactor to switch ON/OFF the Motor. This has two
circuits. One circuit which controls the Contactor is called the contactor control circuit.
The other circuit in turn operates to control the motor power supply from the
Transformer is Power circuit.

CONTACTOR

M
DELTA
MOTOR

S1

MOTOR CONTROL CIRCUIT USING CONTACTOR

Fig 3.18

3.43 Working function of this circuit

When the Switch S1 is in Off position, there is no power supply to the Contact coil. In
this situation the Solenoid in the contactor does not energise and the contactor contacts
will be open condition. Power supply from the transformer will not get connect to Motor.
The motor will be in OFF condition.

If the Switch S1 is closed, the current will flow in the coil and the solenoid enrgises and
pull the contactor shaft down, this will connect all the poles in the power circuit. The
motor gets power supply from the Transformer and motor starts running.

Once again if the switch S1 is opened, the current in the contactor coil will stop, the
solenoid will lose its magneism. The contactor push back the shaft in upward through
spring tension mechanism, and turn off the Motor

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3.44 A contactor in STAR-DELTA Starter function to

switch on Motor.

Fig 3.19

Fig 3.20
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3.45 Construction of Contactor

The contactor consists of

An Electromagnet made of a coil and a magnetic circuit.

A movable Solenoid
A set of contacts
A frame to mount all these components.

Fig 3.21

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Fig 3.22
Part no. Accessories

CA7-1 Pole Front mounting auxiliary contact blocks.

CA7-4 Pole Front mounting auxiliary contact blocks.
TP… ON/OFF delay timer
WB75 On position latches.
T 25 DU Trip free Mechanism.
Ambient Temperature compensated.
Phase failure protection.
VBC 30 Mechanically interlocked for Horizontal mounted contactors (DC
Operated).
VS 30 Mechanically interlocked for Horizontal mounted contactors.
VB 30 Mechanically interlocked for Horizontal mounted contactors (AC
Operated).
RV-BC6 Surge Suppressors
RA 30 Interface Relays. For interfacing between PLC & Contactor
BC 9…BC 30 Contactor (DC Operated).
B 9….B30 Contactor (AC Operated).

3.46 Time-delay relays

Some relays are constructed with a kind of "shock absorber" mechanism attached to the
armature which prevents immediate, full motion when the coil is either energized or de-
energized. This addition gives the relay the property of time-delay actuation. Time-delay
relays can be constructed to delay armature motion on coil energization, de-
energization, or both.

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Time-delay relay contacts must be specified not only as either normally-open or

normally-closed, but whether the delay operates in the direction of closing or in the
direction of opening. The following is a description of the four basic types of time-delay
relay contacts.
First we have the normally-open, timed-closed (NOTC) contact. This type of contact is
normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized). The contact is closed by the
application of power to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously
powered for the specified amount of time. In other words, the direction of the contact's
motion (either to close or to open) is identical to a regular NO contact, but there is a
delay in closing direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil energization,
this type of contact is alternatively known as a normally-open, on-delay:

Table 3.1

The following is a timing diagram of this relay contact's operation:

Fig 3.23

Fig 3.24

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Next we have the normally-open, timed-open (NOTO) contact. Like the NOTC contact,
this type of contact is normally open when the coil is unpowered (de-energized), and
closed by the application of power to the relay coil. However, unlike the NOTC contact,
the timing action occurs upon de-energization of the coil rather than upon energization.
Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil de-energization, this type of contact is
alternatively known as a normally-open, off-delay:

Fig 3.25

The following is a timing diagram of this relay contact's operation:

Fig 3.26

Next we have the normally-closed, timed-open (NCTO) contact. This type of contact is
normally closed when the coil is un-powered (de-energized). The contact is opened with
the application of power to the relay coil, but only after the coil has been continuously
powered for the specified amount of time. In other words, the direction of the contact's
motion (either to close or to open) is identical to a regular NC contact, but there is a
delay in the opening direction. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil
energization, this type of contact is alternatively known as a normally-closed, on-delay:

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Fig 3.27

The following is a timing diagram of this relay contact's operation:

Fig 3.28

Finally we have the normally-closed, timed-closed (NCTC) contact. Like the NCTO
contact, this type of contact is normally closed when the coil is un-powered (de-
energized), and opened by the application of power to the relay coil. However, unlike
the NCTO contact, the timing action occurs upon de-energisation of the coil rather than
upon energization. Because the delay occurs in the direction of coil de-energization, this
type of contact is alternatively known as a normally-closed, off-delay:

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Fig 3.29

The following is a timing diagram of this relay contact's operation:

Fig 3.30

Time-delay relays are very important for use in industrial control logic circuits. Some
examples of their use include:
 Flashing light control (time on, time off): two time-delay relays are used in
conjunction with one another to provide a constant-frequency on/off pulsing of
contacts for sending intermittent power to a lamp.
 Engine autostart control: Engines that are used to power emergency generators
are often equipped with "autostart" controls that allow for automatic start-up if the
main electric power fails. To properly start a large engine, certain auxiliary
devices must be started first and allowed some brief time to stabilize (fuel pumps,
pre-lubrication oil pumps) before the engine's starter motor is energized. Time-
delay relays help sequence these events for proper start-up of the engine.

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 Furnace safety purge control: Before a combustion-type furnace can be safely lit,
the air fan must be run for a specified amount of time to "purge" the furnace
chamber of any potentially flammable or explosive vapors. A time-delay relay
provides the furnace control logic with this necessary time element.
 Motor soft-start delay control: Instead of starting large electric motors by
switching full power from a dead stop condition, reduced voltage can be switched
for a "softer" start and less inrush current. After a prescribed time delay (provided
by a time-delay relay), full power is applied.
 Conveyor belt sequence delay: when multiple conveyor belts are arranged to
transport material, the conveyor belts must be started in reverse sequence (the
last one first and the first one last) so that material doesn't get piled on to a
stopped or slow-moving conveyor. In order to get large belts up to full speed,
some time may be needed (especially if soft-start motor controls are used). For
this reason, there is usually a time-delay circuit arranged on each conveyor to
give it adequate time to attain full belt speed before the next conveyor belt
feeding it is started.

The older, mechanical time-delay relays used pneumatic dashpots or fluid-filled

piston/cylinder arrangements to provide the "shock absorbing" needed to delay the
motion of the armature. Newer designs of time-delay relays use electronic circuits with
resistor-capacitor (RC) networks to generate a time delay, then energize a normal
(instantaneous) electromechanical relay coil with the electronic circuit's output. The
electronic-timer relays are more versatile than the older, mechanical models, and less
prone to failure. Many models provide advanced timer features such as "one-shot" (one
measured output pulse for every transition of the input from de-energized to energized),
"recycle" (repeated on/off output cycles for as long as the input connection is energized)
and "watchdog" (changes state if the input signal does not repeatedly cycle on and off).

Fig 3.31

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Fig 3.32

Fig 3.33

The "watchdog" timer is especially useful for monitoring of computer systems. If a

computer is being used to control a critical process, it is usually recommended to have
an automatic alarm to detect computer "lockup" (an abnormal halting of program
execution due to any number of causes). An easy way to set up such a monitoring
system is to have the computer regularly energize and de-energize the coil of a
watchdog timer relay (similar to the output of the "recycle" timer). If the computer
execution halts for any reason, the signal it outputs to the watchdog relay coil will stop
cycling and freeze in one or the other state. A short time thereafter, the watchdog relay
will "time out" and signal a problem.
 REVIEW:
 Time delay relays are built in these four basic modes of contact operation:
 1: Normally-open, timed-closed. Abbreviated "NOTC", these relays open
immediately upon coil de-energization and close only if the coil is continuously

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energized for the time duration period. Also called normally-open, on-delay
relays.
 2: Normally-open, timed-open. Abbreviated "NOTO", these relays close
immediately upon coil energization and open after the coil has been de-
energized for the time duration period. Also called normally-open, off delay
relays.
 3: Normally-closed, timed-open. Abbreviated "NCTO", these relays close
immediately upon coil de-energization and open only if the coil is continuously
energized for the time duration period. Also called normally-closed, on-delay
relays.
 4: Normally-closed, timed-closed. Abbreviated "NCTC", these relays open
immediately upon coil energization and close after the coil has been de-
energized for the time duration period. Also called normally-closed, off delay
relays.
 One-shot timers provide a single contact pulse of specified duration for each coil
energization (transition from coil off to coil on).
 Recycle timers provide a repeating sequence of on-off contact pulses as long as
the coil is maintained in an energized state.
 Watchdog timers actuate their contacts only if the coil fails to be continuously
sequenced on and off (energized and de-energized) at a minimum frequency.

3.5 FUSES

3.51 INTRODUCTION
3.52 Fuse Behavior
3.53 Fuse Elements
3.54 NH DIN FUSE LINKS & FUSE BASES

3.51 INTRODUCTION

Fuses are the sacrificial lambs of electrical engineering. They are destroyed to product
more expensive conductors and equipment in the same circuit from overcurrents or
short-circuits currents.

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Fig 3.34

Once installed in a circuit, a fuse will carry the rated load current of the circuit and a
certain over current for a predetermined time. But all fuses have one or more
conducting elements designed has flowed for a specified time.
Thus a fuse is a weak link that will fail before serious damage can occur elsewhere in
the circuit.
While a fuse may seem a ridiculously simple device, the design and construction
of fuses are complex tasks. The thermal properties of the element, the fuse body, the
components it is connected to, and the ambient temperature all affect its performance.
And the arcing that takes place after the element melts is still not fully understood.
But the operating principles of fuses are the same. The temperature of the
element rises., it melts, arcs form between the remaining parts of the element, the arcs
are extinguished and prevented from re-striking.
All the user really needs to know are the characteristics of the fuses available.
Fuse terminology can be confusing, however.
It is important to remember that the current rating is the current that the fuse will
carry continuously without deterioration, not the lowest current that melt the fuse
elements-that is the minimum fusing current. The minimum breaking current, however,
is the lowest current that the fuse can interrupt satisfactorily.
The rated breaking capacity is the highest fault current that the fuse has

Fig 3.35

been tested to interrupt, and the rated voltage is the maximum voltage that the fuse link
is designed to interrupt.

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Manufacturers divided fuses into three types:

 High-voltage fuses, for protecting equipment that operates at voltage above
1.000V AC.
 Low-voltage fuses, which protect equipment operating at AC voltage up to 1000V
and DC voltage up to 1500V and
 Miniature fuses, which protect electrical and electronic appliances rated up to
250V.
Within these types there are several specialist fuses, including the UK’s plug fuse-
which lies somewhere between an LV fuse and a miniature fuse – and the
semiconductor chip fuses found on the printed circuit boards in devices such as mobile
phones and portable computers.
The first recorded use of fuses was in 1864, when Victorian electrical engineers
used platinum wires to protect submarine cables from over currents. Surprisingly fuses
are still popular today.
Inevitably, comparisons are drawn between fuses and circuit breakers. While it is
true that breakers are reusable, this is also a weakness in that many are reused with no
thought for the deterioration of their contacts- and of their performance. When a fuse
operates, it must be replaced and the replacement will work as well as its predecessor.
Fuse manufacturers also point out that fuses are available with higher breaking
capacities the breakers, and the fuses are more robust – many are used

outdoors interaction applications.

UK fuses are made to different dimensions from those used on the continent, and
those used on the continent, and those, in turn, are different from those used in North
America. International standards specify the performance of fuses, and popular
dimensions.
As well as basic fuses , there are fuse switches and switch fuses. A fuse switch is
simply a fuse – or a number of fuses – mounted on the moving contact system of a
specially designed switch.
It is a commonly-found mechanical switching devices on three-phase LV industrial
switchboards. Fuse switches are used on urban secondary distribution networks up to
22kV.
A switch fuse is quite different. It is a switch connected in series with a fuse to make
a composite device. A fuse switch is safer because the circuit cannot be live when a
fuse is being changed and unlike a switch fuse , it cannot be closed on a fault between
the switch and the fuse.

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Fig 3.36

3.52 Fuse Behavior

The primary purpose of a fuse is to limit the current and energy that passes when an
over-current or short-circuit current occurs. The time a fuse

takes to interrupt an over-current is called the total operating time. This, in turn is split
into the pre- arcing time(the graph shows these periods for a fuse in an AC circuit).

Fig 3.37

The relative lengths of the pre-arcing and arcing times depend on the value of the over-
current. Arcing is unimportant if the over-current is just above the minimum fusing
current if the fuse.
If however, the over-current is much greater than the minimum fusing current, arcing
may last as long as the pre-arcing period.
Although the operating principle of a fuse is quite simple, parts of the interruption
process are not fully understood. Fuse design and construction remain specialized
tasks.
Pre-arcing
A metal fuse element – be it a simple wire or a more complex metal strip has a high
resistance. It absorbs power when a current flows through it, and it heats up. It is
designed to melt and vaporize if a certain critical current flows in it for a certain period.
Below the critical current the heat generated in the element will dissipate into other
parts of the fuse, the surrounding air and the connected cables. The element reaches a
state of equilibrium in which it will, in principle, never melt.
In practice, this equilibrium state depends, to a large extent, on the size of the
fuse’s housing, the connected cables and the ambient temperature.
If however, the current flow exceeds the critical current, heat cannot be dissipated fast
enough to prevent the fuse element – or parts of it – from reaching its melting
temperature, the higher the current is above the critical

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current, the faster the fuse reaches this temperature.

Arcing
Once the fuse element melts and vapourises a voltage develops for a short time across
the break. Ionization occurs and an arc forms between the 2 parts of the element. For
effective current cut-off, this arc must be extinguished quickly and must not re-strike.
When the current being interrupted is just above the minimum fusing current,
arching times is not important. At higher currents, it may continue for a considerable
time, sometimes for a longer time than the pre-arcing period .
Characteristics
Fuse users are interested in a fuse’s characteristic , which are curves of operating time
against current broken. These curves are vital to ensure correct discrimination between
different fuses, and between fuses and others types of overload protection, such as
circuit breakers.

3.53 Fuse Elements

Although there are many kinds of fuse element, all have the same purpose – to melt
and interrupt the current flow.
The simplest element are plain wire, often suspended in air, found in miniature and sub-
miniature fuse links. When these elements melt, the molten metal forms a series of
unduloids, or bulges in the wire.

Fig 3.38
Eventually, these unduloids develop into separate metal droplets, between which
arcs form. The voltage necessary to sustain these arcs is proportional to the number of
arcs – and therefore the length of the wire.
Industrial and other low-voltage fuses employ a more elaborated element design
that also exploits the phenomenon of arcs in series, but this time in a more “engineered”
way. A copper or silver strip is cut with restrictions along its length. At these restrictions,
the current density increases and the element is liable to melt at these points when the
current exceeds the minimum fusing current.
Arcs forms at each restriction and energy are removed from the arcs by the
surrounding material-usually quartz granules. As long as the energy is removed more
quickly than it build up, the arc will extinguished.

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In high-voltage fuses, a similar metal strip is coiled around a star cross-section

former to provide more restrictions and therefore more arcs – to ensure arc extinction in
the face of the higher applied voltage.
As long as there is no flashover between the adjacent coils, a lengthy element can be
squeezed into a relatively compact fuse body

Both low- and high- voltage fuses often employ multiple elements in parallel.
The M effect
A potential problem with over-currents that exceed the minimum fusing current by only a
small amount – but last for a long time – is overheating of the fuse link. For this reason,
a fuse element is often endowed with a deposit of low melting point alloy across its
width.
The alloy reduces the melting point of the base material. For example, the melting
point of silver is reduced from 960C to 230C by the application of the alloy. This effect
is called the M effect after AW Metcalf, who discovered it in 1939.

Low-voltage fuses

For the protection of equipment operating at voltage up to 1000V AC or 1500V DC

Inner cap Arc resistant
disc
Elements
Rivet

Outer cap
End tag Ceramic Granular
Body quartznts

Fig 3.39

Low-voltage fuses are by far the most multifarious; encompassing all types from
domestic cartridge fuses up to feeder pillar fuses for electricity supply. The construction
of all types is essentially the same, however.
A low-voltage cartridge fuse consists of one or more strips elements, made from
copper or silver, welded to plated copper or bras inner end caps. An insulating body
separates the 2 end caps. The body is usually a ceramic tube up to 100mm in diameter
with walls between 2mm and 15mm thick. The body must be capable of radiating heat
effectively.
The tube is, typically, filled with granular quartz – particles of about 300 microns – to
conduct heat away from the element to the body. The fuse is filled just before final
assembly, and the body is vibrated during filling to ensure that the fuse is filled as
densely as possible.
When a current greater than the minimum fusing current occurs, the quartz

granules remove energy from the arcs that occur at the restrictions in the fuse
elements. The quartz melts and the particles fuse together, forming a glass like material
called fulgurite.
As long as energy is removed from the arc more quickly than it builds up from the
electrical circuit, the arc will be extinguished – often in less than 2ms.
For this reasons, cartridge fuses have rapid current-limiting characteristic.
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Low-voltage cartridge fuse links come in several varieties. LV fuses for different
application are often fitted with different outer end caps, but there are other differences:
 Industrial: Industrial variants of the cartridge fuse are equipped with blade
terminations with holes for bolting them into position. Fuses of this type are rated from
20to 1250A on three phase 415V AC systems or 250V DC systems.
 Compact: These are similar to industrial fuses, but the terminations have
plain blades for fitting into spring contacts. Their ratings are somewhat lower: a
maximum of about 63A at 415V.
 Domestic: Domestic versions have plain end caps with no protruding
terminations and fit into clips, like the fuses in domestic plugs. These are ferrules-type
fuses, and the smallest of these are similar in construction to miniature fuses.
Consumer unit fuses are available in four non-interchangeable sizes for domestic use,
and
Supply authority fuses are made for electricity companies which install them in domestic
premises.
Semiconductor protection: These devices operate rapidly, letting through a limited
amount

 of energy during operation. This protects power electronic devices, such as diodes
and thyristors, which are far more sensitive than other components to let-through
energy. Restrictions in the elements of semiconductor protection fuses are smaller
than in standard LV fuses, so they operate at a higher temperature. M effect alloys are
not used.
To carry the heat away during normal operation, the restrictions are short compared
with the wider sections, which act as cooling fins and dissipate the heat. The quartz filler
is mixed with a binding material to increase contact with the element and conduct heat
away better. The filler is closely compacted to constrict the arcs and reduce energy let-
through.

Semi-enclosed fuses

The LV cartridge fuse has all but superseded its predecessor, the semi-enclosed or re-
wirable fuse. The elements are simply lengths of wire in a carrier that can be replaced
by the user.
This kind of fuse is prone to abuse and can easily be fitted with wire of the wrong
gauge. Re-wirable fuses are rarely found in UK industry today, and they are rapidly
disappearing from homes.

High-voltage fuses

For the protection of equipment operating above 1000V AC

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Silver/ceramic
Porcelain Moisture point contact
Star core
End cap barrel tight seal
Granular
X Former
quartznts

Striker
coil

Fuse Fuse Porcelain

Granular Striker Expelled barrel
element element
quartznts coil striker
Section on 'x-x'

Fig 3.40

Fuses for use in AC system at voltages greater than 1000v tend to subdivide in terms of
their characteristics rather than their applications.
Most HV fuses used in the UK are of the current limiting type. The rest are non-
current limiting.

Current-limiting

Current-limiting HV fuses split into two internationally recognized types: back-up(or

partial range) fuses, which will interrupt any current from their rated breaking capacity
down to a minimum breaking current specified by the manufacturer: and general
purpose fuses, which will interrupt all current that will melt the elements within one hour.
A third type is the full range fuse. This term applies to fuses that can interrupt any
current below the rated breaking capacity that melts the fuse elements satisfactorily.
Current-limiting back-up fuses are the closest in construction to LV cartridge types.
However, a longer strip element with many more restrictions in necessary to produce
the larger number of series arcs needed to interrupt a high voltage.
Fuse manufacturers achieve this by coiling the element around a ceramic core with
a star-shaped cross-section. In this way, a 1m long element can be fitted into a 250mm-
long fuse body. If the adjacent coils are too close, there will be a flashover between
them, and this sets a practical limit on how long an element can be crammed into a
particular cartridge, and how many elements can be used in parallel.
Like an LV cartridge fuse, an HV fuse of this type has a ceramic body, possibly
reinforced with a glass-fiber cover. Most HV fuses have plain, ferrule-type end caps.
Many HV current-limiting fuses are also fitted with a striker mechanism. This not only
provides the user with a visual indication that the fuse has

operated, but can also be used to operate other switchgear. In this way, a fuse on a
single phase in a three-phase system can cut off all three phases if a fault occurs. This
is called full-range operation.
Striker mechanisms are driven by explosive charges or compressed springs. Both
are triggered by a thin fuse wire running the length of the fuse, usually through the
center of the star-shaped core. The wire is connected in parallel with the elements, so a
current flows through it when the elements melt. This current heats up the wire and
detonates the explosive charge, or melts the wire and releases the spring, pushing the
striker pin out of the fuse’s end cap. A lock washer mechanism makes it impossible to
push the pin back into fuse body.

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These are several variations on the design for specific applications. For example,
the elements in three phase motor protection fuses are corrugated to withstand the
cyclical mechanical stresses induced by the high starting and stopping currents drawn
by the motor.
General-purpose fuses have low minimum breaking currents.
Non-current-limiting
Essentially non-current –limiting fuses have short elements and incorporate some
means of lengthening the arc after the element melts, extinguishing the arc and
preventing re-ignition. There are two distinct types: expulsion fuses and liquid fuses.
Expulsion fuses are an effective way of protecting overhead distribution lines and
transformers. They are designed for outdoor use only and comprise a tin or copper fuse
element in series with a flexible braid in a tube. The tube

forms one side of a triangle, with a latched connection at the top and a hinge at the
bottom. The braid emerges from one end of the fuse and is held in tension by a spring.
When the element melts, the braid is no longer under tension, the latch is released,
and the fuse swings downwards under gravity, breaking the circuit. As the fuse swings
downwards, the arc is lengthened, extinguished and prevented from re-striking.
Liquid fuses are based on early non-current-limiting fuses which used liquids to
quench the arc. The fuse element is anchored to the top ferrule of a glass tube filled
with a quenching liquid-usually a hydrocarbon. The rest of the tube is filled with a spring
that holds the element – or a strain wire in very high voltage fuses – in tension.
When the element melts, the spring pulls the 2 parts of the element apart, extending
the arc and quenching it in liquid.
Miniature and sub-miniature fuses

For the protection of electrical and electronic appliances up to 250V.

Tin alloy pellet

Helically -wound element

Heater wire spring

Fig 3.41

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While the distinction between LV and HV fuses occurs at 1000V AC, miniature fuses are
separated from the other kinds – as the name suggests – by their size. This means
there are many applications for miniature fuses.
Miniature cartridge fuses
Miniature fuses are typically cylindrical with cylindrical with ferrule-type end caps. They
are 5mm in diameter and 20mm long, and rated at 250V. These parameters are
standardized throughout the world.
Construction varies according to the fuse’s breaking capacity. Low breaking capacity
– 35A, or 10 times rated current – types have glass bodies and no filling material and
the wire element is suspended in air. Enhanced breaking capacity types – 150A – are
similarly constructed.
High breaking capacity models have ceramics bodies and are filled with granular
quartz.
Sub-miniature cartridge fuses: These are an alternative to the more bulky miniature
cartridge fuses, and are designed specifically for use on printed circuit boards. They
have no dimension larger than 10mm, and are available in 125V and 250V ratings.
Sub-miniature cartridge fuses have polymers bodies and ferrule-type end caps with
leads for soldering directly onto PCBS.
Speed of operation
The speed of operation of a miniature fuse is determined by its construction. Quick-
acting fuses consist simply of a wire element suspended in air between the end caps.
These wire used to be of silver, but today they are usually made of silver-plated copper
to reduce costs.
Super quick-acting fuses have wire elements that are restricted at the center in a
similar way to strip elements in LV and HV fuses. In this case, however, the restricted
wire is made by plating the ends, or etching material from the center.
These are also three types of time-lag fuses that use special element constructions.
The first type, medium time-lag, has one or more pellets of tin alloy soldered onto the
silver or silver alloy element. This produces the M effect, and renders the fuse rated
value and 10ms duration.
A typical fuse of this type has a current rating between 8mA and 10A, and minimum
pre-arcing time of 20ms.
Elements in time-lag and super time-lag fuses are of one of two constructions. The
first consists of a helically-wound element on an insulating former. The wire is longer
than a standard element, so must be heavier to have the same resistance. Fuses with
these type of element are slower acting than those with standard elements. They are
made with current ratings from 25mA to 10A.
Another approach to making time-lag fuses is to use a coil spring. Half the length of
the fuse body is occupied by a coiled spring of copper alloy, the other half by a so-called
heater wire. The two are joined at the center.
At high over-currents, the heater wire melts and the coil withdraws to its end of the
cartridge, ensuring good clearance. At lower over-currents, the joint melts before the
heater wire, and the coil withdraws. Rated values for this type of fuse are between
32mA and 15A. pre-arcing times of up to 100ms are possible at 10 times rated current.

Domestic fuses

The UK’s domestic plugs use a special type of LV fuse. Plug fuses are 25.4mm long.
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6.3mm in diameter and are available in current ratings up to 13A, with 3A being the
most popular. Their breaking capacity is 6kA.
These fuses are constructed with wire elements in ceramic bodies filled with
granular quartz.
The elements use tin pellets to exploit the M effect. This design allows the passage
of normal overload transients and ensures low losses of no more than 1W at rated
current.

Chip fuses

Modern film deposition techniques have made possible surface mount fuses measuring
little more than 3 x 1.5mm.
A chip fuse is made by depositing gold – to form bond pads for the element – and
silver – for the fuse’s end terminations – onto a ceramic substrate, and ultrasonically
bonding a gold wire element on top. The entire assembly is coated with a glass paste
and fired encapsulating the fuse in glass.

E lectrical engineers have used fuses to protect circuits from over-currents for more
than 100 years, and the devices remain popular today despite the availability of
cheap circuit-breakers.
We say “more than 100 years” because it is difficult to trace the first use of fuses. In
their book Electrical fuses, A Wright and PG Newbery conclude that fuses were first
used in 1864. this information was recorded in a letter from WH Preece to the society of
telegraph engineers in 1887, stating that fuses had been used to protect submarine
cables since 1864.
Those early fuses were simply platinum wires designed to melt and break a circuit
when a sufficient over-current flowed. Improvements to the basic design appeared over
the following decades. In 1879, one professor SP Thompson designed a fuse in which a
lead or tin ball was supported by a pair of iron wires. The ball would melt before the wire
and drop away, breaking the circuit more reliably and predictably than a melting wire
alone.
Other methods of achieving raid breaking included the use of leaf springs soldered
together.
In 1887, AC Cockburn published a paper – On safety fuses for electric light circuits
and on the behavior of the various metals used in their construction – in the Journal of
the Society of telegraph engineers. This paper contained the results of the first detailed
study of the physics of fuses and enabled Cockburn to propose a new fuse design.
In Cockburn’s fuse’ the wire element supported a non-conducting weight that would
break the wire once it had become molten. This claimed Cockburn, made the behavior
of the fuse more predictable than that of other designs.
The first DC electricity systems were patented by Edison in 1880, but they were air-
filled. The primary purpose of the glass envelope in which the fuse elements were
enclosed was to prevent molten droplets from the element falling on carpets or furniture,
and to relieve the tensile strain on the element.
But in 1890, WM Mordey, chief engineer of the Brush Electrical Engineering
Company, patented the first cartridge fuse filled with arc-quenching materials. It
comprised copper foil or wire conductors enclosed in a glass tube filled with a granular

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material. The filter could be chalk, sand, marble or any number of other substances,
according to Mordey.
Siemens also lays claim to the introduction of the cartridge fuse with its “Zed”
design, first made in Germany and then in the UK. The Zed fuse holder was designed
so that it could only accommodate a replacement fuse of the same size – and rating – of
the original. In most respects, the Brush and Seimens fuses were the same, but the Zed
fuse had a ceramic body, a silver wire element and a fine sand filter.
More recent fuse technology developments have been incremental, with
evolutionary improvements in fuse performance brought about by computer analysis of
the phenomena that occur during fusing of the elements. Computer modeling of fuse
behavior is helping fuse designers to understand better the previously mysterious
processes that occur when a fuse operates.
A more revolutionary change has been brought about by thick and thin film
technology. The first metal film fuses were introduced in 1985.
By 1992 bussmann had started development work on the first chip fuses, made by
depositing fusible elements onto a ceramic substrate. Fuses as small as 3mm by
1.5mm can be made for mounting on printed circuit boards by automated assembly
machines.
Chip fuses became commercially available in 1995.
New material, too, have a part to play in replacing fuses and circuit-breakers.
Researcher fuses and developed a semi conducting polymer that conducts electricity
when made into a plate and held between electrodes. If, however, the current increases
rapidly, the junction between the plate and the copper electrodes heats up to about
110C and particles near the polymer surface separates, rapidly increasing the
resistance.
Commercial devices based on this technology are already available.

Fig 1

Fig 2

Fig 3

Cock burn's fuse based on his research(top),

a "single-pole cut-out for large current"
(middle), and a number of fuses in multiple
arc for a "main lead cut-out"(bottom).

Fig 3.42

Timeline

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1864 Platinum wires used to protect submarine cables.

1880 Edison encloses wire element in a glass envelope.
1880 Swan uses tin foil fuses switches in lighting installations.
1881 Edison patents lead “safety wire”.
1881.1885 Crompton protects branch circuits of many installations with fuses.
1887 AC Cockburn performs first detailed studies of fuse physics.
1890 WM Mordey patents filled cartridge fuse.
1910 Regulations drafted by UK Board of Trade to ensure that fuses were
installed at electricity customers’ premises.
1919 First British Standard for fuses(bs88).
1920s Earliest examples of high-voltage current-limiting fuses.
Mid-1920s Rapid increases in fault power kick-starts research effort into high
Breaking capacity fuses and circuit-breakers.
1930s Expulsion fuses developed.
1939 AW Metcalf discovers M effect.
1947 BS1362 fuses introduced.
1985 First metal film fuses.
1992 Development starts on chip fuses.
1995 First chip fuses appear on the market.

3.54 NH DIN FUSE LINKS & FUSE BASES

HRC Fuse links use high grade ceramics, capable of withstanding severe thermal and
mechanical shocks, and incorporate unique silver sheathed elements, which are
intricately designed to provide a degree of accuracy unmatched by copper strip
elements used in conventional designs. The fuse links comply with dimensional
requirements of IS Standards are interchangeable with the competitors range of HRC
Fuses.

Most of the product range carry the ISI certification and are approved by the Tariff
Advisory Committee and various departments of Government of India such as Atomic
Energy, Defence, DGS & D, Railways, C-DOT and CACT.
SALIENT FEATURES:

FUSE LINK
Wide range offered from 6-630 A with breaking of 80 KA at 415/500 V.
Compliance to Indian and International standards – IS13703/IEC269.
Protection class gG.
Low power loss well below the limit stipulated in standards, which saves energy and
ensures cool running and longer life of the equipment.
Low peak cut-off current resulting in reduced electromagnetic stress.
Low let through energy resulting in reduction of thermal stress.
Fusing factor conforms to standards ensuring close over current protection for cables.

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Time current characteristics are ideally suited for protection of industrial equipments and
cables.
The cad designed of element ensures precise time current characteristic resulting in
reliable service life of the fuse.
Provision of fuse trip indication.
Easy interchangeability with other competitors fuses as per IS13703.

FUSE BASE:
- Dimensions conforms to IS13703 / IEC 269.
- Suitable for all sizes offered, from size 000, 00, 0, 01, 02 & 03.
- Silver plated tags.
- Type tested for short circuit capacity at reputed labs such as CPRI/ERDA.
- Low contact power loss.
- DMC insulating material conforms to IEC 695 – 2 – 1 (1980).

Application Data

The standard range of high rupture capacity fuse links for low voltage industrial and
general purpose applications, meet the requirements of IS13703 and BS 88. The use of
advanced fuse technology has enabled achieving compact dimensions but still within
the standard dimensional and performance requirements. The standard range of BSLV
fuse links are available from 2 to 800 Amperes in the following tag forms : OFFSET
TAG – OFFSET BOLTED – CENTRE BOLTED.

DEFINITIONS:
HRC or HBC
High rupturing capacity or high breaking capacity denotes the ability of a fuse link to
interrupt extremely high fault current.

Current Limiting Fuse

A fuse link that during its operation limits the circuit current to a value much lower than
the peak value of the prospective fault current. In practice the terms HRC and Current
Limiting are synonymous.

Rated Breaking Capacity

The highest value of fault current that the fuse link has been tested to interrupt,
e.g.80KA.

Rated Voltage
The maximum voltage that the fuse link is designed to interrupt. Rated voltages may be
in volts AC, DC or both.

Current Rating
The value of current that a fuse link will carry continuously without deterioration under
specified condition.

General Purpose Fuse Link

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A fuse link with a full range breaking capability, capable of interrupting all currents from
rated breaking current generally down to the minimum fusing current.

Full Range Fuse Link (gG –General Application)

A fuse link with a full range breaking capability, capable of interrupting all values of
current that cause melting of the fusible elements.

Minimum Fusing Current

The minimum value of current to cause melting of fusible element.

CIRCUIT LOADING
The current rating of the fuse link should be greater than the full load current of the
circuit. The circuit should be so designed that small overloads of long duration will not
be of frequent occurance.

CABLE PROTECTION
Bussmann fuse links with gG characteristics (full range protection) protect associated
cables against both overload and short circuit current, provided that the current rating of
the fuse link lN is equal or less than the current carrying capacity of the cable l Z.

In motor circuits the motor starter will provide the overload protection and the fuse links
will provide a short circuit protection. The maximum size of the fuse link that can be
used depends upon the type of cable used is determined in accordance with wiring
regulations using the appropriate K factor. The following table gives the maximum sizes
of fuse links that are recommended for two popular cables with copper conductors,
70C PVC (K=115).
Cable Max.Fuse
Size Rating
mm2
1 16
1.5 20
2.5 32
4 50
6 63
10 100
16 125
25 200
35 315
50 400
70 560
95 710
120 800

Table 3.2

AMBIENT TEMPERATURE

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The de-rating in terms of current of 0.5% per degree centigrade raised above an
ambient of 35C is recommended.

BREAKING CAPACITY
The maximum values of breaking capacity are 80KA for voltages of 415V AC.

DISCRIMINATION
All fuse links to IS13703 will give discrimination ratio of 2:1 and for most practical
situations a ratio of 1:6:1 is valid.
Example : an upstream fuse rated at 160Ampere will discriminated with a downstream
fuse rated at 100 Amperes.

TRANSFORMER
When fuse links are used on the primary side of transformers the normal current rating
of the fuse links should be atleast twice the nominal transformer primary current.

FLUORESCENT LIGHTING
The normal current rating of the fuse link should be atleast twice the normal full load
current of the maximum number of lights to be switched simultaneously.

CAPACITOR CIRCUITS
In capacitor circuits, in applications like power factor correction, the fuse link should be
chosen with a current rating greater than 1.5 times the rated capacitor current. This
takes into account the high transient in rush current, circuit harmonics and capacitor
tolerances.

MOTOR CIRCUITS
In motor circuits, the fuse links has to withstand the starting current of the motor and
often requires a higher rating than the full load current of the motor.

Co-ordination recommendations are made by the manufacturers are made by the

manufacturers of motor starters in accordance with the IEC 947-4-1, to give desirable
type 2 co-ordinations gG fuse links are used for above purpose.

The table below shows the recommended fuse links for motor Applications at 415V AC.

Motor Full Recommended

Rating Load Fuse Rating
HP KW Current DOL *-
Delta

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1 0.75 1.9 10 6
1.5 1.1 2.5 16 6
2 1.5 3.4 16 10
3 2.2 2.8 16 16
4 3 6.4 20 16
5 3.75 7.8 25 16
7.5 5.5 11.6 32 20
10 7.5 14.4 40 25
12.5 9.4 17.3 50 32
15 11 21.1 63 40
20 15 28 80 50
25 18.5 35 80 63
30 22 41 100 63
35 26 48 100 80
40 30 55 125 80
45 34 62 125 80
50 37 69 160 100
60 45 83 160 100
70 53 97 200 125
75 55 103 200 125
80 60 110 250 125
90 68 123 250 160
100 75 136 250 160
125 94 171 315 200
150 110 200 355 250
175 132 231 355 315
200 150 263 500 315
225 169 293 500 355
250 185 324 500 355
300 220 385 630 400
355 261 449 - 500
400 300 505 - 500
450 335 617 - 630
500 372 686 - 630

Table 3.3

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4. ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS
4.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE OF A TRANSFORMER.
4.2 ISOLATION TRANSFORMER
4.3 INTRODUCTION TO THE ULTRA-K
4.4 EFFECTIVE EARTHING FOR ENHANCED SAFETY

4.1 Working principle of a transformer

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which
electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same frequency in
another circuit. It can rise or lower the voltage in a circuit but with a corresponding
decrease and increase in current. The physical basis of a transformer is manual
induction between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux. In its simplest form, it
consists of two inductive coils which are consists of two inductive coils which are
electrically separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance as shown
in Fig 4.1

CONDUCTOR WIRE

IRON
FILINGS
+
SUPPLY

-
PAPER

Fig 4.1

The two coils process high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of
alternating voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is
linked with the other coil in which it produces mutually-induced e.m.f (according to
faraday’s Laws of Electro-magnetic Induction e=Mdl/dt). If the second coil circuit is
closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely magnetically)
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from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which electric energy is fed from the
AC supply mains, is called primary winding and the other from which energy is drawn
out, is called secondary winding. In brief, a transformer is a device that
1. Transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. It does so without a change of frequency
3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influences of each
other
Transformer construction:
The simple elements of a transformer consist of two coils having mutual inductance and
laminated steel core. The two coils are insulated from each other and the steel core.
Other necessary parts are; some suitable container for the assembled core and
windings; bushings (either of porcelain, oil filled or capacitor-type) for insulating and
bringing out the terminals of windings from the tank.
In all types of transformers, the core is constructed of transformer sheet steel
laminations assembled to provide a continuous magnetic path with a minimum of air-
gap included. The steel used is of high silicon content, sometimes heat-treated to
produce a high permeability and a low hysteresis loss at the usual operating flux
densities. Laminating the core minimizes the eddy current loss, the laminations being
insulated from each other by a light coat of core-plate varnish or by an oxide layer on
the surface. The thickness of laminations varies from 0.35mm for a frequency of 50 Hz
to 0.5mm for a frequency of 25Hz. The core laminations (in the form of strips) are
joined. it is seen that the joints in the alternate layers are staggered in order to avoid
the presence of narrow gaps right through the cross –section of the core. Such
staggered joints are said to be ‘imbricate’.
Constructionally, the transformers are of two general types, distinguished from each
other merely by the manner in which the primary and secondary coils are placed around
the laminated core. The two types are known as (i) core-type and (ii) shell- type.
Another recent development is spiral-core or wound-core type.

COIL
ELECTROMAGNET

N S

BATTERY
METER

- +

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Fig 4.2

COIL IRON
BAR

N S

BATTERY

- +

Fig 4.3

BATTERY
+

SWITCH
-

SWITCH METER COIL

+
BATTERY
S N

ELECTO-
- MAGNET
METER

CIRCUIT
SCHEMATIC

Fig 4.4

4.2 ISOLATION TRANSFORMER / NOISE CUTOFF

TRANSFORMER
4.21 INTRODUCTION
4.22 CONSTRAUCTIONAL DETAILS
4.23 APPLICATION
4.24 SUMMARY

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4.21 INTRODUCTION

The causes of Electrical Noises can be broadly classified as Natural, due to utility of
electrical systems and inherent to equipment
1.Natural causes related to those that occur because of electrical disturbances in the
atmosphere. Lighting precipitation of static charges and electric discharges in the clouds
are the major types.
2. Utility of electrical system generates intentional or unintentional electro magnet
disturbances. Any switching action generates a noise or spike. Larger the inductance of
the system and larger the current change during switching, larger the magnitude of
electrical noises.
Switching of Breakers, Ignition system, Capacitor Banks, Heavy Machineries, use of
welding systems, switching of Air conditioners movements of Elevators, over head
cranes, etc. are some of the common sources.
3.Inherent to equipment the noise is generated due to certain phenomena occurring
within the equipment of the components comprising the system. the switching of
Thyristors, Power transistors, in Converters or Inverters, Relays or Inductors generate
electrical noises and spikes during the time they change from one state to another. This
is also picked up by other components in the associated digital and analogue circuitry.
The conduction of high frequency signals on a PCB track can also generate electrical
noises.
The noises when referred to ground potential are differentiated in two categories.
1. Common Mode Noise, or Asymmetrical &
2. Differential made noise or transverse or Symmetrical Noise.
The common mode noise occurs between the ground and the current carrying
conductors. Common mode current attenuates more slowly than differential mode and
therefore reaches further and is the common source of trouble.
The differential mode noise occurs between two current carrying conductors like line to
neutral or line-to-line.
The electrical noises are observed to occur over a wide band of frequency ranging from
1KHZ to 100MHZ and above.
The spikes in terms of voltage magnitude are observed to reached as high as 2500 to
3000V on a 3-phase supply system. Their effects are:
1. Power the noises can be miss-read as significant data by a computer, electro
medical equipments, causing untraceable data entry, change in program, loss of
memory or even system damage.
2. The high voltage spikes can cause the failure of Micro Processor, Thyristors or
Transistors and other voltage sensitive devices.
3. The radiated noise can cause havoc in operation of remote control equipments like
cranes, Nuskar controls or telecommunication equipment.

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All types of power line noises can be effectively isolated by the use of Noise cut-out
Transformers.

4.22 CONSTRAUCTIONAL DETAILS

Noise cut-out transformers are designed with split winding construction with bifilar
connections to reduce all capacitance of the winding.
The use of high insulating inductance, and special shielding techniques result in
attenuating common mode noise and minimizing transverse mode noise.
The core and its magnetic properties are properly selected to exhibit sufficient leakage
inductance to provide greatest possible attenuation of transfer mode power line noise,
consistent with the transfer of fundamental power frequency. But all higher frequencies
are blocked.
Adequate de-rating is carried out for copper conductors for cooling due to non-access of
atmospheric air by way of multi layer screenings and special insulating material.
The use of unique box shielding and other special shielding techniques totally blocks
the electronic noises, even by static charge, or by way of proximity.
The Noise cut-out Transformers are conservatively rated to remain cool under full load
conditions and exhibit good voltage regulation.
Due to better regulation, do not generate common mode impedance coupling effect.

4.23 APPLICATION
ISOLATION TRANSFORMERS are used to:
1 Shield the computers, CNC Machines and Tele communications equipments from
damage due to electrical noises.
2.When ground potentials of system units are different from each other and are exposed
to the effects of instability at high frequencies.
3. When the ground of the equipment cannot be earthed.
4. When no slightest current leakage is permitted in the equipment especially for
computers and CNC earthed.
5. When noises frequencies are extended in the very wide band range.
6. When common mode noise of very low frequency appears.
7. When electrical noise producing equipment is used, which is sensitive to electrical
noise itself.
8. When countermeasure is needed against strong lightings, impulse noise, bus short-
circuit, accidental discharge of capacitors etc. with the use of Noise Cut-out
Transformer
(a) No impedance matching is required
(b) Characteristics are symmetrical to allow suppression effect to work both
ways
(c) No secondary effects such as noise generated by serious resonance at some
frequency, as with filters and other similar devices.

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(d) When multiple Noise cut-out Transformers are used, the suppression effects
increase in proportion, there fore, the effects of cascading multiple Noise cut-
out Transformers are remarkable.
9. Digital Communication systems, Audio and Video recording equipments will get
badly effect by the power line disturbances.
10. In Instrumentation and Telemetry, line noise will lead to a wrong decision in an
automated product line, which may turn out to be expensive.

4.24 SUMMARY
So the faulty behavior of the equipment. (as indicated above) are due to line
disturbance. To overcome these problem. It is essential to use Isolation transformers.

   4.3 Introduction to the Ultra-K

4.31 GENERAL
4.32 Ultra-K
4.33 Summary

4.31 GENERAL
Present day electronics are far more sophisticated than ever imagined. Today’s
equipment use switch-mode power supplies and high frequency digital processing.
Yesterday’s equipment used linear circuits and lower frequency digital processing. The
proliferation of today’s technology has forced us to rethink our approach to power,
power supplies and high frequency operation.

The power supplies we use today are of the non-linear switch-mode topology. By the
nature of their design, switch-mode power supplies are moderately immune to voltage
variations. On the other hand, they are quite susceptible to damage or limited life
resulting from voltage excursions and long duration transients that occur in periods
longer than the switching frequency of the switch-mode power supplies.

It is imperative to protect the sensitive electronic equipment from harsh electrical

environments; especially when time and production is at stake. The proper way of
accomplishing the necessary protection is by resorting to the fundamentals of power

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conditioning (isolation and single point grounding). This sounds simple, an isolation
transformer, but that is only partially correct. It must be a transformer designed for the
special needs of the switch-mode power supply in order to obtain the maximum
effectiveness.

The correct transformer must be designed well below its saturation level for quick
recovery and the high crest factor demand of the switch-mode power supply. It is also
mandatory that the ratio of inductance (XL) to resistance (R) is higher than a standard
linear load designs to prevent over voltage stress on the solid state switching devices at
the moment of a transient. The transformer must exhibit an exceptionally low inner
winding capacitance (typically .001pf) to eliminate coupling of high frequency common
mode noise generated by the load. Transient filter networks are also necessary to
effectively enhance the transverse mode rejection and the efficiency of the transformer
should be 98% or better.

from harsh electrical environments; especially when time and production is at stake.
The proper way of accomplishing the necessary protection is by resorting to the
fundamentals of power conditioning (isolation and single point grounding). This sounds
simple, an isolation transformer, but that is only partially correct. It must be a
transformer designed for the special needs of the switch-mode power supply in order to
obtain the maximum effectiveness.

The correct transformer must be designed well below its saturation level for quick
recovery and the high crest factor demand of the switch-mode power supply. It is also
mandatory that the ratio of inductance (XL) to resistance (R) is higher than a standard
linear load designs to prevent over voltage stress on the solid state switching devices at
the moment of a transient. The transformer must exhibit an exceptionally low inner
winding capacitance (typically .001pf) to eliminate coupling of high frequency common
mode noise generated by the load. Transient filter networks are also necessary to
effectively enhance the transverse mode rejection and the efficiency of the transformer
should be 98% or better.

4.32 Ultra-K
Controlled Power Company makes just this type of transformer. Designed specifically
for the microprocessor-based world, the Ultra-K is a triple shielded isolation transformer
designed with the load and the requirements of the customer in mind. The Ultra-K is
manufactured with K-factor ratings of K-4, K-7, K-13, and K-20 to deal with the high
harmonic contents produced by many non-linear loads. The Ultra-K also has the option
of a 6 mode 40,000 amp Transient Voltage Surge Suppresser (TVSS), and high
frequency noise filter to further enhance its noise and spike attenuation capability.

4.33 Summary

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Due to the advent of switch-mode power supplies and other non-linear loads,
transformers that provide excellent power conditioning capabilities and can handle high
harmonic currents are a necessity to ensure that your equipment operates smoothly and
without any upsets. The Ultra-K is designed to handle harmonics, and reduce transients
and noise to safe levels for the protection of your mission critical equipment

4.4 EFFECTIVE EARTHING FOR ENHANCED SAFETY

Earthing has always been an important aspect in most electrical installations, With the
increasing use of captive power plants as optional source of power, earthling assumes
ever greater significance.

Improper earthling in a system with multiple sources results in a shift of neutral potential
beyond the permissible limits in the event of any unbalance power supply, this shift in
neutral potential is reflected in all equipment connected to other sources and may cause
an electrical hazard.

Isolation of neutral is one solution. But this circumvents the main problem since the
fault persists. The safest solution is to have a sound earthling system where the
possibility of the potential exceeding the safe limits is quite low.

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5 VOLTAGE STABILIZERS
5.1 STATICBUCK BOOST VOLTAGE STABILISERS.
5.2 SERVO CONTROLLED VOLTAGE STABILIZERS .

5.1 Static Buck Boost Stabilisers:

5.11 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

5.12 OPERATION

5.11 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

buck boost voltage stabilizer, essentially comprises of following parts, which are

 Auto Transformer with tappings(buck boost Transformer)

 Set of Relays
 A control circuit to control relay.

The Control circuit monitors the output voltage of the stabilizer and controls the Relay,
which are connected to the Auto Transformer Tappings. Here there will be Auto
Transformer with tapings and the relay to select the different tapings. Here Normally
the out put regulation will be 200V to 240V. Multiple tapping will be selected at different
input voltages such that to get the above mentioned Voltage

The Power circuit line diagram is as follows

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A A

B B

C C

D D

E E

F PREP F
POWERTRONIX SYSTEM PVT LTD CUSTOMER : DRAWING NO :
CHKD
APRD BANGALORE-44
DATE SHEET : OF REV
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Fig 5.1

5.12 OPERATION:

The tappings are designed such that , for a given Input Voltage Range , the Out put
tappings can be selected to get 200 V to 240 V. When the mains supply voltage varies,
the control circuit senses and controls the Relay. Relays are connected to get the
required output voltages.

Control board also monitors the output voltage and controls the relay for beyond the
stabilizer acceptable voltage range, in turn relay trips the Contactor.

The Three Phase Voltage Stabiliser Schematic is as shown below fig 5.2

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1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

A A

B B

C C

D D

E E

F F
PREP CUSTOMER : DRAWING NO :
POWERTRONIX SYSTEM PVT LTD
CHKD
APRD BANGALORE-44
DATE SHEET : OF REV
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

Fig:5.2 Three Phase Voltage Stabiliser Power circuit Schematic

5.2 SERVO CONTROLLED VOLTAGE STABILIZERS.

5.21 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

5.22 OPERATION

5.21 SYSTEM DESCRIPTION

Servo controlled voltage stabilizer, essentially comprises of 3 major units in each phase,
which are

 A fixed ratio transformer, (buck boost Transformer)

 A continuously adjustable Auto Transformer (Variac)
 A reversible AC Servo meter with control circuit.

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The Control circuit monitors the output voltage of the stabilizer and controls the
servomotor, mechanically coupled to the moving arm of the Variac. Output of the
Variac is connected to primary of the buck-boost transformer. Secondary of the
transformer is connected in series between the Input and the load side through
Contactor.

The Power circuit line diagram is as below

Fig 5.3

5.22 OPERATION:
When the mains supply voltage falls, the control circuit senses and controls the motor,
in turn moves Variac arm in such a direction so as to build up the output voltage, until
the stabilizer output voltages restored to set voltage.

Same way the mains voltage increases the control circuit controls the Variac arm
through servomotor in opposite Direction until the stabilizer output voltage restored back
set voltage. If the variations in the supply voltage greater than the acceptance range of
the stabilizer, the arm of the Variac will be driven to one or other of its extreme ends
without full correction being achieved (In order to prevent the possible damage to the
motor or the load, limit switches are incorporated in the motor armature circuit)

Control board also monitors the output voltage and controls the relay for beyond the
stabilizer acceptable voltage range, in turn relay trips the Contactor.

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Fig :5.4 Three phase power circuit diagram

fig :5.5 Control circuit diagram for Servo controlled voltage stabiliser

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6 BACK UP POWER SUPPLY

6.1 LIGHTING INVERTER

6.2 UNINTRRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY(UPS)

6.1 LIGHTING INVERTER

What is Lighting Inverter?

Generally, The Inverter is a device which converts the DC supply to AC power supply.
Commercially the Backup power supply is called Lighting Inverter.
Lighting Inverter is the equipment used to supply power during the power failure using
the storage Batteries

What is the difference between UPS & Lighting Inverter?

The Change over of power from Input line supply to the Battery shall be 10ms or less.
In Inverter change over time is not a criteria even up to 1 second.

6.2 UNINTRRUPTIBLE POWER SUPPLY(UPS)

6.21 INTRODUCTION
6.22 TYPES OF UPS TOPOLOGY
6.23 OFFLINE UPS
6.24 LINE INTERACTIVE UPS
6.25 ONLINE UPS
6.26 CONVERTER
6.27 INVERTER
6.28 BATTERY

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6.21 INTRODUCTION
Uninterruptible power Supply is normally called as UPS. UPS is also normally regarded
as the ultimate solution to power problems.

INSIDE THE UPS

A good UPS system normally has two-function -provide a redundant (backup) power
source and performs power quality improvement. UPS s available in the market today
can be broadly classified in to two types: standby and online. The main difference
between the two is in the primary power path provided by them.
In a standby (offline) UPS, the transfer switch is normally set to provide power to the
load from a filtered AC source. It switches to the inverter battery when the primary
source fails. In the case of an online UPS, the primary source of power is the inverter
battery. The online UPS switches to the input AC only if the primary source (inverter
battery) fails.

This distinction gives rise to some important difference when the input power fails. in the
case of a standby UPS, the transfer switch operates to connect the battery backup to
the load. This switching action takes a finite amount of time –ranging 2to 10 or more
milliseconds. However, PC s are capable of operating for a limited duration of time
(around 5to10 milliseconds) without loss of memory contents or data. So, any UPS must
ensure a switchover within this duration and keep the PC running. Many of the cheaper
SMPS s used in PC s have very low reserve capacity- to be on the safe side choose a
UPS with a switchover time between 5…10ms.

In the case of online UPS, even if the AC input fails it will not activate the transfer
switch, since the mains AC input is not the primary power source. The online UPS will
exhibit a transfer time only if the battery inverter path fails. Sometimes a transfer may be
experienced if the UPS is subjected to sudden changes in load.
The battery charger is one component, which is significantly affected by the type of
UPS.
In an online UPS the battery charger needs to be large enough to handle the full output
power demand and prevent the battery from discharging. In a standby UPS the charger
needs to handle only the battery recharge load-so it can be much smaller.
The flow of power through the charger and inverter involves a power loss-most of which
is dissipated as heat. This heat, besides lowering device efficiency, adversely affects
the life of the battery and the other components in the UPS. In an online UPS, since the
power flows continuously through the inverter, getting rid of heat is a significant issue.

UPS systems react to a brownout in the same way as they react to a blackout- they
switch to battery power. How ever, if your equipment is located in a site with persistent
low voltage, the UPS may frequently switch to the backup source. In such cases look for
a UPS with a wider input voltage range or employ other voltage correction devices.

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6.22 TYPES OF UPS TOPOLOGY

a) Offline UPS-sine wave square wave
b) Line Interactive-sine wave
c) Online-sine wave

6.23 OFFLINE UPS

Fig: 6.1 Offline UPS

An offline UPS is in hot stand –by mode. The inverter is sitting idle until the input voltage
goes above or below a usable level. At that point, the inverter will turn on and supply the
load with AC power. With an offline UPS there is a finite transfer time of several
milliseconds; this is the time it takes for the UPS to recognize the voltage as too high or
too low for the load and then switch in the AC power from the inverter to the load. If the
quality of line power is poor –as it is almost every place in our country.

6.24 LINE INTERACTIVE UPS

A line interactive UPS is similar to an off line UPS. Upon sensing an under – or over
voltage situation, it also requires a transfer time of several milliseconds for the inverter
to supply power to the load. The main difference between an offline and a line-
interactive UPS is that a line-interactive UPS in the stand-by mode has active voltage
regulation. This feature in a line-interactive UPS allows the load to normally get
regulated input line voltage rather than unregulated line as in offline UPS.

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Fig:6.3 Line Interactive UPS

6.25 ONLINE UPS

The online UPS has some of the same components as an offline UPS with a few
differences. An online UPS has input surge, batteries, inverter components and, in
addition, a rectifier. These components work together in providing the ultimate in power
protection. The rectifier takes the input voltage and changes it from AC voltage
(alternating current coming from the utility power) to DC voltage (direct current coming
from a battery). In most online UPS systems, the rectifier or filtering is used to make
sure that the load, as well as the UPS, does not allow unnecessary noise and
harmonics to be fed back into the commercial line power. The DC voltage from the
rectifier is used to supply power to charge the batteries and supply DC voltage to the
inverter. In an online UPS, the inverter must supply better performance than an offline
or line-interactive UPS because the inverter is constantly supplying power to the load
and so it must be a very clean regulated voltage. With an online UPS, the input can
have wide voltage fluctuations while the inverter will supply a clean regulated voltage to
the load. Then when the input voltage goes too high or too low for the rectifier to supply
power to the inverter, the inverter draws current from the batteries rather than form the
rectifier with no break in power to the load (no transfer time).

Fig : 6.4 ONLINE UPS

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Roundup
The effect of power problems range from the subtle (keyboard lockups and hardware
degradation) to the extreme (data loss and burnt motherboards).
Since you’re not going to get the clean and consistent power you need. Use a good
power conditioning and backup system to protect your computer.
The wave shape of the UPS output voltage influences your PC.
Input mains voltage is generally in the form of a sine wave which has a nominal RMS
value of 220..240 volts and 1.4 times peak value. The RMS value determines the
brightness of bulbs and working of transformers, while the higher peak value is used by
computers.
A UPS design must take in to account the fact that the product may be used for a mix of
loads-some of which are RMS sensitive while the others use peak voltages. Some UPS
designs produce a square wave output. The problem with a square wave is that it
cannot simultaneously supply the correct RMS and peak voltages-since the peak and
RMS values are equal. So usually a square wave design produces an output voltage,
which lies in between the two values for a sine wave. This solution will overstress some
loads while depriving others of the right voltage value. The voltage value of the square
wave produced by a UPS is strongly affected by the energy remaining in the battery and
the size of the load connected to it. This leads to swings in the output voltage-a less
than ideal situation since the UPS is supposed to provide regulated voltage. In short,
square waveforms can damage loads or cause them to malfunction. to get around some
vendors use a modified square wave which is a stepped approximation to the sine
wave. This design lets you generate a waveform with RMS and peak values close to the
sine wave. But a pure sine wave output design is the best.

6.26 CONVERTER
The basic function of the Converter(Rectifier or also called charger) is to Convert AC
Power to DC Power supply for the battery and the Inverter in the UPS

There are three major kinds of power supplies: unregulated (also called brute force),
linear regulated, and switching. A fourth type of power supply circuit called the ripple-
regulated, is a hybrid between the "brute force" and "switching" designs, and merits a
subsection to itself.

Unregulated

An unregulated power supply is the most rudimentary type, consisting of a transformer,

rectifier, and low-pass filter. These power supplies typically exhibit a lot of ripple voltage
(i.e. rapidly-varying instability) and other AC "noise" superimposed on the DC power. If
the input voltage varies, the output voltage will vary by a proportional amount. The
advantage of an unregulated supply is that it's cheap, simple, and efficient.

Linear regulated

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A linear regulated supply is simply a "brute force" (unregulated) power supply followed
by a transistor circuit operating in its "active," or "linear" mode, hence the name linear
regulator. (Obvious in retrospect, isn't it?) A typical linear regulator is designed to output
a fixed voltage for a wide range of input voltages, and it simply drops any excess input
voltage to allow a maximum output voltage to the load. This excess voltage drop results
in significant power dissipation in the form of heat. If the input voltage gets too low, the
transistor circuit will lose regulation, meaning that it will fail to keep the voltage steady. It
can only drop excess voltage, not make up for a deficiency in voltage from the brute
force section of the circuit. Therefore, you have to keep the input voltage at least 1 to 3
volts higher than the desired output, depending on the regulator type. This means the
power equivalent of at least 1 to 3 volts multiplied by the full load current will be
dissipated by the regulator circuit, generating a lot of heat. This makes linear regulated
power supplies rather inefficient. Also, to get rid of all that heat they have to use large
heat sinks which makes them large, heavy, and expensive.

Switching

A switching regulated power supply ("switcher") is an effort to realize the advantages of

both brute force and linear regulated designs (small, efficient, and cheap, but also
"clean," stable output voltage). Switching power supplies work on the principle of
rectifying the incoming AC power line voltage into DC, re-converting it into high-
frequency square-wave AC through transistors operated as on/off switches, stepping
that AC voltage up or down by using a lightweight transformer, then rectifying the
transformer's AC output into DC and filtering for final output. Voltage regulation is
achieved by altering the "duty cycle" of the DC-to-AC inversion on the transformer's
primary side. In addition to lighter weight because of a smaller transformer core,
switchers have another tremendous advantage over the prior two designs: this type of
power supply can be made so totally independent of the input voltage that it can work
on any electric power system in the world; these are called "universal" power supplies.

The downside of switchers is that they are more complex, and due to their operation
they tend to generate a lot of high-frequency AC "noise" on the power line. Most
switchers also have significant ripple voltage on their outputs. With the cheaper types,
this noise and ripple can be as bad as for an unregulated power supply; such low-end
switchers aren't worthless, because they still provide a stable average output voltage,
and there's the "universal" input capability.

Expensive switchers are ripple-free and have noise nearly as low as for some a linear
types; these switchers tend to be as expensive as linear supplies. The reason to use an
expensive switcher instead of a good linear is if you need universal power system
compatibility or high efficiency. High efficiency, light weight, and small size are the
reasons switching power supplies are almost universally used for powering digital
computer circuitry.

Ripple regulated

A ripple-regulated power supply is an alternative to the linear regulated design scheme:

a "brute force" power supply (transformer, rectifier, filter) constitutes the "front end" of
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the circuit, but a transistor operated strictly in its on/off (saturation/cutoff) modes
transfers DC power to a large capacitor as needed to maintain the output voltage
between a high and a low setpoint. As in switchers, the transistor in a ripple regulator
never passes current while in its "active," or "linear," mode for any substantial length of
time, meaning that very little energy will be wasted in the form of heat. However, the
biggest drawback to this regulation scheme is the necessary presence of some ripple
voltage on the output, as the DC voltage varies between the two voltage control
setpoints. Also, this ripple voltage varies in frequency depending on load current, which
makes final filtering of the DC power more difficult.

Ripple regulator circuits tend to be quite a bit simpler than switcher circuitry, and they
need not handle the high power line voltages that switcher transistors must handle,
making them safer to work on.

An AC/DC converter is usually used as a front-end converter in a power electronics

system. A front-end converter has to be friendly to the utility line, that means high power
factor, low input current THD(total harmonic distortion, and low EMI emission. To meet
more and more strict regulations, advanced AC/DC converters have been developed for
single phase system and three-phase system.

single-phase boost PFC rectifier

three-phase DCM boost PFC rectifier

three-phase boost PWM PFC recitifer

three-phase buck PFC rectifier

6.27 INVERTER
The basic function of the Inverter is to Inverting DC Power to AC Power for the Critical
Electrical Load

Inverter using two Transistors and Single Transformer

The center tapping of primary of the transformer is connected to the negative terminal of
DC source and the two ends of the primary winding are connected to the collector of
transistor Q1 and Q2 and the feedback winding (base winding) is connected to the base
of transistor Q1 and Q2.

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The center tapping of base winding is connected to the positive terminal of DC source
battery through resistor R2.

The slightest difference in current again or any parameters cause one transistor to
conduct before other. We assume that transistorQ1 switches ON first.

The collector current increases to its maximum value and the flux also change. This
changing flux induces EMF in the feedback or base winding with such a polarity that it is
regenerative for Q2, thus the transistor Q1 switches ON and Q2 switches OFF.

Now as the collector current reaches its maximum value, it is constant and there is no
change of flux thus there is no induced EMF in the feedback or base winding the base
current of transistor reduces to zero, and the collector current of transistor Q1 starts
reducing again.

As the current is reducing, there is change in flux, this changing flux induces EMF in the
feedback (base) winding and its polarity is as such that it is degenerative for transistor
Q1 base and regenerative for transistor Q2 base, thus the transistor Q1switches OFF.

Now, the collector current of transistor Q2rises to its maximum value and along with it
the flux also changes and this changing flux induces EMF in the feedback (base)
winding with as such polarity that it is regenerative for transistorQ2 and degenerative for
transistor Q1, thus the transistor Q2 is ON and transistor Q1 is OFF.

Now, as the collector current of transistor Q2 reaches its maximum value and becomes
constant there is no change of flux and there is no induced EMF in the feedback (base)
winding, thus the transistor Q2 switches OFF and the collector current of transistor Q2
starts reducing.

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The flux due to this reducing current induces EMF in the feedback (base) winding with
such a polarity that it is degenerative for transistor Q2 and regenerative for transistor Q1
and thus the transistor Q1switches ON and transistor Q2 switches OFF.

This process continues till the DC supply is ON. The output from the secondary winding
of transformer is square wave with amplitude proportional to the number of turns.
The resistance R1 and R2 are used to limit the base current.

Operating Frequency &Wave Shape of Inverter

The AC signal we get through the mains power supply is a sine wave with 50Hz
frequency.

When we use an inverter to drive any device the waveform and the frequency of the AC
power generated by the inverter is very important.
It is always kept in mind of the inverter designer that the output from the inverter
resembles the actual AC supply from the mains as much as possible, in pulse shape in
the frequency.

An IC controlled multi-vibrator provides better frequency control than a feedback type of

inverter.

In an inverter when the load is directly connected to the oscillator output, the output
frequency get effected. So, a good inverter provides a driver stage at the output to keep
the output frequency stable.

The operating temperature of the inverter also effects its output frequency, for this
reason a crystal controlled oscillator will have stable frequency output.
The output frequency of the inverter is phase locked or synchronized to the mains AC
supply. This helps when a switching from mains to inverter or inverter to mains is
required.

Based on the output single type, two common inverters are

 Sine Wave Inverter
 Square Wave Inverter

Square Wave or Sine Wave

The values of alternating current (AC) and voltage can be stated in several different
ways.
 Instantaneous values. It is defined as simply the value present or
measured at any given instant in time.
 Root Mean Square (RMS) or effective values. The effective value of a sine
wave is equal to 0.707 of its peak value i.e. a peak sine wave current of
1.0 amperes produces the same power as does a direct current of 0.707
ampere.

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 Average value. The average value is used in relation to rectifier circuits.

The average value of a full cycle sine wave is twice the value of the
average of a half cycle. The average value of a sine wave is zero.
 Form factor. The ratio of the RMS value to the average value yields a
number called form factor.

The wave shape of the inverter output voltage influences the load connected to the
inverter. Mains AC voltage is generally in the form of a pure sine wave which as a
nominal RMS value of between 220 to 240V and a 1.4 times peak value. The RMS
value determines the brightness of bulbs and working of transformer.

An inverter design must take into account the fact that the product may be used for a
mix type of loads-some use peak voltages and some are RMS sensitive.

Some inverters designs produce a square wave output. The problem with a square
wave is that it cannot simultaneously. Supply the correct RMS and peak voltages –
since the peak and RMS values are equal. So, usually a square wave design produces
an output voltage, which lies between the two values for sine wave. This over stresses
some loads and deprive others of the right voltage value.

The voltage of the square wave produce by an inverter depends on the energy
remaining in the battery and the size of the load connected to it. This leads to swing in
the output voltage and can damage the loads connected to the inverter or can cause
them to malfunction.

To get around some of the problems of a square wave, some inverter manufacturers
use a modified square wave, which is, stepped approximation to the sine wave. This
design lets the inverter generate a waveform with RMS and peak values closed to sine
wave. But the pure sine wave output design of an inverter is the best.

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Three-Phase Inverters
Inverters are used to transform DC power into three-phase AC power. Todays inverters use high
power switching transistors called IGBT's and/or MOSFETS. A single phase inverter consists of
two switches, one from the positive DC rail tied to a common node and one from the negative
DC rail tied to the common node. The AC power is extracted from the common node with
respect to a center tapped ground between two capacitors. A good example of an inverter, though
not a very efficient one, is an audio amplifier. The only modification to the amplifier is that the
input to the amplifier need be a constant AC signal representing the desired output frequency.
A three-phase inverter is a combination of three single phase inverters along with
synchronization so that the three phase voltages are separated by 120 degrees. Below is a
schematic of the most simple three phase inverter topology. Another example of an inverter is
given in the flywheel storage system

6.28 BATTERY

6.28.1 Long Duration Backup

6.28.2 INTRODUCTION:
6.28.3 LEAD ACID CELL
6.28.4 Battery Types

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Most UPS s have internal batteries, which may be either nickel cadmium or the more
popular sealed lead acid (maintenance free) type. The maintenance free batteries are
essentially car battery miniature, which makes them quite heavy. Many UPS s allow to
you to connect external batteries to increase the duration of the backup.

All chemical batteries suffer aging, and have to be replaced after a few years use.
Unfortunately there is no outward sign of this battery deterioration. And if different UPS
systems use the same kind of battery, wide variations in the life spans are possible.
This fact is important, since battery replacement can be very expensive.

Many manufacturers use higher battery voltages because for given power level, a
higher battery voltage allows the use of smaller wires and semiconductor components-
reducing the cost of the UPS. When the batteries are kept on a constant charge (as in a
UPS), the individual cells are charged in series. Small variations in the manufacturing of
the cells can cause some cells draw a higher portion of the charging voltage than the
others-leading to premature aging of those cells. This weakness the whole battery. So,
a UPS designs employ a battery voltage of 24 volts.
Ideally, a UPS battery should be always on a “float” or constant voltage charge to
maximize battery life. In this state the battery draws a small amount of current from the
better charger called the “self discharge” or “float” current. Keeping the battery
constantly charged slows down the natural aging of the battery. So, your UPS should
always charge the battery when ever it is plugged in-even if the UPS is switched off.

The life of the batteries is strongly affected by heat-every 5 degree rise in battery
temperature reduces its life by 10 percent. This means that the UPS designs needs to
keep the battery as cool as possible. Many online and higher capacity UPS s are
equipped with fans to cool the UPS.

6.28.1 Long Duration Backup

The duration of backup power to be supplied by the UPS depends on your needs.
Generally, you should have enough time to save all your work and shutdown your
system properly. So a UPS, which provides at least five to seven minutes of power at 75
percent of the rated load, should be adequate. If you need longer backup then you
should consider adding an external battery or use generator.
The most common problem which is observed when a generator used with nonlinear
loads (like computers) is that the generator out put exhibits extreme output voltage
distortion. If you have a UPS connected generator –fed line, then these voltage
distortions can be interrupted by the UPS as unacceptable power quality- causing the
UPS to switch to battery operation.
When the load is transferred to the battery. The generator distortion vanishes or is
reduced- and the UPS tries to switch back to regular line operation .Re application of
the load to the generator will cause the same problem to recur. This can lead to
continuous cycling between the two source. To avoid this problem. Look for a generator
which can supply the peak current needed by the computer load ideally the generator
should have a rating of 6to 10 times the rated computer load connected to it Or use
alternate online power conditioning devices.

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6.28.2 INTRODUCTION:
Electron activity in chemical reactions
So far in our discussions on electricity and electric circuits, we have not discussed in
any detail how batteries function. Rather, we have simply assumed that they produce
constant voltage through some sort of mysterious process. Here, we will explore that
process to some degree and cover some of the practical considerations involved with
real batteries and their use in power systems.
In the first chapter of this book, the concept of an atom was discussed, as being the
basic building-block of all material objects. Atoms, in turn, however, are composed of
even smaller pieces of matter called particles. Electrons, protons, and neutrons are the
basic types of particles found in atoms. Each of these particle types plays a distinct role
in the behavior of an atom. While electrical activity involves the motion of electrons, the
chemical identity of an atom (which largely determines how conductive the material will
be) is determined by the number of protons in the nucleus (center).

The protons in an atom's nucleus are extremely difficult to dislodge, and so the chemical
identity of any atom is very stable. One of the goals of the ancient alchemists (to turn
lead into gold) was foiled by this sub-atomic stability. All efforts to alter this property of
an atom by means of heat. light, or friction were met with failure. The electrons of an
atom, however, are much more easily dislodged. As we have already seen, friction is
one way in which electrons can be transferred from one atom to another (glass and silk,
wax and wool), and so is heat (generating voltage by heating a junction of dissimilar
metals, as in the case of thermocouples).
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Electrons can do much more than just move around and between atoms: they can also
serve to link different atoms together. This linking of atoms by electrons is called a
chemical bond. A crude (and simplified) representation of such a bond between two
atoms might look like this:

There are several types of chemical bonds, the one shown above being representative
of a covalent bond, where electrons are shared between atoms. Because chemical
bonds are based on links formed by electrons, these bonds are only as strong as the
immobility of the electrons forming them. That is to say, chemical bonds can be created
or broken by the same forces that force electrons to move: heat, light, friction, etc.
When atoms are joined by chemical bonds, they form materials with unique properties
known as molecules. The dual-atom picture shown above is an example of a simple
molecule formed by two atoms of the same type. Most molecules are unions of different
types of atoms. Even molecules formed by atoms of the same type can have radically
different physical properties. Take the element carbon, for instance: in one form,
graphite, carbon atoms link together to form flat "plates" which slide against one another
very easily, giving graphite its natural lubricating properties. In another form, diamond,
the same carbon atoms link together in a different configuration, this time in the shapes
of interlocking pyramids, forming a material of exceeding hardness. In yet another form,
Fullerene, dozens of carbon atoms form each molecule, which looks something like a
soccer ball. Fullerene molecules are very fragile and lightweight. The airy soot formed
by excessively rich combustion of acetylene gas (as in the initial ignition of an oxy-
acetylene welding/cutting torch) is composed of many tiny Fullerene molecules.
When alchemists succeeded in changing the properties of a substance by heat, light,
friction, or mixture with other substances, they were really observing changes in the
types of molecules formed by atoms breaking and forming bonds with other atoms.
Chemistry is the modern counterpart to alchemy, and concerns itself primarily with the
properties of these chemical bonds and the reactions associated with them.
A type of chemical bond of particular interest to our study of batteries is the so-called
ionic bond, and it differs from the covalent bond in that one atom of the molecule

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possesses an excess of electrons while another atom lacks electrons, the bonds
between them being a result of the electrostatic attraction between the two unlike
charges. Consequently, ionic bonds, when broken or formed, result in electrons moving
from one place to another. This motion of electrons in ionic bonding can be harnessed
to generate an electric current. A device constructed to do just this is called a voltaic
cell, or cell for short, usually consisting of two metal electrodes immersed in a chemical
mixture (called an electrolyte) designed to facilitate a chemical reaction:

In the common "lead-acid" cell (the kind commonly used in automobiles), the negative
electrode is made of lead (Pb) and the positive is made of lead peroxide (Pb0 2), both
metallic substances. The electrolyte solution is a dilute sulfuric acid (H 2SO4 + H2O). If
the electrodes of the cell are connected to an external circuit, such that electrons have a
place to flow from one to the other, negatively charged oxygen ions (O) from the
positive electrode (PbO2) will ionically bond with positively charged hydrogen ions (H) to
form molecules water (H2O). This creates a deficiency of electrons in the lead peroxide
(PbO2) electrode, giving it a positive electrical charge. The sulfate ions (SO 4) left over
from the disassociation of the hydrogen ions (H) from the sulfuric acid (H 2SO4) will join
with the lead (Pb) in each electrode to form lead sulfate (PbSO 4):

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This process of the cell providing electrical energy to supply a load is called discharging,
since it is depleting its internal chemical reserves. Theoretically, after all of the sulfuric
acid has been exhausted, the result will be two electrodes of lead sulfate (PbSO 4) and
an electrolyte solution of pure water (H2O), leaving no more capacity for additional ionic
bonding. In this state, the cell is said to be fully discharged. In a lead-acid cell, the state
of charge can be determined by an analysis of acid strength. This is easily
accomplished with a device called a hydrometer, which measures the specific gravity
(density) of the electrolyte. Sulfuric acid is denser than water, so the greater the charge
of a cell, the greater the acid concentration, and thus a denser electrolyte solution.
There is no single chemical reaction representative of all voltaic cells, so any detailed
discussion of chemistry is bound to have limited application. The important thing to
understand is that electrons are motivated to and/or from the cell's electrodes via ionic
reactions between the electrode molecules and the electrolyte molecules. The reaction
is enabled when there is an external path for electric current, and ceases when that
path is broken.
Being that the motivation for electrons to move through a cell is chemical in nature, the
amount of voltage (electromotive force) generated by any cell will be specific to the
particular chemical reaction for that cell type. For instance, the lead-acid cell just
described has a nominal voltage of 2.2 volts per cell, based on a fully "charged" cell
(acid concentration strong) in good physical condition. There are other types of cells
with different specific voltage outputs. The Edison cell, for example, with a positive
electrode made of nickel oxide, a negative electrode made of iron, and an electrolyte
solution of potassium hydroxide (a caustic, not acid, substance) generates a nominal

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voltage of only 1.2 volts, due to the specific differences in chemical reaction with those
electrode and electrolyte substances.
The chemical reactions of some types of cells can be reversed by forcing electric
current backwards through the cell (in the negative electrode and out the positive
electrode). This process is called charging. Any such (rechargeable) cell is called a
secondary cell. A cell whose chemistry cannot be reversed by a reverse current is
called a primary cell.
When a lead-acid cell is charged by an external current source, the chemical reactions
experienced during discharge are reversed:

 REVIEW:
 Atoms bound together by electrons are called molecules.
 Ionic bonds are molecular unions formed when an electron-deficient atom (a positive ion)
joins with an electron-excessive atom (a negative ion).
 Chemical reactions involving ionic bonds result in the transfer of electrons between
atoms. This transfer can be harnessed to form an electric current.
 A cell is a device constructed to harness such chemical reactions to generate electric
current.
 A cell is said to be discharged when its internal chemical reserves have been depleted
through use.
 A secondary cell's chemistry can be reversed (recharged) by forcing current backwards
through it.
 A primary cell cannot be practically recharged.

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 Lead-acid cell charge can be assessed with an instrument called a hydrometer, which
measures the density of the electrolyte liquid. The denser the electrolyte, the stronger the
acid concentration, and the greater charge state of the cell.

Battery construction
The word battery simply means a group of similar components. In military vocabulary, a
"battery" refers to a cluster of guns. In electricity, a "battery" is a set of voltaic cells
designed to provide greater voltage and/or current than is possible with one cell alone.
The symbol for a cell is very simple, consisting of one long line and one short line,
parallel to each other, with connecting wires:

The symbol for a battery is nothing more than a couple of cell symbols stacked in series:

As was stated before, the voltage produced by any particular kind of cell is determined
strictly by the chemistry of that cell type. The size of the cell is irrelevant to its voltage.
To obtain greater voltage than the output of a single cell, multiple cells must be
connected in series. The total voltage of a battery is the sum of all cell voltages. A
typical automotive lead-acid battery has six cells, for a nominal voltage output of 6 x 2.2
or 13.2 volts:

The cells in an automotive battery are contained within the same hard rubber housing,
connected together with thick, lead bars instead of wires. The electrodes and electrolyte
solutions for each cell are contained in separate, partitioned sections of the battery
case. In large batteries, the electrodes commonly take the shape of thin metal grids or
plates, and are often referred to as plates instead of electrodes.
For the sake of convenience, battery symbols are usually limited to four lines,
alternating long/short, although the real battery it represents may have many more cells
than that. On occasion, however, you might come across a symbol for a battery with
unusually high voltage, intentionally drawn with extra lines. The lines, of course, are
representative of the individual cell plates:

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If the physical size of a cell has no impact on its voltage, then what does it affect? The
answer is resistance, which in turn affects the maximum amount of current that a cell
can provide. Every voltaic cell contains some amount of internal resistance due to the
electrodes and the electrolyte. The larger a cell is constructed, the greater the electrode
contact area with the electrolyte, and thus the less internal resistance it will have.
Although we generally consider a cell or battery in a circuit to be a perfect source of
voltage (absolutely constant), the current through it dictated solely by the external
resistance of the circuit to which it is attached, this is not entirely true in real life. Since
every cell or battery contains some internal resistance, that resistance must affect the
current in any given circuit:

The real battery shown above within the dotted lines has an internal resistance of 0.2 Ω,
which affects its ability to supply current to the load resistance of 1 Ω. The ideal battery
on the left has no internal resistance, and so our Ohm's Law calculations for current
(I=E/R) give us a perfect value of 10 amps for current with the 1 ohm load and 10 volt
supply. The real battery, with its built-in resistance further impeding the flow of
electrons, can only supply 8.333 amps to the same resistance load.
The ideal battery, in a short circuit with 0 Ω resistance, would be able to supply an
infinite amount of current. The real battery, on the other hand, can only supply 50 amps
(10 volts / 0.2 Ω) to a short circuit of 0 Ω resistance, due to its internal resistance. The
chemical reaction inside the cell may still be providing exactly 10 volts, but voltage is
dropped across that internal resistance as electrons flow through the battery, which
reduces the amount of voltage available at the battery terminals to the load.
Since we live in an imperfect world, with imperfect batteries, we need to understand the
implications of factors such as internal resistance. Typically, batteries are placed in
applications where their internal resistance is negligible compared to that of the circuit
load (where their short-circuit current far exceeds their usual load current), and so the
performance is very close to that of an ideal voltage source.
If we need to construct a battery with lower resistance than what one cell can provide (for greater
current capacity), we will have to connect the cells together in parallel:
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Essentially, what we have done here is determine the Thevenin equivalent of the five
cells in parallel (an equivalent network of one voltage source and one series
resistance). The equivalent network has the same source voltage but a fraction of the
resistance of any individual cell in the original network. The overall effect of connecting
cells in parallel is to decrease the equivalent internal resistance, just as resistors in
parallel diminish in total resistance. The equivalent internal resistance of this battery of 5
cells is 1/5 that of each individual cell. The overall voltage stays the same: 2.2 volts. If
this battery of cells were powering a circuit, the current through each cell would be 1/5
of the total circuit current, due to the equal split of current through equal-resistance
parallel branches.
 REVIEW:
 A battery is a cluster of cells connected together for greater voltage and/or current
capacity.
 Cells connected together in series (polarities aiding) results in greater total voltage.
 Physical cell size impacts cell resistance, which in turn impacts the ability for the cell to
supply current to a circuit. Generally, the larger the cell, the less its internal resistance.
 Cells connected together in parallel results in less total resistance, and potentially greater
total current.

Battery ratings
Because batteries create electron flow in a circuit by exchanging electrons in ionic
chemical reactions, and there is a limited number of molecules in any charged battery
available to react, there must be a limited amount of total electrons that any battery can
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motivate through a circuit before its energy reserves are exhausted. Battery capacity
could be measured in terms of total number of electrons, but this would be a huge
number. We could use the unit of the coulomb (equal to 6.25 x 10 18 electrons, or
6,250,000,000,000,000,000 electrons) to make the quantities more practical to work
with, but instead a new unit, the amp-hour, was made for this purpose. Since 1 amp is
actually a flow rate of 1 coulomb of electrons per second, and there are 3600 seconds
in an hour, we can state a direct proportion between coulombs and amp-hours: 1 amp-
hour = 3600 coulombs. Why make up a new unit when an old would have done just
fine? To make your lives as students and technicians more difficult, of course!
A battery with a capacity of 1 amp-hour should be able to continuously supply a current
of 1 amp to a load for exactly 1 hour, or 2 amps for 1/2 hour, or 1/3 amp for 3 hours,
etc., before becoming completely discharged. In an ideal battery, this relationship
between continuous current and discharge time is stable and absolute, but real batteries
don't behave exactly as this simple linear formula would indicate. Therefore, when amp-
hour capacity is given for a battery, it is specified at either a given current, given time, or
assumed to be rated for a time period of 8 hours (if no limiting factor is given).
For example, an average automotive battery might have a capacity of about 70 amp-
hours, specified at a current of 3.5 amps. This means that the amount of time this
battery could continuously supply a current of 3.5 amps to a load would be 20 hours (70
amp-hours / 3.5 amps). But let's suppose that a lower-resistance load were connected
to that battery, drawing 70 amps continuously. Our amp-hour equation tells us that the
battery should hold out for exactly 1 hour (70 amp-hours / 70 amps), but this might not
be true in real life. With higher currents, the battery will dissipate more heat across its
internal resistance, which has the effect of altering the chemical reactions taking place
within. Chances are, the battery would fully discharge some time before the calculated
time of 1 hour under this greater load.
Conversely, if a very light load (1 mA) were to be connected to the battery, our equation
would tell us that the battery should provide power for 70,000 hours, or just under 8
years (70 amp-hours / 1 milliamp), but the odds are that much of the chemical energy in
a real battery would have been drained due to other factors (evaporation of electrolyte,
deterioration of electrodes, leakage current within battery) long before 8 years had
elapsed. Therefore, we must take the amp-hour relationship as being an ideal
approximation of battery life, the amp-hour rating trusted only near the specified current
or timespan given by the manufacturer. Some manufacturers will provide amp-hour
derating factors specifying reductions in total capacity at different levels of current
and/or temperature.
For secondary cells, the amp-hour rating provides a rule for necessary charging time at
any given level of charge current. For example, the 70 amp-hour automotive battery in
the previous example should take 10 hours to charge from a fully-discharged state at a
constant charging current of 7 amps (70 amp-hours / 7 amps).
Approximate amp-hour capacities of some common batteries are given here:
 Typical automotive battery: 70 amp-hours @ 3.5 A (secondary cell)
 D-size carbon-zinc battery: 4.5 amp-hours @ 100 mA (primary cell)
 9 volt carbon-zinc battery: 400 milliamp-hours @ 8 mA (primary cell)

As a battery discharges, not only does it diminish its internal store of energy, but its internal
resistance also increases (as the electrolyte becomes less and less conductive), and its open-
circuit cell voltage decreases (as the chemicals become more and more dilute). The most
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deceptive change that a discharging battery exhibits is increased resistance. The best check for a
battery's condition is a voltage measurement under load, while the battery is supplying a
substantial current through a circuit. Otherwise, a simple voltmeter check across the terminals
may falsely indicate a healthy battery (adequate voltage) even though the internal resistance has
increased considerably. What constitutes a "substantial current" is determined by the battery's
design parameters. A voltmeter check revealing too low of a voltage, of course, would positively
indicate a discharged battery:
Fully charged battery:

Now, if the battery discharges a bit . . .

. . . and discharges a bit further . . .

. . . and a bit further until it's dead.

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Notice how much better the battery's true condition is revealed when its voltage is
checked under load as opposed to without a load. Does this mean that it's pointless to
check a battery with just a voltmeter (no load)? Well, no. If a simple voltmeter check
reveals only 7.5 volts for a 13.2 volt battery, then you know without a doubt that it's
dead. However, if the voltmeter were to indicate 12.5 volts, it may be near full charge or
somewhat depleted -- you couldn't tell without a load check. Bear in mind also that the
resistance used to place a battery under load must be rated for the amount of power
expected to be dissipated. For checking large batteries such as an automobile (12 volt
nominal) lead-acid battery, this may mean a resistor with a power rating of several
hundred watts.
 REVIEW:
 The amp-hour is a unit of battery energy capacity, equal to the amount of continuous
current multiplied by the discharge time, that a battery can supply before exhausting its
internal store of chemical energy.

 An amp-hour battery rating is only an approximation of the battery's charge capacity, and
should be trusted only at the current level or time specified by the manufacturer. Such a
rating cannot be extrapolated for very high currents or very long times with any accuracy.
 Discharged batteries lose voltage and increase in resistance. The best check for a dead
battery is a voltage test under load.

Special-purpose batteries
Back in the early days of electrical measurement technology, a special type of battery
known as a mercury standard cell was popularly used as a voltage calibration standard.
The output of a mercury cell was 1.0183 to 1.0194 volts DC (depending on the specific
design of cell), and was extremely stable over time. Advertised drift was around 0.004
percent of rated voltage per year. Mercury standard cells were sometimes known as
Weston cells or cadmium cells.

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Unfortunately, mercury cells were rather intolerant of any current drain and could not
even be measured with an analog voltmeter without compromising accuracy.
Manufacturers typically called for no more than 0.1 mA of current through the cell, and
even that figure was considered a momentary, or surge maximum! Consequently,
standard cells could only be measured with a potentiometric (null-balance) device
where current drain is almost zero. Short-circuiting a mercury cell was prohibited, and
once short-circuited, the cell could never be relied upon again as a standard device.
Mercury standard cells were also susceptible to slight changes in voltage if physically or
thermally disturbed. Two different types of mercury standard cells were developed for
different calibration purposes: saturated and unsaturated. Saturated standard cells
provided the greatest voltage stability over time, at the expense of thermal instability. In
other words, their voltage drifted very little with the passage of time (just a few
microvolts over the span of a decade!), but tended to vary with changes in temperature
(tens of microvolts per degree Celsius). These cells functioned best in temperature-
controlled laboratory environments where long-term stability is paramount. Unsaturated
cells provided thermal stability at the expense of stability over time, the voltage
remaining virtually constant with changes in temperature but decreasing steadily by
about 100 µV every year. These cells functioned best as "field" calibration devices
where ambient temperature is not precisely controlled. Nominal voltage for a saturated
cell was 1.0186 volts, and 1.019 volts for an unsaturated cell.
Modern semiconductor voltage (zener diode regulator) references have superseded
standard cell batteries as laboratory and field voltage standards.
A fascinating device closely related to primary-cell batteries is the fuel cell, so-called
because it harnesses the chemical reaction of combustion to generate an electric
current. The process of chemical oxidation (oxygen ionically bonding with other
elements) is capable of producing an electron flow between two electrodes just as well

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as any combination of metals and electrolytes. A fuel cell can be thought of as a battery
with an externally supplied chemical energy source.

To date, the most successful fuel cells constructed are those which run on hydrogen
and oxygen, although much research has been done on cells using hydrocarbon fuels.
While "burning" hydrogen, a fuel cell's only waste byproducts are water and a small
amount of heat. When operating on carbon-containing fuels, carbon dioxide is also
released as a byproduct. Because the operating temperature of modern fuel cells is far
below that of normal combustion, no oxides of nitrogen (NO x) are formed, making it far
less polluting, all other factors being equal.
The efficiency of energy conversion in a fuel cell from chemical to electrical far exceeds
the theoretical Carnot efficiency limit of any internal-combustion engine, which is an
exciting prospect for power generation and hybrid electric automobiles.
Another type of "battery" is the solar cell, a by-product of the semiconductor revolution
in electronics. The photoelectric effect, whereby electrons are dislodged from atoms
under the influence of light, has been known in physics for many decades, but it has
only been with recent advances in semiconductor technology that a device existed
capable of harnessing this effect to any practical degree. Conversion efficiencies for
silicon solar cells are still quite low, but their benefits as power sources are legion: no
moving parts, no noise, no waste products or pollution (aside from the manufacture of
solar cells, which is still a fairly "dirty" industry), and indefinite life.

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Specific cost of solar cell technology (dollars per kilowatt) is still very high, with little
prospect of significant decrease barring some kind of revolutionary advance in
technology. Unlike electronic components made from semiconductor material, which
can be made smaller and smaller with less scrap as a result of better quality control, a
single solar cell still takes the same amount of ultra-pure silicon to make as it did thirty
years ago. Superior quality control fails to yield the same production gain seen in the
manufacture of chips and transistors (where isolated specks of impurity can ruin many
microscopic circuits on one wafer of silicon). The same number of impure inclusions
does little to impact the overall efficiency of a 3-inch solar cell.
Yet another type of special-purpose "battery" is the chemical detection cell. Simply put,
these cells chemically react with specific substances in the air to create a voltage
directly proportional to the concentration of that substance. A common application for a
chemical detection cell is in the detection and measurement of oxygen concentration.
Many portable oxygen analyzers have been designed around these small cells. Cell
chemistry must be designed to match the specific substance(s) to be detected, and the
cells do tend to "wear out," as their electrode materials deplete or become contaminated
with use.
 REVIEW:
 mercury standard cells are special types of batteries which were once used as voltage
calibration standards before the advent of precision semiconductor reference devices.
 A fuel cell is a kind of battery that uses a combustible fuel and oxidizer as reactants to
generate electricity. They are promising sources of electrical power in the future,
"burning" fuels with very low emissions.
 A solar cell uses ambient light energy to motivate electrons from electrode to another,
producing voltage (and current, providing an external circuit).
 A chemical detection cell is a special type of voltaic cell which produces voltage
proportional to the concentration of an applied substance (usually a specific gas in
ambient air).

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Practical considerations
When connecting batteries together to form larger "banks" (a battery of batteries?), the
constituent batteries must be matched to each other so as to not cause problems. First
we will consider connecting batteries in series for greater voltage:

We know that the current is equal at all points in a series circuit, so whatever amount of
current there is in any one of the series-connected batteries must be the same for all the
others as well. For this reason, each battery must have the same amp-hour rating, or
else some of the batteries will become depleted sooner than others, compromising the
capacity of the whole bank. Please note that the total amp-hour capacity of this series
battery bank is not affected by the number of batteries.
Next, we will consider connecting batteries in parallel for greater current capacity (lower
internal resistance), or greater amp-hour capacity:

We know that the voltage is equal across all branches of a parallel circuit, so we must
be sure that these batteries are of equal voltage. If not, we will have relatively large
currents circulating from one battery through another, the higher-voltage batteries
overpowering the lower-voltage batteries. This is not good.
On this same theme, we must be sure that any overcurrent protection (circuit breakers
or fuses) are installed in such a way as to be effective. For our series battery bank, one
fuse will suffice to protect the wiring from excessive current, since any break in a series
circuit stops current through all parts of the circuit:

With a parallel battery bank, one fuse is adequate for protecting the wiring against load
overcurrent (between the parallel-connected batteries and the load), but we have other
concerns to protect against as well. Batteries have been known to internally short-
circuit, due to electrode separator failure, causing a problem not unlike that where
batteries of unequal voltage are connected in parallel: the good batteries will overpower

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the failed (lower voltage) battery, causing relatively large currents within the batteries'
connecting wires. To guard against this eventuality, we should protect each and every
battery against overcurrent with individual battery fuses, in addition to the load fuse:

When dealing with secondary-cell batteries, particular attention must be paid to the
method and timing of charging. Different types and construction of batteries have
different charging needs, and the manufacturer's recommendations are probably the
best guide to follow when designing or maintaining a system. Two distinct concerns of
battery charging are cycling and overcharging. Cycling refers to the process of charging
a battery to a "full" condition and then discharging it to a lower state. All batteries have a
finite (limited) cycle life, and the allowable "depth" of cycle (how far it should be
discharged at any time) varies from design to design. Overcharging is the condition
where current continues to be forced backwards through a secondary cell beyond the
point where the cell has reached full charge. With lead-acid cells in particular,
overcharging leads to electrolysis of the water ("boiling" the water out of the battery) and
shortened life.
Any battery containing water in the electrolyte is subject to the production of hydrogen
gas due to electrolysis. This is especially true for overcharged lead-acid cells, but not
exclusive to that type. Hydrogen is an extremely flammable gas (especially in the
presence of free oxygen created by the same electrolysis process), odorless and
colorless. Such batteries pose an explosion threat even under normal operating
conditions, and must be treated with respect. The author has been a firsthand witness
to a lead-acid battery explosion, where a spark created by the removal of a battery
charger (small DC power supply) from an automotive battery ignited hydrogen gas
within the battery case, blowing the top off the battery and splashing sulfuric acid
everywhere. This occurred in a high school automotive shop, no less. If it were not for
all the students nearby wearing safety glasses and buttoned-collar overalls, significant
injury could have occurred.
When connecting and disconnecting charging equipment to a battery, always make the
last connection (or first disconnection) at a location away from the battery itself (such as
at a point on one of the battery cables, at least a foot away from the battery), so that any
resultant spark has little or no chance of igniting hydrogen gas.
In large, permanently installed battery banks, batteries are equipped with vent caps
above each cell, and hydrogen gas is vented outside of the battery room through hoods
immediately over the batteries. Hydrogen gas is very light and rises quickly. The
greatest danger is when it is allowed to accumulate in an area, awaiting ignition.
More modern lead-acid battery designs are sealed, using a catalyst to re-combine the
electrolyzed hydrogen and oxygen back into water, inside the battery case itself.

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Adequate ventilation might still be a good idea, just in case a battery were to develop a
leak in the case.
 REVIEW:
 Connecting batteries in series increases voltage, but does not increase overall amp-hour
capacity.
 All batteries in a series bank must have the same amp-hour rating.
 Connecting batteries in parallel increases total current capacity by decreasing total
resistance, and it also increases overall amp-hour capacity.
 All batteries in a parallel bank must have the same voltage rating.
 Batteries can be damaged by excessive cycling and overcharging.

Water-based electrolyte batteries are capable of generating explosive hydrogen gas, which must
not be allowed to accumulate in an area.

6.28.4 Battery Types

6.28.41 Lead Acid Plante
6.28.42 Lead Acid/Antimony
6.28.43 Lead Acid/Calcium
6.28.44 Lead Acid/Calcium Maintenance- Free Liquid Electrolyte
6.28.45 Lead Acid/Calcium Gelled Electrolyte (GeltCell) Sealed
6.28.46 Lead Acid (Special Alloy) Suspended Electrolyte, Sealed
6.28.47 Issues for longevity of UPS Batteries
6.28.48 Battery temperature affects reliability
6.28.49 Battery charger design affects reliability
6.28.50 Battery voltage affects reliability
6.28.51 Battery ripple current affects reliability
6.28.52 Overcharging damage batteries
6.28.53 CURRENT TRENDS

6.28.41 Lead Acid Plante

This battery is manufactured by utilizing a lead grid framework into which lead oxide
paste or pure lead is applied. The plates are then formed by applying an electric current
(charging) which forms lead dioxide on the positive plate and the grid framework is
rather soft, special care must be exercised in the construction of these batteries. As a
result, these batteries are more expensive than some other types (For example 2-2 ½
times the cost of lead acid/calcium battery).

6.28.42 Lead Acid/Antimony

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This battery is manufactured by utilizing lead antimony allows in the grid construction,
which increases the strength of the plates. Thus, special and expensive mechanical
construction is not necessary. This lead acid/antimony battery is able to provide
approximately 1,000-1,200 full discharges during its 15 year warranted life. Hydrogen
gas generation and consequential water usage is approximately ten times that of the
lead acid/Plante and the lead acid/calcium battery. Adequate ventilation becomes more
important. The frequency of maintenance, water addition, also increases. There is also
a need for periodic monthly equalization . At the end of 15 years, the lead
acid/antimony battery will have lost approximately 20% of its original capacity. This
battery may be selected where frequent discharging is expected.

6.28.43 Lead Acid/Calcium

The lead acid/calcium battery is manufactured by utilizing a lead calcium alloy grid in
the grid construction to increase the strength of the plates. Hydrogen gas generation
and consequential is the same as the lead acid/Plante battery. This battery, when
maintained at a float voltage of 2.25 volts/cell, does not require routine equalization and
it is capable of only approximately 100 full discharges during its 20 year warranted life.
As with most UPS applications, the battery will be floating on the charger most of the
time, and even when discharged, may not normally be fully discharged. At the end of
20 years it will have lost approximately 20% of its original capacity.

6.28.44 Lead Acid/Calcium Maintenance- Free Liquid

Electrolyte
The lead acid/calcium battery is designed for 3-5 years of maintenance-free operation.
It utilizes a high specific gravity electrolyte with a large electrolyte capacity. This battery
carries one year full replacement warranty and a five year expected life when used in a
float application such as a UPS back-up. Initial cost compared to an equal size lad
acid/calcium (20 year life) battery is approximately 35-50%. This battery is presently
manufactured in only a limited number of sizes; therefore, it becomes necessary to
parallel banks for longe back-up times or for larger UPS equipment. Since it is more
expensive to parallel smaller battery banks than to supply a single large bank, the price
advantage is quickly lost when a system would require a large number of parallel banks.

6.28.45 Lead Acid/Calcium Gelled Electrolyte (GeltCell)

Sealed
The gelled electrolyte sealed lead acid/calcium maintenance free battery is designed for
up to 20 years of operation requiring no routine maintenance and carries a one-year full
replacement warranty. Because this battery is sealed, it vents no gas into the
atmosphere under normal operating conditions. The batteries will vent to release
pressure as a safety precaution when a specific internal pressure is reached. Because

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this battery is sealed, it vents no gas into the atmosphere under normal operating
conditions. The batteries will vent to release pressure is reached. Because the battery
is sealed, the hydrogen and oxygen gas generated during charging recombines
immediately within the cell. This sealed battery can safely be used in an unventilated
room making it suitable for applications where ventilation would be expensive or
impractical. Since it is sealed and has a gelled electrolyte, it can be used in any
position and will not leak electrolyte even if the case becomes cracked. Cost is
approximately 60-70% of the standard lead acid/calcium battery of equal size. This
battery also has a high energy density, meaning it is physically smaller than an equal
lead acid (liquid electrolyte) battery.

6.28.46 Lead Acid (Special Alloy) Suspended Electrolyte,

Sealed
The lead acid (special alloy) battery is the newest sealed battery appearing on the
market utilizing an electrolyte that is suspended in porous material. There is no liquid to
spill. It is completely sealed venting gas only as a safety precaution under high internal
pressure. This battery can be used in an office environment or in an unventilated room.
It is totally maintenance-free battery with a warranted life of up to 20 years and an
expected life of approximately 10-14 years. It has a high energy density and is
physically smaller than an equal lead acid battery. Its cost is approximately 1 to 1.2
times that of the lead acid/calcium battery.

6.28.47 Issues for longevity of UPS Batteries

Even though UPS systems may appear to use the same battery technology, wide
variations in the lifetimes of UPS batteries are common between various UPS
manufacturers. This is very important to the user, because UPS battery replacement is
expensive (as much as 30% of the original cost of the UPS). Failed batteries reduce
system reliability and are a source of nuisance and downtime.

6.28.48 Battery temperature affects reliability

The natural process that cause battery aging are strongly affected by temperature.

Detailed test data provided by battery manufacturers shows that battery life is reduced
buy 10% for every additional 10 degrees F (5 degrees C). This means that the design
of the UPS should be sucj that the batteries are kept as cool as possible at all times.

All on-line and all standby/on-line hybrid type UPS systems run hotter than standby or
line interactive type UPS systems (that is why they all need a fan). This is the single
most important reason why standby or line interactive type UPS systems last longer
between battery replacements when compared with on line type UPS systems.

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By running the batteries at ambient temperature, Sutton Designs UPS systems

minimize down time for UPS battery replacement and thereby better fulfill their intended
purpose of maximizing system reliability.

6.28.49 Battery charger design affects reliability

The battery charger is a very important part of a UPS. The charging conditions of the
battery have a major effect on battery lifetime. UPS battery lifetime is maximized if the
battery is always powered from a constant voltage or float type battery charger. In fact,
battery lifetime is much longer under charge than if the battery is simply left in storage.
This is because maintaining the battery whenever it is plugged in, even if the UPS is
switched off.

In many applications, the UPS is switched off on a regular basis (if the protected load is
switched off, then there is no reason to leave the UPS on since it might activate and
place unnecessary wear on the battery).

All UPS systems from renowned UPS manufacturers charge the battery even when they
are switched off. Many UPS systems on the market do not provide this important
feature. Although this feature adds to the cost of the UPS is superior when the hidden
cost of battery replacement is taken into account.

6.28.50 Battery voltage affects reliability

Batteries are made up of individual cells, each a source of approximately 2 volts. To
make up a battery of higher voltage, individual cells must be connected in series. A 12
volt battery has 6 cells, a 24 volt battery has 12 cells, etc. When batteries are kept on
constant charge as they are in a UPS system, the individual cells are charged in series.
Slight manufacturing variations in battery cells cause some cells to take a larger
percentage of the charging voltage than others. This cause premature aging of those
cells. The series connected group of cells is only as strong as its weakest link, so when
any individual cell becomes weak, the whole battery is weakened.

6.28.51 Battery ripple current affects reliability

Ideally, a UPS battery should be permanently maintained in a float or constant voltage-
charging situation in order to maximize service life.

In this state, a fully charged battery draws a small amount of current from the battery
charger, called the float or self-discharge current. Despite battery manufacturers
recommendations to the contrary some UPS designs (including many on-line designs)
subject the battery to an additional current, called a ripple current.

Ripple current results when a battery continuously supplies power to an AC inverter,

because the conservation of energy requires that an inverter supplying an AC load must
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draw an AC current from the DC source that supplies it. This current causes miniature
charge and discharge cycles to occur within the battery, normally at a frequency equal
to twice the UPS output operating frequency (50 0or 60Hz). These cycles exercise the
battery and cause premature aging of the battery.

6.28.52 Overcharging damage batteries

Overcharging a battery occurs when the total capacity removed has been replaced by
recharging and the battery remain on charge. This overcharging creates excessive
heat, which can cause the battery plates within the cells to buckle and shed their active
material. The battery will react to the overcharge by producing an excessive amount of
hydrogen and oxygen. These gases are the result of the breakdown of the water
molecules within the electrolyte. The water that has been displaced by overcharging
can be replaced in a serviceable (non0sealed) battery, but, in the maintenance-free
sealed batteries, permanent capacity loss will result.

Excessive discharging a battery can also damage a battery. The amount of discharge a
battery can have without damage depends upon the chemistry of the battery, but in
general a lead acid battery will not tolerate as deep a discharge as a Ni-cad battery or
Ni-mh battery. Sealed led acid batteries function best if they are discharged to only
about 85% of normal voltage (10.2V on 12V Battery).

The battery is the least reliable part of most well designed UPS systems. Nevertheless,
the UPS design can influence the reliability of this critical UPS component. Operating a
battery under continuous charge even when the UPS is off (as UPS systems from
Sutton Designs do) extends battery life. When choosing a UPS, avoid UPS topologies
that use higher battery voltages. Beware of UPS designs that subject the battery to
ripple current or unnecessarily high temperatures.

Most UPS systems available use similar batteries; however differences in UPS design
cause battery service life and therefore life cycle cost to vary dramatically between
different UPS products.

6.28.53 CURRENT TRENDS

VRLA cells
VRLA cells have successfully replaced flooded cells in many telecom and UPS
applications. However, their reputation has been marred by reports of early and
unexplained failures. Statistically, long-life designs (20-year life) appear to have a
bigger problem than short-life batteries (5-10 year life).

The problem is that the negative plates on premium VRLA cells are subject to self-
discharge during float due to a “hydrogen imbalance” inside the cell (explained later).
This imbalance plays no significant role in flooded cells so battery designers have
largely overlooked it.
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Hydrogen imbalance brings with it the curious result that cells made with the best
positive grids appear to be the most susceptible to negative discharge. The
implication is that VRLA cells of present design and manufacture are unlikely to last 20
years in service, even when perfectly assembled. Several manufacturers, though
initially skeptical about such a pessimistic conclusion, have now confirmed the results
with their own products. One battery company has further demonstrated that the same
negative discharge problem exists with VRLA batteries in deep cycle service.

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7. CASE STUDY

TESTING PROCEDURE OF CEI500IX BASED

DOMESTIC INVERTER [ LCD DISPLAY ]

1. After visual checking of the board, connect +12V and GND to the corresponding
points on the PCB. Before switch on the power supply, keep the voltage at 12V.

2. Switch ON the power supply. Check the current consumption at OFF State.
Normally it is around 30 mA approx. While doing this procedure do not place the
MCU on the board.

3. Keep the power supply in ON state and check the pin voltage of the MCU. It
should not be greater than 5.1V. If the voltage is beyond the limit check the
polarity and value of the zener (5.1v) diode at the inputs.

4. After inserting the MCU and plug-in the LCD module, switch on the Power
supply, then ON the reset switch. LCD displays the parameters like Inverter ON,
battery charge percentage & load percentage. Then check the gate voltage with
the help of a Multimeter; in AC it is around 5.4 V. While doing this testing battery
level display will become 100% & load level will be 0%.

5. Decrease the voltage from the power supply to less than 10.4V. At this voltage
system gives the audible low battery early warning as well as the battery level
percentage as 10%. Again decrease the supply to 10.2V .At this voltage system
goes to low battery cut off and also gives the audio indication (intermittent beep
for 10 secs)& LCD displays LOW BATT CUT.

6. Take a fully wired chassis as per the wiring diagram; connect the VRPS to the
positive and negative terminals. Keep the reset switch at OFF state. Connect the
mains input and neutral of the inverter to the output of the variac, increase the
variac voltage to 100V, LCD displays the Mains status, Battery charge status,
Charger status & Inv ON/OFF status. Check the output voltage, it will be same as
the I/p voltage after the relay is off (26 th pin low) and delay of 5 seconds for
activates the built-in and external charger, if connected (6 th pin low). In mains
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mode when the battery voltage is greater than 14.2V, the charge mute occurs (6 th
pin high) and the charger will activate again when the battery voltage reached at
13 V. While during this test, don’t insert the charger fuse.

7. By connecting a DC ammeter in series with the semi discharged battery, insert

the charger fuse & keep the variac o/p voltage at 230VAC, and keep the “CCS”
preset fully closed to clock wise direction .To set required charging current,. turn
the CCS preset in anti- clockwise direction and wait for 2 minutes. At this time the
charging current will reaches a stable level, monitor the charging current with the
help of a DC ammeter. If it is not sufficient again turn the preset in same direction
and wait for 2 minutes. Maximum settable current is 10A.For checking the current
correction of the charger, increase or decrease the variac O/P.At the time
decrease the input, it will try to maintain in the desired current and while
increasing the input, it will immediately stops charging and again come to desired
value within a short time
When the mains voltage is below 135V the charger will be muted and it will
restore again for charging, only at 140V.

Note: -The connector assigned as ECC is for muting an external charger. At the
time of charger mute this o/p will be high.

8. Increase the variac voltage to 280 V. Then there is no output (the INV
ON/RESET switch is off) due to high voltage cutoff. After that decrease the variac
voltage to 270V, then the system come back to mains mode. Again decrease the
variac voltage when the variac voltage comes down to 90 V, system comes to
OFF state (the INV ON/RESET switch is off) that means the low cut takes place.
Then increase variac voltage to 100 V system goes to mains mode. When
inverter works, (INV ON/RESET switch is ON) the no-load o/p is approximately
250 VAC. Keep the inverter switch in ON position for automatic change over to
get inverter o/p at the time of mains failure.

9. After completing the 8th testing connect a fully charged 12V battery. For testing
external phase presence at the output of the inverter, connect a phase line to the
o/p of the inverter with respect to neutral and switch ON the RESET switch. At
this instant system goes to CUT-OFF. At this time LCD displays the EXT PHASE
CUT & the buzzer gives the audio indication (intermittent beep for 10 secs). To
restart the system from cutoff, OFF and ON the resets switch or when the mains
come to the operating range. This facility will protect the system from I/p & o/p
phase reversal at the time of installation or maintenance.

10. Connect the load at the output. For eg. The capacity of the system is 500W,
increase the load to 600W,and turn the LDS (10K) preset in anti-clockwise
direction At an instant, system goes to overload cut-off and LCD displays
“RESTARTING ..”..After few seconds system will restart automatically, within the
restart interval if we reduce the excess load system will continue the working. At
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restarting interval, the LCD displays RESTARTING… Other wise after restarting
5 times it will goes to the permanent cut-off & the buzzer will give 10 second
intermittent beep, LCD shows OVER LOAD CUT. Overload cutoff can be
adjusted by the LDC preset for different capacities. If any short circuit is
occurred at the inverter o/p, system goes to CUT-OFF and restart 5 times same
as over load cut-off.

11 By adjusting the preset LDD (4K7), we can set the load level display for various
capacity systems. For example if the system is 500W model. Connect 500W load
& set LDD preset to display 100%.

12 For getting regulation in the inverter mode insert a jumper at REG_JUMP.In this
mode the mosfet will be switched at 7ms & when the battery voltage goes below
11.8V, the it will be switched at 8ms width. Again, if the battery voltage goes
below 11.3V, the mosfet switches to full width (9.6ms).Thus the output voltage will
be regulated within the specified range.

LCD DISPLAY PARAMETERS

MAINS MODE INVERTER MODE

LCD DISPLAYS LCD DISPLAYS

MAINS VOLTAGE INV ON/OFF STATUS

BATTERY CHARGE BATTERY CHARGE

PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE

CHARGER STATUS LOAD PERCENTAGE

INV ON/OFF STATUS ALL CUT-OFFS

* If Fuse of the charger fails , it will be displayed as “CHR FUSE FAILED” with other
parameters , after certain minutes in the mains mode .At this time charger will not
work., but we can get the mains as well as inverter output.

* If TRIAC fails , it will give an audiovisual indication with a different beep .After this no
more charging will be done. At this condition ,we can’t get the mains output even if
mains is present within the operating range .We can go only to the inverter mode . To

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mute this beep , ON/OFF the reset switch and for getting the inverter O/P switch ON
the RESET switch
In MAINS MODE, After triac failure following parameters will be displayed
# INVERTER OFF
# CHARGER FAILED!
# CALL FOR SERVICE
While in the INVERTER MODE After triac failure
# INVERTER ON
# CHARGER FAILED!
# CALL FOR SERVICE

BEEPS

MAINS TO INVERTER 1
CHANGEOVER
0

Single long beep

1
INVERTER TO MAINS
CHANGEOVER
0

Two intermittent beep

CHARGER FAILED 0

1.5 secs 4 secs

Continuous intermittent 3 beeps with a delay

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CUT-OFF
OVERLOAD/ LOW
BATTERY/EXTERNAL
PHASE
Intermittent continuous beep for 10-15 seconds

TABLES FOR TESTING OF DOMESTIC INVERTER

WITH LED & LCD DISPLAY

TABLE 7.1: -
Relay & charger circuit :-

MICRO CONTROLLER PIN VOLTAGES

Mains i/p Vac Pin - 2 Pin – 16 (RL1) Pin – 6 (ECC) Hysterics

90V 0.8v 5V 5V
WITH 10V
LED 100V 0.94v 0V 0V
280V 2.9v 5V 5V
10V
260V 2.6v 0V 0V
90V 0.8v 5V 5V
100V 0.94v 0V 0V 10V
WITH
LCD 280V 2.9v 5V 5V
10V
260V 2.6v 0V 0V
TABLE 2: -

Battery sensing pin voltage of micro controller :-

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Common for LED &LCD display.

Volt at Pin – 3 of
Battery voltage (V)
mcu(V)
14.2 2.6
13.9 2.56
13.2 2.44
12.8 2.4
12.2 2.24
11.8 2.20
10.8 2.12
10 1.90

Table 7.2

TABLE 7.3 : -

Load sensing pin voltage (MINIMUM GAIN) / LDS preset closed

To clock wise direction common for LED & LCD display

Load (W) Volt (v)

Pin4
100w 0.85v
200w 0.95v
300w 1.15v
400w 1.15v
500W 1.25V

TABLE 7.4: -
Battery level % in inverter mode/mains mode :-

For LED display

Battery voltage (V) Battery level (%)

INVERTER MODE MAINS MODE

>12 >13.9 100%

>11.7 >13.5 75%
>10.7 >13.2 50%
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For LCD display

Battery voltage(V) Battery level (%)

INVERTER MODE MAINS MODE

>12.1 >14 100

>12 >13.9 90
>11.9 >13.7 80
>11.8 >13.6 70
>11.7 >13.3 60
>11.5 >12.9 50
>11.1 >12.5 40
>10.7 >12.1 30
>10.5 >11.9 20
<10.5 <11.9 10

Table 7.5

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MICROCONTROLLER BASED DOMESTIC INVERTER TROUBLESHOOTER

# CHARGER NOT WORKING

 First check the FUSE (4A).

 Check the TRIAC (BT 139) whether it is short or not.
 Check Opto-thyristor (MOC 3021) and its snubber ckt..
 Check the pin 21 voltage of the micro controller at 230 V AC
input .Its around 2.5 V DC

# NOT ABLE TO SET THE DESIRED CHARGING CURRENT

 Check the continuity of the secondary coil of the C .T.

 Check the CCS preset (4K7), bridge rectifier and Op-amp
(LM 324 –U4) related circuits

# NO MAINS OUTPUT

 Check the relay (12V/10A/ 2CO) is working properly.

 Check the Mains sensing transformer, 3-pin rmc connector
(MNS) and related circuits.

# NO INVERTER OUTPUT

 Check the relay is working normally

 Check the relay connector (RLY, RST)
 Check the gate pulses
 Check the RESET switch and the pin 24 of the micro
controller. It should be low
 Check input and output voltages of ULN 2003A.

# LCD MALFUNCTIONING

 Check the 10-pin display connector.

# BACKLIT NOT WORKING

 . Check the 10-pin display connector.

# IMPROPER LED DISPLAY

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 Check the display connector

 Check the shift register IC (CD 4015), resistors and LED’s.

# HEAVY HUMMING SOUND

 If it is in INVERTER mode, check the gate

drives of both MOSFET banks. Mechanical
fittings of the transformer and any loose contact
of Drain connection
 If it is in MAINS mode, check the mechanical
fittings of the INDUCTOR and loose contacts of
input, output wires to the TRIAC in the 5-pin
CPU connector.

# IMPROPER LOAD DISPLAY

 Check the preset (LDD-4K7) in the load section

 Adjust it to the desired value.
 Check the current mirror diodes (D17 & D20-1N4148)
 Check the related circuit and components (LM 324-U3)

# IMPROPER BATTERY DISPLAY

 Check the values of resistors (R9-10K & R10 –2K2)

and zener diode (D6- 5V1) in the battery sensing
circuit.

# IMPROPER MAINS OVER VOLTAGE AND UNDER

VOLTAGE CUT-OFF

 Check the mains sensing transformer output voltage at 230

V.
It should be 7-0-7.
 Check the diodes, resistors and capacitors as mentioned in
the main sensing circuit diagram along with the MNS
connector.

# NO BATTERY OVERCHARGE CUT-OFF

 Check the values of the components related with the battery

sensing circuit and also check the charging current

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8 . ELECTRICAL FIRE SAFETY

8.1 SHOCKING FACTS

8.2 HOME HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

8.3 FIRE SAFETY ON THE JOB

8.1 SHOCKING FACTS

8.11 Fuses and Circuit Breakers

8.12 GFCI

8.13 Electrical Outlets

8.14 Electrical Cords

8.16 Outdoor Power

8.17. Lighting

8.18 Power Lines

8.19 Warning Signs

EACH YEAR IN India, hundreds of people die and thousands more are injured in
accidents involving electrical fires or shocks. Most of these incidents can be prevented
by following simple electrical-safety rules.

8.11 Fuses and Circuit Breakers

* If a fuse blows or a circuit breaker is tripped, don't just replace or reset it. Find out
what caused the circuit to overload and correct the problem.

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* Never replace a fuse or circuit breaker with one that exceeds the amperage rating for
a given circuit.

* Avoid using several high-amperage appliances, such as irons or other heat-producing

appliances, on the same circuit.

* Never replace a fuse with a penny or any other material that conducts electricity.

8.12 GFCI
GFCI stands for ground fault circuit interrupter, an electronic device that constantly
monitors the amount of current flowing through a circuit and cuts off the electricity at the
first sign of an imbalance. Because GCFIs respond to excessive amperage demands
faster than fuses or circuit breakers, they protect you from prolonged electrical shocks
by interrupting the current flow. Inexpensive GFCIs can be hard-wired into your home's
electrical service, installed or plugged in at outlets, or built into extension cords. Test
and reset GCFIs monthly to ensure they are working properly.

8.13 Electrical Outlets

* Have a professional electrician replace old or damaged outlets with modern, three-
wired, polarized receptacles. Proper grounding is essential to minimize fire and shock
hazards.

* Plugs should match outlets. Three-pronged plugs require three-wired receptacles or a

properly grounded adapter. Polarized plugs(now standard), with one prong wider than
the other, require polarized receptacles.

* Never cut off or bend the ground pin of a three-pronged plug. This ground connection
protects you from severe shock caused by a faulty cord or malfunctioning appliance.

* Never alter the wide prong of a polarized plug to make it fit into an outdated outlet.
Have the outlet replaced and properly grounded.

* Protect children from electrical shock by installing plastic inserts in unused outlets.

8.14 Appliances
* All household appliances should bear the label of an ISI Mark, indicating that they
meet basic safety standards.

* Keep heat-producing appliances, such as electric space heaters, electric ranges, and
irons, at least three feet(one meter) from furniture, curtains, bedding, or anything that
will burn.

* Allow plenty of air space around televisions, computers, and stereos to prevent
overheating.
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* Keep electrical cords away from heat-producing appliances, such as toasters and
coffee makers.

* Be sure that detachable appliance cords, such as those used with coffee makers,
deep-fat fryers, and popcorn poppers, are rated for the electrical-load requirements of
the appliance.

8.15 Electrical Cords

* Keep electrical cords out of traffic paths and away from areas where children play.

* Maintain all electrical cords in a serviceable manner. Replace any cord that is cracked,
frayed, or otherwise damaged.

* Never pinch an electrical cord against walls or furniture.

* Do not run extension cords under carpets or across doorways.

8.16 Outdoor Power

* Use only weatherproof fixtures and GFCI outlets with weatherproof covers for outdoor
installations and appliance use.

* Never run outdoor extension cords across lawns for seasonal lighting displays or run
any extension cord across driveways or traffic areas.

* Never use electrical appliances outdoors in wet weather or when the ground or grass
is wet, unless the appliance is specifically designed and labeled by an independent
testing laboratory for such use.

8.17 Lighting
* Place lamps on level, uncluttered surfaces and be sure that lampshades are secure
enough to protect the bulb from breaking if the lamp is knocked over.

* Light bulbs should not exceed the wattage recommended for a lamp or fixture.

8.18 Power Lines

* Report downed power lines and mark the area to warn others.

* Never go near or touch a power line. Doing so can result in a fatal shock or severe
injury.

* Keep ladders, especially metal ones, away from power lines. This includes overhead
electrical service to your home.

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8.19 Warning Signs

You can spot many electrical problems before they cause a fire or shock. Be alert to the
following danger signs:

* Recurring problems with blowing fuses or tripping circuit breakers.

* Feeling a tingle when you touch an electrical appliance.

* Discoloration of wall outlets.

* A burning smell or unusual odor coming from an appliance or wiring.

* Sizzling sound at wall switches or outlets.

* Flickering lights. If you cannot locate the problem inside your home, call your
electrician immediately to inspect the electrical connection to your home at your electric
meter.(Outdoor meters are extremely vulnerable to weather damage.)

When you spot a warning sign, don't wait for an accident. Take action at once. Unplug a
malfunctioning appliance if you can do safely. If necessary, cut off power to the problem
circuit by disconnecting the fuse or tripping the circuit breaker manually. Call a
professional electrician to correct the problem.

8.2 HOME HAZARDOUS MATERIALS

8.21 Take a hazardous materials out of your home

8.22 Flammable Gases

8.23 In the Basement

8.24 Gasoline

8.25 Hazardous Materials Outdoors

8.26 Plan Your Escape

8.27 Portable Fire Extinguishers

8.28 Stop, Drop, and Roll

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8.21 Take a hazardous materials out of your home

Right now, in your home, there are probably dozens of hazardous materials that could
be very dangerous if you have a fire or that could cause a fire if they are improperly
stored or used.

Protect yourself and your family by becoming familiar with hazardous materials in your
home.

Begin your tour in the bedroom, the last place you'd expect to find hazardous materials.
Do you have any aerosol cans of hair spray, deodorant, or other personal-care
products? Hair spray is highly flammable. Never use it near a heat source or open
flame. All aerosol cans explode if exposed to high heat. Never dispose of them in trash
that will be burned.

Nail polish is also flammable, as are many other fluids that give off strong fumes. Nail
polish and nail-polish remover, as well as cotton balls or tissues used to apply them,
burn easily if exposed to flame or high heat.

The fumes given off by mothballs are flammable. Mothball containers should be sealed
tightly.

In the bathroom some disinfectants, such toilet bowl cleaners, are also flammable.
Drain-cleaning fluids and powders are extremely caustic and can cause severe burns
on contact with the skin. Follow the instructions for use printed on the labels of these
products carefully.

In the kitchen, cleaning products should be stored and used with care. Floor and
furniture polishes, spot removers, and oven cleaners are flammable liquids that can
ignite if exposed to high heat or flame.

If you are unsure if a product is flammable, read the label. If the listed ingredients
include petroleum products or methylated spirits, treat the substance as if it could catch
fire.

8.22 Flammable Gases

Containers of butane (for refilling lighters) and all aerosol cans should be stored in a
cool place. When filling a lighter, be sure there is no flame or heat source nearby that
could ignite leaking gas.

Natural gas and propane piped into your home are extremely flammable and should be
used with care. If you suspect a leak, call the gas company, propane supplier, or fire
department immediately

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Propane cylinders for cooking or heating should always be installed or stored out of
doors. Plug cylinder outlets when tanks are not connected for use.

8.23 In the Basement

Your workshop, basement, or hobby area is likely to contain many flammable liquids
such as turpentine, mineral spirits, and other solvents; oil-based paint, stains, and
varnishes; and camping stove fuels and charcoal lighter fluid.

Your basement is also likely to contain a furnace and hot-water heater--sources of heat
and flame that could ignite vapors from such flammable liquids.

It is best to store all flammable liquids outside your home, in the garage or in the shed.
Always store flammable liquids in approved, labeled safety containers with tight fitting
lids. Never store flammable liquids in glass jars, which can break easily. Rags soaked in
oils or paint thinners will burn if exposed to flame. Dispose of such rags after use. or
store them in a tightly closed metal container.

8.24 Gasoline
Never store gasoline in your home. Treat it with extreme caution, since gasoline vapors
can be ignited by even a tiny spark. Store gasoline only in containers designed and
approved for the purpose.

Refuel gasoline-powered machines in the open, well away from buildings and foliage.
Never refuel hot machinery. The heat can ignite explosive gasoline fumes.

Never use gasoline as a substitute for charcoal lighter or cleaning solution. The results
can be lethal. And never smoke near gasoline.

8.25 Hazardous Materials Outdoors

The charcoal lighter and propane commonly used for cooking outdoors are familiar
hazardous materials whose use requires caution. When starting a charcoal fire, apply
starter fluid only to cold charcoal briquettes. Allow the fluid to soak in for 10 minutes
before lighting. Never add starter fluid to warm or flaming briquettes.

If you use an outdoor propane grill, follow the manufacturer's instructions. Never leave a
hot grill unattended.

Other flammable or otherwise hazardous household materials include some weed

killers, pesticides, garden fungicides and fertilizers, and pool chemicals. Read and
follow product instructions carefully.

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8.26 Plan Your Escape

When using any flammable substance, be sure you know two possible exits from each
room.

8.27 Portable Fire Extinguishers

Portable fire extinguishers can be effective in fighting small contained fires. Use
household hazardous materials within reach of a fire extinguisher tested and labeled by
an independent testing lab for use in fighting Class B (flammable liquids) fires. Many
portable extinguishers are also labeled for use on Class A fires (paper and common
combustibles) and/or Class C fires (electrical). Fires involving hazardous materials

should be fought with dry chemical extinguishers labeled for Class B:C fires or for Class
A:B:C fires Do not fight a fire involving flammable liquids with an extinguisher labeled
only for Class A fires.

Never fight a fire unless you are sure you have the proper extinguisher for the type of
fire and that you know how to use it. Before using a portable extinguisher, be sure the
fire

department has been called and that you have your back to a safe and unobstructed
exit. If a fire begins to spread, leave the building immediately and wait for the fire
department.

8.28 Stop, Drop, and Roll

If your clothing catches fire, do not run. Stop where you are, drop to the ground, cover
your face with your hands, and roll over and over to smother the flames. If someone
else's clothes catch fire, push them to the ground and roll them over and over, or
smother the flames with a heavy blanket or rug

8.3 FIRE SAFETY ON THE JOB

OFFICE FIRES

Many of the nation's annual 5,000 office building fires could be prevented if companies
and employees followed basic 0n-the-job firesafe practices.

PREVENTION: The key to a fire-safe workplace

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Housekeeping

* Keep waste paper, empty boxes, dirty rags, cleaning supplies, and other combustibles
out of exits, storage areas, and stairways.

Wiring

* Replace any cracked, frayed, or damaged electrical cord.

* Never run extension cords across doorways, where they can be stepped on or
pinched, or run over by chairs or other furniture. Do not plug extension cords into each
other and avoid plugging more than one extension cord into an outlet.

Equipment and appliances

* Leave space for air to circulate around heaters and other heat-producing equipment,
such as copy machines, coffeemakers, and computers. Keep appliances away from
anything that might catch fire. Do not stack books or papers on top of computer
monitors.

Smoking

Cigarettes, matches, and lighters are a major cause of all fires. There is no smoking
allowed in government buildings on Travis Air Force Base. Smoke only in authorized
areas outside the facility.

PLAN AHEAD

In the event of fire, a safe and speedy response depends on how well employees and
employers are prepared for emergencies.

Employees should....

* Count the doors or desks between their work areas and the nearest exit. During a fire,
employees may have to find their way out in the dark.

* Learn the location of alternative exits from all work areas.

* Know the location of the nearest fire alarm and how to use it.

* Post the fire department's emergency phone number on or near all telephones.

* Be sure that someone in authority knows about any disability that could delay an
escape, and makes plans for a safe evacuation.

Employers should....

* Post building evacuation plans and discuss them during new-employee orientations.
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* Conduct regular fire drills. Contact Fire Prevention at 424-3683 to set fire drills.

* Include disabled employees in the fire emergency planning process.

IF FIRE STRIKES....

* Sound the alarm and call the fire department, no matter how small the fire appears to
be.

* Leave the area quickly, closing doors as you go to contain the fire and smoke.

* If you encounter smoke or flame during your escape, use an alternative exit. Heat and
smoke rise, leaving cleaner air near the floor. If you must exit through smoke, crawl on
your hands and knees, keeping your head in the "Safety Zone" 12 to 24 inches (30 to
60 centimeters) above the floor.

* Test doors before you open them. Kneeling or crouching at the door, reach up as high
as you can and touch the door, the knob, and the space between the door and its frame
with the back of your hand. If the door is warm, use another escape route. If the door is
cool, open it slowly, being prepared to close it quickly if you encounter smoke or flames.

* Follow directions for evacuation from fire and security personnel. Once outside, move
away from the building, out of the way of fire fighters. Remain outside until the
department says you may go back in. In some high-rise buildings, the fire emergency
plan requires workers in areas not directly involved in the fire to remain in the building
until instructed otherwise by the fire fighters.

PORTABLE FIRE EXTINGUISHERS

Most portable fire extinguishers are appropriate only for fighting small, contained fires,
such as a fire in a wastebasket. It is dangerous to fight a grease or electrical fire with an
extinguisher that contains water. Employers should make sure all their employees are
trained to operate the extinguishers in their work section. Contact Fire Prevention

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9. ELECTRICAL SAFETY
9.1 THE IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRICAL SAFETY
9.2 PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF ELECTRICITY
9.3 SHOCK CURRENT PATH
9.4 EMERGENCY RESPONSE
9.5 COMMON SOURCES OF HAZARD
9.6 SAFE CIRCUIT DESIGN
9.7 SAFE METER USAGE
9.8 ELECTRIC SHOCK DATA

9.1 The importance of electrical safety

With this lesson, I hope to avoid a common mistake found in electronics textbooks of either
ignoring or not covering with sufficient detail the subject of electrical safety. I assume that
whoever reads this book has at least a passing interest in actually working with electricity, and as
such the topic of safety is of paramount importance. Those authors, editors, and publishers who
fail to incorporate this subject into their introductory texts are depriving the reader of life-saving
information.
As an instructor of industrial electronics, I spend a full week with my students reviewing the
theoretical and practical aspects of electrical safety. The same textbooks I found lacking in
technical clarity I also found lacking in coverage of electrical safety, hence the creation of this
chapter. Its placement after the first two chapters is intentional: in order for the concepts of
electrical safety to make the most sense, some foundational knowledge of electricity is
necessary.
Another benefit of including a detailed lesson on electrical safety is the practical context it sets
for basic concepts of voltage, current, resistance, and circuit design. The more relevant a
technical topic can be made, the more likely a student will be to pay attention and comprehend.
And what could be more relevant than application to your own personal safety? Also, with
electrical power being such an everyday presence in modern life, almost anyone can relate to the
illustrations given in such a lesson. Have you ever wondered why birds don't get shocked while
resting on power lines? Read on and find out!

9.2 Physiological effects of electricity

Most of us have experienced some form of electric "shock," where electricity causes our body to
experience pain or trauma. If we are fortunate, the extent of that experience is limited to tingles
or jolts of pain from static electricity buildup discharging through our bodies. When we are
working around electric circuits capable of delivering high power to loads, electric shock
becomes a much more serious issue, and pain is the least significant result of shock.
As electric current is conducted through a material, any opposition to that flow of electrons
(resistance) results in a dissipation of energy, usually in the form of heat. This is the most basic
and easy-to-understand effect of electricity on living tissue: current makes it heat up. If the
amount of heat generated is sufficient, the tissue may be burnt. The effect is physiologically the
same as damage caused by an open flame or other high-temperature source of heat, except that
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electricity has the ability to burn tissue well beneath the skin of a victim, even burning internal
organs.
Another effect of electric current on the body, perhaps the most significant in terms of hazard,
regards the nervous system. By "nervous system" I mean the network of special cells in the body
called "nerve cells" or "neurons" which process and conduct the multitude of signals responsible
for regulation of many body functions. The brain, spinal cord, and sensory/motor organs in the
body function together to allow it to sense, move, respond, think, and remember.
Nerve cells communicate to each other by acting as "transducers:" creating electrical signals
(very small voltages and currents) in response to the input of certain chemical compounds called
neurotransmitters, and releasing neurotransmitters when stimulated by electrical signals. If
electric current of sufficient magnitude is conducted through a living creature (human or
otherwise), its effect will be to override the tiny electrical impulses normally generated by the
neurons, overloading the nervous system and preventing both reflex and volitional signals from
being able to actuate muscles. Muscles triggered by an external (shock) current will involuntarily
contract, and there's nothing the victim can do about it.
This problem is especially dangerous if the victim contacts an energized conductor with his or
her hands. The forearm muscles responsible for bending fingers tend to be better developed than
those muscles responsible for extending fingers, and so if both sets of muscles try to contract
because of an electric current conducted through the person's arm, the "bending" muscles will
win, clenching the fingers into a fist. If the conductor delivering current to the victim faces the
palm of his or her hand, this clenching action will force the hand to grasp the wire firmly, thus
worsening the situation by securing excellent contact with the wire. The victim will be
completely unable to let go of the wire.
Medically, this condition of involuntary muscle contraction is called tetanus. Electricians
familiar with this effect of electric shock often refer to an immobilized victim of electric shock as
being "froze on the circuit." Shock-induced tetanus can only be interrupted by stopping the
current through the victim.
Even when the current is stopped, the victim may not regain voluntary control over their muscles
for a while, as the neurotransmitter chemistry has been thrown into disarray. This principle has
been applied in "stun gun" devices such as Tasers, which on the principle of momentarily
shocking a victim with a high-voltage pulse delivered between two electrodes. A well-placed
shock has the effect of temporarily (a few minutes) immobilizing the victim.
Electric current is able to affect more than just skeletal muscles in a shock victim, however. The
diaphragm muscle controlling the lungs, and the heart -- which is a muscle in itself -- can also be
"frozen" in a state of tetanus by electric current. Even currents too low to induce tetanus are often
able to scramble nerve cell signals enough that the heart cannot beat properly, sending the heart
into a condition known as fibrillation. A fibrillating heart flutters rather than beats, and is
ineffective at pumping blood to vital organs in the body. In any case, death from asphyxiation
and/or cardiac arrest will surely result from a strong enough electric current through the body.
Ironically, medical personnel use a strong jolt of electric current applied across the chest of a
victim to "jump start" a fibrillating heart into a normal beating pattern.
That last detail leads us into another hazard of electric shock, this one peculiar to public power
systems. Though our initial study of electric circuits will focus almost exclusively on DC (Direct
Current, or electricity that moves in a continuous direction in a circuit), modern power systems
utilize alternating current, or AC. The technical reasons for this preference of AC over DC in
power systems are irrelevant to this discussion, but the special hazards of each kind of electrical
power are very important to the topic of safety.

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Direct current (DC), because it moves with continuous motion through a conductor, has the
tendency to induce muscular tetanus quite readily. Alternating current (AC), because it
alternately reverses direction of motion, provides brief moments of opportunity for an afflicted
muscle to relax between alternations. Thus, from the concern of becoming "froze on the circuit,"
DC is more dangerous than AC.
However, AC's alternating nature has a greater tendency to throw the heart's pacemaker neurons
into a condition of fibrillation, whereas DC tends to just make the heart stand still. Once the
shock current is halted, a "frozen" heart has a better chance of regaining a normal beat pattern
than a fibrillating heart. This is why "defibrillating" equipment used by emergency medics
works: the jolt of current supplied by the defibrillator unit is DC, which halts fibrillation and and
gives the heart a chance to recover.
In either case, electric currents high enough to cause involuntary muscle action are dangerous
and are to be avoided at all costs. In the next section, we'll take a look at how such currents
typically enter and exit the body, and examine precautions against such occurrences.
 REVIEW:
 Electric current is capable of producing deep and severe burns in the body due to power
dissipation across the body's electrical resistance.
 Tetanus is the condition where muscles involuntarily contract due to the passage of
external electric current through the body. When involuntary contraction of muscles
controlling the fingers causes a victim to be unable to let go of an energized conductor,
the victim is said to be "froze on the circuit."
 Diaphragm (lung) and heart muscles are similarly affected by electric current. Even
currents too small to induce tetanus can be strong enough to interfere with the heart's
pacemaker neurons, causing the heart to flutter instead of strongly beat.
 Direct current (DC) is more likely to cause muscle tetanus than alternating current (AC),
making DC more likely to "freeze" a victim in a shock scenario. However, AC is more
likely to cause a victim's heart to fibrillate, which is a more dangerous condition for the
victim after the shocking current has been halted.

9.3 Shock current path

As we've already learned, electricity requires a complete path (circuit) to continuously flow. This
is why the shock received from static electricity is only a momentary jolt: the flow of electrons is
necessarily brief when static charges are equalized between two objects. Shocks of self-limited
duration like this are rarely hazardous.
Without two contact points on the body for current to enter and exit, respectively, there is no
hazard of shock. This is why birds can safely rest on high-voltage power lines without getting
shocked: they make contact with the circuit at only one point.

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In order for electrons to flow through a conductor, there must be a voltage present to motivate
them. Voltage, as you should recall, is always relative between two points. There is no such thing
as voltage "on" or "at" a single point in the circuit, and so the bird contacting a single point in the
above circuit has no voltage applied across its body to establish a current through it. Yes, even
though they rest on two feet, both feet are touching the same wire, making them electrically
common. Electrically speaking, both of the bird's feet touch the same point, hence there is no
voltage between them to motivate current through the bird's body.
This might lend one to believe that it's impossible to be shocked by electricity by only touching a
single wire. Like the birds, if we're sure to touch only one wire at a time, we'll be safe, right?
Unfortunately, this is not correct. Unlike birds, people are usually standing on the ground when
they contact a "live" wire. Many times, one side of a power system will be intentionally
connected to earth ground, and so the person touching a single wire is actually making contact
between two points in the circuit (the wire and earth ground):

The ground symbol is that set of three horizontal bars of decreasing width located at the lower-
left of the circuit shown, and also at the foot of the person being shocked. In real life the power
system ground consists of some kind of metallic conductor buried deep in the ground for making
maximum contact with the earth. That conductor is electrically connected to an appropriate
connection point on the circuit with thick wire. The victim's ground connection is through their
feet, which are touching the earth.
A few questions usually arise at this point in the mind of the student:
 If the presence of a ground point in the circuit provides an easy point of contact for
someone to get shocked, why have it in the circuit at all? Wouldn't a ground-less circuit
be safer?

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 The person getting shocked probably isn't bare-footed. If rubber and fabric are insulating
materials, then why aren't their shoes protecting them by preventing a circuit from
forming?
 How good of a conductor can dirt be? If you can get shocked by current through the
earth, why not use the earth as a conductor in our power circuits?

In answer to the first question, the presence of an intentional "grounding" point in an electric
circuit is intended to ensure that one side of it is safe to come in contact with. Note that if our
victim in the above diagram were to touch the bottom side of the resistor, nothing would happen
even though their feet would still be contacting ground:

Because the bottom side of the circuit is firmly connected to ground through the grounding point
on the lower-left of the circuit, the lower conductor of the circuit is made electrically common
with earth ground. Since there can be no voltage between electrically common points, there will
be no voltage applied across the person contacting the lower wire, and they will not receive a
shock. For the same reason, the wire connecting the circuit to the grounding rod/plates is usually
left bare (no insulation), so that any metal object it brushes up against will similarly be
electrically common with the earth.
Circuit grounding ensures that at least one point in the circuit will be safe to touch. But what
about leaving a circuit completely ungrounded? Wouldn't that make any person touching just a
single wire as safe as the bird sitting on just one? Ideally, yes. Practically, no. Observe what
happens with no ground at all:

Despite the fact that the person's feet are still contacting ground, any single point in the circuit
should be safe to touch. Since there is no complete path (circuit) formed through the person's

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body from the bottom side of the voltage source to the top, there is no way for a current to be
established through the person. However, this could all change with an accidental ground, such
as a tree branch touching a power line and providing connection to earth ground:

Such an accidental connection between a power system conductor and the earth (ground) is
called a ground fault. Ground faults may be caused by many things, including dirt buildup on
power line insulators (creating a dirty-water path for current from the conductor to the pole, and
to the ground, when it rains), ground water infiltration in buried power line conductors, and birds
landing on power lines, bridging the line to the pole with their wings. Given the many causes of
ground faults, they tend to be unpredicatable. In the case of trees, no one can guarantee which
wire their branches might touch. If a tree were to brush up against the top wire in the circuit, it
would make the top wire safe to touch and the bottom one dangerous -- just the opposite of the
previous scenario where the tree contacts the bottom wire:

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With a tree branch contacting the top wire, that wire becomes the grounded conductor in the
circuit, electrically common with earth ground. Therefore, there is no voltage between that wire
and ground, but full (high) voltage between the bottom wire and ground. As mentioned
previously, tree branches are only one potential source of ground faults in a power system.
Consider an ungrounded power system with no trees in contact, but this time with two people
touching single wires:

With each person standing on the ground, contacting different points in the circuit, a path for
shock current is made through one person, through the earth, and through the other person. Even
though each person thinks they're safe in only touching a single point in the circuit, their
combined actions create a deadly scenario. In effect, one person acts as the ground fault which
makes it unsafe for the other person. This is exactly why ungrounded power systems are
dangerous: the voltage between any point in the circuit and ground (earth) is unpredictable,
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because a ground fault could appear at any point in the circuit at any time. The only character
guaranteed to be safe in these scenarios is the bird, who has no connection to earth ground at all!
By firmly connecting a designated point in the circuit to earth ground ("grounding" the circuit),
at least safety can be assured at that one point. This is more assurance of safety than having no
ground connection at all.
In answer to the second question, rubber-soled shoes do indeed provide some electrical
insulation to help protect someone from conducting shock current through their feet. However,
most common shoe designs are not intended to be electrically "safe," their soles being too thin
and not of the right substance. Also, any moisture, dirt, or conductive salts from body sweat on
the surface of or permeated through the soles of shoes will compromise what little insulating
value the shoe had to begin with. There are shoes specifically made for dangerous electrical
work, as well as thick rubber mats made to stand on while working on live circuits, but these
special pieces of gear must be in absolutely clean, dry condition in order to be effective. Suffice
it to say, normal footwear is not enough to guarantee protection against electric shock from a
power system.
Research conducted on contact resistance between parts of the human body and points of contact
(such as the ground) shows a wide range of figures (see end of chapter for information on the
source of this data):
 Hand or foot contact, insulated with rubber: 20 MΩ typical.
 Foot contact through leather shoe sole (dry): 100 kΩ to 500 kΩ
 Foot contact through leather shoe sole (wet): 5 kΩ to 20 kΩ

As you can see, not only is rubber a far better insulating material than leather, but the presence of
water in a porous substance such as leather greatly reduces electrical resistance.
In answer to the third question, dirt is not a very good conductor (at least not when it's dry!). It is
too poor of a conductor to support continuous current for powering a load. However, as we will
see in the next section, it takes very little current to injure or kill a human being, so even the poor
conductivity of dirt is enough to provide a path for deadly current when there is sufficient
voltage available, as there usually is in power systems.
Some ground surfaces are better insulators than others. Asphalt, for instance, being oil-based, has
a much greater resistance than most forms of dirt or rock. Concrete, on the other hand, tends to
have fairly low resistance due to its intrinsic water and electrolyte (conductive chemical) content.
 REVIEW:
 Electric shock can only occur when contact is made between two points of a circuit;
when voltage is applied across a victim's body.
 Power circuits usually have a designated point that is "grounded:" firmly connected to
metal rods or plates buried in the dirt to ensure that one side of the circuit is always at
ground potential (zero voltage between that point and earth ground).
 A ground fault is an accidental connection between a circuit conductor and the earth
(ground).
 Special, insulated shoes and mats are made to protect persons from shock via ground
conduction, but even these pieces of gear must be in clean, dry condition to be effective.
Normal footwear is not good enough to provide protection from shock by insulating its
wearer from the earth.
 Though dirt is a poor conductor, it can conduct enough current to injure or kill a human
being.

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Ohm's Law (again!)

A common phrase heard in reference to electrical safety goes something like this: "It's not
voltage that kills, it's current!" While there is an element of truth to this, there's more to
understand about shock hazard than this simple adage. If voltage presented no danger, no one
would ever print and display signs saying: DANGER -- HIGH VOLTAGE!
The principle that "current kills" is essentially correct. It is electric current that burns tissue,
freezes muscles, and fibrillates hearts. However, electric current doesn't just occur on its own:
there must be voltage available to motivate electrons to flow through a victim. A person's body
also presents resistance to current, which must be taken into account.
Taking Ohm's Law for voltage, current, and resistance, and expressing it in terms of current for a
given voltage and resistance, we have this equation:

The amount of current through a body is equal to the amount of voltage applied between two
points on that body, divided by the electrical resistance offered by the body between those two
points. Obviously, the more voltage available to cause electrons to flow, the easier they will flow
through any given amount of resistance. Hence, the danger of high voltage: high voltage means
potential for large amounts of current through your body, which will injure or kill you.
Conversely, the more resistance a body offers to current, the slower electrons will flow for any
given amount of voltage. Just how much voltage is dangerous depends on how much total
resistance is in the circuit to oppose the flow of electrons.
Body resistance is not a fixed quantity. It varies from person to person and from time to time.
There's even a body fat measurement technique based on a measurement of electrical resistance
between a person's toes and fingers. Differing percentages of body fat give provide different
resistances: just one variable affecting electrical resistance in the human body. In order for the
technique to work accurately, the person must regulate their fluid intake for several hours prior to
the test, indicating that body hydration another factor impacting the body's electrical resistance.
Body resistance also varies depending on how contact is made with the skin: is it from hand-to-
hand, hand-to-foot, foot-to-foot, hand-to-elbow, etc.? Sweat, being rich in salts and minerals, is
an excellent conductor of electricity for being a liquid. So is blood, with its similarly high
content of conductive chemicals. Thus, contact with a wire made by a sweaty hand or open
wound will offer much less resistance to current than contact made by clean, dry skin.
Measuring electrical resistance with a sensitive meter, I measure approximately 1 million ohms
of resistance (1 MΩ) between my two hands, holding on to the meter's metal probes between my
fingers. The meter indicates less resistance when I squeeze the probes tightly and more resistance
when I hold them loosely. Sitting here at my computer, typing these words, my hands are clean
and dry. If I were working in some hot, dirty, industrial environment, the resistance between my
hands would likely be much less, presenting less opposition to deadly current, and a greater
threat of electrical shock.
But how much current is harmful? The answer to that question also depends on several factors.
Individual body chemistry has a significant impact on how electric current affects an individual.
Some people are highly sensitive to current, experiencing involuntary muscle contraction with
shocks from static electricity. Others can draw large sparks from discharging static electricity
and hardly feel it, much less experience a muscle spasm. Despite these differences, approximate

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guidelines have been developed through tests which indicate very little current being necessary
to manifest harmful effects (again, see end of chapter for information on the source of this data).
All current figures given in milliamps (a milliamp is equal to 1/1000 of an amp):

BODILY EFFECT DIRECT CURRENT (DC) 60 Hz AC 10 kHz AC

---------------------------------------------------------------
Slight sensation Men = 1.0 mA 0.4 mA 7 mA
felt at hand(s) Women = 0.6 mA 0.3 mA 5 mA
---------------------------------------------------------------
Threshold of Men = 5.2 mA 1.1 mA 12 mA
perception Women = 3.5 mA 0.7 mA 8 mA
---------------------------------------------------------------
Painful, but Men = 62 mA 9 mA 55 mA
voluntary muscle Women = 41 mA 6 mA 37 mA
control maintained
---------------------------------------------------------------
Painful, unable Men = 76 mA 16 mA 75 mA
to let go of wires Women = 51 mA 10.5 mA 50 mA
---------------------------------------------------------------
Severe pain, Men = 90 mA 23 mA 94 mA
difficulty Women = 60 mA 15 mA 63 mA
breathing
---------------------------------------------------------------
Possible heart Men = 500 mA 100 mA
fibrillation Women = 500 mA 100 mA
after 3 seconds
---------------------------------------------------------------

"Hz" stands for the unit of Hertz, the measure of how rapidly alternating current alternates, a
measure otherwise known as frequency. So, the column of figures labeled "60 Hz AC" refers to
current that alternates at a frequency of 60 cycles (1 cycle = period of time where electrons flow
one direction, then the other direction) per second. The last column, labeled "10 kHz AC," refers
to alternating current that completes ten thousand (10,000) back-and-forth cycles each and every
second.
Keep in mind that these figures are only approximate, as individuals with different body
chemistry may react differently. It has been suggested that an across-the-chest current of only 17
milliamps AC is enough to induce fibrillation in a human subject under certain conditions. Most
of our data regarding induced fibrillation comes from animal testing. Obviously, it is not
practical to perform tests of induced ventricular fibrillation on human subjects, so the available
data is sketchy. Oh, and in case you're wondering, I have no idea why women tend to be more
susceptible to electric currents than men!
Suppose I were to place my two hands across the terminals of an AC voltage source at 60 Hz (60
cycles, or alternations back-and-forth, per second). How much voltage would be necessary in this
clean, dry state of skin condition to produce a current of 20 milliamps (enough to cause me to
become unable to let go of the voltage source)? We can use Ohm's Law (E=IR) to determine this:

E = IR

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E = (20 mA)(1 MΩ)

E = 20,000 volts, or 20 kV

Bear in mind that this is a "best case" scenario (clean, dry skin) from the standpoint of electrical
safety, and that this figure for voltage represents the amount necessary to induce tetanus. Far less
would be required to cause a painful shock! Also keep in mind that the physiological effects of
any particular amount of current can vary significantly from person to person, and that these
calculations are rough estimates only.
With water sprinkled on my fingers to simulate sweat, I was able to measure a hand-to-hand
resistance of only 17,000 ohms (17 kΩ). Bear in mind this is only with one finger of each hand
contacting a thin metal wire. Recalculating the voltage required to cause a current of 20
milliamps, we obtain this figure:

E = IR

E = (20 mA)(17 kΩ)

E = 340 volts

In this realistic condition, it would only take 340 volts of potential from one of my hands to the
other to cause 20 milliamps of current. However, it is still possible to receive a deadly shock
from less voltage than this. Provided a much lower body resistance figure augmented by contact
with a ring (a band of gold wrapped around the circumference of one's finger makes an excellent
contact point for electrical shock) or full contact with a large metal object such as a pipe or metal
handle of a tool, the body resistance figure could drop as low as 1,000 ohms (1 kΩ), allowing an
even lower voltage to present a potential hazard:

E = IR

E = (20 mA)(1 kΩ)

E = 20 volts

Notice that in this condition, 20 volts is enough to produce a current of 20 milliamps through a
person: enough to induce tetanus. Remember, it has been suggested a current of only 17
milliamps may induce ventricular (heart) fibrillation. With a hand-to-hand resistance of 1000 Ω,
it would only take 17 volts to create this dangerous condition:

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E = IR

E = (17 mA)(1 kΩ)

E = 17 volts

Seventeen volts is not very much as far as electrical systems are concerned. Granted, this is a
"worst-case" scenario with 60 Hz AC voltage and excellent bodily conductivity, but it does stand
to show how little voltage may present a serious threat under certain conditions.
The conditions necessary to produce 1,000 Ω of body resistance don't have to be as extreme as
what was presented, either (sweaty skin with contact made on a gold ring). Body resistance may
decrease with the application of voltage (especially if tetanus causes the victim to maintain a
tighter grip on a conductor) so that with constant voltage a shock may increase in severity after
initial contact. What begins as a mild shock -- just enough to "freeze" a victim so they can't let go
-- may escalate into something severe enough to kill them as their body resistance decreases and
current correspondingly increases.
Research has provided an approximate set of figures for electrical resistance of human contact
points under different conditions (see end of chapter for information on the source of this data):
 Wire touched by finger: 40,000 Ω to 1,000,000 Ω dry, 4,000 Ω to 15,000 Ω wet.
 Wire held by hand: 15,000 Ω to 50,000 Ω dry, 3,000 Ω to 5,000 Ω wet.
 Metal pliers held by hand: 5,000 Ω to 10,000 Ω dry, 1,000 Ω to 3,000 Ω wet.
 Contact with palm of hand: 3,000 Ω to 8,000 Ω dry, 1,000 Ω to 2,000 Ω wet.
 1.5 inch metal pipe grasped by one hand: 1,000 Ω to 3,000 Ω dry, 500 Ω to 1,500 Ω wet.
 1.5 inch metal pipe grasped by two hands: 500 Ω to 1,500 kΩ dry, 250 Ω to 750 Ω wet.
 Hand immersed in conductive liquid: 200 Ω to 500 Ω.
 Foot immersed in conductive liquid: 100 Ω to 300 Ω.

Note the resistance values of the two conditions involving a 1.5 inch metal pipe. The resistance
measured with two hands grasping the pipe is exactly one-half the resistance of one hand
grasping the pipe.

With two hands, the bodily contact area is twice as great as with one hand. This is an important
lesson to learn: electrical resistance between any contacting objects diminishes with increased
contact area, all other factors being equal. With two hands holding the pipe, electrons have two,
parallel routes through which to flow from the pipe to the body (or visa-versa).

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As we will see in a later chapter, parallel circuit pathways always result in less overall resistance
than any single pathway considered alone.
In industry, 30 volts is generally considered to be a conservative threshold value for dangerous
voltage. The cautious person should regard any voltage above 30 volts as threatening, not relying
on normal body resistance for protection against shock. That being said, it is still an excellent
idea to keep one's hands clean and dry, and remove all metal jewelry when working around
electricity. Even around lower voltages, metal jewelry can present a hazard by conducting
enough current to burn the skin if brought into contact between two points in a circuit. Metal
rings, especially, have been the cause of more than a few burnt fingers by bridging between
points in a low-voltage, high-current circuit.
Also, voltages lower than 30 can be dangerous if they are enough to induce an unpleasant
sensation, which may cause you to jerk and accidently come into contact across a higher voltage
or some other hazard. I recall once working on a automobile on a hot summer day. I was wearing
shorts, my bare leg contacting the chrome bumper of the vehicle as I tightened battery
connections. When I touched my metal wrench to the positive (ungrounded) side of the 12 volt
battery, I could feel a tingling sensation at the point where my leg was touching the bumper. The
combination of firm contact with metal and my sweaty skin made it possible to feel a shock with
only 12 volts of electrical potential.
Thankfully, nothing bad happened, but had the engine been running and the shock felt at my
hand instead of my leg, I might have reflexively jerked my arm into the path of the rotating fan,
or dropped the metal wrench across the battery terminals (producing large amounts of current
through the wrench with lots of accompanying sparks). This illustrates another important lesson
regarding electrical safety; that electric current itself may be an indirect cause of injury by
causing you to jump or spasm parts of your body into harm's way.
The path current takes through the human body makes a difference as to how harmful it is.
Current will affect whatever muscles are in its path, and since the heart and lung (diaphragm)
muscles are probably the most critical to one's survival, shock paths traversing the chest are the
most dangerous. This makes the hand-to-hand shock current path a very likely mode of injury
and fatality.
To guard against such an occurrence, it is advisable to only use on hand to work on live circuits
of hazardous voltage, keeping the other hand tucked into a pocket so as to not accidently touch
anything. Of course, it is always safer to work on a circuit when it is unpowered, but this is not
always practical or possible. For one-handed work, the right hand is generally preferred over the

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left for two reasons: most people are right-handed (thus granting additional coordination when
working), and the heart is usually situated to the left of center in the chest cavity.
For those who are left-handed, this advice may not be the best. If such a person is sufficiently
uncoordinated with their right hand, they may be placing themselves in greater danger by using
the hand they're least comfortable with, even if shock current through that hand might present
more of a hazard to their heart. The relative hazard between shock through one hand or the other
is probably less than the hazard of working with less than optimal coordination, so the choice of
which hand to work with is best left to the individual.
The best protection against shock from a live circuit is resistance, and resistance can be added to
the body through the use of insulated tools, gloves, boots, and other gear. Current in a circuit is a
function of available voltage divided by the total resistance in the path of the flow. As we will
investigate in greater detail later in this book, resistances have an additive effect when they're
stacked up so that there's only one path for electrons to flow:

Now we'll see an equivalent circuit for a person wearing insulated gloves and boots:

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Because electric current must pass through the boot and the body and the glove to complete its
circuit back to the battery, the combined total (sum) of these resistances opposes the flow of
electrons to a greater degree than any of the resistances considered individually.
Safety is one of the reasons electrical wires are usually covered with plastic or rubber insulation:
to vastly increase the amount of resistance between the conductor and whoever or whatever
might contact it. Unfortunately, it would be prohibitively expensive to enclose power line
conductors in sufficient insulation to provide safety in case of accidental contact, so safety is
maintained by keeping those lines far enough out of reach so that no one can accidently touch
them.
 REVIEW:
 Harm to the body is a function of the amount of shock current. Higher voltage allows for
the production of higher, more dangerous currents. Resistance opposes current, making
high resistance a good protective measure against shock.
 Any voltage above 30 is generally considered to be capable of delivering dangerous
shock currents.
 Metal jewelry is definitely bad to wear when working around electric circuits. Rings,
watchbands, necklaces, bracelets, and other such adornments provide excellent electrical
contact with your body, and can conduct current themselves enough to produce skin
burns, even with low voltages.
 Low voltages can still be dangerous even if they're too low to directly cause shock injury.
They may be enough to startle the victim, causing them to jerk back and contact
something more dangerous in the near vicinity.
 When necessary to work on a "live" circuit, it is best to perform the work with one hand
so as to prevent a deadly hand-to-hand (through the chest) shock current path.

Safe practices
If at all possible, shut off the power to a circuit before performing any work on it. You must
secure all sources of harmful energy before a system may be considered safe to work on. In
industry, securing a circuit, device, or system in this condition is commonly known as placing it
in a Zero Energy State. The focus of this lesson is, of course, electrical safety. However, many of
these principles apply to non-electrical systems as well.
Securing something in a Zero Energy State means ridding it of any sort of potential or stored
energy, including but not limited to:
 Dangerous voltage
 Spring pressure
 Hydraulic (liquid) pressure
 Pneumatic (air) pressure
 Suspended weight
 Chemical energy (flammable or otherwise reactive substances)
 Nuclear energy (radioactive or fissile substances)

Voltage by its very nature is a manifestation of potential energy. In the first chapter I even used
elevated liquid as an analogy for the potential energy of voltage, having the capacity (potential)
to produce current (flow), but not necessarily realizing that potential until a suitable path for flow
has been established, and resistance to flow is overcome. A pair of wires with high voltage
between them do not look or sound dangerous even though they harbor enough potential energy
between them to push deadly amounts of current through your body. Even though that voltage
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isn't presently doing anything, it has the potential to, and that potential must be neutralized
before it is safe to physically contact those wires.
All properly designed circuits have "disconnect" switch mechanisms for securing voltage from a
circuit. Sometimes these "disconnects" serve a dual purpose of automatically opening under
excessive current conditions, in which case we call them "circuit breakers." Other times, the
disconnecting switches are strictly manually-operated devices with no automatic function. In
either case, they are there for your protection and must be used properly. Please note that the
disconnect device should be separate from the regular switch used to turn the device on and off.
It is a safety switch, to be used only for securing the system in a Zero Energy State:

With the disconnect switch in the "open" position as shown (no continuity), the circuit is broken
and no current will exist. There will be zero voltage across the load, and the full voltage of the
source will be dropped across the open contacts of the disconnect switch. Note how there is no
need for a disconnect switch in the lower conductor of the circuit. Because that side of the circuit
is firmly connected to the earth (ground), it is electrically common with the earth and is best left
that way. For maximum safety of personnel working on the load of this circuit, a temporary
ground connection could be established on the top side of the load, to ensure that no voltage
could ever be dropped across the load:

With the temporary ground connection in place, both sides of the load wiring are connected to
ground, securing a Zero Energy State at the load.
Since a ground connection made on both sides of the load is electrically equivalent to short-
circuiting across the load with a wire, that is another way of accomplishing the same goal of
maximum safety:

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Either way, both sides of the load will be electrically common to the earth, allowing for no
voltage (potential energy) between either side of the load and the ground people stand on. This
technique of temporarily grounding conductors in a de-energized power system is very common
in maintenance work performed on high voltage power distribution systems.
A further benefit of this precaution is protection against the possibility of the disconnect switch
being closed (turned "on" so that circuit continuity is established) while people are still
contacting the load. The temporary wire connected across the load would create a short-circuit
when the disconnect switch was closed, immediately tripping any overcurrent protection devices
(circuit breakers or fuses) in the circuit, which would shut the power off again. Damage may
very well be sustained by the disconnect switch if this were to happen, but the workers at the
load are kept safe.
It would be good to mention at this point that overcurrent devices are not intended to provide
protection against electric shock. Rather, they exist solely to protect conductors from overheating
due to excessive currents. The temporary shorting wires just described would indeed cause any
overcurrent devices in the circuit to "trip" if the disconnect switch were to be closed, but realize
that electric shock protection is not the intended function of those devices. Their primary
function would merely be leveraged for the purpose of worker protection with the shorting wire
in place.
Since it is obviously important to be able to secure any disconnecting devices in the open (off)
position and make sure they stay that way while work is being done on the circuit, there is need
for a structured safety system to be put into place. Such a system is commonly used in industry
and it is called Lock-out/Tag-out.
A lock-out/tag-out procedure works like this: all individuals working on a secured circuit have
their own personal padlock or combination lock which they set on the control lever of a
disconnect device prior to working on the system. Additionally, they must fill out and sign a tag
which they hang from their lock describing the nature and duration of the work they intend to
perform on the system. If there are multiple sources of energy to be "locked out" (multiple
disconnects, both electrical and mechanical energy sources to be secured, etc.), the worker must
use as many of his or her locks as necessary to secure power from the system before work
begins. This way, the system is maintained in a Zero Energy State until every last lock is
removed from all the disconnect and shutoff devices, and that means every last worker gives
consent by removing their own personal locks. If the decision is made to re-energize the system
and one person's lock(s) still remain in place after everyone present removes theirs, the tag(s)
will show who that person is and what it is they're doing.

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Even with a good lock-out/tag-out safety program in place, there is still need for diligence and
common-sense precaution. This is especially true in industrial settings where a multitude of
people may be working on a device or system at once. Some of those people might not know
about proper lock-out/tag-out procedure, or might know about it but are too complacent to follow
it. Don't assume that everyone has followed the safety rules!
After an electrical system has been locked out and tagged with your own personal lock, you must
then double-check to see if the voltage really has been secured in a zero state. One way to check
is to see if the machine (or whatever it is that's being worked on) will start up if the Start switch
or button is actuated. If it starts, then you know you haven't successfully secured the electrical
power from it.
Additionally, you should always check for the presence of dangerous voltage with a measuring
device before actually touching any conductors in the circuit. To be safest, you should follow
this procedure is checking, using, and then checking your meter:
 Check to see that your meter indicates properly on a known source of voltage.
 Use your meter to test the locked-out circuit for any dangerous voltage.
 Check your meter once more on a known source of voltage to see that it still indicates as
it should.

While this may seem excessive or even paranoid, it is a proven technique for preventing
electrical shock. I once had a meter fail to indicate voltage when it should have while checking a
circuit to see if it was "dead." Had I not used other means to check for the presence of voltage, I
might not be alive today to write this. There's always the chance that your voltage meter will be
defective just when you need it to check for a dangerous condition. Following these steps will
help ensure that you're never misled into a deadly situation by a broken meter.
Finally, the electrical worker will arrive at a point in the safety check procedure where it is
deemed safe to actually touch the conductor(s). Bear in mind that after all of the precautionary
steps have taken, it is still possible (although very unlikely) that a dangerous voltage may be
present. One final precautionary measure to take at this point is to make momentary contact with
the conductor(s) with the back of the hand before grasping it or a metal tool in contact with it.
Why? If, for some reason there is still voltage present between that conductor and earth ground,
finger motion from the shock reaction (clenching into a fist) will break contact with the
conductor. Please note that this is absolutely the last step that any electrical worker should ever
take before beginning work on a power system, and should never be used as an alternative
method of checking for dangerous voltage. If you ever have reason to doubt the trustworthiness
of your meter, use another meter to obtain a "second opinion."
 REVIEW:
 Zero Energy State: When a circuit, device, or system has been secured so that no
potential energy exists to harm someone working on it.
 Disconnect switch devices must be present in a properly designed electrical system to
allow for convenient readiness of a Zero Energy State.
 Temporary grounding or shorting wires may be connected to a load being serviced for
extra protection to personnel working on that load.
 Lock-out/Tag-out works like this: when working on a system in a Zero Energy State, the
worker places a personal padlock or combination lock on every energy disconnect device
relevant to his or her task on that system. Also, a tag is hung on every one of those locks
describing the nature and duration of the work to be done, and who is doing it.

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 Always verify that a circuit has been secured in a Zero Energy State with test equipment
after "locking it out." Be sure to test your meter before and after checking the circuit to
verify that it is working properly.
 When the time comes to actually make contact with the conductor(s) of a supposedly
dead power system, do so first with the back of one hand, so that if a shock should occur,
the muscle reaction will pull the fingers away from the conductor.

9.4 Emergency response

Despite lock-out/tag-out procedures and multiple repetitions of electrical safety rules in industry,
accidents still do occur. The vast majority of the time, these accidents are the result of not
following proper safety procedures. But however they may occur, they still do happen, and
anyone working around electrical systems should be aware of what needs to be done for a victim
of electrical shock.
If you see someone lying unconscious or "froze on the circuit," the very first thing to do is shut
off the power by opening the appropriate disconnect switch or circuit breaker. If someone
touches another person being shocked, there may be enough voltage dropped across the body of
the victim to shock the would-be rescuer, thereby "freezing" two people instead of one. Don't be
a hero. Electrons don't respect heroism. Make sure the situation is safe for you to step into, or
else you will be the next victim, and nobody will benefit from your efforts.
One problem with this rule is that the source of power may not be known, or easily found in time
to save the victim of shock. If a shock victim's breathing and heartbeat are paralyzed by electric
current, their survival time is very limited. If the shock current is of sufficient magnitude, their
flesh and internal organs may be quickly roasted by the power the current dissipates as it runs
through their body.
If the power disconnect switch cannot be located quickly enough, it may be possible to dislodge
the victim from the circuit they're frozen on to by prying them or hitting them away with a dry
wooden board or piece of nonmetallic conduit, common items to be found in industrial
construction scenes. Another item that could be used to safely drag a "frozen" victim away from
contact with power is an extension cord. By looping a cord around their torso and using it as a
rope to pull them away from the circuit, their grip on the conductor(s) may be broken. Bear in
mind that the victim will be holding on to the conductor with all their strength, so pulling them
away probably won't be easy!
Once the victim has been safely disconnected from the source of electric power, the immediate
medical concerns for the victim should be respiration and circulation (breathing and pulse). If the
rescuer is trained in CPR, they should follow the appropriate steps of checking for breathing and
pulse, then applying CPR as necessary to keep the victim's body from deoxygenating. The
cardinal rule of CPR is to keep going until you have been relieved by qualified personnel.
If the victim is conscious, it is best to have them lie still until qualified emergency response
personnel arrive on the scene. There is the possibility of the victim going into a state of
physiological shock -- a condition of insufficient blood circulation different from electrical shock
-- and so they should be kept as warm and comfortable as possible. An electrical shock
insufficient to cause immediate interruption of the heartbeat may be strong enough to cause heart
irregularities or a heart attack up to several hours later, so the victim should pay close attention to
their own condition after the incident, ideally under supervision.
 REVIEW:

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 A person being shocked needs to be disconnected from the source of electrical power.
Locate the disconnecting switch/breaker and turn it off. Alternatively, if the
disconnecting device cannot be located, the victim can be pried or pulled from the circuit
by an insulated object such as a dry wood board, piece of nonmetallic conduit, or rubber
electrical cord.
 Victims need immediate medical response: check for breathing and pulse, then apply
CPR as necessary to maintain oxygenation.
 If a victim is still conscious after having been shocked, they need to be closely monitored
and cared for until trained emergency response personnel arrive. There is danger of
physiological shock, so keep the victim warm and comfortable.
 Shock victims may suffer heart trouble up to several hours after being shocked. The
danger of electric shock does not end after the immediate medical attention.

9.5 Common sources of hazard

Of course there is danger of electrical shock when directly performing manual work on an
electrical power system. However, electric shock hazards exist in many other places, thanks to
the widespread use of electric power in our lives.
As we saw earlier, skin and body resistance has a lot to do with the relative hazard of electric
circuits. The higher the body's resistance, the less likely harmful current will result from any
given amount of voltage. Conversely, the lower the body's resistance, the more likely for injury
to occur from the application of a voltage.
The easiest way to decrease skin resistance is to get it wet. Therefore, touching electrical devices
with wet hands, wet feet, or especially in a sweaty condition (salt water is a much better
conductor of electricity than fresh water) is dangerous. In the household, the bathroom is one of
the more likely places where wet people may contact electrical appliances, and so shock hazard
is a definite threat there. Good bathroom design will locate power receptacles away from
bathtubs, showers, and sinks to discourage the use of appliances nearby. Telephones that plug
into a wall socket are also sources of hazardous voltage (the ringing signal in a telephone is 48
volts AC -- remember that any voltage over 30 is considered potentially dangerous!). Appliances
such as telephones and radios should never, ever be used while sitting in a bathtub. Even battery-
powered devices should be avoided. Some battery-operated devices employ voltage-increasing
circuitry capable of generating lethal potentials.
Swimming pools are another source of trouble, since people often operate radios and other
powered appliances nearby. The National Electrical Code requires that special shock-detecting
receptacles called Ground-Fault Current Interrupting (GFI or GFCI) be installed in wet and
outdoor areas to help prevent shock incidents. More on these devices in a later section of this
chapter. These special devices have no doubt saved many lives, but they can be no substitute for
common sense and diligent precaution. As with firearms, the best "safety" is an informed and
conscientious operator.
Extension cords, so commonly used at home and in industry, are also sources of potential hazard.
All cords should be regularly inspected for abrasion or cracking of insulation, and repaired
immediately. One sure method of removing a damaged cord from service is to unplug it from the
receptacle, then cut off that plug (the "male" plug) with a pair of side-cutting pliers to ensure that
no one can use it until it is fixed. This is important on jobsites, where many people share the
same equipment, and not all people there may be aware of the hazards.

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Any power tool showing evidence of electrical problems should be immediately serviced as well.
I've heard several horror stories of people who continue to work with hand tools that periodically
shock them. Remember, electricity can kill, and the death it brings can be gruesome. Like
extension cords, a bad power tool can be removed from service by unplugging it and cutting off
the plug at the end of the cord.
Downed power lines are an obvious source of electric shock hazard and should be avoided at all
costs. The voltages present between power lines or between a power line and earth ground are
typically very high (2400 volts being one of the lowest voltages used in residential distribution
systems). If a power line is broken and the metal conductor falls to the ground, the immediate
result will usually be a tremendous amount of arcing (sparks produced), often enough to dislodge
chunks of concrete or asphalt from the road surface, and reports rivaling that of a rifle or
shotgun. To come into direct contact with a downed power line is almost sure to cause death, but
other hazards exist which are not so obvious.
When a line touches the ground, current travels between that downed conductor and the nearest
grounding point in the system, thus establishing a circuit:

The earth, being a conductor (if only a poor one), will conduct current between the downed line
and the nearest system ground point, which will be some kind of conductor buried in the ground
for good contact. Being that the earth is a much poorer conductor of electricity than the metal
cables strung along the power poles, there will be substantial voltage dropped between the point
of cable contact with the ground and the grounding conductor, and little voltage dropped along
the length of the cabling (the following figures are very approximate):

If the distance between the two ground contact points (the downed cable and the system ground)
is small, there will be substantial voltage dropped along short distances between the two points.
Therefore, a person standing on the ground between those two points will be in danger of
receiving an electric shock by intercepting a voltage between their two feet!

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Again, these voltage figures are very approximate, but they serve to illustrate a potential hazard:
that a person can become a victim of electric shock from a downed power line without even
coming into contact with that line!
One practical precaution a person could take if they see a power line falling towards the ground
is to only contact the ground at one point, either by running away (when you run, only one foot
contacts the ground at any given time), or if there's nowhere to run, by standing on one foot.
Obviously, if there's somewhere safer to run, running is the best option. By eliminating two
points of contact with the ground, there will be no chance of applying deadly voltage across the
body through both legs.
 REVIEW:
 Wet conditions increase risk of electric shock by lowering skin resistance.
 Immediately replace worn or damaged extension cords and power tools. You can prevent
innocent use of a bad cord or tool by cutting the male plug off the cord (while it's
unplugged from the receptacle, of course).
 Power lines are very dangerous and should be avoided at all costs. If you see a line about
to hit the ground, stand on one foot or run (only one foot contacting the ground) to
prevent shock from voltage dropped across the ground between the line and the system
ground point.

9.6 Safe circuit design

As we saw earlier, a power system with no secure connection to earth ground is unpredictable
from a safety perspective: there's no way to guarantee how much or how little voltage will exist
between any point in the circuit and earth ground. By grounding one side of the power system's
voltage source, at least one point in the circuit can be assured to be electrically common with the
earth and therefore present no shock hazard. In a simple two-wire electrical power system, the
conductor connected to ground is called the neutral, and the other conductor is called the hot:

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As far as the voltage source and load are concerned, grounding makes no difference at all. It
exists purely for the sake of personnel safety, by guaranteeing that at least one point in the circuit
will be safe to touch (zero voltage to ground). The "Hot" side of the circuit, named for its
potential for shock hazard, will be dangerous to touch unless voltage is secured by proper
disconnection from the source (ideally, using a systematic lock-out/tag-out procedure).
This imbalance of hazard between the two conductors in a simple power circuit is important to
understand. The following series of illustrations are based on common household wiring systems
(using DC voltage sources rather than AC for simplicity).
If we take a look at a simple, household electrical appliance such as a toaster with a conductive
metal case, we can see that there should be no shock hazard when it is operating properly. The
wires conducting power to the toaster's heating element are insulated from touching the metal
case (and each other) by rubber or plastic.

However, if one of the wires inside the toaster were to accidently come in contact with the metal
case, the case will be made electrically common to the wire, and touching the case will be just as
hazardous as touching the wire bare. Whether or not this presents a shock hazard depends on
which wire accidentally touches:

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If the "hot" wire contacts the case, it places the user of the toaster in danger. On the other hand, if
the neutral wire contacts the case, there is no danger of shock:

To help ensure that the former failure is less likely than the latter, engineers try to design
appliances in such a way as to minimize hot conductor contact with the case. Ideally, of course,
you don't want either wire accidently coming in contact with the conductive case of the
appliance, but there are usually ways to design the layout of the parts to make accidental contact
less likely for one wire than for the other. However, this preventative measure is effective only if
power plug polarity can be guaranteed. If the plug can be reversed, then the conductor more
likely to contact the case might very well be the "hot" one:

Appliances designed this way usually come with "polarized" plugs, one prong of the plug being
slightly narrower than the other. Power receptacles are also designed like this, one slot being
narrower than the other. Consequently, the plug cannot be inserted "backwards," and conductor

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identity inside the appliance can be guaranteed. Remember that this has no effect whatsoever on
the basic function of the appliance: it's strictly for the sake of user safety.
Some engineers address the safety issue simply by making the outside case of the appliance
nonconductive. Such appliances are called double-insulated, since the insulating case serves as a
second layer of insulation above and beyond that of the conductors themselves. If a wire inside
the appliance accidently comes in contact with the case, there is no danger presented to the user
of the appliance.
Other engineers tackle the problem of safety by maintaining a conductive case, but using a third
conductor to firmly connect that case to ground:

The third prong on the power cord provides a direct electrical connection from the appliance case
to earth ground, making the two points electrically common with each other. If they're
electrically common, then there cannot be any voltage dropped between them. At least, that's
how it is supposed to work. If the hot conductor accidently touches the metal appliance case, it
will create a direct short-circuit back to the voltage source through the ground wire, tripping any
overcurrent protection devices. The user of the appliance will remain safe.
This is why it's so important never to cut the third prong off a power plug when trying to fit it
into a two-prong receptacle. If this is done, there will be no grounding of the appliance case to
keep the user(s) safe. The appliance will still function properly, but if there is an internal fault
bringing the hot wire in contact with the case, the results can be deadly. If a two-prong receptacle
must be used, a two- to three-prong receptacle adapter can be installed with a grounding wire
attached to the receptacle's grounded cover screw. This will maintain the safety of the grounded
appliance while plugged in to this type of receptacle.
Electrically safe engineering doesn't necessarily end at the load, however. A final safeguard
against electrical shock can be arranged on the power supply side of the circuit rather than the
appliance itself. This safeguard is called ground-fault detection, and it works like this:

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In a properly functioning appliance (shown above), the current measured through the hot
conductor should be exactly equal to the current through the neutral conductor, because there's
only one path for electrons to flow in the circuit. With no fault inside the appliance, there is no
connection between circuit conductors and the person touching the case, and therefore no shock.
If, however, the hot wire accidently contacts the metal case, there will be current through the
person touching the case. The presence of a shock current will be manifested as a difference of
current between the two power conductors at the receptacle:

This difference in current between the "hot" and "neutral" conductors will only exist if there is
current through the ground connection, meaning that there is a fault in the system. Therefore,
such a current difference can be used as a way to detect a fault condition. If a device is set up to
measure this difference of current between the two power conductors, a detection of current
imbalance can be used to trigger the opening of a disconnect switch, thus cutting power off and
preventing serious shock:

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Such devices are called Ground Fault Current Interruptors, or GFCIs for short, and they are
compact enough to be built into a power receptacle. These receptacles are easily identified by
their distinctive "Test" and "Reset" buttons. The big advantage with using this approach to
ensure safety is that it works regardless of the appliance's design. Of course, using a double-
insulated or grounded appliance in addition to a GFCI receptacle would be better yet, but it's
comforting to know that something can be done to improve safety above and beyond the design
and condition of the appliance.
 REVIEW:
 Power systems often have one side of the voltage supply connected to earth ground to
ensure safety at that point.
 The "grounded" conductor in a power system is called the neutral conductor, while the
ungrounded conductor is called the hot.
 Grounding in power systems exists for the sake of personnel safety, not the operation of
the load(s).
 Electrical safety of an appliance or other load can be improved by good engineering:
polarized plugs, double insulation, and three-prong "grounding" plugs are all ways that
safety can be maximized on the load side.
 Ground Fault Current Interruptors (GFCIs) work by sensing a difference in current
between the two conductors supplying power to the load. There should be no difference
in current at all. Any difference means that current must be entering or exiting the load by
some means other than the two main conductors, which is not good. A significant current
difference will automatically open a disconnecting switch mechanism, cutting power off
completely.

9.7 Safe meter usage

Using an electrical meter safely and efficiently is perhaps the most valuable skill an electronics
technician can master, both for the sake of their own personal safety and for proficiency at their
trade. It can be daunting at first to use a meter, knowing that you are connecting it to live circuits
which may harbor life-threatening levels of voltage and current. This concern is not unfounded,
and it is always best to proceed cautiously when using meters. Carelessness more than any other
factor is what causes experienced technicians to have electrical accidents.
The most common piece of electrical test equipment is a meter called the multimeter.
Multimeters are so named because they have the ability to measure a multiple of variables:

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voltage, current, resistance, and often many others, some of which cannot be explained here due
to their complexity. In the hands of a trained technician, the multimeter is both an efficient work
tool and a safety device. In the hands of someone ignorant and/or careless, however, the
multimeter may become a source of danger when connected to a "live" circuit.
There are many different brands of multimeters, with multiple models made by each
manufacturer sporting different sets of features. The multimeter shown here in the following
illustrations is a "generic" design, not specific to any manufacturer, but general enough to teach
the basic principles of use:

You will notice that the display of this meter is of the "digital" type: showing numerical values
using four digits in a manner similar to a digital clock. The rotary selector switch (now set in the
Off position) has five different measurement positions it can be set in: two "V" settings, two "A"
settings, and one setting in the middle with a funny-looking "horseshoe" symbol on it
representing "resistance." The "horseshoe" symbol is the Greek letter "Omega" (Ω), which is the
common symbol for the electrical unit of ohms.
Of the two "V" settings and two "A" settings, you will notice that each pair is divided into unique
markers with either a pair of horizontal lines (one solid, one dashed), or a dashed line with a
squiggly curve over it. The parallel lines represent "DC" while the squiggly curve represents
"AC." The "V" of course stands for "voltage" while the "A" stands for "amperage" (current). The
meter uses different techniques, internally, to measure DC than it uses to measure AC, and so it
requires the user to select which type of voltage (V) or current (A) is to be measured. Although
we haven't discussed alternating current (AC) in any technical detail, this distinction in meter
settings is an important one to bear in mind.
There are three different sockets on the multimeter face into which we can plug our test leads.
Test leads are nothing more than specially-prepared wires used to connect the meter to the circuit
under test. The wires are coated in a color-coded (either black or red) flexible insulation to
prevent the user's hands from contacting the bare conductors, and the tips of the probes are sharp,
stiff pieces of wire:

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The black test lead always plugs into the black socket on the multimeter: the one marked "COM"
for "common." The red test lead plugs into either the red socket marked for voltage and
resistance, or the red socket marked for current, depending on which quantity you intend to
measure with the multimeter.
To see how this works, let's look at a couple of examples showing the meter in use. First, we'll
set up the meter to measure DC voltage from a battery:

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Note that the two test leads are plugged into the appropriate sockets on the meter for voltage, and
the selector switch has been set for DC "V". Now, we'll take a look at an example of using the
multimeter to measure AC voltage from a household electrical power receptacle (wall socket):

The only difference in the setup of the meter is the placement of the selector switch: it is now
turned to AC "V". Since we're still measuring voltage, the test leads will remain plugged in the
same sockets. In both of these examples, it is imperative that you not let the probe tips come in
contact with one another while they are both in contact with their respective points on the circuit.
If this happens, a short-circuit will be formed, creating a spark and perhaps even a ball of flame
if the voltage source is capable of supplying enough current! The following image illustrates the
potential for hazard:

This is just one of the ways that a meter can become a source of hazard if used improperly.
Voltage measurement is perhaps the most common function a multimeter is used for. It is
certainly the primary measurement taken for safety purposes (part of the lock-out/tag-out
procedure), and it should be well understood by the operator of the meter. Being that voltage is
always relative between two points, the meter must be firmly connected to two points in a circuit
before it will provide a reliable measurement. That usually means both probes must be grasped

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by the user's hands and held against the proper contact points of a voltage source or circuit while
measuring.
Because a hand-to-hand shock current path is the most dangerous, holding the meter probes on
two points in a high-voltage circuit in this manner is always a potential hazard. If the protective
insulation on the probes is worn or cracked, it is possible for the user's fingers to come into
contact with the probe conductors during the time of test, causing a bad shock to occur. If it is
possible to use only one hand to grasp the probes, that is a safer option. Sometimes it is possible
to "latch" one probe tip onto the circuit test point so that it can be let go of and the other probe
set in place, using only one hand. Special probe tip accessories such as spring clips can be
attached to help facilitate this.
Remember that meter test leads are part of the whole equipment package, and that they should be
treated with the same care and respect that the meter itself is. If you need a special accessory for
your test leads, such as a spring clip or other special probe tip, consult the product catalog of the
meter manufacturer or other test equipment manufacturer. Do not try to be creative and make
your own test probes, as you may end up placing yourself in danger the next time you use them
on a live circuit.
Also, it must be remembered that digital multimeters usually do a good job of discriminating
between AC and DC measurements, as they are set for one or the other when checking for
voltage or current. As we have seen earlier, both AC and DC voltages and currents can be
deadly, so when using a multimeter as a safety check device you should always check for the
presence of both AC and DC, even if you're not expecting to find both! Also, when checking for
the presence of hazardous voltage, you should be sure to check all pairs of points in question.
For example, suppose that you opened up an electrical wiring cabinet to find three large
conductors supplying AC power to a load. The circuit breaker feeding these wires (supposedly)
has been shut off, locked, and tagged. You double-checked the absence of power by pressing the
Start button for the load. Nothing happened, so now you move on to the third phase of your
safety check: the meter test for voltage.
First, you check your meter on a known source of voltage to see that it's working properly. Any
nearby power receptacle should provide a convenient source of AC voltage for a test. You do so
and find that the meter indicates as it should. Next, you need to check for voltage among these
three wires in the cabinet. But voltage is measured between two points, so where do you check?

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The answer is to check between all combinations of those three points. As you can see, the points
are labeled "A", "B", and "C" in the illustration, so you would need to take your multimeter (set
in the voltmeter mode) and check between points A & B, B & C, and A & C. If you find voltage
between any of those pairs, the circuit is not in a Zero Energy State. But wait! Remember that a
multimeter will not register DC voltage when it's in the AC voltage mode and visa-versa, so you
need to check those three pairs of points in each mode for a total of six voltage checks in order to
be complete!
However, even with all that checking, we still haven't covered all possibilities yet. Remember
that hazardous voltage can appear between a single wire and ground (in this case, the metal
frame of the cabinet would be a good ground reference point) in a power system. So, to be
perfectly safe, we not only have to check between A & B, B & C, and A & C (in both AC and
DC modes), but we also have to check between A & ground, B & ground, and C & ground (in
both AC and DC modes)! This makes for a grand total of twelve voltage checks for this
seemingly simple scenario of only three wires. Then, of course, after we've completed all these
checks, we need to take our multimeter and re-test it against a known source of voltage such as a
power receptacle to ensure that it's still in good working order.
Using a multimeter to check for resistance is a much simpler task. The test leads will be kept
plugged in the same sockets as for the voltage checks, but the selector switch will need to be
turned until it points to the "horseshoe" resistance symbol. Touching the probes across the device
whose resistance is to be measured, the meter should properly display the resistance in ohms:

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One very important thing to remember about measuring resistance is that it must only be done on
de-energized components! When the meter is in "resistance" mode, it uses a small internal
battery to generate a tiny current through the component to be measured. By sensing how
difficult it is to move this current through the component, the resistance of that component can
be determined and displayed. If there is any additional source of voltage in the meter-lead-
component-lead-meter loop to either aid or oppose the resistance-measuring current produced by
the meter, faulty readings will result. In a worse-case situation, the meter may even be damaged
by the external voltage.
The "resistance" mode of a multimeter is very useful in determining wire continuity as well as
making precise measurements of resistance. When there is a good, solid connection between the
probe tips (simulated by touching them together), the meter shows almost zero Ω. If the test
leads had no resistance in them, it would read exactly zero:

If the leads are not in contact with each other, or touching opposite ends of a broken wire, the
meter will indicate infinite resistance (usually by displaying dashed lines or the abbreviation
"O.L." which stands for "open loop"):

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By far the most hazardous and complex application of the multimeter is in the measurement of
current. The reason for this is quite simple: in order for the meter to measure current, the current
to be measured must be forced to go through the meter. This means that the meter must be made
part of the current path of the circuit rather than just be connected off to the side somewhere as is
the case when measuring voltage. In order to make the meter part of the current path of the
circuit, the original circuit must be "broken" and the meter connected across the two points of the
open break. To set the meter up for this, the selector switch must point to either AC or DC "A"
and the red test lead must be plugged in the red socket marked "A". The following illustration
shows a meter all ready to measure current and a circuit to be tested:

Now, the circuit is broken in preparation for the meter to be connected:

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The next step is to insert the meter in-line with the circuit by connecting the two probe tips to the
broken ends of the circuit, the black probe to the negative (-) terminal of the 9-volt battery and
the red probe to the loose wire end leading to the lamp:

This example shows a very safe circuit to work with. 9 volts hardly constitutes a shock hazard,
and so there is little to fear in breaking this circuit open (bare handed, no less!) and connecting
the meter in-line with the flow of electrons. However, with higher power circuits, this could be a
hazardous endeavor indeed. Even if the circuit voltage was low, the normal current could be high
enough that am injurious spark would result the moment the last meter probe connection was
established.
Another potential hazard of using a multimeter in its current-measuring ("ammeter") mode is
failure to properly put it back into a voltage-measuring configuration before measuring voltage
with it. The reasons for this are specific to ammeter design and operation. When measuring
circuit current by placing the meter directly in the path of current, it is best to have the meter
offer little or no resistance against the flow of electrons. Otherwise, any additional resistance
offered by the meter would impede the electron flow and alter the circuit's operation. Thus, the
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multimeter is designed to have practically zero ohms of resistance between the test probe tips
when the red probe has been plugged into the red "A" (current-measuring) socket. In the voltage-
measuring mode (red lead plugged into the red "V" socket), there are many mega-ohms of
resistance between the test probe tips, because voltmeters are designed to have close to infinite
resistance (so that they don't draw any appreciable current from the circuit under test).
When switching a multimeter from current- to voltage-measuring mode, it's easy to spin the
selector switch from the "A" to the "V" position and forget to correspondingly switch the
position of the red test lead plug from "A" to "V". The result -- if the meter is then connected
across a source of substantial voltage -- will be a short-circuit through the meter!

To help prevent this, most multimeters have a warning feature by which they beep if ever there's
a lead plugged in the "A" socket and the selector switch is set to "V". As convenient as features
like these are, though, they are still no substitute for clear thinking and caution when using a
multimeter.
All good-quality multimeters contain fuses inside that are engineered to "blow" in the even of
excessive current through them, such as in the case illustrated in the last image. Like all
overcurrent protection devices, these fuses are primarily designed to protect the equipment (in
this case, the meter itself) from excessive damage, and only secondarily to protect the user from
harm. A multimeter can be used to check its own current fuse by setting the selector switch to the
resistance position and creating a connection between the two red sockets like this:

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A good fuse will indicate very little resistance while a blown fuse will always show "O.L." (or
whatever indication that model of multimeter uses to indicate no continuity). The actual number
of ohms displayed for a good fuse is of little consequence, so long as it's an arbitrarily low
figure.
So now that we've seen how to use a multimeter to measure voltage, resistance, and current, what
more is there to know? Plenty! The value and capabilities of this versatile test instrument will
become more evident as you gain skill and familiarity using it. There is no substitute for regular
practice with complex instruments such as these, so feel free to experiment on safe, battery-
powered circuits.
 REVIEW:
 A meter capable of checking for voltage, current, and resistance is called a multimeter,
 As voltage is always relative between two points, a voltage-measuring meter
("voltmeter") must be connected to two points in a circuit in order to obtain a good
reading. Be careful not to touch the bare probe tips together while measuring voltage, as
this will create a short-circuit!
 Remember to always check for both AC and DC voltage when using a multimeter to
check for the presence of hazardous voltage on a circuit. Make sure you check for voltage
between all pair-combinations of conductors, including between the individual
conductors and ground!
 When in the voltage-measuring ("voltmeter") mode, multimeters have very high
resistance between their leads.
 Never try to read resistance or continuity with a multimeter on a circuit that is energized.
At best, the resistance readings you obtain from the meter will be inaccurate, and at worst
the meter may be damaged and you may be injured.
 Current measuring meters ("ammeters") are always connected in a circuit so the electrons
have to flow through the meter.
 When in the current-measuring ("ammeter") mode, multimeters have practically no
resistance between their leads. This is intended to allow electrons to flow through the
meter with the least possible difficulty. If this were not the case, the meter would add
extra resistance in the circuit, thereby affecting the current.

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9.8 Electric shock data

The table of electric currents and their various bodily effects was obtained from online (Internet)
sources: the safety page of Massachusetts Institute of Technology (website: [*]), and a safety
handbook published by Cooper Bussmann, Inc (website: [*]). In the Bussmann handbook, the
table is appropriately entitled Deleterious Effects of Electric Shock, and credited to a Mr. Charles
F. Dalziel. Further research revealed Dalziel to be both a scientific pioneer and an authority on
the effects of electricity on the human body.
The table found in the Bussmann handbook differs slightly from the one available from MIT: for
the DC threshold of perception (men), the MIT table gives 5.2 mA while the Bussmann table
gives a slightly greater figure of 6.2 mA. Also, for the "unable to let go" 60 Hz AC threshold
(men), the MIT table gives 20 mA while the Bussmann table gives a lesser figure of 16 mA. As I
have yet to obtain a primary copy of Dalziel's research, the figures cited here are conservative: I
have listed the lowest values in my table where any data sources differ.
These differences, of course, are academic. The point here is that relatively small magnitudes of
electric current through the body can be harmful if not lethal.
Data regarding the electrical resistance of body contact points was taken from a safety page
(document 16.1) from the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (website [*]), citing Ralph
H. Lee as the data source. Lee's work was listed here in a document entitled "Human Electrical
Sheet," composed while he was an IEEE Fellow at E.I. duPont de Nemours & Co., and also in an
article entitled "Electrical Safety in Industrial Plants" found in the June 1971 issue of IEEE
Spectrum magazine.
For the morbidly curious, Charles Dalziel's experimentation conducted at the University of
California (Berkeley) began with a state grant to investigate the bodily effects of sub-lethal
electric current. His testing method was as follows: healthy male and female volunteer subjects
were asked to hold a copper wire in one hand and place their other hand on a round, brass plate.
A voltage was then applied between the wire and the plate, causing electrons to flow through the
subject's arms and chest. The current was stopped, then resumed at a higher level. The goal here
was to see how much current the subject could tolerate and still keep their hand pressed against
the brass plate. When this threshold was reached, laboratory assistants forcefully held the
subject's hand in contact with the plate and the current was again increased. The subject was
asked to release the wire they were holding, to see at what current level involuntary muscle
contraction (tetanus) prevented them from doing so. For each subject the experiment was
conducted using DC and also AC at various frequencies. Over two dozen human volunteers were
tested, and later studies on heart fibrillation were conducted using animal subjects.

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