EARTH

AND
LIFE
SCIENCE
 IGNEOUS ROCKS: HOW ARE THEY FORMED?
What are igneous rocks?
Igneous rocks are one of the three major categories of rocks. The word igneous is
derived from the Latin word for fire, ignis or ignus.
These rocks are commonly found in the surface and beneath the Earth, specifically in
divergent boundaries, convergent boundaries, subduction zones and hotspots. Not all
igneous rocks have the same physical and chemical characteristics. They differ in the
origin, process of formation, color, density, size of grains, crystals and many more.
How are igneous rocks formed?
Igneous rocks are formed through the process of solidification and crystallization of
molten rocks; magma and lava. When hot, molten rocks reach the surface of the earth,
they undergo changes in temperature and pressure causing them to cool, solidify and
crystallize. Moreover, there are also solidification and crystallization magma beneath
the earth.
What are the types of igneous rocks based on their formation?
In terms of formation, igneous rocks can be classified into two: intrusive and
extrusive rocks. Below is the comparison of these two types.

What are the types of igneous rocks based on composition?

Igneous rocks can also be classified according to their composition. They are
composed of SiO2 or silica. Not all igneous rocks have the same silica content. If
there is oversaturation of silica in the magma, its minerals will precipitate. On the
other hand, if there is undersaturation of silica in the magma, its minerals will not
precipitate and will not be present in the igneous rocks. The viscosity of magma is
also affected because of silica content.
There are four classifications of igneous rocks based on silica content: ultramafic, • Their density is very low.
mafic, intermediate and felsic. • They are composed of quartz and alkali feldspar.
1. Ultramafic Igneous Rocks • Examples of these rocks are granite and rhyolite.
• They have a very low silica content; less than 45% of SiO2.
• Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has very low viscosity.
• Its color is ranged too black (peridotite) to olive green (dunite).
• Their density is very high.
• They are rich in pyroxene and olivine minerals.
• Examples of these rocks are peridotite and dunite.

2. Mafic Igneous Rocks • They have a low silica content; 45-52% of SiO2.
• Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has low viscosity; more viscous than
ultramafic magma.
• They have black color.
• Their density is high.
• They are composed of pyroxene, calcium-rich plagioclase feldspar
• Examples of these rocks are gabbro and basalt.

3. Intermediate Igneous Rocks

• They have a high silica content; 53-65% of SiO2.
• Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has intermediate viscosity; more
viscous than the mafic magma.
• Their color is gray.
• Their density is intermediate.
• They are composed of biotite, alkali feldspar and quartz. Based on the illustration, you will notice the differences of these four classifications
• Examples of these rocks are diorite and andesite. of igneous rocks in terms of their color. Ultramafic has the darkest color and felsic
has the lightest color. To sum, the higher the silica content is, the lighter its color
4. Felsic Igneous Rocks while the lower the silica content is, the darker its color. Thus, amount of silica
• They have a very high silica content; more than 65% of SiO2 affects the color of the rocks.
• Before forming into igneous rocks, its magma has high viscosity; more viscous than
the intermediate magma.
• They have light color.
 • Phaneritic texture – Rocks have large minerals (example: granite)
• Aphanitic texture- The mineral grains are too small to see with the unaided eye
(example: basalt)
• Vesicular texture – Rocks have many pits from gas escape (example: basalt)
• Porphyritic texture – Rocks have two (2) distinct grain sizes, large and small
(example: andesite porphyry)
• Glassy texture- Rocks do have obvious minerals (example: obsidian)
MOVEMENT OF PLATES AND FORMATION
OF FOLDS AND FAULTS
TYPE OF PLATE BOUNDARIES
Studying plate boundaries is important because along these boundaries, the
deformation of the lithosphere is happening. Divergent plate movement occurs when
plates pull apart from each other. When two (2) plates diverge, pieces from such
plates sink towards the Earth’s mantle. On the other hand, convergent movement
occurs when plates crush into each other and land crumples, forming trenches and
mountains. Lateral or transform fault movement occurs when plates move alongside
each other in different directions.

This is another illustration showing the differences of ultramafic, mafic, intermediate

and felsic igneous rocks; rock types, kind and percentage of minerals; percentage of
silica content; and ranges of temperature.
Felsic has the highest silica content while ultramafic has the lowest silica content. On
the other hand, felsic is exposed to 700 degree Celsius and ultramafic is exposed to
1200 degree Celsius. It means when igneous rock is exposed to extreme high
temperature, its color is darker, while if it is exposed to lower temperature, its color is
light.
What are the types of igneous rocks based on texture?
Igneous rocks have different textures. Texture of a rock is the size and arrangement of
the minerals it contains.
Plates move relative to each other and to fixed locations in the mantle of the Earth.
The absolute motion of the plates can lead to the formation of strings of volcanoes.
On the other hand, their relative motion can lead to the different types of plate
boundaries. If three plates meet in one place, they form a triple junction (Kasten 2012,
241)
Currently, the size of oceans and shape of continents are changed due to the
movement of plates. Because of the movement of plates in North and South America,
Pacific Ocean is becoming smaller. However, the Atlantic Ocean is becoming larger
as North and South America move away from Europe and Africa. The Himalayas
Mountains are becoming taller. The plate that includes Australia is now beginning to
collide with the plate that includes Southeast Asia. India’s plate is also colliding with
Asia while Australia is moving farther away from Antarctica (Kasten 2012, 241).
 FORMATION OF ROCK LAYERS history was studied using the different records of past events preserved in rocks. The
layers of rocks are like the pages in our history books.
How are rock layers formed?
Stratified rocks, also known as derivatives rock, maybe fragmental or crystalline.
These rocks are products of sedimentary processes. These are made of visible layers
of sediments. The formation on rock layers depend on its stratigraphy and
stratification.

If you will be given a cake for your birthday, how many layers do you wish to have?
How many flavours do you want? What will be the order of flavour in each layer?
If you apply pressure on cakes, it will be deformed, flattened, or twisted. Just like the
layers in the cake, rocks can also form layers due to sediments deposited on rocks or
some forces that act on it which causes its deformation. These are forces that may
bring alteration to rock layers or the change in its formation in the Earth’s surface.
In geologic time, it covers the whole sweep of Earth’s history, from how and when
the earth was first formed, to everything that has happened on, in, and to the entire
planet up to now.
In this module, descriptions, characteristics, and behaviour of rock layers will be As early as the mid 1600’s, Danish scientist Nicholas Steno studied the relative
discussed. Relevant information will be given which serves as a guide as you go position of sedimentary rocks. Sedimentary rocks are formed particle by particle, bed
through with the lesson in the formation of rock layers. by bed, and the layers are piled one on top of the other. These rock layers are also
called strata.
The idea behind the concept that the Earth is billions of years old originated in the
work of James Hutton. Hutton concluded that there are forces that changes the Stratigraphic Laws
landscape of the Earth in the past. This conclusion is based on his observation in the Stratigraphic laws are basic principles that all geologists use in decoding or
geological processes that were taking place in his farm. deciphering the spatial and temporal relationships of rock layers. These includes the
His Principle of Uniformitarianism states that the current geologic processes, such as following: Original Horizontality, Lateral Continuity, Superposition, Cross Cutting,
volcanism, erosion, and weathering are the same processes that were at work in the Law of Inclusions and the Law of Faunal Succession.
past. This idea was refined by other geologists that although the process of the past
and the present are the same, the rates of this process may vary over time. The Earth’s
 CORRELATION OF ROCK LAYERS 2. Index fossil
 also known as guide fossils or indicator fossils, are fossils used to define and
Have you experienced playing or fitting cut out patterns or puzzle?
identify geologic periods (or faunal stages)
One of the evidences used by geologist in tracing the history of the Earth was with the
3. Bed rock
identifications and the correlations of rock layers. Rock layers were subjected to
 a deposit of solid rock that is typically buried beneath soil and other broken or
alteration due to different geologic processes that act or apply on it. Such forces could
unconsolidated material (regolith).
result to tilting, uplifting, compression, and subductions of rock layers. These rock
 made up of igneous, sedimentary, or metamorphic rock, and it often serves as
layers have the tendency to be separated from each other. One way of how these rock
the parent material for regolith and soil.
layers are identified is with the utilization of correlation.
How to match correlated rock layers?
Why do geologists need to correlate rock layers?
Matching of rock layers may be determined by merely looking at its features. Look at
The history of earth is preserved in its rock layers. Unfortunately, no single location
the three columns of rock layers below. Let us determine how they are correlated.
on earth has a continuous set of layers due to erosion or ceased deposition. Instead,
Figure 2. Stratigraphic Column in Different Location
geologists study rock sequences at many different places around the world, measure
the depth of the layers, record what kind of rock is in each layer, and see if there are
any fossils present. Geologists represent the layers of rock by drawing a picture of the
sequence – this is called a stratigraphic column.
Geologists need to correlate rocks from one place to another to get more complete
record of Earth’s history over time. They try to determine the relative age of widely
separated strata or rock layers. They used correlation trying to fit together
sedimentary strata in different places just like a cut out puzzle.

How do geologists correlate rock layers?

The process of showing that rocks or geologic events occurring at different locations
are of the same age is called correlation. Geologists have developed a system for
correlating rocks by looking for similarities in composition and rock layer sequences
at different locations.
The geological technique of correlation provides information that have taken in
Earth’s history at various time that occurred. There are different methods in
correlating rock layers, these includes:
1. Rock types and its characteristics These three columns represent rock layers from three separate locations or outcrops.
 color, texture, hardness, composition or its mineral content Some columns may be missing layers due to erosion. No single column represents a
 the harder and more densely packed the particles are, the older the rock and complete record. Your job is to line them up so a complete record of the region can be
the deeper the layer it came from. seen. Find one or more layers present in all columns that can be matched like a puzzle
After matching correlated rock layers, we can determine the relative age of each layer
according to the law of superposition. Limestone in location A is the oldest and
limestone in location C is the youngest rock layer. While those rock layers having the
same composition, textures, and fossil content were considered as rock layers with the
same age.
In matching up rock layers, superposition and cross-cutting are helpful. When rocks
are touching one another, the lateral continuity rock layers aid to match up with the
layers that are nearby. Geologists then match, or correlate, the different shorter
sequences to create a geological column that spans further back into earth’s past.
Correlations involve matching a particular rock unit in one exposure with its
counterpart at a different locality. By correlating various rock vulnerability separated
by great distances, geologic maps can be constructed and the original geographical
extent of the rocks can be estimated.

Types of Correlation
A) Physical Correlation is accomplished by using number of criteria such as color,
texture, and types of minerals contained within a stratum which make it possible for
geologists to classify a particular stratum specifically.
B) Fossil Correlation is a principle that geologists use to determine the age of rock.
It uses fossil with unique characteristics, such as geologically short lifespan and easily
identifiable features and use this information to estimate the age of a rock layer in
other areas that contain the same type of fossil or group of fossils.
There are fossils which are used to date the layers of rock that they are found in.
Fossils that can be used in this way are called index fossils, and rock layers with the
same index fossils in them can be correlated.
Criteria to be considered in identifying index fossils includes:
1. The fossilized organism must be easily recognizable and it must be easy to identify
because of its uniqueness.
2. Fossils must be geographically widespread, or found over large areas so that it can
be used to match rock layers separated by huge distances.
3. Fossils must have lived for only a short time, so that it appears in only horizontal
layer of sedimentary rocks.
Things to Ponder

 Most sedimentary rocks are laid down in flat, horizontal layers.

 Stratigraphy is the science that deals with characteristics of layered rocks and
how these rocks are used to trace the history of the Earth.
 Stratification is the layering that happens in sedimentary and igneous rocks
which formed at the surface of the Earth that comes from lava flows or other
volcanic activity.
 Rock layers are called strata.
 Law of cross-cutting relationships happens when a fault or dike or magma that
intrudes into the rock, is younger than the rock.
 Law of inclusions is when the rock mass with inclusion is younger.
 Law of original horizontality is a flat rock that maintains its horizontal layer
without being distracted for a long period of time.
We have learned that geologic time is measured in two ways: relative and absolute
 Law of superposition states that older rock layer is found at the bottom while
age. Relative date or age measurement refers only to the order in which events
younger rock layer is found at the top.
occurred. On the other hand, absolute age is age in years. It tells the order in which
 Law of faunal succession states that different rock layers contain particular
events occurred and the exact amount of time that has passed since they occurred.
fossils by which the rocks may be identified and correlated.
 Law of unconformity implies a substantial gap or break in rock layer sequence
due to uplift and erosion.
 Index fossil are fossils used to define and identify geologic periods.

RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING

How old is it? This might be the first question that will enter your mind when you see
an old rock or artifact. Certainly, that is one of the first thing that a geologist wants to
know.
Geologists find ways on how to determine the age and traces of history from the large
number of artifacts and monuments bestowed upon us by older civilization.
There are methods and techniques used by geologists to help them determine the age
of the materials that evolved in the past. In this lesson, the relative and absolute dating
processes will be discussed.
Relative Age
Prior to absolute age measurements, geologists used field observations to determine
The principle of faunal succession states that
the relative ages. They used simple principle in
species succeeded one another through time in a
order to get the relative ages. The following are the
definite and recognizable order and that the relative
principles used by the geologists:
ages of sedimentary rocks can be therefore
recognized from their fossils. The absence or the
presence may be used to give a relative age of the
The principle of original horizontality is based on
sedimentary where they are found.
the observation that sediment usually accumulates
The principle of lateral continuity explained that
in horizontal layers. Tectonic forces tilted or folded
layers of sediment are continuous. Layers with same rocks but separated by a valley
rocks into an angle after it was formed.
or erosion are initially continuous.

Absolute Age
The principle of superposition states that Since change is the only thing that is permanent, the measurement of absolute age or
sedimentary rocks become younger from bottom exact date became a challenging task to the scientists. But they found a natural
to top. This is because younger layers of the process that occurs at constant rate and accumulates its record of the radioactive
sedimentary always accumulates at the top of the decay of elements in rocks.
layers. In figure 4, rocks number 5 are oldest and Radioactive elements decay because they are composed of unstable isotopes that
rocks in 1 are the youngest. decompose spontaneously. Each atom has a certain probability of decaying at any
time. It has half-life or time for it to decompose into half.
Radioactivity is not affected by geologic process and easily measured in the
laboratory. Aside from those, daughter isotopes accumulate in rocks. The longer the
rock exists, the more daughter isotopes accumulate. The process of determining the
The principle of crosscutting relationships is
absolute ages of rocks and minerals by measuring the relative amounts of parent and
based on the fact that rocks must exist before
daughter isotopes is called radioactive dating.
anything else happened like intrusions or dike-
cutting across rocks. In figure 5, the cut rock e.g. a form of uranium changes (decays) to lead
layers are older than the rock that cuts across In the above example, the parent element is uranium (U) and the daughter element is
them. lead (Pb).
Again, the process of radioactive decay can be used for dating rocks because:
Radioactive decay proceeds at a constant, regardless of changes in conditions such
as temperature, pressure, or the chemical environment.
Here are the commonly used radioactive isotopes in radioactive dating.
 weathering debris of rocks (clay and silts) and even all its fossil content and historical
information.
Earth history including its rock strata, the rock study, and discovery, as well as the
fossils, are engraved in one of the most important materials known as geologic record.
The geologic time scale is the “calendar” for events in Earth’s history.
The importance of geologic time scale is, it serves as a standard timeline used to
describe the age of rocks, fossils, and the events that formed them. It is a device
which is of great help to the science of geology and it is owed to the explorations and
studies recorded by geologists.
Knowing about how life began in the past, the events, and principles behind the
Earth’s history enables us to conform with the alterations or consequences that we
might encounter or experience in the near future. As a part of the new generation, we
should be appreciative and accept that all things that are present in our time were the
outcomes of the Earth’s history.

In the previous lessons, you had learned that stratified rocks are products of
sedimentary process which include weathering and erosion of pre-existing rocks.
Half-Life Wherein, these sediments will be transported by the agent of erosion such as water,
It is almost impossible to say when the last of the parent atoms will decay, but the wind, or ice, and deposited in seas and acted upon by the process of compaction and
time taken for half the atoms to decay is comparatively easy to predict. The half-life lithification. As time goes by, these sedimentary rocks will form layers or
of a radioactive decay process is the time taken for half the original parent atoms to stratification representing periods of deposition of sediments. Based on this, there are
decay. several laws that governed stratigraphy as proposed by Nicolas Steno.
The length of half-life is a unique feature of each decay process. The half-life of the Nicolas Steno’s Law of Stratigraphy opens our eyes to the world of rock layers and its
uranium is 713 million years. This means that if an igneous rock contained 1000 formation. It also shows how endogenic and exogenic geological processes cause
atoms of U-235 when it solidified: alteration in rocks that lead to the formation and deformation of rock layers.
After 713 million years, it would contain 500 atoms of U-235 and 500 atoms of the
Since the beginning, geologists have been studying the Earth to unwrap the secrets of
daughter element for the decay process, Pb-207.
the past. They have been analyzing rock samples gathered from different continents in
The proportion of parent atoms/daughter atoms present in an igneous rock gives the
the world including its layers and its correlation with the fossils. This helps in relating
age of the rock — or the number of million years since the rock solidified.
the sequence of events in the Earth’s history which is clearly presented in the
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE: RELATIVE AND ABSOLUTE DATING geologic time scale.
The geologic time scale is divided into a series of time intervals which are equal in
GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
length. These time intervals are different from that of a clock. They are divided
Deposition of sediments contribute to reshaping the surface of the Earth. Deposits are according to the significant events in the history of Earth such as the mass extinction
laid down by different environmental factors such as volcanic eruption, erosion, of a large population of fauna and flora.
DIVISION OF GEOLOGIC TIME SCALE
 DIVISION OF THE CENOZOIC ERA time refers to the numerical ages in millions of years or some other measurement.
These are obtained by radioactive dating methods performed on appropriate rocks.
Relative time can be referred to as the physical aspects found in rocks while the
absolute time refers to the measurements taken upon those to determine the actual
time it expired. The time scale is depicted in its traditional form with the oldest at the
bottom and the youngest at the top.

Things to Ponder
 Geologic time scale is a timeline that illustrates Earth’s past.
 Geologic time scale describes the order of duration of major events on Earth
for the last 4.6 billion years.
 Geologic time scale was developed after the scientist observed changes in the
fossils and rocks going from oldest to youngest sedimentary rocks.
 Geologic time scale was divided into four divisions which include the Eons,
Era, Period, and Epoch.
 Eons is the largest division in the geologic time scale.
 Relative dating or age is the order of the rocks from oldest to youngest.
 Relative dating does not determine the exact age of rock or fossils but does
learn which one is older or younger than the other.
 Relative age of rocks based on the order gives its physical division in the
geologic time scale.
 Absolute dating or age measures the amount of radioactive elements in rocks
to give the ages to each division of time in the geologic time scale.
 Absolute time refers to the numerical ages in millions of years or some other
measurement.
Relative and Absolute Dating
Scientists first developed the geologic time scale by studying rock layers and index
fossils. The information gathered by the scientists placed the Earth rock strata in order
by relative age. Geologic time is often discussed in two forms: relative time and the
absolute time.
Relative time is a subdivision of the Earth’s geology in a specific order based upon
the relative age relationships (commonly, vertical or stratigraphic position). Relative
time can be established usually on the basis of fossils. On the other hand, absolute