Chapter 2: Determinants

2.1.The Determinant of a Matrix

2.2. Evaluation of a Determinant using Elementary Operations
2.3. Properties of Determinants
2.4. Cramer’s Rule
1. The Determinant of a Matrix
 The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix:
 a11 a12 
A= 
a21 a22 

 det( A) = | A | = a11a22 − a21a12

◼ Note:

 a11 a12  a 11 a 12
a  =
 21 a22  a 21 a 22

2-2
 Ex. 1: (The determinant of a matrix of order 2)

2 −3
= 2(2) − 1( −3) = 4 + 3 = 7
1 2

2 1
= 2(2) − 4(1) = 4 − 4 = 0
4 2

0 3
= 0( 4) − 2(3) = 0 − 6 = −6
2 4

◼ Note: The determinant of a matrix can be positive, zero, or negative.

2-3
 a11 a12 a1 j a1n
Minors and a21 a21 a2 j a21n
Cofactors of an | A |=
ai1 ai 2 aij ain
entry in a Matrix
an1 anj ann

a11 a12 a1 j a1n

a21 a21 a2 j a21n

Minor of aij : M ij =
ai1 ai 2 aij ain

an1 anj ann

2-4 Cofactor of aij is Cij = (−1)i + j M ij

 Example 2:
 a11 a12 a13 
A = a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33 
a12 a13 a11 a13
 M 21 = M 22 =
a32 a33 a31 a33

 C21 = ( −1) 2+1 M 21 = − M 21 C22 = ( −1) 2+2 M 22 = M 22

+ − + − + 
− + − + − 
◼ Notes: Sign pattern for cofactors  
+ − + − + 
− + − + − 
 
+ − + − + 
     
2-5  
 Definition: (Expansion by cofactors)  a11 a12 a1 j a1n 
 
 a21 a21 a2 j a21n 
 
Let A be a square matrix of order n. A= 
 ai1 ai 2 aij ain 
 
Then the determinant of A is given by  
 an1 anj ann 

n
(a) det( A) =| A |=  aij Cij = ai1Ci1 + ai 2Ci 2 +  + ain Cin
j =1

(Cofactor expansion along the i-th row, i=1, 2,…, n )

or
n
(b) det( A) =| A |=  aij Cij = a1 j C1 j + a2 j C2 j +  + anj Cnj
i =1

(Cofactor expansion along the j-th column, j=1, 2,…, n )

2-6
 Ex 3: The determinant of a matrix of order 3
 a11 a12 a13 
A = a21 a22 a23 
 
a31 a32 a33 

 det( A) = a11C11 + a12C12 + a13C13

= a21C21 + a22C22 + a23C23
= a31C31 + a32C32 + a33C33
= a11C11 + a21C21 + a31C31
= a12C12 + a22C22 + a32C32
= a13C13 + a23C23 + a33C33

2-7
 Ex 4: (The determinant of a matrix of order 3)
0 2 1 
A =  3 −1 2   det( A) = ?
 4 0 1 
Sol:
−1 2 1+ 2 3 2
1+1
C11 = (−1) = −1 C12 = (−1) = (−1)( −5) = 5
0 1 4 1
1+ 3 3 −1
C13 = (−1) =4
4 0
 det( A) = a11C11 + a12 C12 + a13C13
= (0)(−1) + (2)(5) + (1)(4)
= 14
2-8
 Determinant of a square matrix of order 3

 det( A) =| A |= a11a22 a33 + a12 a23a31 + a13a21a32 − a31a22 a13

− a32 a 23a11 − a33a21a12
2.9
 Ex 5: (The determinant of a matrix of order 4)
 1 −2 3 0
− 1 1 0 2 
A=  det( A) = ?
0 2 0 3
 
3 4 0 − 2

2 - 10
 Sol:
det( A) = (3)(C13 ) + (0)(C23 ) + (0)(C33 ) + (0)(C43 )
= 3C13
−1 1 2
= 3(−1)1+3 0 2 3
3 4 −2
 2 + 2 −1 2 2 + 3 −1 1 
= 3 0 + 2(−1) + 3(−1) 
 3 −2 3 4
= 3 0 + (2)(1)(−4) + (3)(−1)(−7) 
= (3)(13)
= 39
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Exercises
 Evaluate the determinant of the given matrix

 −1 0 2 2 4 3 2 0
   
3 −2 2 4 2 −5
A=  1 4
4 0 B=
3 1 1 4 3 1
   
 −1 2 0 0 6 2 3 0

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Triangular matrix
Upper triangular matrix: A square matrix whose
entries below the diagonal are all zero
Lower triangular matrix : A square matrix whose
entries above the diagonal are all zero
Diagonal matrix: A square matrix which is both upper
and lower triangular

 −2 1 3   3 0 0  −3 0 0 
     
A =  0 3 4 B =  −2 1 0  C =  0 1 0
 0 0 1  5 −2 −1  0 0 2
     
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Determinant of a Triangular Matrix

Theorem 1:
If A is an nxn triangular matrix (upper triangular, lower
triangular, or diagonal), then its determinant is the
product of the entries on the main diagonal. That is

det( A) =| A |= a11a22 ann

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Ex 6
− 1 0 0 0 0
2 0 0 0  0 3 0 0 0
 4 −2 0 0 
(a) A =   (b) B =  0 0 2 0 0
− 5 6 1 0  
1  0 0 0 4 0
 5 3 3  0 0 0 0 − 2
Sol:

(a) |A| = (2)(–2)(1)(3) = –12

(b) |B| = (–1)(3)(2)(4)(–2) = 48

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2. Evaluation of a determinant
using elementary operations
1. Interchange any two rows (or two columns), the
determinant changes sign

B = rij ( A) | B |= − | A |
2. Add up a multiple of a row (column) to another row
(or column), determinant does not change
B = rij( k ) ( A) | B |=| A |

3. Multiply one row (column) with a constant k:

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B = ri ( A)
(k )
| B |= k | A |
 Example
2 −3 10 1 2 −2
I12
det( A) = 1 2 −2 = − 2 −3 10
0 1 −3 0 1 −3
1 2 −2
R 2 − 2 R1 −7 14
= − 0 −7 14 = − (Expand along 1st column)
1 −3
0 1 −3
−1 2 R 2 + R1 −1 2
=-7 = −7 = −7(−1)(−1) = −7
1 −3 0 −1

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 Theorem: (Conditions that yield a zero determinant)
If A is a square matrix and any of the following conditions is true,
then det (A) = 0.

(a) An entire row (or an entire column) consists of zeros.

(b) Two rows (or two columns) are equal.

(c) One row (or column) is a multiple of another row (or column).

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 Example 2: (Evaluating a determinant)
 2 0 1 3 − 2
− 2 1 3 2 − 1
A =  1 0 −1 2 3
 3 −1 2 4 − 3
 1 1 3 2 0

Sol: 2 0 1 3 −2 2 0 1 3 −2
−2 1 3 2 −1 −2 1 3 2 −1
det( A) = 1 0 −1 2 3 =
(1)
1 0 −1 2 3
r24
3 −1 2 4 −3 ( −1)
r25 1 0 5 6 −4
1 1 3 2 0 3 0 0 0 1
2 1 3 −2
2+ 2 1 −1 2 3
= (1)( − 1)
1 5 6 −4
3 0 0 1
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 8 1 3 −2
8 1 3 0 0 5
−8 −1 2
( −3)
C41 3
= = (1)( − 1) 4+ 4 −8 −1 2 =(1) −8 −1 2
13 5 6 −4 r21
13 5 6 13 5 6
0 0 0 1

1+ 3 − 8 −1
= 5( −1)
13 5
= (5)( −27)
= −135

2 - 20
Exercises
 Evaluate the determinants
2 1 3 2 1 −4 1 3
−2 0 −5 5 2 5 1 1
det( A) = , det(B) =
3 3 6 −3 −2 −1 3 0
1 2 3 −2 3 3 1 4

2 - 21
 Quiz
1. Evaluate the 2. Find x such that |A|=0
determinant
3 −2 4 −1 −4 x −4 −2 
−4 3 0 −2 −3
A =  2 2 x + 1 0 
D = −2 5 −3 2 1
 1 −3 4 
−6 −3 2 1 −2
4 −1 0 3 0

2 - 22
 Exercises
 Evaluate the determinants
2 3
1 w w w
1 1 1 2 3
1 x x x
1) |A |= a b c , 2) |B |= 2 3
2 2 2 1 y y y
a b c 2 3
1 z z z

2 - 23
 3. Properties of Determinants
◼ Theorem: (Determinant of a matrix product)

det (AB) = det (A) det (B)

 Notes: det( A + B)  det( A) + det( B)

2 - 24
◼ Ex 1: (The determinant of a matrix product)

1 − 2 2 2 0 1
A = 0 3 2 B = 0 − 1 − 2
1 0 1 3 1 − 2

Find |A|, |B|, and |AB|

Sol:
1 −2 2 2 0 1
| A |= 0 3 2 = −7 | B |= 0 − 1 − 2 = 11
1 0 1 3 1 −2

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 1 − 2 2 2 0 1  8 4 1 
AB = 0 3 2 0 − 1 − 2 = 6 − 1 − 10
1 0 1 3 1 − 2 5 1 − 1 

8 4 1
| AB |= 6 − 1 − 10 = −77
5 1 −1

◼ Check:
|AB| = |A| |B|

2 - 26
 ◼ Theorem: (Determinant of a scalar multiple of a matrix)
If A is an n × n matrix and c is a scalar, then
det (cA) = cn det (A)
 Ex 2:
 10 − 20 40 1 −2 4
A =  30 0 50, 3 0 5 =5
 
− 20 − 30 10  −2 −3 1
Find |A|.
Sol:
 1 − 2 4 1 −2 4
A = 10 3 0 5  A = 103 3 0 5 = (1000)(5) = 5000
 
 − 2 − 3 1 −2 −3 1
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 ◼ Determinant of an invertible matrix
Theorem: A square matrix A is invertible
(nonsingular) if and only if det (A)  0
 Ex 3: (Classifying if matrices as singular (|A|=0)
or nonsingular)
0 2 − 1 0 2 − 1
A = 3 − 2 1  B = 3 − 2 1 
3 2 − 1 3 2 1 
Sol:
A =0  A has no inverse (it is singular).

B = −12  0  B has inverse (it is nonsingular).

2 - 28
 ◼ Theorem: (Determinant of an inverse matrix)
1
If A is invertible, then det(A −1 ) = .
det(A)
◼ Theorem: (Determinant of a transpose)

If A is a square matrix, then det( AT ) = det( A).

 Ex 4: 1 0 3 
(a) A−1 = ? AT = ?
A = 0 − 1 2
(b)

2 1 0
Sol:
1 0 3 1 1
 A−1 = =
 | A |= 0 − 1 2 = 4 A 4
2 1 0 AT = A = 4
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◼ Equivalent conditions for a nonsingular matrix:

If A is an n × n matrix, then the following statements are equivalent.

(1) A is invertible.

(2) Ax = b has a unique solution for every column vector b.

(3) Ax = 0 has only the trivial solution x=0.

(4) A is row-equivalent to In

(5) det (A)  0

2 - 30
 Ex 5: Which of the following system has a unique solution?

(a) 2 x2 − x3 = −1
3 x1 − 2 x2 + x3 = 4
3 x1 + 2 x2 − x3 = −4
(b) 2 x2 − x3 = −1
3 x1 − 2 x2 + x3 = 4
3 x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = −4

2 - 31
 Sol:
(a) Ax = b
 A =0
 This system does not have a unique solution.
(b) Bx = b
 B = −12  0
 This system has a unique solution.

2 - 32
4.Cramer’s Rule

Consider a linear system of n equations in n unknowns:

a11 x1 + a12 x2 + ... + a1n xn = b1
a21 x1 + a22 x2 + ... + a2 n xn = b2 (*)

an1 x1 + an 2 x2 + ... + ann xn = bn

or in matrix notation, Ax = b .

The system (*) is said to be homogeneous if all the bi’s are

zero and nonhomogeneous if at least one of the bi’s is
non-zero.

2 - 33
 Let D = det A and let Dk be the determinant of the matrix
obtained by substituting the k-th column of the matrix A
by the column b = ( b1 b2 bn )
T

For example,
a11 a12 a1n b1 a12 a1n
a21 a22 a2 n b2 a22 a2 n
D=  D1 =

an1 an 2 ann bn an 2 ann

The following result concerning the solution of the

system (*) is known as Cramer’s Rule.

2 - 34
Cramer’s Rule

(i) If D ≠ 0, then the system (*) has precisely one

solution given by
Dk
xk = , k = 1, 2,..., n
D
(ii) If D = 0 and at least one of the Dk’s is non-zero, then
the system (*) has no solution.

Note that if the system is homogeneous, then it admits at

least the solution x1 = x2 = … = xn = 0 (trivial solution). It
has non-trivial solutions if and only if D = 0 in which case
it has infinitely many solutions.

2 - 35
Example
x1 + x2 + x3 = −2
Solve by Cramer’s Rule the system 3 x1 − x2 + 2 x3 = 4
4 x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = −8.

1 1 1 −2 1 1
D = 3 −1 2 = 10 D1 = 4 −1 2 = −10
4 2 1 −8 2 1

1 −2 1 1 1 −2
D2 = 3 4 2 = −30 D3 = 3 −1 4 = 20
4 −8 1 4 2 −8

D1 D D
 x1 = = −1, x2 = 2 = −3, x3 = 3 = 2
D D D

2 - 36
Adjoint Matrix
The adjoint matrix of a square matrix A, denoted by adj(A), is
the transpose matrix of the matrix of cofactors of A:

 a11 a12 a1n   C11 C12 ... C1n 

a C ... C2 n 
a22 a2 n   C22
A =  21 M= 21

   ... ... ... ... 

   
 an1 an 2 ann  Cn1 Cn 2 ... Cnn 

 C11 C21 ... Cn1 

Adjoint matrix of A: C C22 ... Cn 2 
adj ( A) = M T =  12
 ... ... ... ... 
 
C1n C2 n ... Cnn 
2 - 37
Formula for Inverse Matrix

 a11 a12 a1n   C11 C21 ... Cn1 

a a2 n  C
a22 C22 ... Cn 2 
A =  21 adj ( A) =  12
   ... ... ... ... 
   
 an1 an 2 ann  C1n C2 n ... Cnn 

Theorem: If |A| ≠ 0, then

−1 1
A = adj ( A)
det( A)
2 - 38
Exercises
1. Using Cramer’s rule, solve the system
2 x1 + 5 x2 + x3 = −1
4 x1 − 2 x2 + 3 x3 = −3
x1 + 2 x2 − 2 x3 = 2.

2. Find the adjoint matrix and the inverse matrix

of the matrix  −1 2 1 
 
A =  2 4 −3 
 −3 3 2 
 

2 - 39
Quiz
1. Using Cramer’s rule, solve the system
−3 x1 + 2 x2 − 5 x3 = −3
4 x1 − 5 x2 + 3 x3 = −2
3 x1 + 2 x2 − 4 x3 = −2.
2. Find the adjoint matrix of x+2 2 −1 
 
A= x 4 −3 
 −3 3 2 x − 1
 
For which value of x, A is invertible? Find the inverse
matrix of A whenever it exists
2 - 40
 Ex 2
 For which values of x, each of the following
matrices is singular. Find the inverse matrix for
x=-2 (if it exists)

2 x 1  1 0 x 
   
a) A =  0 3 −2  b) B =  2 x 3 −1 
 x −1 2 x + 1  5 1 x − 1
   

2 - 41
Remarks
 In Computational Purposes, the uses of
Cramer’s rule as well as the formula for
inverse matrix are not practical!
 Why? -Cramer’s rule requires the computation
of (n+1) determinants of order n. If n is quite
large, it not so convenient.
 -The same reason for formula for inverse
matrix

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Ex x=A b −1

1. Using Cramer’s rule, solve 3. Find adj(A) and inverse

the system matrix of A. Then, find the
x1 + 2 x2 + x3 = 3 solution of Ax=b, where
−2 x1 − 3x2 + 5 x3 = 2  −1 2 1   3
3x1 − x2 + 4 x3 = 3 A =  2 4 −3  , b =  1 
 −3 3 2   5
   
2. Determine for which
values of x, B is
invertible.
x 2 1 
B =  x 3 −2 
 0 1 2x 
2 - 43
 
Exercises
 Solve the linear system Ax=b, where

 3 1 41
 
 −2 0 3 5
A= , b = (2, −2, 2, −1)T
 4 2 −3 0 
 
 2 3 3 −2 
using
a) Gauss elimination method
b) Cramer’s rule

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Homeworks
 Page 95: 10, 18, 21, 22
 Page 103: 8, 12, 15

 Page 122: 3, 4, 9, 11, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22

 Page 330: 17, 18, 31, 34, 38

 Deadline: 4 weeks

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