Chapter One

INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION SKILLS

Introduction
Communication is a key element in any human activity. Communication is a learned skill. However,
while most people are born with the physical ability to talk, not all can communicate well unless they
make special efforts to develop and refine this communication skill. Very often, we take the ease
with which we communicate with each other for granted, so much so that we sometimes forget how
complex the communication process actually is. Communication takes place when we are supposedly
at the same level of understanding and comprehension as other interlocutors. Common forms of
communication include speaking, writing, gestures, touch, using pictures and broadcasting.
Communication is therefore not what is said whether verbally or non-verbally, but what is
understood.
What is communication?
Communication is a word derived from the Latin word communis or commūnicāre, which means ‘to
make common’ or ‘to share’. Communication is the act of conveying intended meaning to another
person through the use of mutually understood signs and language. Communication is the art of
transmitting information, ideas and attitudes from one person to another.
Communication is the process of meaningful interaction among human beings. The basic steps of
communication are: the forming of communicative intent, message composition, message encoding,
and transmission of signal, reception of signal, message decoding and finally interpretation of the
message by the recipient. Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one
place to another. When you call or talk verbally to your friend, then you are said to be
communicating with your friend. Definition 1: It is the ability to speak, write or to express our
ideas, feelings: clearly and convincingly.
Definition 2: It is the process of sending and receiving symbols for the purpose of understanding,
knowing, informing and in the broadest sense, improving the relation with the world.
Definition 3 (Robert Anderson): Communication is interchange of thoughts, opinions or information
by speech, writing or signs.

Tools of Communication:
There are various tools that helps in the process of communication. These tools have been
developed by human beings from the dawn of civilization or before. They help us in communicating
sometimes universally sometimes within a group. Here are some of the tools discussed in brief.
There can be many more tools that help in the process of communication. This is not the end of the
list.
i) Language: The main function of each and every language is to communicate. Each language has
various forms. It is one of the foremost and important tool of communication. It is the most clear
and comfortable tool to use. Each and every individual uses this tools in the process of
communication. There are different languages in this world. We need to have knowledge of a
particular language in order to communicate in that language. That’s why depending on the use of
various languages in the world there are different linguistic groups.

ii) Script: This is a group of symbols used to express the language in the written format. They are
also highly essential useful tools of communication. One limitation with script is we have make a
conscious effort to acquire knowledge about a particular
script. This consumes a lot of time. This is also regarded as the tool of the educated mass.

iii) Drawing/Painting/Sculpture/Visual art: Many individuals are blessed with creativity. They use
their creativity to communicate in an artistic manner. Their art is well accepted in the society and
gives them high regard. These artistic creations reflect nothing else but communication. They
express themselves with the help of art. These art may be in the form of drawing (child) or painting
(professional), they convey the same meaning. Artistic creations are more stylish in nature in terms
of communication. A small piece of art can convey thousands of sentences by its form, size, colour
combination, shades etc.

iv) Body: Our body is one of the most important tools of communication. Whether we are using
language or not it is always present in the process of communication. Without body cues our
communication may be confusing. Our words must be supported by proper actions reflected by the
body. They may be in the form of gestures, postures, eye contact, spacing etc. Every action or non-
action is part of Body. This type of tool is otherwise known as body language.

v) Silence: In particular situations silence can also act as an important tool for communication.
There are many instances where either we don’t use language/words or we are not in a position to
use those. In such situations silence has the power to convey the message effectively. The silence
inside a temple indicates purity and nearer to godliness. The silence inside an examination hall
suggests discipline and law abiding.

vi) Dress/costume: This is also an important tool for communication. Dress has been an integral part
of every culture, tradition, custom and practice. They give shape to our personality and
individuality. Dress also reflects culture and behavior. An individual’s behavior can always be
guessed by the kind dress one is wearing. It has the potential to convey many things without the
use of words. School uniform, mask, traditional attire etc. can convey the purpose. We can identify
an individual from the dress.
vii) Surrounding/Environment: Many a times just by reflecting to the environment we get a lot of
message. Many things are communicated by the environment itself. We need not engage in words to
understand a particular situation or context. The environment is powerful enough to communicate
the message and convey us convincingly.
Characteristics of Communication
The characteristics of communication include:
 Communication is a process: Communication is a 2 way process which involves; listening to
others (Receiving) message Asserting/Expressing (Sending).
 Communication is a dynamic: it is ever changing depending on the variables at play.
 Communication is a complex a process.
 Communication is a two-way process of reaching mutual understanding, in which participants
not only exchange (encode-decode) information but also create and share meaning.
 Communication involves the sharing of information using a code.
 Communication occurs between people and sometimes animals
 Communication is irreversible: once one has communicated something it cannot be recalled
back.
 Communication is a system
9. Communication must have the elements of communication: Source, receiver, channel, message,
noise, feedback.
10. Communication can be verbal/ non verbal or visual.
11. Communication can be accidental especially in non-verbal

Functions of communication
Human beings communicate for various reasons. Here are some of the reasons why we must
communicate:
1. To change in behavior
2. To influence others
3. To express our thoughts and emotions through words & actions.
4. It is a tool for controlling and motivating people.
5. It is a social and emotional process.
6. Communication for improving self-confidence
7. Entertain
8. Educate
9. Establish relationships
10. Inform
11. Solve problems
12. Make orders
13. Give directions
Forms of Communicating
Verbal Communication
All forms of communication can be categorized as either verbal or nonverbal. Both verbal and
nonverbal communication can be subdivided into either vocal or non-vocal. Verbal communication
involves using speech to exchange information with others. We usually communicate verbally in face-
to-face conversations such as; meetings, interviews, conferences, speeches, phone calls e.t.c. Much
of the communication that takes place between people is both verbal and non-verbal; that is, it is
based on language and gestures.
Verbal communication of the vocal category includes spoken language, while non-vocal verbal
communication involves written communication as well as communicationthat is transmitted through
sign language, finger spelling, Braille, or other similar alternatives to verbal language.
Paraverbal/paralinguistic/ paralanguage features
Paralinguistic or paralanguage features are the aspects of spoken communication that do not involve
words. They add emphasis or shades of meaning to what people say. Paralinguistic features
accompany verbal communication and are the vocal signals beyond the basic verbal message.
Paralinguistic elements in a person's speech, convey meaning beyond the words and grammar used.
Examples of paralinguistic features include pitch, rate, quality of voice and amplitude. Other forms
of paralanguage can also include laughter or imitative speech. Prosody, which is the rhythm, pattern,
stress, rate, volume, inflection and intonation of a person's speech, is also a form of paralanguage.
People express meaning not just in what they say but in the way they say it. The paralinguistic
features employed by a speaker provide hint to the meaning, communicate the speakers’ attitudes
and convey their emotion. Paralinguistic features also alert the listener as to how to interpret the
message. Many of these paralinguistic features are culturally coded and inherent in verbal
communication, often at a subconscious level.
Non-Verbal
Non-verbal communication is a type of communication that employs gestures and body language. The
term "body language" is sometimes used to denote non-verbal communications. "Body Language" is
the communication of personal feelings, emotions, attitudes, and thoughts through body-movements
such as gestures, postures, facial expressions, touch, smell, walking styles and positions among
others. These movements can be done either consciously or involuntarily; more often they ‘happen’
subconsciously, and are accompanied, or not accompanied, by words.
There are basically three elements in any face-to-face communication. These three elements
account differently for the meaning of the message:
 Words account for 7%
 Tone of voice accounts for 38% and
 Body language accounts for 55% of the message.

Our body language and tone of voice should be consistent with the words we use. This is only
possible when we say what we mean to say and say it rightly. Otherwise we can confuse people and
reduce the prospect of getting our message across to be understood. Non-verbal communication can
lead to misunderstandings, communication failure and even conflicts if the interlocutors are
careless.
Non-verbal communication includes:
(P)OSTURES & GESTURES
(E)YE CONTACT
(O)RIENTATION
(P)RESENTATION
(L)OOKS
(E)PRESSIONS OF EMOTION
Body language and kinesics are based on the behavioral patterns of non-verbal communication. Body
language can actually contradict verbal communications and reveal our inner feelings about any
particular person or topic either intentionally or unintentionally. The way in which you fold your
arms, cross your legs, sit, stand, walk, move your head, eyes, lips reveal what you may be thinking or
feeling. For example, you may be sitting and conversing with a person; suddenly, he leans forward
and with both arms clutches the chair. By doing so he non-verbally communicates to you his desire
to end the meeting. Body language has shed new light on the dynamics of relationships.
Hands Gestures
Hands and arms are used by most of us to communicate our thoughts. People rub arms together,
keep their arms closed, and clinch the fists. All these tell what the person has in his mind
involuntary. It is a way that people non-verbally communicate positive expectations. Hands clenched
together seems to be a confident gesture as some people who use it are often smiling and sound
happy. However, if the hands are clenched too tightly, it is indicative of frustration or hostile
attitude.
Eye Gestures/facial expression
Facial expression, offers the most readily observable group of gestures. We focus our eyes on the
face more often than on any other part of the body, and the expressions we see there have widely
accepted meanings.
If a prospect's eyes are downcast and face turned away, you're being shut out, however, if the
mouth move, he is probably considering your presentation. If his eyes engage yours for several
seconds at a time with a slight, one-sided smile extending at least to nose level, he is weighing your
proposal. It is only when you see 'eye to eye' with another person that a real basis for
communication can be established. Other forms of nonverbal communication include: Touch, smell,
distance. The number of people in a communication situation affects the use of non-verbal
communication. The more the persons involved, the more complex the use and understanding of the
non-verbal communication becomes. However, to decipher the non-verbal communication it is
important to see, interpret and understand them holistically and in a context, while identifying the
different types of personalities involved.

CHAPTER 2

MEDIA OF COMMUNICATION

Written Communication

There are two main types of communication: oral and written. Written communication involves any
type of message that makes use of the written word. Written communication is the most important
and the most effective of any mode of business communication.

Examples of written communications generally used with clients or other businesses include:

 Email
 Internet websites
 Letters
 Proposals
 Telegrams,
 Faxes
 Postcards
 Contracts
 Advertisements
 Brochures and
 News releases

Advantages of written communication

1. It is accurate and precise since it is formulated with great care. The writer gives it
a serious thought before putting them down on paper
2. The receiver of a written message can refer to the material over and over again
until he understand it. Besides it there is less danger of loosing it.
3. Written communication becomes a permanent record and can prove very useful for
future reference
4. Written communication is acceptable as a legal document that is why oral messages
must be confirmed in writing.
5. It facilitates assignation of responsibilities incase a mistake occurs it can be traced.

Disadvantages of written communication

1. It is time consuming for example a letter may take three days to reach its destination
.the process of thinking of what to communicate to putting it down on paper is tiresome
and time consuming
2. Writing letters is a costly process because it entails postage charges
 3. In case a receiver of written communication has a certain doubt concerning the
message, he cannot obtain clarification easily

Oral communication

is the process of verbally transmitting information and ideas from one individual or group to
another. Oral communication can be either Formal or Informal. Examples of informal oral
communication include:

 Face-to-face conversations
 Telephone conversations
 Discussions that take place at business meetings
 Interviews

More formal types of oral communication include:

 Presentations at business meetings

 Classroom lectures
 Commencement speech given at a graduation ceremony

With advances in technology, new forms of oral communication continue to develop. Video Phones
and Video Conferences combine audio and video so that workers in distant locations can both see
and speak with each other. Other modern forms of oral communication include Podcasts (audio clips
that you can access on the Internet) and Voiceover Internet Protocol (VoIP), which allows callers to
communicate over the Internet and avoid telephone charges. Skype is an example of VoIP.

Advantages of oral communication

1. In cases where action is needed to be taken immediately it is good to transmit message

orally
2. In most cases an organization will use oral communication when they want to save money
3. Speech is a powerful tool for control and persuation therefore most people opt to use oral
communication
4. Tonal variations can help to convey shades of meaning
5. One can tell whether the message is being received by studying the reactions of the
audience
6. Oral communication is mostly used to build relationships and friendships.

Disadvantages of oral communication

1. Oral communication is not possible when the sender and recipient are far apart
2. Oral messages cannot be retained for a long period of time because human beings are
prone to forgetting a certain percentage as time go by.
3. Oral messages cannot be used as legal documents in court unless they are taped
4. Oral communication can lead to conflicts and confrontations especially when both the
sender and the recipient cannot agree
 5. Responsibility for mistakes cannot be assigned because the origin of mistakes cannot
be traced since there is nothing that can be used as refference

Essentials of effective oral communication

Word Choice

Some people are naturally more eloquent than others and seem to always have the right
words to say in any given situation. If you're not blessed with the ability to speak off the
cuff, you can improve upon this skill with practice. If you need to communicate an important
message verbally, schedule a time to do it, and then practice what you intend to say by
writing it down first. Make sure that you have effectively gotten your message across by
asking the person with whom you're communicating to paraphrase what you've just told him.
You can also greatly improve your word arsenal by becoming an avid reader.

Body Language

Body language is a powerful tool for communicating messages that includes all nonverbal
cues used during communication, such as eye contact, posture, gestures and facial
expressions. Body language can be far more powerful than spoken words. The two research
studies most often cited on the impact of body language over verbal communication, both
published in 1967 and led by Albert Mehrabian, concluded that body language accounts for
55 percent of communication. Ensure your message is communicated properly by making sure
that your body and mouth are on the same page when you speak.

Hone Your Tone

The tone of your voice helps convey your attitude and emotions during communication. Tone
includes vocal inflections and word choice, and when improperly used, can confuse your
audience or end up sending an unintended message. For example, an apology offered with a
snappy "I'm sorry" is very different from one that utilizes a warm, soft voice and conveys
genuine emotion by explaining the reason for the apology.

Clear pronunciation

The message should be pronounced clearly and correctly. He should not limber while talking.
Jaws should move freely while talking. One must avoid using words which sound similar when
spoken .

Brevity

Oral communication suffers from over-communication therefore it is important to keep the

message as brief as possible. However if brevity will destroy clarity and completeness which
are both important in successful communication, then the material must remain the way it is.

Avoid using clichés

 Do not use words like ‘I see’ ‘,do you follow’ e.t.c because they interrupt the flow of the
speech. Words and phrases which do not serve any purpose must not be used because they
destroy both relevance and clarityBe a Good Listener

It may sound contradictory, but an important part of being an effective communicator is

simultaneously being a great listener. Remember, communication is a two-way street that
involves both relaying your own messages and understanding the messages of others.
Become a good listener by focusing intently on the words some is communicating. Make eye
contact and nod to indicate you understand, or ask questions once he is finished if there are
things you are unclear about. Don't interrupt, and don't allow outside distractions to draw
your attention away from your speaker.

AUDIO VISUAL COMMUNICATION

Examples include

 Sound: the most important part of communication is for the listeners at a live event to hear
what is being said, if they can’t hear what the speaker is saying clearly it makes the
communication rather useless.
 Visual Aids: the use of presentations on a screen can aid with communication greatly and
can provide another platform for one to share their thoughts and ideas with an audience. It
is much more interesting for the audience if they can view and comprehend what is being
said through means other than speech. Visual aids, such as graphs, diagrams and
photographs, also help display information concisely and help the audience retain the
information after the event.
 Video Content: videos are a really great way to communicate something to an audience, they
are able to clearly inform the viewer in a concise and fun way, much like visual aids. Being
able to deploy videos of recorded events as well as videos in general definitely helps with
user engagement or distributing content to a much wider viewership in the case of
advertising.
 Recording and Broadcasting: AV systems can usually support the recording and live
broadcasting of events. This can be very useful for engaging with a wider audience by
providing the content to people who are not able to be at an event in person.
 Lighting: through lighting one can make an event much more fit for purpose, whether it be
stage lighting for productions or lighting in a filmed video. Lighting can help the viewers
focus on what you want them to and makes an event much more interesting as opposed to
having no lighting variation.
 Signage: the use of signage around an event can be a great way to communicate to the
attendees, providing the latest updates (through a live Twitter feed for example), photos
and information (such as social media links or the schedule for the day) to them live. From
experience is a really great solution for this.
 And there are many more examples of audio-visual communication, such as posters, video-
conferencing and telecommunication that you can research the benefits of in your own time.

advantages
1. gets the attention of the participants
 2. easy to follow
3. participants feel more engaged
4. easier to explain or put things in perspective 
5. easier to remember
6. helps keep mistakes at a minimum 
 
Disadvantages
1. Its easier to lose focus
2. requires a well designed presentation or material
3. participants might pay more attention to the graphicsthan the audio

Visual communication

The communication which is done through sight is called visual communication. Such as facial
expression, gesture, eye contact, signals, map, chart, poster etc. it also includes graphic design,
illustration and animation, books, print, magazines, screen-based media, interactive web design,
short film, design for advertising, promotion, corporate identity and packaging design etc.

Visual presentation of information and data is having an increasing impact on our practical life. In
spite of having impact on our life, visual communication is not alone sufficient for exchanging
information. For example to indicate ‘danger’ we use red sign, to indicate ‘no smoking’; we use an
image showing a lighted cigarette with across mark on it etc.

So, visual communication is a communication where the ideas and information can be read or viewed
through the means of visual aid.

Advantages of visual communication

Now-a-days, most of the business organizations are using visual techniques to present the
information. It is becoming very popular day by day. Visual presentation is beneficial for many
reasons. Some of them are as follows:

1. Effective for illiterate receiver: If the receivers are illiterate, the visual communication
will be more effective to exchange information. They can easily understand the information
that is presented visually.
2. Helps in oral communication: Visual techniques can be used with oral communication. Oral
communication becomes more meaningful if graphs, pictures and diagrams are used with it.
3. Easy explanation: Everyone can explain the meaning of it very easily. Easy explanation has
made the visual techniques more popular.
4. Simple presentation: Complex information, data and figures can be easily presented very
simply on graphs, pictures and diagrams.
5. Prevents wastage of time: Visual techniques help to prevent the wastage of time. Written
and oral communication takes much time to exchange information. But number of receivers
can be communicated at a time through visual methods.
6. Helps in quick decision: Visual communication helps to take quick decision. So management
prefers visual techniques to communicate with others.
 7. Popular: Visual communication is very much popular because people do not like much speech
and long explanation rather than a chart of a diagram.
8. Others: Artful presentation, Ads impact to the information, quicker understanding.

Disadvantages of visual communication:

There are some limitations of visual communication as follows:

1. Costly: The visual methods of communication are more costly than those of other methods.
To draw maps, charts, diagram is costly. That is why only large company or organization can
use this technique.
2. Complex presentation: Sometimes visual presentation of information becomes complex. The
receivers cannot understand the meaning of the presentation.
3. Incomplete method: This technique is considered as an incomplete method. Visual
presentation is not sufficient to communicate effectively and clearly but also it can be
successfully used with oral communication.
4. Wastage of time: Sometimes visual techniques take much time to communicate. Whereas
oral communication takes no time to exchange information.
5. Difficult to understand: Difficult to understand and requires a lot of repetitions in visual
communication. Since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye contact, touch etc. for
communicating with others which may not be understandable for the simple and foolish
people.
6. Problem for general readers: General people are not prefers to communicate through visual
communication with others. Sometimes it cannot create an impression upon people or
listeners. It is less influential and cannot be used everywhere.

CHAPTER 3

COMMUNICATION BARRIERS

1. Physiological Barriers
Physiological barriers may result from individuals' personal discomfort, caused, for example, by ill
health, poor eye sight, or hearing difficulties. These may also affect one’s personality in many
different and mostly negative ways. This can best be handled by working on developing a positive
perception as certain physiological features contributing to barriers may not be curable.
2. Physical Barriers
Physical barriers include:
 Office doors, barrier screens, separate areas for people of different status

 Large working areas or working in one unit that is physically separate from others.

 Distance
Research shows that one of the most important factors in building cohesive teams is proximity.
Proximity in different cultures is different and therefore needs to be taken in the right context.
It has been observed that people coming from rural backgrounds with more physical space available
may not feel comfortable in closed quarters as they tend to have larger personal spaces as
compared to people living in urban conditions. This aspect alone can become a significant
psychological barrier if they subconsciously feel “threatened” by inadvertent “invasion” of their
personal space in case an urbanite approaches them in close proximity considering it as a normal
personal space.
3. Cultural Barriers
Culture prescribes behavior. Humans can adapt to different culture once we come to accept it and
appreciate that cultures are different so that we can be recognized from others and that no
specific connotations need to be attached to one culture or the other.
4. Language Barriers
Language that describes what we want to say in our terms may present barriers to others who are
not familiar with our expressions, buzz-words, and jargon. When we couch our communication in
such language, it is a way of excluding others. In a global setting the greatest compliment we can
pay another person is to talk in their language.
5. Interpersonal Barriers
Withdrawal is an absence of interpersonal contact. It is both refusals to be in touch with others.
6. Psychological Barriers
There are 3 types of psychological barriers would be discussed as they are the most common ones.
a. Perceptual barriers

b. Emotional Barriers, and

c. Experiential barriers.
Perceptual barriers
The problem with communicating with others is that we all see the world differently. A bad
experience would perceptually block out unpleasant things. This could be in the shape of avoiding it
and if that is not possible by altering the behaviors i.e., response types in different ways. Similarly,
retention filters out things that feel good, and gives the tendency to forget those things that are
painful. It is very interesting to note that how our experiences taint or color our perceptions.
Perceptual barriers can significantly alter our understanding and thus affect our communication.
They are deep rooted and work in conjunction with our experiences.
Emotional barriers
One of the other chief psychological barriers to open and free communication is the emotional
barrier. It is comprised mainly of fear, mistrust, and suspicion. As mentioned earlier the roots of
our emotional mistrust of others lie in our childhood and infancy when we were taught to be careful
what we said to others.
Experiential barriers
Experiential barriers on the other hand become barriers by virtue of not having experienced them
leading to altered interpretation and comprehension. Our experience shapes our view of the world.
For example, when children experience trauma at the hands of trusted adults (especially family
members) their emotional link with the adult world is severed, creating distrust. They are left with
three companions: guilt, fear and feelings of inferiority.
7.Stereotypes
Stereotypes are widely circulated ideas or assumptions about particular groups. Stereotypes are
usually negative attitudes which people use to justify discrimination of conflict against others.
According to Pennington (1986) " there are two characteristics of stereotypes
 1. People are categorized on the basis of very visible characteristics e.g. race,
nationality, sex, dress and bodily appearance;

2. All members of a particular group are assumed to have the same characteristics;
and

The effects of stereotyping are seen as gross over simplified and over generalized descriptions.
They operate to overestimate differences existing between groups and under estimate differences
within groups.
Stereotypes distort reality since the over estimation between groups and under estimation within
groups bear little relation to the truth.
Stereotyping acts as a barrier to communication because people make pre-conceived judgment
about people which are unfounded if their character does not relate to their appearance.
Stereotyping has a halo effect. Halo effect is the use of a single attribute to describe a person or
object fully. For example, if a person is friendly we may use this attribute to assume that they are
punctual and good at their job. Another important aspect of stereotyping is perception.
8. Authority
Barriers to communication for one reason or the other often get neglected. Knowing them is
synonymous to knowing about one’s own barriers sprouting out of one’s personality. Barriers to
communication can lead to misunderstanding and confusion.

Ways of overcoming barriers to effective communcation

1) Understand others see things differently to you. Try to predict the feelings and attitude of
the receiver. What will their expectation be? What about their state of mind when you are
communicating? What prejudices might they have? If you know these things before communicating,
you reduce the risk if misinterpretation.

2) Get feedback from the receiver. Don’t just ask, ‘Do you Understand?’. They will more often
than not say ‘yes’ because they see things in the way they want to understand it. Ask instead what
is their understanding of the message, and how they see it.

3) As often as possible, speak face-to-face. This will allow for questions and, most importantly,
allow you to see the body language, which will convey much more meaning than over the phone or
through email.

4) Use language that fits the audience. Don’t try to impress by using language and words that may
be distorted by the listener(s). It simply makes them confused and inadequate. Plus, they won’t be
listening to you while they try to work out what on earth you are on about.

5) Use the right communication channel. Don’t send an email if it’s quicker to pick up the phone or
go and talk to the person. Use email for its proper purpose. We are rapidly losing the art of
conversation…don’t add to that by using the wrong channel.
6) Have integrity and honesty in your communications. If you are seen as being someone who
lacks integrity, this will immediately be noticed and even more barriers will be built up between you
and the listener.

7) Make it easy for others to listen to you. Make your communication style that one of a
conversationalist, one who is able to make a point quickly, succinctly and with conviction. If your key
message is lost in the morass of a thousand words, people will wonder what you mean and what the
purpose is. Clarity and brevity are the watchwords.

CHAPTER 4

LEVELS OF COMMUNICATION

Levels of communication
1. Intrapersonal (Within a person)

2. Interpersonal (Face to face)

3. Group communication

4. Mass communication

5. Inter country/ Development

Intrapersonal Communication

Intrapersonal communication is also known as self-talk or thinking, and refers to the ways we
communicate with ourselves. We use intrapersonal communication to plan our lives, rehearse
scenarios before we act them out, and tell ourselves what to do or not do. The way we communicate
with ourselves greatly affects our self-esteem. A person who tells himself, "I'm so stupid" when he
fails an exam will likely have poorer self-esteem than someone who thinks, "I did really well on the
previous four exams. I must have just been having an off day, and I'll do better next time."

Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication is the communication we have with other people. This type of
communication varies from highly impersonal to extremely personal. The degree to which we
communicate, or fail to communicate, with others influences how our relationships with them
develop, continue or come to an end.

Public Communication

Public communication refers to public speeches that we deliver in front of audiences. Public
communication serves three main purposes: to entertain, to persuade and/or to inform. It is
different from other forms of interaction in that it requires greater levels of planning and
preparation on the part of the speaker and involves less direct interaction. Audience members still
interact with the speaker via mostly nonverbal symbols, but there is a lesser degree of give and
take than there is in one-on-one conversations.

Mass Communication

Mass communication refers to any type of media that is used to communicate with mass audiences.
Examples of mass media include books, television, radios, films, computer technologies, magazines
and newspapers. Although mass communication does include certain computer technologies, it does
not include technologies like email that are used to communicate one-on-one with someone. Mass
communication is responsible for giving us views of events, issues and people from cultures that
differ from ours. It enables us to learn what is going on in distant places in the world and lets us
learn the viewpoints of people and cultures with whom we do not have direct contact.

How to be a good communicator

To be a good communicator, one needs to:
a) Express own reflections and ideas clearly
b) Develop relationships
c) Provide feedback (answers, reacts)
d) Be open to others’ feedback (accept others answer without prejudice, references etc.
e) Respect attitudes and opinions of others
f) Be tolerant to different customs and cultures
g) Give full attention to people while they are talking to you.
h) Encourage other people to talk, and ask appropriate questions.
i) Present your ideas so that others are receptive to your point of view.
j) Treat people fairly and let others know how you want to be treated.
k) Value teamwork and know how to build cooperation and commitment.
l) Strive to understand other people and to be empathetic.
m) Be able to easily win people’s trust and respect.
n) Check to make sure you have understood what other people are trying to communicate.

o) Follow through on your commitments.

p) Be able to work with people you have difficulties with without becoming negative.
CHAPTER 5
COMMUNICATION CYCLE
There are models which try to explain the communication process. A model is an explanation of the
occurrences in a phenomenon. Elements of communication have been explained in different models
which attempt to explain the communication process. Communication is a two-way process that
results in a shared meaning or common understanding between the sender and the receiver. An
understanding of how communication works can help us to understand and improve our
communication. The elements of communication enable us to understand how communication works.
The basic communication model consists of five elements of communication: the sender, the
receiver, the message, the channel and feedback. These are the elements of communication and are
explained below:
SENDER MESSAGE RECEIVER

Understanding and interpreting Understanding and

interpreting
feedback the message

RECEIVER FEEDBACK SENDER

Note: Noise is ever present though unseen.

Sender
This is the originating point of any communication act. It is the source who gets the urge that
necessitates communication for the purpose of satisfying that urge. The stronger the stimulus or
the urge the greater is the need to communicate. The greater the need to communicate, the more
the need is for effectiveness. The source is also referred to as the sender, or encoder.
Encoding is the process of putting ones thoughts into words.
Encoder is the person who translates his/her thoughts into meaningful words.

the sender must keep the following things in mind to keep the communication audience specific.
i) Always respect the receiver’s point of view.

ii) Sender must know receiver’s interests, tastes, preferences, background, education, culture etc.
in advance.

iii) Never underestimate the receiver. There must be a sense of respect for the receiver (vice-
versa).

iv) Communication should be a collaborative activity between sender and receiver.

v) Effective planning is required. The planning involves 3 things. a) Language skills and intelligence,
b) Knowledge and understanding of the topic/subject and c) relationship/rapport enjoyed by both
the sender and receiver with each other.

Receiver
The receiver means the party to whom the sender transmits the message. A receiver can be one
person or an entire audience of people. A receiver is the eventual recipient of the message. The
receiver is also the decoder of the message. Decoding of a message is as integral to
communication as encoding it. Decoding is the process of giving meaning to the encoded
message. It can also be referred to as extracting the embedded meaning or interpreting what was
encoded by the sender. The ability of the receiver in decoding the message correctly is decisive in
understanding the message in its holistic sense.
Noise/ Barriers Anything that is competing the source’s and the receivers’ attention is called noise.
Barriers to communication are the factors that contribute towards the total or partial loss or
failure of the communication. In simple terms they can be referred to as those features that act as
blocks to the desired outcome of any communication process. They are many and very
multidimensional in nature. Noise can be internal or external.
a) Internal: Noise that is coming from within the interlocutors such as a headache, anger,
stress, e.t.c

b) External noise: Noise from the environment such as; cars passing, children shouting,
siren from an ambulance e.t.c.

Message
The message is the most crucial element of effective communication. A message can come in many
different forms, such as an oral presentation, a written document, an advertisement or just a
comment. The message is not necessarily what the sender intends it to be. Rather, the message is
what the receiver perceives the message to be. As a result, the sender must not only compose the
message carefully, but also evaluate the ways in which the message can be interpreted.
Channel
The message travels from one point to another via a channel of communication. The channel sits
between the sender and receiver. There are many channels, or types, of communication channels for
example, from the spoken word to radio, television, an Internet site or something written, like a
book, letter or magazine.
Every channel of communication has its advantages and disadvantages. For example, one
disadvantage of the written word, on a computer screen or in a book, is that the receiver cannot
evaluate the tone of the message. For this reason, effective communicators word written
communications clearly so they don't rely on a specific tone of voice to convey the message
accurately. The advantages of television as a channel for communication include its expansive reach
to a wide audience and the sender's ability to further manipulate the message using editing and
special effects.
Feedback
The last element of effective communication is feedback. This is the response from the receiver
and later the source. Feedback is the receiver's response or reaction to the sender's message. The
receiver can transmit feedback through asking questions, making comments or just supporting the
message that was delivered. Feedback helps the sender to determine how the receiver interpreted
the message and how it can be improved. Without feedback the communication process breaks
down. The feedback given determines the direction the communication process will take.
A communication process that employs all the elements works as follows:
The source has an urge–a need that requires being satisfied encodes the message in verbal and/or
non-verbal language that is considered to best communicate the message according to the intent..
In order to make that happen, it has to be in a form and format that conveys the intent in the best
possible manner.
This message is encapsulated in the linguistic conventions such as symbols i.e., words besides signs
that can be referred to as non-verbal language. The message will go through a channel, a means of
communication such as e-mail, face to face or phone conversation, letter, presentation etc.
The receiver will then decode the message using conventions, cultural or contextual background, and
language skills. The message that is received or interpreted might or might not be the same as the
sent one and may not necessarily meet the intent of the messenger.
USES OF FEEDBACK The
first step in the process of communication occurs when the sender expresses a message.
Communication always has a purpose, goal, or objective. If you don’t know what that is, you can’t
express the message clearly. Common objectives are:

 To motivate (to work harder or smarter)

 To inform (about the results of a process or facts needs to make a decision)
 To teach
 To persuade (to make a certain decision, to buy a product)
 To entertain
 To inspire

Model of communication process

Effective Communication
Although we can all communicate, not all our communication acts are effective. We must all strive to
be effective communicators.
So, what is effective communication?
This is that communication which produces results. It is communication where the intended message
is delivered clearly, and the desired feedback is achieved. It is communication that does not give
room for misunderstanding. It is the best form of communication.
Communication can be effective or it can be misunderstood leading to ineffectiveness. Meaning
communication must be effective. Ineffective communication is expensive to the participants
because it blocks results. In other words communication is a matter of effectiveness. Effectiveness
is a measure of outcome. Effective communication therefore results in the form of desired
outcome.
Effective Communication is communication that conveys information to another person efficiently
and effectively and so achieves desired outcome.
It is important to note that not all communication are effective. This course aims to help the
learners to become effective communicators both at the university and later in their professional
fields.
Communication is a process that can be marked with error such as with messages muddled (i.e.,
mixed up by the sender, or misinterpreted by the recipient). Miscommunication is avoidable.
However, if this is not detected, it can cause tremendous confusion, waste efforts and miss
opportunities. In fact, communication is successful only when both the sender and the receiver
reach a common understanding regarding the same information as a result of the communication
process.
Effective communication is about receiving information from others with as little distortion as
possible. Communication is a matter of effectiveness, which is dependent on the interlocutors’
(speakers’) communication competency. In other words its effectiveness is dependent on one’s
competency in communication. We can therefore say that communication involves intents and
efforts from both the sender of the message and the receiver.
Effective Communication Skills
Effective Communication skills must include: communicating using
a) Eye contact & visible mouth
b) Body language
c) Silence
d) Checking for understanding
e) Smiling face
f) Summarizing what has been said
g) Encouragement to continue
h) Asking some questions
Principles of communication (The 7 Cs of Communication)
The 7 Cs provide a checklist for making sure that your meetings, emails, conference calls, reports,
and presentations are well constructed and clear so your audience gets your message. According to
the 7Cs, communication needs to be:
1. Clear
2. Concise.
3. Concrete.
4. Correct.
5. Coherent.
6. Complete.
7. Courteous.
1. Clarity
When writing or speaking to someone, be clear about your goal or message. What is your purpose in
communicating with this person? If you’re not sure, then your audience won’t be sure either. To be
clear, try to minimize the number of ideas in each sentence. Make sure that it’s easy for your
reader to understand your meaning. People shouldn’t have to “read between the lines” and make
assumptions on their own to understand what you’re trying to say.
2. Conciseness
When you are concise in your communication, you stick to the point and keep it brief. Your audience
doesn’t want to read six sentences when you could communicate your message in three.
3. Concreteness
When your message is concrete, then your audience has a clear picture of what you’re telling them.
There are details (but not too many!) and vivid facts. Your message is solid.
Look at these two examples:
For Example:
a) The Lunchbox Wizard will save you time every day.

b) How much time do you spend every day packing your kids’ lunches? No more! Just take a complete
Lunchbox Wizard from your refrigerator each day to give your kids a healthy lunch AND have more
time to play or read with them!
4. Correctness
When your communication is correct, it fits your audience. And correct communication is also error
free communication. Correct information helps to build confidence while on the other hand it does
not mislead the audience
5. Coherence
When your communication is coherent, it’s logical. All points are connected and relevant to the main
topic, and the tone and flow of the text is consistent.
6. Completeness
In a complete message, the audience has everything they need to be informed and, if applicable,
take action. Does your message include a “call to action”, so that your audience clearly knows what
you want them to do? Have you included all relevant information – contact names, dates, times,
locations, and so on?
7. Courtesy/consideration
Courteous communication is friendly, open, and honest and does not illicit emotions. There are no
hidden insults or passive aggressive tones. You keep your reader’s viewpoint in mind, and you’re
empathetic to their needs. You must always put yourself in the shoes of the person you are talking
to and ask yourself how you would feel if you were to be addressed the way you are addressing your
receiver.
Consideration in communication creates a healthy work environment
Factors that influence the process of Communication:
There are various factors that influence the process of communication. Without having a proper
understanding of the factors one cannot involve in the process of communication effectively. They
control and regulate the process of communication. The factors are sender & receiver, code,
channel, topic, message, context, feedback, noise, barriers and filters.
Sender & receiver: They are the two participants essential for the process of communication to
take place. The flow of information takes place between these two sides. Sender initiates the
process of communication. Please refer….the process of communication.
Code: It is a system of symbols used for the purpose of communication. Language is the most
prominent code used by human beings. Each language uses various symbols in the form of letters
which are represented by different script in different languages for written communication and
different sounds for oral communication. For the communication to be complete both sender and
receiver must be well versed with code they use. In case of non-20 verbal communication we use
gestures/body language as code. “Code” is also a set of rules which we follow while using a particular
language. Each language has different rules e.g. Grammar, sounds (phonetics) and syntax (sentence
structure).
Channel: It refers to the medium through which the information passes. There are basically two
types of channels. a) Auditory channel: The message in the transmission is converted into sounds
and the sound wave passes through air to reach the receiver. b) Visual channel: In case of written
communication we read symbols with the help of vision. This type of channel is also used while
sending or receiving non-verbal messages. As most of the communication involves a mixture of
verbal and non-verbal messages hence, both the channels are active in any process of
communication.
Topic: The topic is the idea converted into a message. The topic should suit both the sender and
receiver. They must enjoy some rapport with each other to undertake the process of communication
and must have some understanding on the topic to be communicated. The topic can range from an
event, action, object, person, experience, feeling, emotion, subject, theory, analysis, law,
regulations, etc. The topic should be of mutual interest for the communication to be sincere and
continuous. The participants in the process of communication finalize on the degree of involvement
in a particular topic after initial exchange of ideas. There are some topics which are participant
dependent e.g. entertainment, sports, behavior, attitude etc. whereas, some topics are topic
dependent e.g. Science, technology, policies, economic theories, administrative functions etc. Hence,
in topic dependent topics passive form of communication is used.
Message: In verbal communication it is the form in which the information is sent or received by the
participants. It can be words/group of words or sentences/group of sentences. In case of non-
verbal communication it depends on the situation or context. In non-verbal communication the
message becomes signal sent by means of signs, symbols, gestures, postures etc. The message
depends of five factors. They are precision, confusion, exclusion, emotion and style. a) Precision:
The accuracy and strictness of the message need to be maintained in order to send it in proper
content as it was devised in ideation. b) Confusion: It Should be free of mistakes and
misconceptions. Mistakes may lead to misunderstanding of the message as a result the process may
get disturbed or diluted. c) Exclusion: Omission of unnecessary details is highly essential for the
message to be clear and specific. We should also try to segregate the information in such a manner
that no extra information is provided. d) Emotion: The message should reflect proper sentiment and
excitement. But one must keep in mind that it should not be an overflow of emotion which may
distort the process. e) It is individual specific. The encoders understanding, social position,
context, cultural background and knowledge affects the style of a message.
Context: It is the setting in which the communication takes place. The context is dependent on
factors like time of communication, place, sender/receiver, channel, code and topic etc. For
complete communication to take place both the participants should be sensitive towards the
context or else the message may be wrongly comprehended and the result can be disastrous. In
case of written communication the context is less visible.
Feedback: Please refer process of communication.
Noise: Any interference in the message sent and the message received leads to the production of
‘noise’. Noise doesn’t refer to the concept of sound but a break or disturbance in the communication
process. If noise occurs because of technological factors, it is not too much of a problem as it can
be removed or rectified by correcting the fault. But, if it is a result of human error, then both the
participants should take corrective measures. It is an unplanned interference in the communication
setup. This affects the transmission of the message. It can be of two types channel noise and
semantic noise. Channel noise refers to the interference in the mechanics of the medium used, e.g.
faulty connection, technical fault etc... In written communication it refers to illegible handwriting.
Semantic noise is generated internally, resulting from internal problems/errors in the message
itself. Sometimes semantic noise occurs because of misunderstanding of a given
word/sentence/phrase by any of the participants. Grammatical error, faulty pronunciation,
ambiguous sentence structure, misspellings etc. are other examples of semantic noise.
Barriers: Barriers creates obstruction in the process of communication. This controls the progress
or movement of the process. It breaks the rhythm that is expected in a desired outcome. It stops
the process of communication by partially sending the message. There can be different types of
barriers e.g. physical barriers and emotional barriers. Physical barriers include medium, crowd,
physical object, distance, noise etc. Emotional barriers include intra personal behavior, inter
personal behavior, categorical thinking, wrong assumptions etc.
Filters: Filters are like barriers but the only differences is they filter the process of
communication. They channelizes or cleans the process as a result the message is not properly
received by the receiver. It mainly occurs at the psychological level or individual level. E.g. Social
status, skill, orthodox thinking, content, culture, gender etc.
Both barriers and filters distorts the process of communication. The participant has to be
conscious of their presence and act accordingly. If they want the process of communication to be
fruitful they must eliminate as much as possible the barriers and filters from the process.
The above factors are not limiting or end of the list in the process of communication. Some other
factors do creep in as a factor that can influence the process of communication from time to time
e.g. Mother tongue influence, pronunciation, cross-cultural situation etc.

CHAPTER 6
TYPES OF COMMUNICATION

In a business context, all communication can be divided into two categories namely, External
Communication and Internal Communication.

External Communication An organization, when it communicates with Governmental agencies, other

organizations, customers, clients and Public it is called external communication The media employed
may be written media like letters, reports, proposals or visual media like posters, advertisements
video tapes or electronic media like faxes, telegrams, e-mails, telexes. The communication might
also be through teleconferences, face-to-face meetings, panel discussions or presentations,
exhibitions and such events.

Advantages of External CommunicationExternal communication helps an organization to keep its

outsourcing agencies like distributors, wholesalers, retailers and clientele well informed about the
company’s products, services, progress and goals. The information gets continuously updated and
accurate. All organizations have to maintain cordial relationships with government agencies,
licensing authorities, suppliers of raw materials, ancillary industries and financial institutions.
Continual and updated information without any communication gap is essential for business houses.

Internal CommunicationEvery organization has the necessity to maintain appropriate communication

with its branches, staff and employees. This is generally called internal communication. Internal
communication is an essential feature of an organization’s administrative structure. In modern
times, the Human Resource Department plays an important role in maintaining internal
communication.

In the new millennium, particularly in the context of globalization, business has become highly
competitive. Business houses have the need to maintain good channels of internal communication.
The central organization or corporate office should keep its branches well informed of new policies
and policy changes. The growth in business, the future projections for business, increased
specializations make a great demand on the central office to maintain an uninterrupted flow of
internal communication. Employees need to be motivated and exposed to the business objectives and
ethical ideas of a company so that they get an involvement in the work they do. Employees on
production line should be aware of the targets so that they overcome obstacles. Even the shifting
of the canteen and a re-adjustment of the lunch-breaks and tea-breaks have to be informed well in
advance to the employees. In turn, employees should be able to tell people at higher levels their
grievances, expectations and difficulties. Effective internal communication forges a strong bond
between the employees and management, promotes co-operation among different sections in an
establishment. It remove’s misunderstanding and aids the growth of the organization at a desirable
and optimum level. Internal communication in short, ensures involvement of all the people without
alienating any section.

Directions of Communication

In olden days communication was unidirectional. The boss gave the order and the employees
executed it. In fact, uni-directional communication has its origin in the feudal system. The lord
directed the vassal (a slave or bondman) to carry out a job. Business and industry continued the age
old tradition of the feudal system even after the industrial revolution. But soon areas of conflict
got promoted by sectarian interests (of homogenous groups) within an organization. The barrier
between the management and employees became an iron curtain. It has been discovered that a
multidirectional communication system demolishes the barriers and removes friction. Business
depends on such anew communication paradigm (pattern or model) to ensure the success of business
and the realization of even difficult objectives.
Downward CommunicationDownward communication means the flow of communication from the top
echelon (level or rank) of an organisation to the lower levels of employees. Downward communication
not only recognizes and accepts a hierarchical structure but also is based on the assumption that
people at the higher level have the ability and authority to direct the employees on all do’s and
dont’s. Downward communication has its own shortcomings, if it is not complemented by other
directional communications. The shortcomings will be pronounced if an organization adopts only
unidirectional communication namely downward communication. Downward communication, if
practised without complementing it with upward communication, will fail because it accepts the
premise ” The boss is always right”. Moreover, it may get delayed or distorted as it goes down
through the various levels of the hierarchical set up as all decisions are taken without any proper
feedback. But it helps in creating an awareness among employees of the objectives, targets and
goals. It also helps in establishing a certain authority in the organization and discipline. In the
armed forces and police department, mostly, only downward communication exists.

Objectives of downward communication

1. To inform the subordinates: The prime objective of downward communication is to

communicate organizational goals, plans, programmers’, policies and procedures to the
employees. Downward communication also helps the employees to understand their duties
and to relate their duties to those of others in the organization.
2. To give task directives: Another main objective of downward communication is to give
directive to the subordinates. Though downward communication, manager’s issue various
task directives to their subordinates and them well informed of their duties.
3. To explain organization policies and procedures: Subordinates may not always correctly
understand the inner meanings of organizational policies and procedures. In such a situation,
managers provide necessary explanations of organizational polices, and procedures to the
subordinates through downward communication.
4. To provide performance feedback: Downward communication is a means to provide
performance feedback to the employees. Based on such information, employees can take
steps to improve their performance.
5. To delegate authority: Delegating authority is necessary for smooth functioning of the
organization. Downward communication is the vehicle through which superiors delegate
authority to their subordinates.
6. To Motivate and inspire employees: Another objective of downward communication is to
motive and inspire employees. Through downward communication, managers communicate
various motivational programmers’ to the subordinates. Moreover, employees also feel
inspired when superiors talk with them.
7. To establish discipline: In performing organizational activities, proper discipline should be
maintained. Through downward communication, manager’s issue task related rules and
regulations time to time in order to maintain discipline.
8. To explain the changed environment: In order to cope with the environmental changes,
mangers require to change organizational plans, polices, procedures and programmers’. Those
changes are communicated to the subordinates through downward communication.

Disadvantages of downward communication

Though downward communication provides many advantages to the organization, it is not free
limitations. Its main limitations or disadvantages are discussed below:

1. Time consuming: Downward communication is a delayed process. In this communication,

information flows through different levels of hierarchy. As a result, when information
reaches to the lower level workers, it may have lost its significance or utility.
2. Distortion of information: Downward communication also suffers form problem of
distortion of message. People have the tendency to modify or manipulate information.
Therefore, information is passed from one individual to another or form one level to
another, authenticity of information is lost.
 3. Lack of explanation: In most cases, downward communication contains messages without
necessary explanation and clarification. For this reason, subordinates fail to understand the
message accurately.
4. Deterioration of relationship: Heavy reliance on downward communication also deteriorates
labor-management relationship. Because, it does not provide any scope of direct
communication between them.
5. Lack of feedback: Absence of feedback is another major drawback of downward
communication. The top-level executives usually place little or no importance to the
messages received from subordinates. Superiors hardly seek feedback from the
subordinates. Due to negligence of the superiors, subordinates also seldom send feedback.
As a result, communication becomes ineffective.
6. Lack of enthusiasm: Managers send orders instructions and advices to the subordinates
through downward communication. This form of communication energizes and activates the
employees. Therefore, delay in the downward flow of information adversely affects the
enthusiasm of the employees.
7. Creation of frustration: Downward communication is directive in nature. This type of
communication hardly allows the subordinates to discuss any matter with their superiors.
Moreover, the subordinates are compelled to follow the orders and instructions of the
superiors. Such coercion creates frustration in the mind of the employees.

Upward Communication

Communication maintained from lower level of employees to higher-ups is called upward

communication. Upward communication gives scope for the employees to offer their suggestions,
opinions, make complaints and seek redressal of their grievances. Upward communication helps an
organization to receive and reset its objectives at realistic levels. Upward communication may cause
ego problems to persons in higher hierarchial positions. It may also lead to meaningless criticisms of
the policies by disgruntled employees. But on the whole, modern management recognises the need
for healthy upward communication to make the organization responsive to suggestions and ideas.
Some organizations invite the opinions of personnel at the lower level. Jhs personnel department,
the HRD section and the Swedish type of ‘Ombudsman Office’ (Official appointed by a government
to investigate and report on complaints made by citizens on Public authorities) take steps to see
that a healthy and acceptable upward communication system is adopted by organizations.

Objectives of upward communication

1. Development of plan: The information received from subordinate plays important role to
help development of planning of the organization.
2. Providing suggestions and opinions: By upward communication system, subordinate takes
necessary suggestions and opinions from superiors about the work related issues of the
organization.
3. Motivating to employees: Upward communication system allows lower level staff to express
their attitude or opinion to upper level staff. As a result sub-ordinates are influenced to
work more towards fulfillment to target.
4. Providing constructive suggestion: All employees are supplied with constructive and
important messages that can help to implement the goals or objectives.
 5. Good labor-management relationship: Upward communication I participative in nature.
Here, information is invited from lower level executives and employees and on the basis of
this information top executive makes a decision. So, a good relation between subordinates
and bosses should create for the betterment of the organization.
6. Providing feedback: The subordinate’s reaction is returned to the superior in this
communication system. So, top level management can decide what to do and what not do
clearly understand and followed.
7. Creating favorable environment: Upward communication helps to develop a favorable
working situation in an organization by creating a good relation among all employees.
8. Promote harmony: Upward communication creates friendly environment in the organization
which lead to peaceful and harmonious relationship among the subordinates and superiors.
9. Decision making: Top level executives or superiors needed much information before taking a
decision on a particular issue. Subordinates supply this information through the help of
upward communication.
10. Developing creative and innovative ideas: Upward communication facilitates easy excess of
the employees or subordinate to the superiors in providing necessary constructive
suggestions and opinions about the work related issues of the organization.
11. Facilitating collective decision: Since upward communication is participative in nature. It
communication allows the subordinates to convey their feelings, constructive suggestions
and opinions and the work related in the decision making process.

Disadvantages of upward communication

In spite of having many advantages upward communication it is not free from limitations of
disadvantages. The main disadvantages of upward communication are as follows:

1. Changes of information: In upward communication subordinates may change their accurate

information. So, top executive cannot take accurate decision.
2. Unwillingness: Sometimes subordinates don’t send the information to their superior willingly.
So, communication system may be disrupted.
3. Fear of inefficiency: The main problem of the upward communication is fair to superiors.
Generally superiors make a question about the employees work position and efficiency. Many
employees fear to communicate and share their ideas, constructive suggestions and opinions
with the superiors.
4. Indiscipline: Sometimes employees communicate directly to superior by avoiding proper
channel or chain of command. Here disciplines are not properly maintained.
5. Bypassing: In the process of upward communication, sometimes workers directly approach
the top most authority with their suggestions or by passing their immediate boss. This is
harmful to any organization.
6. Flattery: In order to convince the superior bosses, subordinates can take the help of
flattery and for this reason subordinates may conceal the true and provide incomplete
information to top level.
7. Lake of initiative: Generally subordinate is reluctant to take the initiative to upward
communication for different reason.
 8. Risk of distortion of messages: In upward communication, subordinates willingly distort the
message because they fear if they tell the original fact to their bosses, they may face some
problems.
9. Delay: It is an important limitation of upward communication is the long and slow movement
of information to the higher authority.
10. Supervisor’s negligence: Sometimes top level executives discourage the upward flow of
information and neglect the constructive suggestions and opinions about the work related
issues of the organization.

Horizontal / Lateral Communication

The interaction among peer groups is called horizontal communication. Inter departmental
communication is also horizontal communication. Sales department, production department, quality
control department and the stores department have to constantly interact and coordinate among
themselves. Horizontal communication leads to a better understanding among individuals and
departments, cooperation and coordination.

Advantages of horizontal communication

 Informal and sweet relationship: This is same status level’s communication system. They
exchange ideas, knowledge and thoughts. So, an informal and sweet relationship can be
maintained.
 Co-ordination of activities: For the achievements of the expected result of an organization
inter departmental co-ordination system must be developed which is a criteria of horizontal
communication.
 Departmental communication: Horizontal communication is the best system of
communication in departmental communication.
 End of misunderstanding: There is no chance of misunderstanding in horizontal
communication among employees. So, it is helpful to management for enhancing mutual
understanding and good decision making.
 Hindering bureaucracy: No change of a rise bureaucracy in Horizontal communication
running organization which is helpful to make a good relationship among themselves.
 Dynamism at work: If horizontal communication is established in organizational dynamism at
work will increase among workers.
 Group activities: IN this system of communication a department is well known to other
department and can exchange their affection. So, group activities and direction of the
sound work program will be easier.
 Quick communication and solution of problems: Horizontal communication allows quick
transmission of messages and solves complex problems in the organization.
 Linking with different areas of expertise: science same level of employees exchange
information in this communication, they create good link with different areas of expertise.
 Guarding against distortion message: Horizontal communication takes place among the
employees of the same level, information reaches directly from one employee or executive
to another which acts as a guard against distortion messages.
Disadvantages or limitations of Horizontal communication

Horizontal communication has not only some advantages but also some disadvantages which are
followed:

 Overloaded by information: Since information is less filtered in horizontal communication,

one must sort through a greater amount of data which may lead to overload.
 Wastage of time: Such communication involves excessive sorting of data which can kill the
useful and valuable time of superiors.
 Positional problem: For positional problem, horizontal communication must fail to fulfill the
organization’s goal.
 Lack of understanding: For lack of understanding among employees this communication may
not be successful.
 Procedural problem: Sometimes horizontal communication disrupted for procedural problem.
 Damn-care: It takes place between equal ranking staffs. So damn-care spirit is likely to be
encouraged because of unclear channels and rules of interaction.
 Over specialization: Specialization is a problem that often happens when organizations do
not have uniformity within departments, causing communication difficulties. Specialization
can occur with procedures or vocabulary used by different departments. When this occurs
organizations have trouble functioning properly and do not run smoothly.
 Lack of motivation: Horizontal communication often fails simply because organization
members are unwilling to expend the additional effort that it requires. It may require
contact with people in units and the channels and rules of interaction may be unclear.
Sometimes we do not really know these people. The need to communicate with them makes
us uneasy or takes too much time.
 Rivalry: Rivalry within organizations occurs for example when the different levels of an
organization fail to cooperate with one another.
 Ignoring vertical communication: In horizontal communication same level of organizational
members are contacted or exchange information with each other. Most of the cases they do
not inform managers of the hierarchy which break down or ignore the vertical
communication.
 Low productivity: Horizontal communication often fails simply because of organizational
members are unwilling to expend the additional effort that it requires and its wastage
useful and valuable time of superiors which lead to low productivity.

Diagonal or multi-directional Communication

Diagonal communication means the use of upward, downward and horizontal communication. It is a
healthy practice not to depend on any one mode. Diagonal communication leads to better feedback
at all levels. It promotes understanding, motivates employees and gives a sense of belonging and
involvement to all people at all levels. But such communication should not be allowed to degenerate
to a meaningless criss-cross communication which will lead to chaos and confusion. All modes have to
be maintained at the appropriate and optimum level.
Formal and Informal Channels of Communication

Every business organization adopts some formal channels of communication which may be upward,
downward, or horizontal or all the three. They are usually in the form of notices, announcements,
reports, official or demi-official letters, advertisements, etc. Formal channels are officially
recognized and organized. They make the working of the organization transparent. They motivate
the employees. They provide the necessary feedback. But formal channels operate with some
limitations. A continuous maintenance of a formal channel is time and resource consuming. At
ordinary times, they exist for their own sake without any objective, as a formality and routine.
Sometimes, free flow of information gets affected by personal factors.

Grapevine

Large organizations, where there are a large number of people working closely, generate certain
informal or unofficial channels of communication. These channels exist with or without official
patronage. Even if they are officially and secretly patronised, they are not authentic. This type of
communication is generally called “Grapevine” communication. Grapevine communication is an
informal, unofficial, horizontal channel of communication because generally peer groups participate
in it.

Types of Grapevine Communication

Grapevine communication is of four different types. It can seep from individual to individual in a
strictly linear fashion. Information takes time to spread in this fashion. It is called Single Strand
Chain.

In some situations, an individual goes around communicating the message / information he thinks he
has obtained. This is called Gossip Chain. The listeners are a chosen few only. In some other
situation, an individual passes an information without any restriction to all those with whom he
comes into contact. This is called Probability Chain and the information / message passed on may be
interesting but not important.

In yet another situation, one person communicates to a few chosen associates who in turn
communicate the same to yet another group. This is called Cluster Chain

Advantages of Grapevine Communication

 1. Interpret: The information is given by the top level management under the formal system.
It is easy for the employees to take the explanation by informal system. So this system
plays a vital role to complete the work properly.
2. Present grievance: Under the informal system the employees disclose their needs,
sentiment and their emotions to others authority without feeling any hesitation.
3. Alternate system: The management sometimes does not able to reach all information by
formal system. Informal system covers the gap or familiarity of formal system.
4. Improved relationship: Any problem between the workers and the management can be
solved by informal system. So it makes good relationships among the employees and the
management.
5. Increase efficiency: Under the informal system, the employees discuss their problem
openly and they can solve it. For this, the work is done properly and it develops the
efficiency of the employee.
6. Providing recommendation: In this system the employees inform their superior about their
demands, problem and the way to develop the implementation system of the work. As a
result it creates an opportunity to send the recommendation to their management.
7. Flexibility: Informal communication is more flexible than formal communication because it is
free from all type of formalities.
8. Rapid communication: Informal communication transmits very fast. Especially miss-
information or rumor spread rapidly to others in the organization.
9. Improve interpersonal relationship: Cooperation and coordination in informal communication
leads to improve interpersonal relationship which is very much essential to carry out the
business activity smoothly.
10. Others: Improve labor management relationship. Free flow of information. Remove mental
distance. Evaluation of employees. Obtain immediate feedback. Reliving frustration.
Increasing efficiency. Solution of problems and helping decision-making. Enhance mutual
trust etc.

Disadvantages of grapevine or informal communication

1. Distort meaning: Something the meaning and the subject matter of the information is
distorted in this system.
2. Spread rumor: In this system, the miss-information or rumor spread rapidly. The original
information may be transformed to wrong information.
3. Misunderstanding: Under this system, generally, the employees do not obey the formal
authorization system. So it creates the opportunity to develop misunderstanding.
4. Maintaining secrecy is impossible: In informal communication system maximum
communication is made by open discussion. So it is impossible to maintain the secrecy of the
information.
5. Difficulty in controlling: Under informal communication system no established rules or
policy is obeyed. So it is very much difficult to control the information.
6. Non-cooperation: Informal communication system sometimes develops the adversary
culture among the employees. So they are not to be cooperative with each other and their
efficiency may be reduced.
7. Others: Providing partial information. Not reliable. No documentary evidence. Damaging
discipline. Contradicting to formal information etc.
 Chapter 7
Listening Skills.
We were given two ears but only one mouth, because listening is twice as hard as talking."
Listeners must first hear what is said. Listening skills involve identifying and selecting relevant
points recognized as having meaning; that are understood and held in short-term memory. These can
be related to what has gone before and to what comes after. Any information considered important
is selected and stored for future reference in the long term memory. Decoding (understanding) a
message is generally easier for the listener if a person is speaking rather than reading something
out loud. In addition the speaker's facial expressions, and the stress placed on words help the
listener to understand the message.
Developing effective listening skills involves two specific steps . These are:
1. To develop the ability to recognize and deal with barriers that prevents you listening with full
attention.
2. To develop and use behaviors which help you to listen. Such behaviors can also serve to let the
other person know that you are giving them your full attention.
Listening is the absorption of the meanings of words and sentences by the brain. Listening leads to
the understanding of facts and ideas. To listen is to pay attention, or sticking to the task at hand in
spite of distractions. It requires concentration, which is the focusing of your thoughts upon one
particular problem.
A person who incorporates listening with concentration is actively listening. Active listening is a
method of responding to another that encourages communication.
Active listening is composed of six distinct components
 Hearing: The physiological process of receiving sound and/or other stimuli.
 Attending: The conscious and unconscious process of focusing attention on external
stimuli.
 Interpreting: The process of decoding the symbols or behavior attended to.
 Evaluating: The process of deciding the value of the information to the receiver.
 Remembering: The process of placing the appropriate information into short-term or long-
term storage.
 Responding: The process of giving feedback to the source and/or other receivers.
Barriers to Listening
The following list identifies just some possible barriers to effective listening;
1. sources of noise

2. Forming a judgment or evaluation before we understand what is being said, or ‘jumping to

conclusions’.

3. Hearing what we want to hear.

4. Tuning out a point of view that differs from our own.

5. Formulating and rehearsing our response.

6. Being inattentive - thinking about something else entirely.

7. Having a closed mind- you do not want to hear what the person has to say.

8. Feeling anxious or self-conscious.

9. Judging the person, either positively or negatively.

10. Subjective biases based on ignorance or prejudice.

11. Cultural issues, e.g. listening to the differences in pronunciation of different accent, rather than
the content of the message.

12. Excessive and incessant talking or interrupting.

It is important that such barriers to listening are recognized and dealt with. With developing
awareness, we can have more control over those barriers that are internal to ourselves, and can
adopt and use more helpful listening behaviors.
Effective listening tips
Listening effectively is hearing and understanding what a speaker is saying and how it applies to you,
and then remembering it for future use and evaluation. There are ways to improve your listening
skills for lectures. The following is a list of some basic techniques:
1. Recognize how ideas are organized. Lectures usually begin with some type of introduction,
followed by a thesis statement which is supported by additional information. Most professors bring
closure to their lecture by summarizing what they have covered. Learn to identify the lecture style
that is used by your professor.
2. Become involved in what is being said. Be an avid listener. Constantly analyze what is being said.
3. Cut through (or screen out) distractions.
• Background noise

• Unusual accents, dialects, and language mistakes

• Speaker’s disorganization, emotion, or habits

• Unrelated material

• Your own inner voice

4. Organize statements into main points and supporting reasons. Using an outline form may be
helpful.
5. Discriminate between relevancies and irrelevancies. Remember that not all information is
important.
6. Maintain an active body state. Keeping alert and having eye-contact with the speaker will help
you listen more effectively.
In order to improve your listening skills, you will need to practice using the suggested techniques
until they become automatic

Chapter 8
Reading Skills
What is READING
Reading means to CONSTRUCT MEANING FROM TEXT. READING IS A PROCESS THAT
MUST INCLUDE THINKING BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER READING. We read in order to
MEANING and UNDERSTANDING. The correct READING SPEED is the one that gets you that
meaning and understanding.
Reading is an art form and good readers do certain things that get them the meaning that the
process is designed to extract.
How to improve your comprehension during reading:
1. Begin from what you already know (activating prior knowledge).
2. Always try to make sense of what you are reading (context).
3. Ask yourself questions; before, during and after reading.
4. Predict and think about what will happen next in the text, or how your questions will be answered.
5. Read with a purpose. Know why you are reading and what you are reading to find Chapter Three
Reading Skills
What is READING?
Reading means to CONSTRUCT MEANING FROM TEXT. READING IS A PROCESS THAT
MUST INCLUDE THINKING BEFORE, DURING, AND AFTER READING. We read in order to
MEANING and UNDERSTANDING. The correct READING SPEED is the one that gets you that
meaning and understanding.
Reading is an art form and good readers do certain things that get them the meaning that the
process is designed to extract.
How to improve your comprehension during reading:
1. Begin from what you already know (activating prior knowledge).
2. Always try to make sense of what you are reading (context).
3. Ask yourself questions; before, during and after reading.
4. Predict and think about what will happen next in the text, or how your questions will be answered.
5. Read with a purpose. Know why you are reading and what you are reading to find out. 6. Know that
as a good reader you often REREAD parts of, or even, the whole text two or more times in order to
make sense of what you are reading.
The SQ4R Method of reading effectively
SQ4R is a flexible reading strategy because it engages the reader during each phase of the reading
process. Readers preview/SURVEY (S) the text material to develop predictions and set the purpose
for the reading by generating QUESTIONS (Q) about the topic. They READ (1R) actively,
searching for answers to those questions. They monitor their comprehension as they summarize
WRITE (2R) & RECITE (3R). They evaluate their comprehension through REVIEW (4R) activities.
Two general learning components must be addressed as you begin the reading process and the
SQ4R method will activate them:
First, place the reading in CONTEXT. What is the reading about and do you have any prior
knowledge about this subject to help you extract the meaning that you are looking for? The
SURVEY and SYSTEMATIC reading puts this process into motion. You get an overview that will "jog
your memory" as you search for prior knowledge on the subject. Ask questions about what you don't
know. Make the questions simple and general if you don't have much prior knowledge and more
specific if this is an area of study that is familiar to you. Using these questions will GUIDE YOUR
SPEED AND COMPREHENSION as you attempt to answer them.
REMEMBER, THE STUDENT THAT IS ENGAGED IN READING IS MOTIVATED, STRATEGIC,
KNOWLEDGEABLE, AND SOCIALLY INTERACTIVE
How to Use SQ4R
1.Survey what you are about toread
• Systematic Reading

• Think about the title: What do you know about this subject?
• What do I want to know?

• Glance over headings and/skim the first sentences of paragraphs.

• Look at illustrations and graphic aids.

• Read the first paragraph.

• Read the last paragraph or summary.

2.Question
Turn the title and sub-titles into wh-element question. This becomes the major purpose for your
reading.
• Write down any questions that come to mind during the survey.

• Turn headings into questions.

• Turn subheadings, illustrations, and graphic aids into questions.

• Write down unfamiliar vocabulary and determine the meaning.

3.Read Actively
• Read to search for answers to the questions set.

• Respond to objectives and use context clues for unfamiliar words.

• React to unclear passages, confusing terms, and questionable statements by generating additional
questions. 4. Recite
• Look away from the answers and the book to recall what was read.

• Recite answers to the questions aloud or in writing.

• Reread text for unanswered questions.

5. wRite
• Make "maps" for yourself.

• Reduce the information

• Reread or skim to locate and prove your points.

• Write down the key terms and ideas in outline form.

• Always read/question/recite before marking or taking down notes.

• Check yourself against the text. Correct and add to your answer.

6. Review
• Answer the major purpose questions.
• Look over answers and all parts of the chapter to organize the information.

• Summarize the information learned by creating a graphic organizer (concept map) that depicts the
main ideas, by drawing a flow chart, by writing a summary,

• You can also summarize by participating in a group discussion, or by writing an explanation of how
this material has changed your perceptions or applies to your life.

Chapter 9
Study Skills
To succeed in your studies at the university you must study. Studying is revising the notes you took
during lectures, and reading text books with the aim of understanding better what you are reading.
For better understanding, it is important that you as a student come up with a study plan that
works best for you. We are going to discuss some of the study plans and study tips that will help
you to study better and gain good grades at the end of your undergraduate studies.
Study tips
Prepare a study timetable
1. Draw up a study timetable (see samples below) and block in all activities, work, lectures, and any
household or other responsibilities you may have. Include meal times and travel time. Be realistic.
This should be an actual timetable, which is possible, not some ideal that can never be achieved.
Make enough copies to cover all the weeks leading up to exams or assessment.
2. Work out your most effective study times. When do you study best? Morning, afternoon or
evening?
3. Consider: Which subjects need the most study and revision? Estimate how many hours you think
you need for each subject and try to match this with the hours available in your weekly planner.
4. Block in some study times, preferably 2-4 hours at a time, with 5-10 minutes’ break every
40-50 minutes.
5. Start at exam periods or due dates for assignments and work backwards, blocking in more
study time in the relevant subject closer to the exam/due date. Make sure that you prepare for
each exam over several days and don’t fill up the last few days too heavily. Also put in any events
which may affect your study times, such as birthdays, social events and work functions.
6. You may want to plan in detail for each study session. Write down which lecture/topic/text
you will be researching/ reviewing. This way, you can ensure that you will cover all the required
information in the times you have allocated. Consider: What do I want to achieve in this session?
(eg: summary/ notes / list of definitions/ language exercise/ essay plan/ list of resources/
timeline). Where will I need to study? Do I need access to a computer/ the internet/ the library?
7. If you have some smaller amounts of time available for study, consider how theycould be
used: skim reading an article, proofing a draft, sorting a bibliography, organising reference cards,
etc. Travel time on public transport can also be used for reading.
Start using your study timetable.
See how well it works. What did you leave out? It can be changed as you go, but do this consciously:
look at what is not working, which areas you need more time in and change the timetable. This is
much better than just throwing the timetable away. Then you can be sure that you will still cover all
the material you need to.
Establish your prime study time
Your prime study time (PST) is that time when your concentration is at its highest. Everyone has a
PST and they all know it. That is why some people wake up early in the morning to study (Such
people their PST is early morning) while some stay up late to study.
Study the subject you are having trouble with during your PST.
 Find a suitable room with comfortable furniture and good lighting
 Set a regular time to study
 Remove distractions
 Avoid clutter

Clutter is anything that will distract you from reading what you had scheduled to read. Clutter
includes books from other subjects, e.g. if you are studying Literature, then mathematics, Biology
and other subject books are clutter because they can distract you from reading. Newspapers and
story books are also clutter.
 Record assignments in an assignment book or on a calendar
 Take notes in class and review them regularly
 Make ONE minute act as TWO minutes

Anytime you have to wait for something read your short notes. You will be able to kill two birds with
one stone. You will be able to do two things at the same time: wait as you read for example,
When in the bus going to school, read your short notes. When you are in the restaurant waiting to
be served, read your short notes.
Study for tests

TYPES OF STUDY PLANS

It is important to note that there are other study plans that a student can use, but we are choosing
to focus on these because we feel that they are the most applicable to our students. They can all
be used simultaneously by one student.
1. Preview
Preview is reading about the topic you are going to be lectured on before the lecture. You are often
given a course outline beforehand so that it can help you in previewing. Preview gives you an upper
hand because you will be able to follow and understand what the lecturer is talking about. It
enhances your chances of retaining what is taught. Remember knowledge starts from known to
unknown.
You can also preview notes from the previous lecture so that you can understand the link between
the previous lecture and the current lecture.
2. Studying with Breaks
Studying with Breaks also called spaced study is a very good technique for studying. It involves
studying for a period then taking a short break followed by another study session. For example, you
can study for 2 hours then take a 0minute break followed by another 1 hour of study.
Spaced study is good because if used well the student will be able to lock what they are studying in
their long term memory (LTM) during the breaks. The breaks act as a reward. Humans thrive when
they are rewarded. Your mind will also appreciate the reward.
During the breaks reflect on what you have studied. Do not use the breaks negatively.
3. Group Study
 Studying with a group of your friends can be both a fun and rewarding study method. For
effective studying, it is important that you choose your group members wisely and follow a
few rules.
groups should:
 Not be the sole method of study and they are not for everyone

 Be a form of ‘active learning’ – the strongest kind of learning

 Not let one member of the group dominate

 Meet no more than 2-3 times a week

 Establish responsibilities for each group member

 Design rules dealing with respect for each member

 Provide contact information for group members

Importance of study groups

 Help you and your group members:
 See the material from a different perspective

 Stay motivated and commit more time to study

 Share/compare notes and study tips

 Engage in discussions and debates on selected topics

 Pick up new tips and material from your peers

 Quiz each other on factual material

Chapter 10
PRESENTATION SKILLS
A presentation is a means of communication that can be adapted to various speaking situations, such
as talking to a group, addressing a meeting or briefing a team. A presentation can also be used as a
broad term that encompasses other ‘speaking engagements’ such as making a speech at a wedding,
or getting a point across in a video conference. A presentation requires you to get a message across
to the listeners and will often contain a 'persuasive' element. It may, for example, be a talk about
the positive work of your organisation, what you could offer an employer, or why you should receive
additional funding for a project.
(Objective is a short statement which tells what you plan to achieve. For example, you may plan
that)
Try to complete the following sentence:
‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will be able to…..
i) Explain the methods of preventing HIV/AIDS.’

ii) See their role in interdisciplinary learning more clearly,

b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g;-

-to inform, persuade, motivate or change things.

-What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?
c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and who they
are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be realistic about this. Find
out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will have about your topic, so that you
know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to have any preconceptions or misconceptions
about the subject that you need to address and put right? How might your audience use what you
have to say?

d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be available.
Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you decide on type of
seating arrangements), and other facilities.
e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.
f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my message
across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How much time will I need?
g)Structure your talk.
Presentation skills are the skills you need in delivering effective and engaging presentations to a
variety of audiences. These skills cover a variety of areas such as the structure of your
presentation, the design of your slides, the tone of your voice and the body language you convey. To
be an effective presenter, step-by-step preparation and the method and means of presenting the
information should be carefully considered.
Planning your Presentation
It can be helpful to plan your presentation in terms of key steps, as follows:
a) Set your objective. A simple sentence can be a good means of defining your purpose in giving
the presentation, and will begin to determine the content.

b) Objective is a short statement which tells what you plan to achieve. For example, you may
plan that)
Try to complete the following sentence:
‘As a result of my presentation, my audience will be able to…..
i) Explain the methods of preventing HIV/AIDS.’

ii) See their role in interdisciplinary learning more clearly,

b) Decide what the main purpose of your talk is e.g;-

-to inform, persuade, motivate or change things.

-What do you want your audience to do as a result of your talk?
c) Understand your audience: Try and have a basic idea of the size of the audience and who they
are. Think about what they will be expecting from the presentation, but be realistic about this. Find
out what level of knowledge and experience those attending will have about your topic, so that you
know where to aim the material. Is the audience likely to have any preconceptions or misconceptions
about the subject that you need to address and put right? How might your audience use what you
have to say?
d) Know your setting: Find out about the equipment –audiovisual aids etc. that will be available.
Check out the location of the presentation; the size of the room (to help you decide on type of
seating arrangements), and other facilities.
e) Write down the ‘central theme’ of the talk.
f) Write your outline: Ask yourself: What are the main points I need to make to get my message
across? What supporting information will I need? Where will I get this? How much time will I need?
g)Structure your talk.

Structuring Your Presentation

This is one of the most important aspects of the presentation. The structure should be clear to
both you and your audience. Develop your visual aids: For example, will you use a flipchart,
whiteboard power point, overhead projector or data projector etc. to clarify important points and
aid understanding?
NB: Do not use too many slides/points.
Prepare your delivery notes, according to the structured outline.
Different authors advocate different formats for structuring a presentation, each of which has
their merits (Hartley and Bruckman, 2002; Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
The structure of a presentation should have an introduction, body and conclusion.
i) Introduction:

Through the introduction you should grab your audience’s attention and set the scene.
Ways of getting your audience’s attention include;
• asking a rhetorical or intriguing question,

• providing a relevant and interesting fact,

• giving an anecdote,

• outlining the valuable information you hope the audience will gain from the presentation,

• telling them why they need to know the information,

• giving a quote or making a dramatic prediction.

Your theme should be made clear from the start. Start the audience thinking about the subject
matter of your presentation by, for example, a statement of your main objective. It can also be
helpful to present the structure to your talk, by explaining briefly how you plan to proceed with it.
ii)The Main Body:
Select the main points that support your argument but only include as much detail as your audience
needs. Also, be aware that people will not remember too many points. Once you have decided on the
key points, organize them into a sequence that makes sense to you. This sequence may take various
forms, including being chronologically based, problem-solution based, simple-complex based etc.
(Hargie et al, 2004; Adler and Elmhorst, 1999).
Explain and build your points using supporting information and evidence.
iii)Conclusion:
There are various ways of concluding a presentation including
• changing the pace,
• using a new visual aid,

• summarizing your main points,

• drawing the conclusion and its importance,

• making recommendations,

• asking for questions,

• getting feedback,

• asking for or recommending particular actions,

• getting some sort of commitment from the group to the advocated course of action,

• Finally end by thanking the group for their time and attention.

Do not end suddenly. Give your audience some idea that you are coming to a close; e g. ‘And now,
before I finish’ or ‘In conclusion’ etc. Try to end on a strong note through the use of tactics
detailed above. Research has long since shown that we tend to remember the opening and closing
parts of a presentation over the detail in the middle.
Delivery
Four main types of delivery:
1. Impromptu: This involves giving a talk with no prior planning, and is often the least preferred
method. Sometimes however, we do not have an opportunity to prepare and are called on to speak at
short notice. Take a few moments to write some key points down on a card to help give you some
structure, and do not panic. Others will be aware that you had only a short time to prepare. Also
keeping the style relaxed and conversational, so that it seems impromptu (even if this is not the
case)can be a very effective style.

2. Extemporaneous: Extemporaneous speech is a “carefully prepared, but delivered without notes

or text.” It is speaking before a group on a topic you are familiar with, using very few notes.
Extemporaneous speeches are presentations that must be given without any notes or slides and with
minimum preparation time, usually less than 30 minutes. This involves cue cards or slides on which
you summarize the main points which you then flesh out.
3. Memorized: This approach involves learning and repeating a manuscript. This is more difficult
when giving longer presentations in that there is a lot of material to be memorized. However, a
useful tip is to memorize the first few lines to get you started.
4. Reading from a manuscript: This involves speaking from a prepared manuscript. However, while
this can feel the safest option, try to use it as a guide as far as possible rather than reading it
word for word, as your delivery could otherwise sound stilted. Practice and rehearse in order to
remember key points. Ultimately, choose the method, or combination of methods, that is least
stressful for you.
Techniques of Delivery
Hargie et al (2004, p. 72) outline a number of features of effective deliveries, summarised as
follows:
• Use appropriate language and avoid jargon. If the audience do not understand most of what is
being talked about, they will become detached.

• Be suitably paced. Inexperienced speakers have a habit of speaking too quickly. On the other
hand, speaking too slowly is a recipe for boredom. Where speed of delivery may be a particular
concern, think about placing an accomplice in the audience primed to signal when you get too slow or
too quick.

• Use visual aids without placing them centre stage. Even the best of these are only aids to assist
the speaker.

• Make use of sub-summaries, signposts and links. Pause at transitional points in the flow of ideas to
briefly summarize the material covered. Explaining how this ‘chunk’ of information links with what
comes next helps to signpost the path through the presentation and increases its coherence.

• Emphasize key points verbally, non-verbally and vocally. Emphasize verbally through listing key
points (e.g. ‘It is vital that you recognise…’), repeating core elements etc; non-verbally (e.g.
Gestures, changes in posture, position); and vocally (e.g. Altering volume, speed of delivery, tone of
voice).
• Be verbally fluent. Effective public speakers do not have to be word perfect. Nevertheless, lots
of ‘umms’ ‘ahhhhs’ and other fillers such as ‘you know’ can be highly distracting.

• Be concrete and precise, rather than appearing vague and indefinite.

• Be varied, e.g. intersperse talk with graphs, slides or pieces of video that the audience can look at
as a break from listening. If appropriate, encourage some discussion or ask the audience to work on
a brief exercise.

• Include carefully chosen examples – as a bridge between what the listener knows and is familiar
with and the new material being introduced.

• Avoid distractions, e.g. pacing around, playing with a pen or pointer, over use of certain stock
phrases. Gain control of body language.

• Seem natural and not contrived. This can take some time and practice.

• Rehearse what is going to be said.

Body Language during presentation
Remember the importance of non-verbal communication!
• Behave enthusiastically,

• make and maintain eye contact,

• smile,

• act ‘as if’ you are confident and relaxed (even if you do not feel it) and make your introduction
without reading from your notes too much.

• The manner of speech is also important.

• As well as ensuring that your voice can be heard by the furthest member of the group,

• speak clearly and at a conversational,

• appropriate speed.

• Varying the tone, pitch, rate and other vocal features can communicate enthusiasm and can create
a sense of interest in the listener.

• Pause before key points and stress key parts of the sentence by using change in tone.
Techniques to resolve your anxiety include the following:
1. Accept that it is perfectly normal to feel nervous or anxious to some extent.

2. • Prepare well.

3. • Be realistic. Are your standards too high? Take off the unnecessary pressure that comes from
negative and unrealistic thoughts by challenging them and seeking the more rational view. That
worst case scenario you imagine is highly improbable, and if a less than positive outcome does occur,
it is unlikely to be the end of the world!

4. • Use relaxation exercises such as deep breathing.

5. • Behave ‘as if’ you are feeling confident; i.e.

i. Enter the presentation in a very deliberate way,

ii. Rehearse your presentation, but also how you will
Stand, set out your notes, change your slides etc,
iii. Use other non-verbal behaviors to appear confident.

Chapter 11
Note Taking
Effective note-taking from lectures and readings is an essential skill for university study. Good
note-taking allows a permanent record for revision and a register of relevant points that you can
integrate with your own writing and speaking. Good note-taking reduces the risk of plagiarism. It
also helps you distinguish where your ideas came from and how you think about those ideas Note
taking is the practice of writing down pieces of information in a systematic way. Note taking
includes the following:
 Taking notes in a lecture or a discussion
 Taking notes in a lecture and processing/annotating/rewriting these notes

 Effective note-taking requires:

 recognising the main ideas
 identifying what information is relevant to your task
 having a system of note taking that works for you
 reducing the information to note and diagram format
 where possible, putting the information in your own words
 recording the source of the information
Note making on the other hand is taking notes from reading in some systematic way.
THE FIVE R'S OF NOTE TAKING
Professor Walter Pauk of the Study Center at Cornell University describes five essential aspects
of note taking. He characterized these as the five R's of note taking. Here they are:
1. RECORDING. Get down the main ideas and facts.

2. REDUCING. To reduce is to summarize. Pick out key terms and concepts. You can make from your
notes what students sometimes call "bakhra." ‘mwakenya’. These are sheets that list, usually in
outline form, the bare

bones of a course. You will use them in reviewing by using the key ideas as cues for reciting the
details of what you have in your notes. On each page of notes you take, allow room to write down
these cues.

3. RECITING. Review lecture notes as soon after the lecture as possible. But you will also want to
review your notes before an exam and from time to time during the semester to keep them fresh in
your mind. Do so in your own words. That way you will know that you understand.

4. REFLECTING. Something that many students don't grasp is that ideas from college courses are
meant to be thought about. It is easy to fall into the trap of reciting ideas by rote. One of the main
purposes of a college education is to help you think. Then too, if you reflect about what you are
learning, you won't be surprised when ideas turn up on examinations in an unexpected form.

5. REVIEWING. One of the real secrets of successful studying is being sure when, how, and what
to review. But however you do it, reviewing is essential. Even the accomplished performer--the
pianist or the stage performer knows that a review, no matter how well he or she may know the
material, is essential to a professional performance.
Steps Towards Effective Note taking
To take efficient notes that you can use later require that you:
1. Use full-sized 8 1/2"x11" paper. Do not use a small note tablet. You will be using the margin space
provided by the full-sized paper. In addition, on a single page of full-sized paper you will often see
ideas or

groups of related ideas that might not be so easily seen when spread over several small pages;

2. Use a ballpoint pen. This is in order to write quickly -- something that can't be done as well with a
pencil or a felt-tip pen. Don't worry about mistakes with a pen that makes marks you can't erase.
Just cross out the mistakes!;

3. Keep all the notes from each course together in a separate section of a notebook. Use either a
loose leaf binder with separate sections, or a large spiral notebook that has several sections. The
loose leaf binder, however, allows you to insert course handouts and related materials;

4. Date each day's notes and try to title the notes for each lecture;

5. Take notes on one side of the page only, leaving space at the top and on the left-hand margin.
Using only one side eliminates the bother, when you are studying, of having to flip pages over and
then flip then back to follow the development of an idea or discussion. Leaving wide margins gives
you space to add to your notes later, should you so desire;

6. Write legibly. When you prepare for a test you want to spend the time studying -- not trying to
decipher your own handwriting;

7. To save time when note-taking, abbreviate recurring terms. Place a key for these abbreviate
terms in the top margin of your notes. For example, in a biology class ch could stand for
chromosome ; in a sociology class o c could stand for operant conditioning . When the lecture is
over, you may want to go back and fill in the words you have abbreviated (again, for easier reading
when preparing for examinations).
8. Sit Where You'll Be Seen. There is a saying common among teachers that; the further in back of
the class that a student sits, the lower that student's grade. Students who sit in the back of the
classroom, starting on that first day of classes, those students who sit near the door, typically
represent the students who will have a difficult time following lectures, whose minds are not so
much on the class as it is getting through the day, who will present the most problems in terms of
attendance.
 Make Systematic Notes. When taking notes, you want to do so in an organized, systematic
fashion. There is no "magic" to the student who takes good notes, the student who, at the
end of the semester, is in a position to review effectively and efficiently for examinations
and papers based upon the strength of their notes. They have developed a note-taking
system, and have learned to stay with it.

 Use an Outline for Your Notes. Try to write down your notes in the following outline form.
Start main points at the margin. Indent secondary ideas and supporting details. Further
indent material that is subordinate to those secondary points. Main points are listed at the
margin. Secondary points and supporting details are indented. Material that is subordinate
to secondary points is indented further.

Still another organizational aid: when the speaker shifts from one idea to another, show this shift
in concern by skipping a line or two, leaving a clearly visible space.
 Be Alert for Signals of Importance. As you can see, good listening and note-taking are special
skills. When following lectures, for example, you want to be alert to the "signals" that lecturers give
to indicate that certain material is important, that help you in further organizing your notes for
later study and review. There are five such signals:
1. Write down whatever your teacher puts on the blackboard..

2. Always write down definitions and enumerations. Most people instinctively will write down
definitions - explanations of key terms in the subject being studied. But people often forget or
ignore enumerations, which are often just as important. An enumeration is simply a list of items
(marked 1,2,3 or with other symbols) that fit under a particular heading. Teachers often use
enumerations, or lists, to show the relationship among a group of ideas. They are signaled in such
ways as:

3. Your instructor might say, "This is an important concept..."; or "One point that will repeat itself
in the material..."; or "The primary cause was...."; or "Pay special attention to..."; or "The basic idea
here is..."; or "The thesis being advanced is..."; and so forth. You want to make sure to write down
important statements announced by these and other emphasis words, and mark imp or some other
mark of your own
choosing (one that you can quickly and easily make out) to show their importance;

4. If the lecturer repeats a point, you can usually assume that it is important or relevant. You might
even write R in the margin to indicate that it was repeated in order to know that the instructor
stressed the idea in class; and finally,

5. A lecturer's voice may slowdown, become louder, or otherwise signal that you are to write down
exactly what is being said, word for word. When this happens, do it!
Write Down Examples. This is so obvious that people sometimes forget to do it, or take it for
granted and then forget to do so. Write down any examples the teacher might provide during the
course of a lecture, and then mark them with ex. These examples help you understand complex,
abstract forms and concepts. If you don't mark them with ex , then you are likely to forget their
purpose when you later review them for study. You do not have to write down every single example,
but you should do at least one to help clarify the point(s) being made.

Write Down Details That Connect or Explain. Always write down the details that connect or explain
main points. Too many students copy only the major points the teachers puts on the blackboard.
These students don't understand that as time passes during the semester, they may (and will)
forget the specifics that serve as connecting bridges between ideas. Make certain, then, to record
the connecting details that the instructor provides. When you do, you are much more likely to
remember and recall those relationships among the major points in your notes.

Chapter 12
Writing Skills
What is writing?
Writing is:
 A process of putting thoughts ,ideas and concepts into words using continuous prose;

A thinking process;

 a form of output/production because it is a demonstration of what we know, implicitly or

explicitly
 Opportunity for negotiation of meaning through peer interaction – at every stage of the
writing process
 a means of building fluency;
 a way of developing accuracy (in grammar, vocabulary, etc.);
 thinking made evident external memory;
 a critical skill for academic or professional success
 is a way to demonstrate proficiency
 helps us discover what we do or do not know
 is more than a paragraph or essay
What are writing Skills
 Ability to put sounds down on graphic form according to the conventional sound-spelling
rules.
  Ability to spell English words correctly, including using correct punctuation and
capitalization.
 Ability to do writing practice, such as dictation, grammar exercises, constructing dialogues
according to the model, simple translation exercises.
 Ability to write short compositions, including functional writing skills, such as writing simple
letters, taking notes, writing outlines and summaries.

What a good writing entails

Any writing assignment needs to have:
(letter, email, summary, report, etc.)

 Audience
 Topic
 Purpose (describe, explain, persuade, etc.)
 Clear
 Grammatically correct
 Have variety
 Precise
 Interesting pace
 Not be emotional
 Appropriate: language and audience
 Supported by evidence
 Types of Sentences
Sentences can be categorized based on their structure or based on their function.
Sentence category based on structure include:
1. Simple sentences
Made up of one main clause
For example:
Mary is going to school.
2. Double sentence
Made up of a main clause and a subordinate clause
For example:
Mary is going to while John is staying at home.
3. Multiple sentence
Made up of a main clause and two or more subordinate clauses
For example

Mary is going to while John is staying at home and yet they are both sick.
Sentences can be categorized based on their function to include:

1. Declarative statements
Sentences which state things they way they are. They talk about the state of things which are
usually true. For Example
 The sky is blue.
 Yambio is a peaceful state
Interrogative Sentences/ questions
These are those statements which are used to ask questions
For example
 What colour is the sky?
 Is Yambio a peaceful county?
3. Exclamative sentences

They express emotions

For example
 Wow! The sky is blue.
 What a peaceful county Yambio is
4.Imperative sentences/CommandsTheseare commands
For example
 Shut up!
 Sit down!

A good writer must be able to use variety of sentences in any piece of essay. Variety gives a piece
of writing a fast pace and makes it interesting to read.
Sentence Pattern
English Language has the following sentence patterns
1. S+V+O

John kicked the ball

S V O
A sentence with a subject, verb and one object.
When a verb is followed by one object then the verb is referred to as a TRANSITIVE VERB.
2. S+V

The baby slept

S V
A sentence which has a subject and a verbWhen a verb is not followed by an object then the verb is
called INTRASITIVE VERB
3. S+V+O+O

4. S+V+O+O

For example
 Mary gave the children sweets

 Mary gave sweets to the children

When a verb is followed by two objects then the verb is called a DI TRANSITIVE VERB
5. S+V+C
For example
John is King
S V O
A sentence where the verb is followed by a complement. The complement tells us more about the
noun.
The verb in such a sentence is called a LINKING VERB
6. S+V+O+A

An adverbial is that part of the sentence which adds extra information to the sentence. If the
adverbial is left out the sentence would still make grammatical sense.
For Example
John went to the market in the morning.
S V O A

Chapter 13
ESSAY WRITING

Types of Essays
An essay is a written composition of moderate length, exploring a particular issue or subject.
There are 4 types of essays in writing namely:
1. Narrative: Giving an account of events. It is mainly used in Fiction, creative writing, history and
literature review.

2. Descriptive: Describe people, events, places, things e.g. history

3. Expository/Explanatory: This is advanced descriptive writing that describes events and people in
depth. It involves defining explain and expounding on an idea

4. Argumentative/ persuasive also called Academic writing

1. Narrative

Narrative writing involves recounting events in an orderly manner. Narratives are mainly fictions or
creative writing. Narratives are mainly used in Literature, history and writing stories. They may
recount:
(a) a series of events; a report
(b) biography or autobiography
(c) historicaleventsNarrative writing is imaginative and subjective or factual and objective.
2. Descriptive writing
This is writing that is used to describe a person, a place or a thing or event. There are different
types of descriptive writing e.g.
 Static description describes something that is still/not moving

 Cause and Effect describes how one thing causes the effect of another
Descriptive writing can be either objective or subjective in content. A description of something
contains full factual and quantifiable information about it. Such information may be personal,
touching or sensory impressions and feelings.
Descriptive writing is a domain of arts and history.
3. Expository/Explanatory writing
This is advanced description and focuses on explaining, defining and expounding on an idea. Such
writing explains and analyses:
(a) a process
(b) an opinion or point of view
(c) event(s) and phenomena
(d) instructions and directions
4. Argumentative EssaysArgumentative writing is an academic writing which is also called
persuasive writing. It is a rational effort to defend or refute a claim and does not have place
for emotions, or anger. Most academic writing falls under this category.
Argumentative writing is done argumentatively. The writer collects all his/her points and presents
them logically and constructively. The aim of an argumentative writing is to persuade the audience
and convince them to accept the writers point of view. Argumentative essays are expected to be
clear and coherent. The writer must be clear about his/her argument.
CHARACTERISTICS OF AN ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY
1. Clarity

2. Complete

3. Accurate

4. Based on sound premises

5. Logical Avoid arguing in circles

6. Reasonable

7. Be based on evidence

8. Must acknowledge opposition

9. Avoid fallacies i.e. unqualified generalizations

The process of writing
1. Planning
Involves gathering ideas and focusing on the topic: Topic selection, gathering ideas, extensive
reading and interpretation. When planning one must ask himself/herself the following questions:
 What is the purpose of my writing?
 Who is my audience?
 What are the special requirements of my writing task?
2. Shaping
Considering how best to organize your ideas on pen and paper. Shaping involves:
1. Determining the tone
2. Drafting a thesis statement
 3. Outlining ideas
4. Drafting
5. Revising
6. Editing
7. Proof reading

Paragraphs
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work together in unity to explain an idea.
A paragraph is a group of sentences that work to develop a unit of thought.
A paragraph is a selection of sentence which is related because they are all talking about the same
thing, or are dealing with a single topic.
Paragraphing permits you to subdivide material into parts and arrange those parts into a unified
whole that effectively communicates its message.
Paragraphs can be classified as:
1. Topical
A topical paragraph is basically a paragraph made up of a group of sentences arranged around one
main idea, or one topic. This is the type of paragraph you are most familiar with. Topical paragraphs
are probably the only type most student think of as a paragraph. They are also called developmental
paragraphs or body paragraphs. They are usually found after the introductory paragraph and
before the concluding paragraph.Topical paragraphs consist of a statement of a main idea and
specific, logical support for that main idea.
Characteristics of a topical Paragraph
i)Must have a topic sentence which should appear early in the first few lines of the paragraph
preferably the 1st, 2nd or3rd line. The topic sentence tells you what the paragraph is about.
Because there's only one topic developed in each paragraph, there should only ever be one topic
sentence. The topic sentence of a paragraph is developed, or built on, by the addition of supporting
information and details.
ii) Unity
iii) Coherence
iv) Grammatical
v) Order (direction of Movement)
2. Special: Introductory, concluding and transitory
Introductions
Introductions or introductory paragraphs perform very important functions. First, they must
attract the reader, influencing him/her to read the remainder of the essay. Second, they must not
only introduce readers to the essay topic but they must also limit that topic and identify the
writer's attitude toward the topic. Finally, they must provide readers with information regarding
what is to be expected within the remainder of the essay.
Every paper you write should have a main point, a main idea, or central message. The argument(s)
you make in your paper should reflect this main idea. The sentence that captures your position on
this main idea is what we call a thesis statement. The thesis statement comes in the introductory
paragraph and must be concise and well-written.
A thesis statement must come early in your essay, e.g. in the introduction. This will enable your
reader to:
 Establish your position and

 Give your reader a sense of direction.

Your thesis statement should be

 clear
 specific
 Short
 In line with your argument
 Must indicate your position
Types of introduction Paragraphs
 The introduction must be a road map for the rest of your essay
  Anecdotal
 Regular Triangular
 Inverted Triangle
 Summary
 A wise word
 Provoking question
 Corrective introduction
 Historical Review

Concluding Paragraph
This should be the last paragraph in the essay. Its purpose is to bring the essay to a
graceful end. The concluding paragraph gives the writer one final chance to leave a lasting
impression on the reader.
Ways of writing a concluding paragraph:
1. A brief summary of the paper's main points.
2. Restate the main idea of your essay, or your thesis statement
3. A provocative question.
4. A quotation.
5. Evoke a vivid image.
6. Call for some sort of action.
7. End with a warning.
8. Universalize (compare to other situations).
9. Suggest results or consequences.
It is important to have a strong conclusion, since this is the last chance you have to make an
impression on your reader. The goal of your conclusion isn’t to introduce any new ideas, but to sum
up everything you’ve written. Specifically, your conclusion should accomplish three major goals:

Transitional paragraph

The transitional paragraph marks a transition in the paper from one section to another, or from one
thought to another, one sub-topic to another. It indicates to the reader either that there will be a
change in idea or topic or that there will be a movement from a broad topic to a specific one. These
types of paragraphs usually are small and consist of one double or multiple sentences which begins
with a connector or a gerundive.

Example

Having explained the general importance of education, this research is now going to discuss
the importance of education as the fourth pillar in humanitarian aid.

A transitional paragraph tends to be a short paragraph in an essay that announces a shift from one
section or idea to another. A transitional paragraph is most commonly used to summarize the ideas
of one part of a text in preparation for the beginning of another part.

Chapter 14
FUNCTIONAL WRITING
Functional writing is writing that is geared towards a student’s academic and professional life. It is
writing that equips a student with the necessary skills to write documents required in both
academic and professional life such as: Formal correspondence; official letters, emails, memos,
reports, curriculum vitae (CV), Business plans among others.
Formal letters
Formal letters are also called official or business letters and they fulfill official functions, such as
applying for a job, apologizing to the headmaster, asking for permission to be away, applying for a
place as a pupil, etc. it is important for us to train our learners to write as many types of formal
letters as possible. Note the following characteristics of formal letters.
1. The address of the writer is on the right hand-top-corner.
2. The date of writing is one line below the writer's address.
3. On the left-hand side, beginning on the line below the date is found on at least three lines:
a) The position (title) of the person to whom the letter is written (e.g. manager, president,
headteacher) followed by their name.
b) The place where he/she is working.
c4. The way addressees are greeted (addressed), called the salutation, is written two lines below
the address, below the addressee's address, e.g.
 "Dear Sir,

 "Dear Madam,"

 "Dear Mr …. ,"

 "Dear Mrs ….."

5. The subject of the letter is written two lines below the salutation, following REF: which is in the
left margin. The subject is written in capital letters and is underlined. It summarises the purposes
of the letter.
6. The main body of the letter follows. Notice how it is begun, the details of information given and
the language of the letter.
7. The complimentary close is a polite, formal expression that is written before the writer's
signature: e.g.
 Sincerely.

 Your Faithfully

8. Sometimes the writer may have to pass the letter through someone else for approval. For
example:
i) . A pupil through his/her head of school
ii) . A secretary of a school club through the teacher in charge of that club (patron)
iii) . A primary school teacher through his/her DEO.
In this case, "through" comes immediately below and a line after the addressee's address and is
written
THRU.
That is, between parts 3 and 4 above.

Curriculum Vitae
What is a CV?
CV stands for curriculum vitae, which is Latin for 'course of life'. It is a summary of your
experience, skills and education.
In the USA and Canada it is known as a résumé - this is the French word for summary.
A Curriculum Vitae is a self-marketing tool and getting an interview can depend on how good your CV
is. Your CV is your chance to show an employer you have the skills and experience needed, and that
you are the right person for the job. However, the way you present your CV can have an
overwhelming influence over whether your CV is even read, let alone get you that all important
interview. You will need to consider what to include, how much detail is needed and how to make
your CV stand out from all the others.
What to include in your CV
 Construct your CV with your prospective employer in mind. Look at the job advert or
specification and think about what the job involves, and what the employer needs. Find out
about the main activities of the employer.

 Tailor your CV to the job. Your CV shouldn't be your life story but should be tailored for
the job you're applying for, focusing on the parts that are important for that particular job

 Make your CV clear, neat and tidy. Get somebody to check your spelling and grammar. No-
one wants to read a CV that is squashed together and includes too much information. Your
CV should be easy to read with space between each section and plenty of white space. Use
left-justified text as it's easiest to read, using black text on good quality white or cream
paper.
 View your experience in a positive light. Try to look objectively at your experiences (even
the bad ones) and identify what you learned or what skills you developed in the process. This
is the picture you should present to the employer.
 Place the important information up-front. Put experience and education achievements in
reverse chronological order.
 Include experience and interests that might be of use to the employer: IT skills, voluntary
work, foreign language competency, driving skills, leisure interests that demonstrate team
skills and organization/leadership skills.
 Put your name and email address on every page - in case the pages of your CV get
separated.
 Use positive language. when describing your work achievements use power words such as
‘launched’, ‘managed’, ‘co-ordinated’, ‘motivated’, ‘supervised’, and ‘achieved’.
 Quote concrete outcomes to support your claims. For example, ‘This reduced the
development time from 7 to 3 days’ or ‘This revolutionized the company’s internal structure,
and led to a reduction in overheads from sh 23,000 to sh17,000 per year’.
 Make use of the internet for sample CVs and CV templates - to help maximize the
impact of your CV and to get inspiration for layout and tone
What not to include in your CV
a) Do not hand-write or type your CV. This looks unprofessional and old fashioned.

b) Do notinclude information which may be viewed negatively – failed exams, divorces,

failed business ventures, reasons for leaving a job, points on your driving license. Don’t lie,
 but just don’t include this kind of information. Don’t give the interviewer any reason to
discard you at this stage.

c) Do not include anything that might discriminate against you – such as date of birth,
marital status, race, gender or disability.

d) Do not include salary information and expectations. Leave this for negotiations after your
interview, when the employers are convinced how much they want to employ you.

e) Do notmake your CV more than two pages long. You can free up space by leaving out or
editing information that is less important. For example, you do not need to include referees
– just state they are available on request. Don’t include all of the jobs you have had since
school, just the relevant ones. Add details about your most recent qualifications, which are
more relevant, but summarize the rest.

f) Do notdilute your important messages. Don’t bother with a list of schools you attended
with grades and addresses, don’t include a long list of hobbies, or a long work history.
Concentrate on demonstrating that the skills they need, what you have achieved by applying
the skills you have and what benefits your clients have gained from your work.

g) Do notuse jargon, acronyms, technical terms - unless essential.

h) Do notlie - employers have ways of checking what you put is true, and may sack you if
they take you on and find out you've lied to them.

i) Do notlnclude a photo unless requested.

j) Make your CV visually appealing. Look at how others have done their CV. Ask your professors
and colleagues for examples.

k) Start your CV with general contact information that includes your name, address, telephone,
fax, email and url (if you have a web page about yourself as a professional).

l) Include these sections in your CV: contact information; education and experience. Include
these sections depending on your strengths and interests: honors and awards (from post-
secondary school); teaching and research interests; publications; presentations; professional
activities (committee memberships, intern experiences, relevant volunteer work); skills
(second language and/or computer proficiencies); and references (you may include these or
indicate they are available on request).

m) Check your CV carefully for spelling and typographical errors.

n) Use formatting such as bullets, italics or bold font only sparingly and use paper that is
white, beige or a neutral color that weighs between 20# and 50#.
What Not to Do When Writing a CV
 Don't try and do it all by yourself the first time. Seek help from others such as faculty
advisors, career specialists or colleagues.
 Don't worry too much about length — there are no rules on length. The CV should be
professional and should include your important data.

 Don't include the following information. These things are not necessary: age; ethnic
identity; political affiliation; religious preference; hobbies; marital status; sexual
orientation; place of birth; photographs; height; weight and health.
 Don't pad your CV by listing excessively detailed information about research or teaching.
Instead, provide the titles of research projects and course names along with brief
summaries of your work.
 Don't include information that is humorous. The CV is not the place for humor or being
"cute.


 CV Format.
If you don’t have time to do it right, when will you have time to do it over?
This CV is tailored for an Administration candidate. Study each section and see what you
can incorporate in your own. Obviously the sample CV is limited when it comes to layout.

 1. Personal Details:
• Name: Thomas Smith
• P.O Box 123, 00100 Nairobi
• Email: [email protected]
• Tel: 07XX XXX XXX
• Date of Birth: XX/XX/19XX
• Marital Status: Single
In this section leave out details like ID number, religion, Languages (unless it is requested in
the job advert)
 2. Education & Professional Qualifications To Put In Your CV:

 List your qualifications here. If you are pursuing a course and you are not yet done, you can
include it with the line…Pursuing an MBA University of Nairobi. Some candidates give a
breakdown of the course undertaken per unit which ends up using a lot of space. The
employer and maybe all of us know what a B.com Finance course entails. There is no need to
break it down. This is also not the section to include all those trainings you’ve gone through.
Put it under a separate header as outlined below. Ideally, put those professional
qualifications, diplomas, degrees and high school education, here.

 3. Career Profile:(Gives a summary of your skills, knowledge and experience. Let’s look at
an admin candidate career profile)
An administrative support professional with over five years office management experience.
I am adept at working in fast-paced environments that demand strong organizational and
office management skills. Am committed to exceptional customer service and driven by
challenges, with ability to independently plan and manage diverse customer relationships.
More so, I am accustomed to fast-paced, high-pressured positions, demonstrated ability to
set priorities deliver qualitative output, prioritize multiple tasks, meet deadlines, and
provide quality service.
 (Career objective or profile should be specific to your career. Most of us have ‘vague’ or
‘general statements.’)
 4. CV Professional Strengths/Skills:

 (Look at any job advert and you will find these listed after education requirements. Try to
match what the employer is looking for but don’t duplicate. Again, we have listed skills for
an admin person.)
• Possess seven years of professional experience as Executive Assistant
• Possess excellent organization and management skills
• Goal oriented and ability to handle multiple tasks
• Proven track record in customer service like managing front desk operations, processing
sales order and communicating reliable information to customers
• Ability to resolve complex departmental problems
• Proficient in basic operating systems like Microsoft Word Press, Excel, PowerPoint,
Access, Outlook and the Internet
• Posses excellent written and verbal communication skills
• Possess extensive administrative and customer service skills
• Ability to maintain good relationship with customers

 5. Work Experience:
• When it comes to experience list from the most recent to your earliest job
• Include work achievements. Achievements Example:
Implemented a more effective system for the management of meetings
• Even if you won’t specific months, list the year you worked
• When you have worked in more than ten jobs/companies, the important thing is to break
down your duties in the three most recent. You don’t have to expound on every job that
you’ve had.

 6. Training and seminar Section In Your CV:  attended should be listed here

 7. Professional Membership and Associations: feature here

 8. Hobbies & Interests: (In this section only indicate character building/business related
hobbies. A 40 year old listing: making friends and watching movies plus socializing (What is
socializing?) Doesn’t look like a professional on paper)
 8. Referees When Writing A CV:

 Provide at least three referees. Two from your previous and / or current work place;
preferable the HR or immediate boss, if that is not possible a client or customers you serve.
On the other hand, if you have just left campus a lecturer may vouch for you. Third one is
usually personal; someone that has known you for a long period of time that can vouch for
your character and will be able to recommend you for the job. For effective referees, put
only those people who know you well and let them know to expect a call from recruiters
about you.
  This sample CVis only a guideline that demonstrates what to include in your CV, therefore,
coming up with a CV should not be rocket science. The problem is that most of us don’t give
it the seriousness it deserves. We are always in hurry to apply for this or that job
forgetting the impression we need to create. Just like we take ample time in the morning to
look our best to the outside world, your CV should be well thought out clearly sending the
right message to your would be employer.

Report Writing
Reports are systematic, well organized documents used to communicate information which has been
compiled as a result of research and analysis of data and of issues. Reports can cover a wide range
of topics, but usually focus on transmitting information with a clear purpose, to a specific audience.
Therefore a report is a presentation of facts and findings aimed at forming an opinion or
recommendation. We can also describe a report as a prepared account of what happened, about a
particular event and so is a document explaining an occurrence. Reports are often structured in a
way that reflects the information finding process and the writing up of the findings: that is, in a
summary of the contents, introduction or background, methods, results, discussion, conclusion
and/or recommendations. The inclusion of recommendations is one reason why reports are a common
form of writing in every profession and academics, since the informed recommendations are useful
for decision making. A report may be a single report or a series of them depending on what is being
reported and the duration of the occurrence.
What is a good report?
 Good reports are documents that are accurate, objective and complete. They should also be well-
written, clearly structured and expressed in a way that holds the reader's attention and meets
their expectations. The true value of the research may be judged through a report since. Thus the
quality and worth of work can be judged by the quality of the written report. Its clarity,
organization and content
In summary, a good report:
 Must meet the needs of the readers and answer the questions in their minds;
 Must be at the right level for the readers. Some readers have an in-depth knowledge of the
subject while others may be decision-makers without specialized, technical knowledge;
 Must have a clear, logical structure-with clear signposting to show where the ideas are
leading
 Must give a good first impression and be presented well in an orderly and chronological
manner;
 Must not make assumptions about the readers’ understanding;
 Must be grammatical and concise having a time reference.
Scope and structure
The scope and style of reports vary depending on three key factors:
1. The report's intended audience,

2. The report's purpose and

3. The type of information to be communicated;

 For example, technical reports communicate technical information, so the degree of
technicality in the report will depend on the reader's familiarity and understanding of
technical concepts. All report are presented in formal and organized format backed with
statistical evidence where necessary.
Functions of a Report
Reports are used for:
a) Judging performance

b) Informing change

c) Fact finding

d) Pointing Causes of problems e.g., low margins, high rate of staff turnover, accidents in
factory etc.

e) Suggesting measures to overcome the business problems.

f) For improvement of operational or technical assignments, planning procedures, and solving

problems.

g) Decision Making.

Types of Reports

1. Academic Report. These are usually detailed and in most cases targeting academicians. They are
of high content and the producer and the reader are at the same level or a little different.

2. Professional Report. Professional reports are for informing and persuading people as well as
initiating change. They may be detailed depending on the targeted audience and taste of the
sponsor. In most cases they have a mixed audience made up of those who may understand the in-
depth of the subject content and non technical people like the decision-makers.
3. Formal Report. The formal report collects and interprets data and reports information. The
formal report is complex and may even be produced in bound book volumes. It is often a written
account of a major project. Examples of subject matter include new technologies, the advisability
of launching a new project line, results of a study or experiment, analysis of relocation for
corporate relocation, an annual report, or a year old review of developments in the field.
4. Technical and Special Reports. The technical report is a category, not by type. Many industries
and disciplines need specialized reports. Within the insurance industry and in police work, there are
needs for specialized accident or incident reports.
5. Feasibility report. The feasibility report defines a need or proposed idea, then analyses,
compares and recommends a course of action. When your organization is considering a new location,
expansion, or purchase of new equipment, for example, it’s imperative that you look closely to see
which course of action is best and if that course of action is likely to succeed.
Parts of a report
1. Title

The title page should also contain details, including:

i) Full title of the report;

ii) Name(s) of the author(s);

iii) Purpose for which the report is prepared;

iv) Name of the institution for which the report is prepared;

v) Month and year of report.

2. Executive summary: Executive summary is the summary of the whole report in a logical order.
This should highlight the purpose, research methods, findings, conclusions, and recommendations.
An executive summary should be written in the past tense and should not be longer than 1 page.
Though this section is included in the first part of the report, it is easier to write this part, after
completing the rest of the report.

3. Introduction; This is one of the most important paragraphs. An effective introduction

introduces the topic and purpose of the report or essay and outlines your approach, i.e. the main
ideas that will be developed within it. After reading just the introduction, the reader should be able
to know (i) the purpose of the paper and (ii) the main ideas which will be covered within it.

4. Method/Methodology: This is the section where you explain the methods used in your
research. If it is a scientific research, you can describe the experimental procedures.

5. Results\Findings: This section presents the results or findings of your project/research. You
can also present data using visual methods such as tables, graphs, etc. However, do not interpret
the findings here.

6. Discussion: In this section, you can explain what the above results mean. You can also analyze,
interpret and evaluate data, note trends, and compare results with theory. Generally, this is
referred to as the most important part of the report.

7. Conclusions: This is a brief summary of findings. Conclusion should not be confused with
Results/Findings section as the conclusion is a simplification of the problem that can reasonably be
deduced from the findings.

8. Recommendations: In recommendation section, suitable changes, solutions should be provided.

9. Appendices/ Annexes. These generally contain detailed information which is not essential in
the main chapters of the report but which need to be reproduced. Examples of material suitable
for appendices include a copy of any questionnaire or interview outline used in the research,
economic information, background information on companies used in case study, list of abbreviations
used in the report, etc.

Steps to Follow when Writing a Report

1. Plan

Before putting pen to paper (or fingers to keyboard!), it is important to plan how you will approach
to the assignment of writing a report. Planning includes:
Define the purpose - Make sure you have carefully read and analysed the assignment and have a
clear idea of the exact purpose.

Gather information - Use a variety of sources in your fact finding, and reference the sources
accurately. When gathering information, take into account the following details:

 Authorship (who has written this material?)

 Bias (might the author be biased in any particular way)
 Currency (how up-to-date or relevant is this source?)

Remember to keep track of each source you use, so that you'll be able to correctly reference each
of your sources in the final essay.

During the planning stage try to impose the tentative structure your material will adopt. However,
do not impose a structure too early; gather your ideas, assess them, then organize and evaluate
them. Once this is done, you can identify the 3 to 5 main ideas around which to structure the report
or essay. The overall structure of a report or essay should look something like this:

 Introduction - outlining your approach to the report or essay

 Body - 3 to 5 main points; 1 or 2 paragraphs for each main point
 Summary and/or conclusions - summarize/conclude your main message
 List of references - list all sources used in preparing the report or essay

2. Write

Many people unfortunately begin the report writing process at this stage. It becomes much easier
to write a good paper after you have clarified the purpose, gathered the relevant information,
assessed and evaluated the information, and planned the structure as explained in the planning
stage above.

Writing must begin with a rough draft of each of the main sections first. After this, you can more
easily write the introduction (outlining your approach) and the summary/conclusion (summarizing the
key ideas of the report or essay).

3. Reference your Sources

4. Review; Once your first draft is written, it's time to refine and revise, taking care to use a clear
writing style. Finally, proof-read from start to finish; it is often useful to ask someone else to do
this, as errors can go unnoticed when you have worked on a piece of writing for some time.

5. Write the final draft of the report

The final draft must be written professionally, the same way as you would speak. Write the way you
would speak in a formal professional business setting. Use the register of your profession. Do not
use jargon. Avoid complex words which you would not normally use in everyday speech and everyday
life. The material should be capable of being understood by the average man in the street. The
language and tone should be professional/academic.

Use short sentences. We normally say use KISS: Keep it short and sweet.
Avoid redundant words. These are flowery words. Words that do not add meaning. Eliminate
redundant words from sentences, while at the same time retaining the full meaning of the sentence.
Do not include words where their omission wouldmake no difference to the meaning of the sentence.

Length and format:

Maximum length, in terms of number of words, may be specified. There is however no relationship
between quality and length of report. Nonetheless, there is a trend towards concise, brief reports.
Briefer reports are more likely to reflect sharp and clear thinking (Allen, 1973).

Choice of font and spacing should be double spacing, in Times New Roman 12 font.

Using tables and figures

Tables are very powerful tools for summarizing material. If they are well structured they can
communicate a lot of information very parsimoniously. Figures, similarly, are powerful communication
tools. Commentary should come before (not after) tables and figures. However, there are occasions
where comments may follow rather than precede tables and figures.

When writing a report;

1. Don’t use no double negative or emotional words;

2. Make each pronoun agree with their antecedent;

3. Use connectors;

4. Verbs must to agree with their subjects and case;

5. Punctuate your report professionally;

6. Correct spelling.

Format for Report writing

1. Memo
short for memorandum, is a type of routine report an organization prepares for internal
communication purposes. It is impersonal and objective in its tone, and its length ranges
between a sentence or two to several pages. Most memos begin with background
information, including information on the sender, receiver, the date, subject and location in
case the memo refers to an event. A memo is the most informal type of report format.
2. Letter Report
Letter reports are usually one-page documents used for external communication purposes.
They are in block format and include standard features of letters, such as the sender’s
address, receiver’s name and address, date, salutation, body, acknowledgment and sender’s
signature. Letter reports normally are typed on a company letterhead.
3. Formal Reports
Formal reports follow a methodical structure and communicate knowledge, results and
findings to a range of internal and external readers. Most formal reports contain a title
page, cover letter, table of contents, list of tables and illustrations, executive summary, an
extensive body and references. The title page lists the name of the report, date of
completion and name of author or company. The cover letter summarizes the purpose of the
report, its importance and any required follow-up action needed. The table of contents lists
the major topics in the report along with their page numbers. The executive summary
highlights the report's main points, the report body also may include conclusions and
recommendations, and the
Peace & Development”
references page notes the sources cited in the report.
4. Semi-Formal Reports
A semi-formal report, also called a titled document, is a shorter, less complex version of a
formal report. Semi-formal reports typically have multiple pages including a title page,
introduction page, a body and references.

Minute Writing
Minutes are also referred to as protocols or meeting notes. Taking Minutes forms an
essential part of most meetings and are the immediate written record of a meeting. Minutes
characteristically describe the events of the meeting, includes a list of attendees, a
statement of the matters considered by the participants, and related responses or
decisions made about the matters discussed. Minutes are a summary of what has been
discussed during a meeting. They are authentic documents which must be taken seriously
especially because they can be used in a court of law.

Meeting minutes keep an official account of what was done or talked about at formal
meetings, including any decisions made or actions taken.
They are taken during a formal meeting of the board of directors or shareholders of a
corporation, such as initial and annual meetings. Taking minutes is a skilled job because the
minute taker has to follow what can be confusing and inarticulate debates and summarise
accurately what was said. Meeting minutes are effective contributor to successful meetings
and must be appropriately written and distributed in time. The main problem with reports is
that they take a long time to be written down and after the meetings they must be sent
quickly to let everyone know their next projects or actions.
Functions of Minutes
1. To protect the organization and the staff.
2. To record Action Points, i.e., what actions have been decided upon, who is responsible and
what the milestones and deadlines are.
3. They record summaries of the discussions held at the meeting.
4. Act as a grounding and authentic basis for decisions made.
5. Are legal documents and can be used in courts and in Banks.
6. It is helpful to record the meeting so the recording can be referenced for details and to
clarify information later.
Stages in Minute Taking
1. Preparation/Planning
 The taking of minutes begins with preparation to take the minutes in an upcoming
meeting. Preparation for the meeting includes:
 gathering the agenda,
 minutes from the last meeting,
 any documents that will be discussed at the meeting and
 Writing material or tape recorder.
During the meeting
This is the time when the actual recording of minutes takes place. Minutes can be
recorded on paper or on a laptop.
After the meeting
After the meeting the minutes should be checked with the chairperson to confirm
accuracy and then circulated to all attendees and anyone else affected by any decisions
taken at the meeting. One single email can be sent to everyone present at the meeting,
plus anyone else who needs to be informed.
What to include in Minutes
 Title: Name of the group meeting, Date, Time, Venue
 The names of the participants
 Agenda items
 Calendar or due dates
 Actions or tasks
 The main points Decisions made by the participants
 Record what is the most important points
 Future decisions
STEPS IN MINUTE TAKING
1. Start with the goal of the meeting
At the top of the meeting minutes, put the agenda below the title. It’s easier to take
minutes when you know what exactly you’re expected to accomplish in the meeting. If you’re
not sure about the agenda of the meeting, ask.
2. List who is present at the meeting
List everyone who attends. Get names of people you don’t know up front, since you’ll need
their names as you record the meeting. You should pass around an attendance sheet. Don’t
forget to include anyone who’s attending the meeting remotely (via video or teleconference).
And list that not in attendance.
3.Record the start time
By capturing the time start and date in the meeting minutes, you can begin to see if there is
a systemic issue with timely starts and bring this concern to the participants after enough
data is captured.
4. Capture key items
Taking meeting minutes is not like the 1960s movies where the secretary comes into the
boardroom and sits quietly not participating in the meeting. You’reexpected to contribute,
so you can’t spend all your time capturing what’s been said. The key items you want to get
down are:
 What is discussed
  What is decided
 What is accomplished
 What are the next steps/actions
For important discussions/debates, provide all perspectives (using an anchor chart or some
other shorthand). If a decision was made, state it before describing how it came to pass. In
today’s world of inattention, get to the point first then tell the story. The meeting minutes
should not be a full transcript; they should just enough to trigger a recall of the meeting’s
most significant actions.
It’s important to record not just what was decided, however, but how and by whom. Was the
decision the result of a team vote, a consensus, or a “decider” who made the decision for
the group? Oftentimes when an organization struggles, it looks for scapegoats to blame for
certain outcomes. An accurate recording of the minutes helps ensure that individuals are
not blamed for group decisions.
5. Describe the next steps/actions in detail
 What actions need to be taken? The actions must be specific so that when you or
others look back at these minutes they know exactly what is expected.
 Who is responsible for each action? There should always be a directly responsible
individual (DRI), even if a team is assigned to work on the action. A DRI control the
actions, drives it forward, and ensures it doesn’t fall between the cracks. That said,
list all the team members participating in this action, not just the DRI.
 Describe what will the measurable outcome(s) will be.
 What resources are needed? Too often actions are initiated and decisions are made
without the necessary resources to complete the actions. This is a great way to slow
down the organization. The way to speed it up is to determine the resources
required and provide advance approval for the them if possible.
 When will the action commence and end? Often leaders become annoyed because
they remember making a decision and then forget when they should be seeing
progress. By both putting a start date and end date, it creates clarity for all
meeting participants about what is expected.
 When will the DRI report back? Indicate whether the DRI will be reporting back at
a future meeting or to a specific party.
 How should the DRI report Back? Some organizations will want formal
presentations, others a small blurb in a weekly report. In order to satisfy all
participants find out the form the reporting back to the team should take.
6. Don’t belittle or embarrass anyone

Keep the minutes clean, upbeat, and professional.

7. Edit & proof the meeting minutes

“Things which matter most must never be at the mercy of that which matters least,”
said Aristotle. Typos and grammatical errors sometimes distract readers from what
matters most. Check for errors, and also make sure the minutesareclear, crisp, and
 concise. Cut out anything that isn’t significant. If possible, have someone proof your
minutes before you distribute them.

8. Disseminate the Minutes

Timeliness is next to Godliness (or at least highly respected in organizational life). You
should aim to get the minutes out within an hour of the meeting and at latest by the end
of the day. By providing the feedback quickly, you will elevate the importance and
urgency.

9. Attach relevant documents

Attach any handouts or documents electronically, so that all participants and non-
participants have easy access to them.

10. Ask a question when distributing the minutes

When distributing meeting minutes, ask a question via e-mail to the participants, so that they will
have to look at the minutes to respond. If you don’t ask a question, they will likely allow the email to
be consumed by a flood of other equally important emails. You might ask if you got a particular point
correct, or if you got the assignment correct for Mrs. Murphy

Example of minutes

 MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE AUTOMOBILE ASSOCIATION OF

KENYA
HELD ON FRIDAY, 24TH AUGUST 2012, AT 5.30 PM AT THE CROWNE PLAZA HOTEL,
UPPERHILL,
NAIROBI
Present Officers :Mr E N Njoroge – Chairman
Mr J K Kibet‐ Secretary
Members of the
Governing Council :Mr J Alam
DrJavaidAlam
Mr E T Gaturu
Dr M K Adalja
In Attendance :Mr D N Njoroge – Director General
Members Present : 82
Proxies : 2
MIN 270/2012 – QUORUM AND NOTICE OF THE MEETING
The Chairman called the meeting to order at 5.30 pm following the attainment of the mandatory
quorum as provided for in the Constitution.
The Secretary read the Notice convening the meeting and the Agenda which was adopted by the
members present.
MIN 271/2012 – APOLOGIES
Apologies were received from four members of the Governing Council.
MIN 272/2012 – MINUTES OF THE LAST ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING
The Minutes of the last Annual General Meeting held on 18th August 2011 were confirmed and
signed as a true record of the business transacted at that meeting after a proposal from Mr
Kennedy Nyaencha and seconded by DrManoj Shah.
MIN 273/2012 – ANNUAL REPORT
Chairman’s Report
The Chairman presented the year 2011 report and observed that the Association had
recorded a turnover of Kshs.406 million compared to Kshs.381 million in 2010 with a surplus
of Kshs.4 million compared to Kshs.10.1 million in 2010. Membership population had
increased from 111,205 to 132,141 within the year which was satisfactory.
2
It was also noted that the AA had injected approximately Kshs.30 million to AA Insurance
Brokers in form of new capital in compliance with the IRA requirements as a condition for
issuance of the 2012 licence. The Chairman recognized exemplary contribution by the
Governing Council, Management and Staff of the Association, for recording satisfactory
results in meeting growth in income as well as membership which was commendable.
Treasurer’s Report
In the absence of the Treasurer, DrManoj Shah presented the 2011 Audited Accounts and
noted the impressive Association’s achievement of Kshs.405.6 million turnover compared to
Kshs.381.3 million in 2010 representing a 6.4% growth. He also noted that the Association
had injected Kshs.30 million new capital into AA Insurance Brokers Limited. He noted that in
order to comply with the International Accounting Standards the financial statements for both
AA and AAIB would have to be consolidated in future.
The Auditors, M/s Deloitte &Touche commented on the Audited Financial Statements and
observed that the Association had performed well in the midst of several challenges facing
the economy. It was clarified that the adverse opinion would not affect the Association in any
way but had to be stated professionally. The Accounts were approved and adopted,
proposed by MrJavaidAlam and seconded by Dr M K Adalja.
MIN 274/2012 – TO ELECT OFFICERS OF THE ASSOCIATION FOR 2012‐2013
i) MrJinaroKibet was elected unopposed as Vice‐Chairman of the Association.
ii) Mr David K Waweru was re‐elected unopposed as Treasurer of the Association.
iii) The position of the Secretary remains vacant.
MIN 275/2012 – TO ELECT MEMBERS OF THE GOVERNING COUNCIL FOR YEAR 2012/2013
Messrs Francis Theuri, MacktoshNyamache and Mrs Charity Muya‐Ngaruiya retired in
accordance with Rule 15 (1) (2) (3) of the Constitution and had offered themselves for reelection.
As there were no candidates who had expressed interest in the position, all the
candidates were re‐elected un‐opposed.
MIN 276/2012 – TO APPOINT AUDITORS FOR THE YEAR 2012/2013
The Chairman informed members that M/s Deloitte &Touche had expressed their willingness to
continue as Association’s Auditors. The expression of interest was approved with MrEliud
Njoroge proposing and Mr James Muthama seconding the appointment.
3
MIN 277/2012 – TO CONSIDER ANY RESOLUTION SUBMITTED IN ACCORDANCE WITH
RULE
26(2) OF THE CONSTITUTION
A Resolution was received from the Governing Council seeking to amend Rule 16 of the
Constitution as follows:‐
‘The remuneration of the members of the Governing Council shall from time to
time be determined by the Governing Council.’
After deliberations, the Resolution was unanimously adopted and the Constitution would be
amended accordingly.
MIN 278/2012 – ANY OTHER BUSINESS OF WHICH DUE NOTICE HAD BEEN RECEIVED
Ms Connie Kivuti requested that gender parity be observed in the appointment of the members
of the Governing Council. The Chairman promised that the matter would be considered and
requested interested members to forward their details for consideration by the Governing
Council.
MIN 279/2012 – CLOSURE
There being no other business the meeting ended at 6.40 pm.

Chairman …………………………………………………….. Date ……………………..……………………………

CHAPTER 15

SAMPLES OF BUSINESS CORRESPONDENCE

Executive summary: As Business letters: If we were to define business letters, we could say that
business letters are simply letters dealing with business. They can be external mail sent by one
company to another or internal correspondence to the employees of the company. Business letters
need to follow a certain format, no matter which type they are.

Often business letters are the first contact one makes with a prospective client or an employer;
hence, it becomes critical that you get the tone and message of the letter right to make a good
impression. Though a simple enough document to produce, writing effective business letters can be
quite a challenge.

Here is a short review list to know when writing business letters.

 Keep it short and simple. Use simple and succinct words instead of long-winded ones.
Business letters need to be pithy; this can be achieved by making use of clear and concise
words, short sentences, and crisp paragraphs.
 Be direct: Your reader is a busy professional, so come straight to the point in your
letter without beating around the bush.
 The best way to begin a letter is by stating the purpose in the very beginning. This
is called the direct approach, and it sets the tone for what is to follow in the letter
body. It grabs the reader's interest.
 If your letter delivers bad news, a direct approach is not advisable. Instead, use an
indirect approach in which you state the bad news in the second or third paragraph
of the letter.
 Always keep the readers' benefits before yours. Instead of saying what you expect
them to do for you, mention what you can offer them.
 Be careful to get the name and title of the recipient correct.
 Make your tone conversational yet professional; do not be overtly formal.
  Stay away from jargon unless you are absolutely sure that the reader will
understand it.
 Use active voice and personal pronouns in a letter.
 Always end the letter with a request for action.
 Be careful about the tone you use in the letter; do not come across as
overconfident, arrogant, or boastful.

As far as formatting of a letter goes, given below is the standard format of any business letter:

 Letterhead: Most companies have a specific letterhead that you will need to type letters
on. This may make it necessary to adjust the margins so that words are not printed onto the
letterhead area.
 Name and address: Always try to have the name of someone that the letter should go to,
even if you have to call to find it out.
 Date: This is the date that the letter was written. It should be written out, such as
January 15, 2008.
 Reference: This gives a short description of what the purpose of the letter is. For example,
one might write "lost invoice" or "account number 23654" or something like that.
 Salutation: If you do not know the person, use a more formal one, such as Dr. Brian Lowden.
 Subject matter/body: Single-space and left justify for modified block and block style
letters. Have one blank line between paragraphs. The first paragraph should have a friendly
opening and state the purpose of the letter. The subsequent paragraphs should support the
purpose you stated in the first paragraph.
 Closing: This should be "thank you," "sincerely," or something similar.
 Signature: This is the actual signature of the person the letter is from, which may be
different from the person who wrote the letter.
 Typist initials: These are the initials of the person who typed the letter. These are not the
initials of the person who it is from. If they are both the same person. then this line is not
necessary. Usually the first initials would be that of the writer, and the second initials are
of the typist and are in lowercase. For example: JW/sc.
 Enclosures: List here anything else you may be sending, such as a brochure, samples, etc.

Each of these areas has a proper place, depending on which type of letter you are creating. What
goes in each area also may vary, depending on whom the letter is being sent to and who is writing it.
There are three main styles of business letter: block, modified block, and semi-block styles. Each
is written in much the same way, including the same information, but the layout varies slightly for
each one.

Sample Modified Block Style Letter

Sender's name
Sender's address
(1 space)
Today's date
(drop down four lines)
Recipient's business name
Attention: person it's going to
Recipient's address
(drop down two lines)

Dear Name:

In this type of modified block letter, all the paragraphs line up at the left margin. You do not need
to indent at all. The margins should be set to 1-1.5" all the way around the page. If you are using
company letterhead, you will need to account for that in figuring the margin where the letterhead
is placed on the page.

You only need to single-space between sentences. Leave an extra open line between paragraphs.

Sincerely,

(drop down four lines)

Signature here

Add name,
Add title

[Identification initials]

Enclosures:

cc: Name

Name

Sample Modified Semi-Block Style Letter

Today's date

(drop down four lines)

Recipient's business name

Attention: person it's going to
Recipient's address
(1 line space)
Dear Name:
(1 line space)
In this type of semi-modified block letter, all the paragraphs line up at the left margin. However,
the first word in each paragraph is indented. The margins should be set to 1-1.5" all the way around
the page. If you are using company letterhead, you will need to account for that in figuring the
margin where the letterhead is placed on the page.
(1 line space)
You only need to single-space between sentences. Leave an extra open line between paragraphs.
Keep in mind that these sample letters are a guideline. People often customize to meet their
preferred style.

Sincerely,

(space down four lines)

Signature here

Add name,
Add title

[Identification initials]

Enclosures:

cc: Name

Name
You should pay special attention to the font when typing a business letter. Even if you do the entire
form exactly right and choose the wrong font, it can still make the document look very
unprofessional and even hard to read. Some companies have a preference they would like you to use.
Most of the time, using Times New Roman or Ariel is recommended, with a font size of 12. It is
important to keep in mind that if you are working for someone and writing letters on the company
letterhead, you are representing that company. Therefore, it is best to keep personal innuendos,
fluff, and cutesy stuff out of it.

Sample Block Style Letter

Sender's address
Want to learn more? Take an online course in Business Writing.
Sender's phone number
Today's date
RE: what the letter is about
(drop down 4 lines)

Recipient's name
Recipient's company name
Recipient's address
(1 space)
Attention: person it's going to
(1 space)
Dear Name:
(1 space)
In this type of block letter, all the paragraphs line up at the left margin. There is no indenting of
the paragraphs. The margins should be set to 1-1.5" all the way around the page. If you are using
company letterhead, you will need to account for that in figuring the margin where the letterhead
is placed on the page.
(1 line space)
You only need to single-space between sentences. Leave an extra open line between paragraphs.
Keep in mind that these sample letters are a guideline. People often customize to meet their
preferred style.
(1 line space)
Some people choose to center the above sender information.
(1 line space)
Sincerely,

(space down four lines)

Signature here

add name,
add title

[Identification initials]

Enclosures:

cc: Name

Name

If we were to dissect the types of business letters further, there are mainly six types.

Acknowledgment letters are a professional courtesy, meant to acknowledge the receipt of

something, or to acknowledge a fact or an error. It usually entails a short detail of the day
something arrived and a note of thanks.

Complaint letters are meant to bring to notice an error or a defect. They could be applicable to a
company or an individual, and they typically seek a redress or adjustment. They are generally
descriptive with a formal tone that should express displeasure, but the tone should not be overtly
angry. You should address the problem, and try to offer a solution to rectify the situation. See the
example complaint letter below.
Sample Complaint Letter
Sender's address
Your phone number
(1 line space)
Today's date
(1 line space)
Big C Paper Company
Attention: Lisa Loopie
Recipient's address
(1 line space)
Dear Ms. Loopie:
(1 line space)
I wanted to write you a letter to address a problem we have encountered with your order
department on the last two occasions we have purchased from you. Both of our last two orders with
your company were not completed in full. They were both missing one ream of paper, totaling 1,000
sheets of paper in all. While one oversight is acceptable, I am hoping this is not becoming a pattern.
(1 line space)
I would like for this situation to kindly be rectified by the two reams of paper being replaced and
sent to my attention. We have enjoyed doing business with your company over the years and look
forward to this situation being addressed so we can move forward and continue to do so. Please
feel free to contact me if you have any questions regarding this matter.
(1 line space)
Sincerely,

(space down four lines)

Signature here

Patty Paper Chaser,

Quality Control Supervisor

Enclosures: copy of both recent packing slips and orders

cc: Accounting department

Paper pusher department

Adjustment letters: These follow a complaint letter and encompass the company or individual
response to a complaint. The tone has to be humble, as it is a goodwill-building exercise. The
complainant has been inconvenienced; this letter should acknowledge the mistake and list out
concrete solutions for resolving the issues.

Inquiry letters: These are letters of request for something or a response to a request sent by
someone. The purpose of the letter is to obtain the information or object requested.
Order letters: Also known as purchase orders, these letters are used to order or buy material.
Essentially documenting a transaction between buyer and seller, this is a legal document.

Response letters: These are in response to a received letter. They generally list the fulfilling of a
request or detail steps taken to fulfill a request made by someone.

Congratulatory letters: These are "good news" letters and are fairly easy to write. Such letters
are used to encourage or reward an employee, business associate, or a consumer. Such letters are a
goodwill-building exercise and are written to build or strengthen any business relationship. When
you write a congratulatory letter, do it as soon as possible after a good event has taken place. At
the outset, mention what the event is that has motivated you to write the letter; follow it up with
approval or praise for the accomplishment; and, finally, keep it concise and honest. A congratulatory
letter should be a one-page document, and it should not sound fake or mocking.

Bad news letters: As opposed to the good news letter, a bad news letter, such as dismissal and
rejection letters, need to be handled carefully. While you need to maintain the concise and
professional tone of a business letter, you also need to be sensitive to the reader's feelings. In a
bad news letter, instead of conveying the bad news to the reader outright, you need to place it in
the middle of the text.

Here are a few guidelines that you can keep in mind while writing a badnews letter:

 The opening of the letter needs to be polite. Always give the reader's efforts and feelings
importance.
 Following the opening, the details of the issue need to be stated.
 State the news or the decision.
 Inform the reader about the reasons behind the decision taken.
 Close professionally and politely.

A bad news letter should present the bad news in a positive light. It needs to reassure the reader
that all necessary aspects of a particular issue were taken into account before making a decision. A
bad news letter should not leave the reader with a bad taste in his or her mouth; instead it should
leave the person with the feeling that the decision was fair and just.

Letters of request: As the name suggests, these are letters sent to a company or professional
seeking help. One could be asking for time, money, services, or products; the fact is that, when you
ask for someone's help, you are subliminally potentially putting yourself lower than the other
person. Whether you feel it personally, this feeling needs to come out through your words, without
sounding needy. Here are a few things to keep in mind:

 A letter of request should be humble but not sound as if you are groveling.
 The language of the letter should be non-emotional and neutral. For example, instead of
saying, "We really need this urgently," say, "This would be most helpful to us."
 Avoid the use of too many adjectives, as it tends to make the language emotional.
 A request letter should clearly express the need for something and show appreciation for
the help you hope to receive.
Memos: The other most common form of business communication is memorandums, or memos.
Though they provide information similar to a letter, they are very different in their format. Here
are the key differences:

 They are almost always meant for circulation within the organization.
 They are direct in style, and very to the point.
 They do not have salutations.
 They do not have a complimentary closing.
 They are used to convey communication that is not sensitive.
 They have a format distinct from a letter.

When formatting a memo, one should be aware of the strict format that memos stick to. Memos
always begin with a bottom-line statement, or the statement of the exact purpose. Memos are
extremely crisp, to the point, and use a businesslike tone. Memos usually are short bits of
information that get to the point quickly and inform, announce, or request something. The terms
"memo" and "memorandum" can be used interchangeably. There is no need for a signature line or any
of the other formal endings or closings that letters require. Sometimes the person whom the memo
is from will initial next to the name on the memo to indicate she or he has read and approved it
before it has been distributed or posted. Think of a memo as being similar to making a company
announcement on a loudspeaker to those in your office. You would be direct and to the point and let
people know the information you need to share.

Sample Memo

MEMORANDUM

To: All Staff

From: Lisa Number, Accounting

Date: April 15, 2008

Re: Tax form updates

Tax time is once again upon us. It is important that each staff member stop by the accounting
department within the next 10 days to sign the new deduction forms. Each employee is required to
update the form we have on file, so this will need to be done. To update your form, you will need to
bring the following with you:

· Driver's license

· Social security card

· Employee badge
the name suggests, an executive summary is a shorter and concise version of a longer document.
Executive summaries are meant to be read quickly. The reader of an executive summary need not be
an expert on a particular topic; but on reading the summary, she or he should be able to gain enough
information to have a basic understanding of the larger document. Listed below are the salient
features of an executive summary:

 An executive summary should not be more than one page in length.

 It is a condensed form of all major points described in the full-length document.
 It should state the problem, provide background information, list alternatives, and draw
conclusions on a given problem.
 It comes at the beginning of every document.

Having described the features of an executive summary, let us look at how to go about writing one.

 Executive summaries should be written after the main report has been compiled. One needs
to go through the entire report and make notes of the important points in order to write a
summary.
 The main points listed in your summary should appear in the same order as they appear in
the main document.
 State each point in a simple, declarative, and direct statement.
 If you need to elaborate on a point, make it brief and concise; steer clear from jargon and
too many technical terms.
 Upon completion, proofread the document for errors, and make a lay person go through it.
If the person loses interest, other non-technical readers may react the same way.

An executive summary's soul lies in its brevity and clarity. Avoid unnecessary information and cut
down on technical terms. Simple and straightforward works best when writing an executive
summary.

Writing for an international audience: In today's changing business environment, any professional
is writing for an international or global audience at any given point of time. A business writer should
be aware of the reader and the reader's specific needs. In some cases, a reader unfamiliar with
English might need to get a document translated. All these factors need to be taken into account
when writing for an international audience. Listed below are a few handy hints for writing well for a
global audience:

 Write short sentences, not longer than 25 words.

 Choose words that are easy to pronounce and do not have multiple meanings.
 Do not use jargon, terminologies, sarcasm, or slang while writing for an international
audience.
 Try to use active voice and present tense wherever you can.
 Avoid being ambiguous.
 Do not use Latin abbreviations.
 Provide a glossary of definitions for special words used within the document.
The key to writing for an international audience is to keep it simple, yet effective. When writing for
an international audience, a writer needs to be aware of the cultural factors in order to avoid
offending readers sentiments.

Here are a few tips for the writer:

 Know the target audience you are writing for, and research the dos and don'ts for
that audience.
 If you can, find a native speaker to proofread the cultural aspects in your document.
 Be aware of the political and cultural factors that your audience might be sensitive to.

There are other types of letters that you may need to write, including those regarding terminations
and recommendations. They are very similar to the examples you have already seen. For these types
of letter you would choose the style of letter you would like to follow and then address the subject
matter.

Recommendation letters are sometimes requested from former co-workers that are seeking a
letter to go to a new or potentially new employer. They also can be sent to schools or other such
entities. They usually are employment references, character references, or academic references.
For business writing purposes, they generally fall into the employment reference category. An
employment recommendation letter should tell why the person the letter is about is a good person
to hire. Describing their strengths and abilities is the primary purpose .

Sample recommendation letter

Sender's address
Your phone number
(1 line space)
Today's date
Recipient's name
Recipient's address
(1 line space)
Dear Mr. Bellows:
(1 line space)
I am writing to recommend an interview candidate for a photography position within your company.
Lisa Phototaker has applied for a position within your company and I have had experience working
with her.
(1 line space)
Lisa is a very creative person that has a keen sense of style and an eye for detailed photography.
She is an asset to any team, bringing with her the sense of artistic design skills and talents that
are so often sought after. I would recommend hiring her for this position without hesitation. She
was responsible for photographing and all the layout and design work on our latest calendar, for
which we couldn't be happier.
(1 line space)
If I can answer questions regarding this recommendation, please don't hesitate to contact me.
(1 line space)
Sincerely,

(drop down four lines)

Signature here

Linda Viewfinder

Owner
When it comes to writing business letters, they are mostly written in the same manner. The subject
or angle may change, but the fact that you are writing in a professional manner, keeping it clean and
precise, remains the same. Whether it's a recommendation, a sympathy letter, or a resignation
letter, the formulas used above can be applied to nearly any circumstance.
1.Cover letter

What is a cover letter? A cover letter is an accompanying letter that serves as the introduction to
your resume. No resume should be sent without one. The cover letter is individualized for each
position for which you are applying. It is an extension of your resume and reflects your knowledge
of the employer’s needs
What is the purpose of the cover letter?
The purpose of the cover letter is to introduce yourself to an organization, demonstrate your
interest in the company or a specific vacancy, draw attention to your resume and motivate the
reader to interview you. Often this letter is the first contact you have with a prospective employer.
A neat, concise, well-written letter can entice the employer to read your resume with greater
interest and will improve your chances of getting an interview
.How should cover letters be organized?
Introduction - The beginning of your letter should capture the employer’s interest by identifying
the position for which you are applying or your career objectives, indicating where you heard about
the job, and describing your interest in that particular opening.
Body - The body of your letter (1-3 paragraphs) should show that you understand the nature of
the position by explaining how your qualifications relate to it. You should include examples of the
skills and/or qualities from your resume that you believe make you a particularly strong candidate.
Do not, however, simply repeat what is in your resume. Use this section as an opportunity to
illustrate more specifically how you think your experience can contribute to the organization.

Closing - Since your objective is to secure an interview, you want to establish a flow of action that
produces an invitation to do so. In your closing you should suggest what you would like the reader to
do or what action you plan to take to maintain contact. This may take the form of a request for an
interview and/or a statement of your intent to follow up in the near future with a phone call.
“Respectfully” is a good way to close your letter. Never forget to sign it.

Sample of a cover letter

26 rue Washington
75008 PARIS
France
tel: +33 1 77 77 77 77
email: [email protected]

4 November 20--

The Principal
Interplay Languages
77 bd Saint Germain
75006 PARIS

Dear Madam

Director of Studies

I am interested in working as Director of Studies for your organization. I am an EFL language

instructor with nearly 10 years' experience to offer you. I enclose my resume as a first step in
exploring the possibilities of employment with Interplay Languages.

My most recent experience was implementing English Through Drama workshops for use with
corporate clients. I was responsible for the overall pedagogical content, including the student
course book. In addition, I developed the first draft of the teacher's handbook.

As Director of Studies with your organization, I would bring a focus on quality and effectiveness to
your syllabus design. Furthermore, I work well with others, and I am experienced in course planning.

I would appreciate your keeping this enquiry confidential. I will call you in a few days to arrange an
interview at a time convenient to you. Thank you for your consideration.

Yours faithfully

Rachel King

Rachel King

Internal Memo

This internal memorandum or memo distributed to all staff or possibly posted on a notice board
gives details of the forthcoming staff Christmas party.

CHOCOLATE HEAVEN EMPORIUM

MEMORANDUM
TO: All Staff
FROM: Management T.C.
DATE: November 9th, 20--
SUBJECT: STAFF CHRISTMAS PARTY

Inquiry letter

Street address
City, State ZIP code
Phone number

Date

Individual's name
Job title
Name of organization
Street address
City, State ZIP code

Dear Mr./Ms. ________________________________:

I am writing to ask you to consider an addition to your marketing team. Your organization has been
in the news as a leader in the industry. I am an innovator of new ideas, an excellent communicator
with buyers, and have a demonstrated history of marketing success. I believe I would be a good fit
in your organization.

Currently, I market computer products for a major supplier using television, radio and news
advertising. I have a reputation for seeing every project through to success.

Enclosed is my resume for your review and consideration. EFTG Industries has a reputation for
excellence. I would like to use my talents to market your quality line of technical products. I will call
you to further discuss your needs and how I could benefit your company. If you prefer, you may
reach me in the evenings at (555) 555-5555.

Thank you for your time. I look forward to meeting you.

Sincerely,
(Your Signature in blue or black ink)
Your typed name

Enclosure

ORDER LETTER

Mancini Kitchen Equipment

Troy D. Mancini

4220 Straford Park

Harold, KY 41635

Dear Mr. Mancini,

We would like to purchase twenty two (22) individual stand mixers (Model #43423), all in the color
red.

We would like you to charge this purchase to the preexisting account that we have with you,
business account #543234.

We hope to receive this order no later than Friday, November 11th, 2009. Attached to this letter
please find our preferred shipping method and receiving address.

Please confirm that you received this order by calling us at 232-231-4563 anytime during business
hours, Monday to Friday.

Thank you for your cooperation

Keller Kitchen Co.

Letter of Acknowledgment

Hello Victor,

Thank you for your recent purchase from Furniture World. The team are currently working on
getting your item dispatched, and it should be with you within 5 working days.

Order Details

Order Number: 86675564

Mellow White Leather Sofa

Price Inc Delivery: $754

Payment Method: Credit Card

Delivery Address:

8561 Honey Pioneer Autoroute, Burnt House, Wisconsin, 53091-3064

Note: Because this is a large item you will need somebody to sign for the delivery upon arrival and
to grant the drivers access to the property in order to position it somewhere convenient.

If you should have any problems or queries about this order please contact customer support on
(534) 872-9133, or via email at [email protected]

All the best,

Furniture World
 CHAPTER 16

Negotiation Skills

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences .Negotiation is an open process for two
parties to find an acceptable solution to a complicated conflict. There are some specific conditions
where negotiation will achieve the best results:

 When the conflict consists of two or more parties or groups

 A major conflict of interest exists between both parties
 All parties feel that the negotiation will lead to a better outcome
 All parties want to work together, instead of having a dysfunctional conflict situation

Negotiation Techniques

Negotiation is referred to as the style of discussing things among individuals in an effort to come
to a conclusion satisfying all the parties involved. Discussions should be on an open forum for every
one to not only participate but also express their views and reach to an alternative acceptable to all.

It is important how we negotiate with each other. One must know the difference between
negotiating and begging. Do not stoop too low to get a deal closed. Negotiation must be in a dignified
way. One has to be extremely patient and also understand the second party’s needs and interests as
well. Never impose your ideas on anyone. Let everyone speak their mind and decide something which
would favour one and all.

Let us go through some negotiation techniques in detail:

 The first and the foremost technique for an effective negotiation is one should be well
informed with everything related to the deal. Find out even the minutest detail you think
is important and you might require at the time of negotiation. Be prepared for
everything. Remember the second party might ask you anything.

Janet wanted to purchase a new laptop. She checked out the prices of almost all the leading
brands along with their features before going to the outlet. She went well prepared and
thus managed to crack the best deal and took the best quality laptop with the maximum
possible discount.

 Take good care of your posture as well as your body movements. Look confident. While
speaking, don’t look around or play with things. It’s just a discussion, no one will kill you if
you are not able to close the deal. Don’t stammer in between or start sweating in front of
others. The second party will take undue advantage if they find you nervous. Take care of
your dressing as well. Don’t wear anything which is too casual. If you dress casually people
will not take you seriously.
  Be very focused. One should be very specific what he wants. First ask yourself what is the
purpose of this negotiation? What do you actually want? What is the affordable price for
you? Be firm and stick to it. Be very specific and clear.
 Never keep things to yourself and crib later. Don’t assume that the other person can read
your mind on his own. One needs to ask for what he wants. A mother will not feed her child
unless and until he cries. Speak your heart out. If you are not satisfied with the deal, show
your displeasure to others. Express them that you are not very happy with the price and it
needs to be revised.
 Be a patient listener. Listen to others as well. Think about their interest and needs as well.
Don’t ask for anything which would not benefit the second party. Don’t jump to conclusions
and never interfere when the other person is speaking. Listen to the other party’s proposal
as well; he might come up with something unique which you could not even think.
 Be realistic. Don’t ask for something you yourself know is not possible. Don’t quote anything
just for the sake of it. One should be a little practical in his approach. Don’t ask for
irrational discounts. Be logical. It’s nothing bad to think about your personal interests, but
one should not be mad for it. If you want to purchase something, also remember that the
store owner has to earn his profits as well.
 Don’t be in a hurry to close the deal. Take your time to discuss things among yourselves.
Make sure you are deciding something which would be a win win situation for all. Never drag
any discussion and make the conversation too long. Too much of pleading and persuasion
result in a big zero and no conclusion can be drawn out of it.
 Know where to compromise. An individual has to compromise sometimes to come to an
output. If you feel that if you accept some terms and conditions, things would be better and
it would not harm you much, go ahead. Everyone needs to compromise sometimes or the
other. Even in marriages, one partner needs to negotiate with the other for better
understanding.
 Communication is also important in negotiation. Speak clearly and precisely. One should not
confuse others. Playing with words is one of the biggest threats to negotiation. Don’t use
derogatory or lewd remarks against anyone.
 For a third party it’s always better to sign a contract or have something in black and
white so that no body backs out later. It’s always better to sign agreements in the
presence of both the parties for better transparency. At workplace after every discussion
and negotiation, emails or minutes of the meeting must be circulated among all the team
members for everyone to get a clear and the same picture.

explore the stages of negotiation andlearn how to improve your negotiating skills.
 
These skills include:
 
    Effective verbal communication. See our pages: Verbal Communication and Effective
Speaking.
    Listening. ...
    Reducing misunderstandings is a key part of effective negotiation. ...
   Rapport Building. ...
    Problem Solving. ...
   Decision Making. ...
   Assertiveness. ...
    Dealing with Difficult Situations.
 
Problem Analysis
 
Effective negotiators must have the skills to analyze a problem to determine the interests of each
party in the negotiation. A detailed problem analysis identifies the issue, the interested parties and
the outcome goals. For example, in an employer and employee contract negotiation, the problem or
area where the parties disagree may be in salary or benefits. Identifying the issues for both sides
can help to find a compromise for all parties.
 
Preparation
 
Before entering a bargaining meeting, the skilled negotiator prepares for the meeting. Preparation
includes determining goals, areas for trade and alternatives to the stated goals. In addition,
negotiators study the history of the relationship between the two parties and past negotiations to
find areas of agreement and common goals. Past precedents and outcomes can set the tone for
current negotiations.
 
Active Listening
 
Negotiators have the skills to listen actively to the other party during the debate. Active listening
involves the ability to read body language as well as verbal communication. It is important to listen
to the other party to find areas for compromise during the meeting. Instead of spending the bulk
of the time in negotiation expounding the virtues of his viewpoint, the skilled negotiator will spend
more time listening to the other party.
 
Emotional Control
 
It is vital that a negotiator have the ability to keep his emotions in check during the negotiation.
While a negotiation on contentious issues can be frustrating, allowing emotions to take control
during the meeting can lead to unfavorable results. For example, a manager frustrated with the lack
of progress during a salary negotiation may concede more than is acceptable to the organization in
an attempt to end the frustration. On the other hand, employees negotiating a pay raise may
become too emotionally involved to accept a compromise with management and take an all or nothing
approach, which breaks down the communication between the two parties.
 
Verbal Communication
 
Negotiators must have the ability to communicate clearly and effectively to the other side during
the negotiation. Misunderstandings can occur if the negotiator does not state his case clearly.
During a bargaining meeting, an effective negotiator must have the skills to state his desired
outcome as well as his reasoning.
 
Collaboration and Teamwork
 
Negotiation is not necessarily a one side against another arrangement. Effective negotiators must
have the skills to work together as a team and foster a collaborative atmosphere during
negotiations. Those involved in a negotiation on both sides of the issue must work together to reach
an agreeable solution.
 
Problem Solving
 
Individuals with negotiation skills have the ability to seek a variety of solutions to problems.
Instead of focusing on his ultimate goal for the negotiation, the individual with skills can focus on
solving the problem, which may be a breakdown in communication, to benefit both sides of the issue.
 
Decision Making Ability
 
Leaders with negotiation skills have the ability to act decisively during a negotiation. It may be
necessary during a bargaining arrangement to agree to a compromise quickly to end a stalemate.
 
Interpersonal Skills
 
Effective negotiators have the interpersonal skills to maintain a good working relationship with
those involved in the negotiation. Negotiators with patience and the ability to persuade others
without using manipulation can maintain a positive atmosphere during a difficult negotiation.

Negotiation process

There are five steps to the negotiation process, which are:

1. Preparation and planning

2. Definition of ground rules
3. Clarification and justification
4. Bargaining and problem solving
5. Closure and implementation

Wet Paint Biz and Ninja Corporation are starting to get organized for the big negotiation meeting
that will be held at the local town office.

1.Preparation and Planning

Preparation and planning is the first step in the negotiation process. Here, both parties will
organize and accumulate the information necessary to have an effective negotiation. Ninja
Corporation and Wet Paint Biz both need to prepare fully for the negotiation. Information can be
powerful in negotiations and help add validity to claims. Both companies should investigate each
other's history and try and figure out what the opening offer will be for the paint job. Wet Paint
Biz needs to uncover the highest amount Ninja Corporation is willing to pay for the factory paint
job, while Ninja Corporation needs to figure out the lowest Wet Paint Biz will take for the job.

2.Definition of Ground Rules

The second step in negotiation is the definition of ground rules. In this step, rules and procedures
will be established for the planned negotiation. Consideration will be given to questions, such as:

 Where will negotiations take place?

 Will time constraints exist?
 Will there be any issues that are off limits?
 What happens if there's not any agreement?

In addition, both parties will try and figure out what price should be the starting point for the
negotiation. Also, demands and expectations should be disclosed up front. Lastly, the bottom line,
which is the lowest price that Wet Paint Biz will provide services to Ninja Corporation for, will need
to be uncovered by Ninja Corporation. Ninja will start the negotiations with an opening offer, or
starting price, suggesting a price of $25,000 for the job. Both parties also agreed that the
negotiations would last one day and if a price for the job was not agreed upon, then Ninja
Corporation would consider a different vendor.

3.Clarification and Justification

Now that the rules have been established, a discussion needs to take place regarding the specifics
of the job price. In the third negotiation step, clarification and justification, the positions of both
parties are discussed at length. Each side will get a chance to explain, justify and support their
original request. This part of the negotiations should not be argumentative, but instead, it should
provide the opportunity for each side to educate and inform each other about their position. Ninja
Corporation feels that the factory job should only take $25,000 to complete. They provide
documentation to Wet Paint Biz to show them what the previous vendor charged them and adjusted
for inflation.

CHAPTER 17

Public speaking

Public speaking (also called oratory or oration) is the process or act of performing a speech to a live
audience. This type of speech is deliberately structured with three general purposes: to inform, to
persuade and to entertain. Public speaking is commonly understood as formal, face-to-face speaking
of a single person to a group
Reasons Why Public Speaking Is Important In Your Life

1. Increase in self confidence

Public speaking will help you increase your self confidence dramatically. We live in a materialistic
society and you can’t avoid that. A lot of our self worth and self esteem is gained by our
perceptions of what we think other people think about us.

Now this is obviously not ideal, it would be nice to get our self esteem from somewhere else, but we
have to work with the hand we are dealt.

By doing public speaking you are increasing your skill at communicating with others, making you more
confident around people automatically, and it also increases your skill at perceiving people’s
reactions to your message.

This means in general conversation you can better understand what people are thinking and thus
change what you are saying to make them think and feel the way you want them to. Thus you can
help to make people think highly of you…devilish.

2. Makes you more comfortable around other people

I already highlighted this above but I will elaborate on it here. One of the worst things about being
around other people is those awkward moments when neither of you know what you say or you
fumble and say something stupid.

Public speaking is important because it increases your skills at speaking (an activity we do every
single day) and thus even when you are with one other person, as opposed to a group, you are less
likely to be awkward and more likely to be comfortable and confident.

3. One of the best ways to generate sales (or get a better job)

If you own a business or do some form of work on the side public speaking is one of the best ways
to generate sales. Understanding how to effectively get your message (and the emotions tied to
that message) across to another person can help you generate more sales for your company.

Public speaking skills are also important in securing a better job. It is how you present yourself at a
job interview that will be the ultimate decider as to whether or not you land that higher paying job
and whether or not you get paid in the higher bracket or lower bracket of pay rates.

4. One of the most effective ways to get your message across

Public speaking still remains as one of the most effective ways to get your message across to a
large audience.

5. At some point in your life you will need to do it

Almost every single person will need to speak in public at some point in their lives. Every public
speaking opportunity is an opportunity to grow your leadership, your influence and your career.

By becoming a confident and capable public speaker you instantly put yourself above many other
people who refuse to stand up and speak.

You might need to work in sales and speak to groups of people to sell product, you might need to
give a presentation at a business meeting, you might have to give a speech at your daughter’s
wedding. No matter who you are it is almost 100% certain you will need to give a speech at some
point in your life.

6. It will allow you to make a difference in your life, business, community, career

As we said above, every speaking opportunity is an opportunity to grow in leadership and influence.
Having the opportunity to influence people’s thoughts (remember they’re taking time out of their
busy head to listen to your thoughts on the world) put you in a position to create real positive
change in people’s lives.

In order for anything important to happen an idea needs to be transferred from one person to
many. President Nixon did this when he inspired America to put a man on the moon. Public speaking
is one of the great ways to get your idea across and make a difference.

7. Skills learned can boost performance in other areas of life

Public speaking will improve you communication skills, your leadership skills, your confidence and
your ability to read and understand people. There are multiple other skills you will learn when public
speaking that can actually boost your performance and fulfilment in other areas of your life.

8. Public speaking allows you to demonstrate your knowledge

90% of people will avoid getting up in front of people to give a speech. By standing up and speaking
to a crowd you are positioning yourself as an expert in your field and you have a great opportunity
to share your knowledge.

9. Public speaking allows you to improve upon your knowledge

One of the best ways to learn is to teach, and public speaking is exactly that…an opportunity to
teach. Public speaking is important because it helps you to improve your knowledge. The preparation
that goes into a speech and the fact that you have to work out how to communicate to others
effectively makes you understand your content that much better.

10. Public speaking differentiates you in the workforce

As I said before, probably 90% of people will avoid speaking up in a given situation…and probably
even more people avoid public speaking. By having the confidence and ability to speak in public you
can differentiate yourself in the workforce. This could put you in line for the next promotion or
keep your head off the chopping block when the next redundancy rolls around.

11. Public speaking will help you form a tribe of supporters around you

By standing up in front of people and delivering a talk you can attract like minded people around you.
Seth Godin calls this a tribe and I think it is a great concept.

You have come to this website because of words, videos and podcasts I have created and put out
there. Hopefully you will stay and become a part of the tribe. By giving speeches you can help to
build your own tribe of supporters.

Leaders have people rallying around them. People who spend their lives to help the success of their
leader. Wouldn’t you rather be a leader where people support you to help make you successful than
support someone else’s success?

12 If you want to be a leader you must know how to communicate

Public speaking is extremely important if your want to be a leader. People follow leaders who inspire
them and leaders who communicate their ideas effectively. If you can’t communicate with your
tribe you can’t be a leader.

Speech preparation

1.Know your subject. In some cases, you might need to do nothing more than sit down, gather your
thoughts and put all of your ideas on paper. Other times, your topic will be unfamiliar enough that
you must do research in order to speak about it knowledgeably. Most times, you'll fall somewhere in
between the two extremes.

2.Do broad research. The internet can be a great source to find out more about your speech topic,
but don't necessarily stop there. If you're a student, use your school's library or library databases.
Many public libraries subscribe to databases that house thousands and thousands of articles. If you
have a library card, you have free access to those databases. Think about interviewing someone
who's an expert in your topic or conducting a survey. The more ways you go at gathering the
information you need, the more successful you're likely to be. Plus, using various research sources
gives your speech breadth.

3.Avoid plagiarism. When you do use information you got from an outside source in your speech,
plan to give credit to that source. To do so, keep track of where you're getting your information so
that you can cite it later on.

4. Decide if you'll outline or script. Narrative, informative and persuasive speeches lend
themselves well to being outlined while ceremonial speeches are best written out.
5.Be sure you have all the pieces in place. A speech includes three basic pieces: an introduction,
a body and a conclusion. Be sure your speech contains all of these elements.
 Introduction. There are two things that most good introductions include: an attention-
getter and a preview of what's to come in the speech.
o Give an attention-getter. The most important thing you must do in your introduction
is to grab your audience's attention. You can do this in a number of ways: ask a
question, say something surprising, offer startling statistics, use a quote or proverb
related to your speech topic or tell a short story. Take the time to figure out how
you'll grab your audience's attention--it's easier to get them hooked in the
beginning than to try to get them interested as your speech progresses.
o Offer a preview. Think of a preview as kind of the "coming attractions" of your
speech. Plan to tell your audience the main points you'll talk about in your speech.
There's not need to go into any detail here; you'll get to that when you come to the
body of your speech. You can write a preview that's simply one sentence in length to
cover what you need to say here.
 Body. The body is where the "meat" of your speech resides. The points you outlined or the
information you scripted make up the body. There are several ways to organize the
information within the body of your speech--in time sequence, in step order, from most
important point to least important point, problem-solution, to name just a few. Choose an
organizational pattern that makes sense based on your speech goal.
 Conclusion. There are two things to accomplish in your conclusion. This is not the place to
introduce any new information; instead, the idea is to wrap things up in a way that's
memorable and definite.
o Give a summary. One of the ways an audience remembers what a speech was about is
through intentional repetition. In your introduction, you gave a preview of what
you'd be talking about. In your speech body, you talked about those things. Now, in
your conclusion, you remind your audience what you talked about. Simply offer a
brief review of the main points you touched on in your speech.
o End with a clincher. A clincher is a memorable, definitive statement that gives your
speech a sense of closure. One easy way to do this is to write a clincher that refers
back to what you said in the attention-getter of your speech. This helps bring your
presentation full circle and provides a sense of closure.

 Outline. When you outline, you're simply organizing and structuring your speech as a series
of points. For example, if you were giving the speech mentioned above: "I want my audience
to learn the four things they should look for when buying a diamond," you might designate
one point for "Cut," one for "Color," one for "Clarity" and one for "Carat." Under each of
those points, you'd offer your audience more information and detail.
o Outlines can be written in complete sentences or they can be a series of
abbreviated phrases and reminders. Another approach is to begin by writing
complete sentences and then transferring your outline on to note cards on which you
abbreviate those sentences using just the words and memory prompts you need.
 Script. One reason that it makes sense to write out ceremonial speeches is because the
words you choose to express yourself in these kinds of speeches are particularly important.
You're meant to inspire or entertain or pay tribute to someone, so saying exactly what you
mean and have prepared increases your chances for success.
 o Pull out your old English textbooks and review things like similes, metaphors,
alliteration and other kinds of figurative language. These kinds of devices can add to
the impact of a ceremonial speech.
o Beware one pitfall of the scripted speech: having a page full of words in front of you
can cause you to fall into the trap of simply reading from your script without every
looking up, making eye contact or engaging with the audience in any way. Thorough
practice should help to eliminate your chances of falling into this trip.
o

CHAPTER 18

Public Relations
Definition
The profession or practice of creating and maintaining goodwill of an organization's various publics
(customers, employees, investors, suppliers, etc.), usually through publicity and other nonpaid forms
of communication. These efforts may also include support of arts, charitable causes, education,
sporting events, and other civic engagements.

The importance of Public Relations

PR is vital to outreach programs.

 PR is all about building relationships to advance, promote, and benefit the reputation of you
yourself, your department and institution
 PR is about communicating your message to gain allies, advocates, supporters, etc. in the
community and the institution
 It aids in marketing the department for recruitment purposes and can lead to improved
quality of student applicants
 It demonstrates to funding agencies that you are making a difference and actually have
results
 It can improve the reputation of an individual department
 It can also serve the greater physics community by convincing the public that “quarks,
quantum dots, and nanostructures are cool”
 It can lead to strong community and industrial partnerships, and even financial support

The more PR you do, greater potential for even moremedia exposure

PR is not just media relations

 "doing outreach" itself is PR

 Other PR examples include:

 Special Events
  Special Promotions
 Public Affairs
 Internal Relations
 Community Relations

CHAPTER 19

SUMMARY WRITTING

 How to write a summary

 Part I
What is a summary?

A summary is a record in a reader's own words that gives the main points of a piece of
writing such as a newspaper article, the chapter of a book, or even a whole book. It is also
possible to summarize something that you have heard, such as a lecture, or something that
you have seen and heard, such as a movie. A summary omits details, and does not include the
reader's interpretation of the original.

You may be used to reading English in order to answer questions set by someone else. In
that case, you probably read the questions first and then read the passage in order to find
the correct answer. However, when you read in order to write a summary, you must read in
order to decide for yourself what the main points are. This involves reading to understand
the message that the writer has for the reader, rather than reading in order to get the
correct answer to someone else's questions. Since people have different backgrounds and
read for different purposes, it is possible that different readers will interpret a writer's
message in different ways. Even if they agree, they will probably write their summaries in
different ways. In other words, there is unlikely to be only one "correct" summary. On the
other hand, to write a summary it is necessary to understand a passage as a whole, and
therefore at a deeper level, than when one's purpose is just to answer questions.

When are summaries used?

1. In general terms, writing summaries is a good way of improving one's ability to read
because it forces the reader to focus on understanding the whole of something rather than
on just following each word or sentence.

2. In academic terms:
a) If you are reading something that is very important for your studies and/or difficult to
understand, writing a summary helps you to make sure that you have understood it. You can
also refer to it later to refresh your memory, for example when you are revising for an
exam, or when you are talking about it in class. (It is also a good idea to turn lecture notes
 into summaries.)
b) When writing academic papers people often need to insert summaries of something that
they have read or heard. For example, you might want to summarize the the main points of a
book that is relevant to your topic. In such cases, it is extremely important to use your own
words, or quotation marks if you are actually quoting, in order to avoid plagiarism. (We will
talk more about plagiarism later in the course.)

First steps to writing a summary

1. As you read, underline all the important points and and all the important evidence. For
example, you could look for all the topic sentences. Words that are repeated several times
are likely to be keywords. Transition words can help understanding of the overall structure
of a passage.

2. List or cluster the main idea of the whole piece, the main supporting ideas, and the main
evidence for each idea. Use of the same keywords or technical expressions is probably
unavoidable. However, be careful to express the ideas in your own way, using your own
vocabulary and expressions as much as possible, rather than copying or just rearranging. Do
not include too much detail.

 Part II
What is a good summary?

1. A good summary should give an objective outline of the whole piece of writing. It should
answer basic questions about the original text such as "Who did what, where, and when?", or
"What is the main idea of the text?", "What are the main supporting points?", "What are the
major pieces of evidence?". It should not be a paraphrase of the whole text using your own
words. A reference should be made to the original piece either in the title ("A Summary of..."),
in the first sentence, or in a footnote or endnote.

2. You should not give your own ideas or criticisms as part of the summary. However, if you want
to comment on a piece of writing it is usual to begin by summarizing it as objectively as possible.

3. A good summary should not include selected examples, details, or information which are not
relevant to the piece of writing taken as a whole.

4. A good summary of an essay should probably include the main idea of each paragraph, and the
main evidence supporting that idea, unless it is not relevant to the article or essay as a whole. A
summary does not need a conclusion, but if the original ends with a message to the reader this
should not be left out. (A good summary of a chapter should probably include the main idea of
each group of paragraphs or each section; a good summary of a book should probably include the
main idea of each chapter, or perhaps the main idea of each section of each chapter.)

5. A good summary may use key words from the original text but should not contain whole
phrases or sentences from the original unless quotation marks are used. Quotations should only
be made if there is a reason for using the original words, for example because the choice of
words is significant, or because the original is so well expressed.

6. Rearranging the words used in the original, or keeping the same structure but just
substituting different words is not enough. You must express the sense of the original using
your own words and structures.

How to write a summary of a short piece of writing:

1. As you read, underline all the important points and and all the important evidence. For
example, you could look for all the topic sentences. If there is a word or words that are
repeated throughout the passage, this is likely to be related to the topic.
Transition words and phrases should help you to understand how the piece is joined together.
The main idea should be in the first or second paragraph, probably in a thesis statement at the
end of the paragraph, or in the concluding paragraph. (You could look out for the 5Ws - What?,
Which?, Who?, Where?, When?, Why? - and the 1H - How?)

2. List or cluster the main idea of the whole piece, the main supporting ideas, and the main
evidence for each idea. Be careful to use your own words rather than copying or just
rearranging. In other words, try to find your own way of expressing the writer's ideas. Of
course, you can use key words or phrases. (For example, if the piece of writing is about digital
technology, it is fine to use key technical words that are in the original, such as "digital
technology", "binary digit" or "analog".) Do not include too much detail.

3. Change the order if necessary, so that the main idea comes first and is followed by the
supporting ideas and evidence in a logical sequence. Omit any repetitions.

4. If the original uses 'I' replace this with the writer's actual surname, "the writer", or "s/he".
If the original uses 'you', substitute "people" or "they".

5. You should now be ready to write the summary. Start with a sentence that a) identifies the
writer and the piece of writing, for example by giving the writer's name, the title of the piece
and where/when it appeared, and b) gives the main idea. Use transition words to join everything
together.

MEETINGS
Definition
Formal or informal deliberative assembly of individuals called to debate certain issues and
problems, and to take decisions. Formal meetings are held at definite times, at a definite place,
and usually for a definite duration to follow an agreed upon agenda. In a corporate setting, they
are divided into two main groups (1) Organizational meeting: normally a regular meeting involving
stockholders (shareholders) and management, such as a board meeting and annual general
meeting (AGM). (2) Operational meeting: regular or ad hoc meeting involving management and
employees, such as a committee meeting, planning meeting, and sales meeting.
A meeting is typically headed by a chairperson, and its deliberations are recorded in a written
 form called minutes. Under corporate legislation, two main types of meetings are general
meetings and special or extraordinary meetings. Such meetings must have a minimum number of
members (called quorum) present to make the legally operative. Decisions (called resolutions)
are made on the basis of number of votes the assenting and dissenting parties can muster.
Under the doctrine of collective responsibility, decisions taken at these meetings bind all
members whether present or not. However, a dissenting minority may apply to a court to have
an already adopted resolution set aside if

it is deemed illegal, iniquitous, or ultra vires.

The six general types of meetings:

 Status Update Meetings

 Information Sharing Meetings
 Decision Making Meetings
 Problem Solving Meetings
 Innovation Meetings
 Team Building Meetings

Here is a break-down of the six general types of meetings with examples of the main activities
involve in each type. Knowing what type of meeting you are planning will increase the success of your
meeting.

Meeting Type 1: Status Update Meetings

Status update meetings is one of the most common meeting types. This category includes regular
team and project meetings, where the primary goal is to align the team via updates on progress,
challenges, and next steps. Commonly found group activities in these kinds of meetings are problem
solving, decision making, prioritization, and task assignment.

Meeting Type 2: Information Sharing Meetings

Presentations, panel debates, keynotes, and lectures are all examples of information sharing
meetings. The primary goal of these meeting is for the speakers to share information with the
attendees. This could be information about things like upcoming changes, new products and
techniques, or in depth knowledge of a domain. Visual communication tools, like slides and videos, are
powerful tools for making the shared information more memorable.

At information sharing meetings the attendees have historically been passive listeners. With new
technologies like MeetingSift they can use their smart devices to go from passive spectators to
active participants, making the meeting more engaging and productive for all.

3: Decision Making Meetings

The vast majority of business decisions are made by groups in meetings. While small decisions are
made in all kinds of meetings, the more important decisions often get their own dedicated meetings.
There are different types of group decision making processes, and care should be taken to choose a
process that best matches the situation. A decision making process can include group processes like
information gathering and sharing, brainstorming solutions, evaluating options, ranking preferences,
and voting.

4: Problem Solving Meetings

Problem solving meetings are perhaps the most complex and varied type of meetings. Whether the
meeting is addressing an identified problem, or it is focusing on creating strategies and plans to
navigate the future, there are a rich arsenal of group processes that can be used. Scopes and
priorities need to be defined, opportunities and threats need to be identified, and possible solutions
should be brainstormed, evaluated, and agreed upon.

5: Innovation Meetings

Innovation meetings and creative meetings often start with thinking outside the box, by
brainstorming, associating, and sharing ideas in a broad scope. Meeting participants can then use
various techniques and processes to reduce the diverse pool of ideas to a more focused short list.
Through ranking, evaluations, and decision making the most suitable idea, or ideas, are identified,
and recommendations and tasks can be assigned based on this.

6: Team Building Meetings

All meetings should contribute to team building, strengthening relationships and corporate culture.
However, now and then team building activities should be the main focus for a meeting. This
category include meetings like include all-hands meetings, kick-off meetings, team building outings,
and corporate events. Have participants feel like essential parts of their unit, team, department,
branch, and company has all kinds of positive impact on their engagement, performance, and
satisfaction.

Purpose of Meetings
You have to be very clear on why you are calling a meeting. That is, you have to be very clear on
what you want to accomplish and why you are bringing together the group of people that have been
invited.

Meetings are held for any of the following reasons:

 To sort out any conflicts.

 To negotiate a contract or agreement, or matters to do with it.
 To deal with a current problem within the group or within the business or organization.
 To receive a report for assessment and review.

Preparation

 Define a clear goal

  Select participants
 Decide the form of the meeting (in person or phone or web conference)
 Set date and start and end time
 Distribute agenda and provide supporting material in time
 Demand that everyone is prepared
 Designate one person to take notes during the meeting. Consider rotating this function.

 Actual Meeting

 Start on time
 Repeat the goal of the meeting
 Provide updates on tasks from previous meeting(s) if applicable
 Follow to the agenda, stay on time
 Stay focused, place new topics on parking lot for next meeting
 Take clear brief notes and distinguish between informational notes and decisions
 Assign tasks, assign each task to one person and set due date
 At the end of the meeting:
o summarize all decisions and tasks
o schedule follow-up meeting if required
 end on time

 Follow-up

 Distribute minutes as soon as possible

 Communicate tasks to task owners
 Track tasks and follow-up if not completed by due date

N.B file minutes in a place where you can easily find them

Meeting Procedures

Introduction
The prospect of finding yourself in the unfamiliar surrounds of a meeting in progress can be quite
daunting. Fear of the unknown and the lack of knowledge in correct meeting procedures has literally
stopped people from taking on roles or positions on decision-making bodies. Obtaining an
understanding of these procedures will allow you to break through this barrier and make a
contribution to various organizations and decision-making bodies.

The Meeting
Meetings occur when groups of people gather to discuss, and try to resolve matters which are of a
mutual concern. Recommendations are made, directions given and courses of action decided. For a
meeting to effectively achieve these goals, a structure needs to be in place. If a meeting has little
or no structure, the results are unproductive and dissatisfying for all concerned.

The Agenda
Prior to the meeting, an agenda is prepared and circulated to all members. This agenda forms the
structure of the meeting. It states where and when the meeting will take place and what matters
will be discussed. A draft copy of the minutes of the previous meeting, along with any other
relevant material that the members should read prior to the meeting, are distributed at the same
time as the agenda. 

The Meeting Structure 

 The meeting is unable to begin until the Chairperson declares a

quorum. This means that there are enough people in attendance to
Opening the allow debates to be conducted and decisions to be voted upon. If a
Meeting... the quorum cannot be declared within 30 minutes of the meetings
meeting begins designated starting time, the meeting should be called again for a
after the similar time and place a week later. If no more members attend
Chairperson the reconvened meeting, the Chairperson may be allowed by the
declares the standing orders to conduct the business with those who arrived.
meeting opened. If a Chairperson has not taken the chair 15 minutes after the
meeting was due to begin, the meeting should elect another
Chairperson from among the members present to act temporarily.

Apologies...those The Chairperson states the names of those members who formally
unable to attend. notified that they were unable to attend the meeting.

The Chairperson tables the minutes of the previous meeting

making them open as a topic of discussion. At this point the
Chairperson will ask the members to adopt the minutes. If the
members do not agree that the draft minutes are accurate,
changes may be suggested. The Chairperson should ask the
Minutes of the meeting to vote on those corrections. If there are only a few
Previous minor corrections, the Chairperson may ask the members to accept
Meeting ... the the minutes with the corrections. The vote to adopt the minutes
Chairperson moves can then go ahead on that basis. 
that the minutes of Once the Minutes have been adopted the Chairperson should sign
the previous every page of the minutes and hand them to the meeting secretary
meeting be for filing.
accepted or It is not appropriate at this time, to indulge in debates on
adopted. decisions which were made at the previous meeting. Anyone who
wishes to change a motion should wait until the same subject
arises in the general business of the current meeting or raise it in
the part called "Any Other Business".
The most important advice about the minutes of a previous
meeting is to make sure you read them.

Business arising Often the issues for Business arising from the Minutes of the
from Minutes of Previous Meeting are listed in the agenda. Any reports, pieces of
the Previous information or other matters of substance that were requested at
Meeting ... the previous meeting are debated and a vote is taken on the
 appropriate action to take.

Any letters, facsimiles and the like, which have been received by
the committee are discussed here. The Chairperson should
summarise correspondence which cover similar issues, or express
similar opinions and discuss them as a single issue.
Correspondence ... The Chairperson presents a piece of correspondence to the
letters that have meeting by putting a motion that the meeting "receive the
been sent to the correspondence". This is an acknowledgment by the meeting that
meeting are tabled the correspondence as been formally received and that it may now
and debated, if the be discussed and acted upon, if necessary.
meeting wishes to If correspondence sent to the meeting is considered offensive,
do so. the meeting can vote on a motion, "not to receive" it. Alternatively,
the meeting can decide that the correspondence should be
"received and lie on the table". This means it will not really be
dealt with. It is effectively in limbo until such time in the future
that it is "taken from the table" and discussed.

Reports and submissions that have been written for the meeting
or include information relevant to the work of the meeting are
tabled and discussed. A motion is required to be put that a report
Reports ...reports be received. This means that the report exists, as far as the
written for the meeting is concerned, and a discussion or debate may now take
meeting are tabled placed on the contents, interpretation and recommendations of
and debated, if the the report. Motions are able to be put for or against the
meeting wishes to recommendations of the report or ask the author to consider
do so. further issues or reconsider issues on the basis of particular
information.
A member of a meeting can even put forward a motion to change
the wording of a report or submission.

General business items are announced singly by the Chairperson

and a discussion or debate follows each one. Motions that suggest
General Business methods of resolving issues are put forward and to a vote. Once
...items so listed in the motions receive a simple majority, or a majority as defined in
the agenda are the standing orders, they become resolutions. Sometimes
debated. The amendments to a motion are put forward. Only after the
debate usually amendments are debated and voted upon can the revised
begins with the substantive motion be brought to the vote. 
Chairperson calling In the case of more formal meetings, general business consists of
on someone to move motions that are moved and seconded by participants of the
a motion. meetings. A seconder is someone who agrees that a motion should
be debated. In most meetings however, the need for a member to
support a motion is ignored.

Any other It is at this point in time, that the members are able to raise
Business ...when all issues they feel are important. These include any items which were
 not listed on the agenda. No extremely important or complex
issues should be raised unannounced during this part of the
items on the
meeting. If an urgent matter must be dealt with by the meeting,
agenda have been
the Chairperson should be informed before the meeting begins. A
debated, the
revised agenda can then be drawn up in the time that remains
Chairperson may
before the meeting is due to begin. If the Chairperson feels that
call for items not
any of the issues brought up for discussion are too complex or
listed in General
troublesome, he may call for another meeting to discuss the issue
Business.
or alternatively, put it on the agenda for the next scheduled
meeting.

Once all the issues have been put forward and discussed, the
Close of Meeting Chairperson advises members of the date and time of the next
meeting. The meeting is now officially closed.

 Advantages of Meetings:
(i) Save time:
Since one can meet a number of people at a time interactively, a meeting can save time.
(ii) Addressing groups:
One can divide the audiences according to their background and need, and address them group by
group.
(iii) Cope with information explosion:
New technology and new regulations are coming thick and fast. Meetings enable us to cope with this
situation.
(iv) Social and emotional support:
Members get personal support from each other when they meet and exchange ideas.
(v) Feeling of being consulted:
Members get the feeling that they have been consulted and this is useful in getting their intelligent
and willing cooperation.
(vi) Democratic functioning:
Democracy aims at achieving all people’s welfare by all people’s involvement. This is possible through
meetings.
(vii) Idea development:
Ideas are systematically cross-fertilized, analyzed and improved by a group.
(viii) Defusing troublemakers:
By the collectivity of constructive forces, troublemakers can be isolated in a meeting and positive
action got going. The opponents of a plan get a forum to voice their opposition, which can be
overcome before a group of supportive people.
(ix) Bolder decisions:
Collectively we can take more adventurous decisions because of united strength.
(x) Various interest groups represented:
In a meeting many interest groups can be represented and minorities can also be given due
attention.
(xi) Preventing mistakes:
A meeting helps to avoid mistakes by a collective and many-angled focus on issues.
Disadvantages:
1. Time-consuming:
Meetings require a number of people to come together at the same time and place. This costs time
because other work has to be set aside for the sake of the meeting.
2. Inability to arrive at a decision:
Just as “two heads are better than one,” it is also true that “too many cooks spoil the soup.”
Multiplicity of views and personal stubbornness of members may prevent a meeting from taking a
decision which a chief executive may take alone.
3. Lack of seriousness:
Many meetings suffer from the drawback that members come unprepared and feel that the others
will do the thinking and talking. They feel they can take a free ride. “Everybody’s job is nobody’s
job.”
4. Inexpert chairing:
Just as an airplane is steered by a pilot, a meeting is piloted by the chairperson. His lack of skill and
personal failings/biases may fail a meeting.
5. Expensive:
Meetings are expensive to arrange – they require a place, paperwork, prior communication, and
travelling by the attendees.
6. Open to disruption:
A meeting is prone to being disrupted by an element that is opposed to its objective. There are
times when one passenger’s refusal to adjust himself delays the entire flight. The same for
meetings. The spirit of give-and-take may be missing in some participants.

CHAPTER 20

INTERVIEWS

An interview is a formal meeting at which someone is asked questions in order to find out if they
are suitable for a job or a course of study.

Types of Interviews

Every employer has a preferred style of obtaining the information they need for their hiring
decision.  These are some basic types of interview styles you may encounter.  Some employers may
choose to utilize a combination of different styles, but as long as you've prepared well for your
interview, you'll be able to adapt to the situation they present.

Structured Interview

A structured interview is typically formal and organized and may include several interviewers,
commonly referred to as a panel interview.  An interviewer who has a more structured style will
usually begin with what is known as an “icebreaker” question.  The icebreaker is used to relax you
before the more serious questions are asked.  A discussion about the weather might be used or
perhaps a question about the traffic on your way to the office.
Next, the interviewer may talk for a few minutes about the company and the position.  During this
time, the interviewer may describe the day-to-day work responsibilities and the general company
philosophy.  He or she may then ask you a series of questions regarding your past educational, co-
curricular, and work experiences.

Finally, the interviewer may ask if you have questions for him or her.  You should always have
several questions prepared.  This type of interview is structured and formal.

Unstructured Interview

The unstructured interview is what the name implies.  The only structure to the interview is the one
that you provide.  Basically, the interviewer is interested in hearing from you, so you may be asked a
variety of different open ended questions.

You will find an unstructured interview to be more conversational and less formal in tone than a
structured interview. You may be asked questions about your hobbies, what you do on the weekends,
or other casual questions designed to put you at ease.  Many students prefer this laid back style of
interviewing, but you must be cautious.  Sometimes employers intentionally adopt this casual
demeanor so that you feel comfortable enough to let down your guard and potentially reveal
something that you normally would not.  If you find yourself in an unstructured interview, be
friendly but maintain your professionalism.  Remember that you are there to showcase your best
assets and to convince the employer that you are the most qualified candidate for the job.  Casual
conversation is acceptable, and it can set a positive tone for the interview, but be sure to bring the
conversation around to your skills and qualifications.

Stress Interview

This style is used primarily by interviewers who are hiring for positions where there is a high level
of daily stress in the work environment (i.e., sales, stockbroker, etc.).

The same questions that are asked during a structured or unstructured interview may be asked for
a stress interview.  However, there may be a difference in the behavior or demeanor of the
interviewer.  The interviewer during a stress interview may appear distracted, contrary, or
indifferent to you.  The idea behind this type of interview is to assess your reaction to the
pressure of indifference, rejection, and overall stress.  To be successful in the stress interview, it
is recommended that you focus on the question that is asked and not the manner in which it is
asked.

Another hallmark of a stress interview is the “strange question.”  For instance, some interviewers
like to ask questions such as, “How many ping pong balls can fit in a 757 jet?”  To answer a question
like this, break it down into smaller, more manageable components.  Verbally convey your decision
making process.  The interviewer will be less focused on whether or not you came to the “right”
answer and more focused on your ability to problem-solve and think logically.

Sometimes in a stress interview, the interviewer will put candidates in an uncomfortable situation. 
For instance, candidates may be given a test that takes two hours to complete, and are told to
complete it in thirty minutes.  Remember to stay calm throughout a stress interview, because that
is what the employer is looking for – a candidate who has the ability to remain cool, calm and
collected. 

Behavioral Interview

Behavioral interviewing is a widely used method of job interviewing.  This approach is based on the
belief that past performance is the best predictor of future behavior.  Therefore, behavioral
interview questions are designed to probe your previous experiences in order to determine how you
might behave in similar situations in the future.  In this type of interview, you will not be asked
hypothetical questions about how you would handle a situation if confronted with it in the future.
Instead you will be asked how you did handle a specific situation when you encountered it in the
past.  Keep in mind that employers are not interested in what you should have done, or what you will
do next time...they want to know what you actually did.  Behavioral interview questions generally
start with any one of the following phrases:

 Tell me about a time when you...

 Describe a circumstance when you were faced with a problem related to...
 Tell me how you approached a situation where...
 Share with me an instance in which you demonstrated...

This type of question requires you to tell stories from your past.  These stories will be evaluated
for evidence of your intellectual competence, leadership, teamwork, personal skills, adjustment and
flexibility, motivation, communication skills, administrative skills, and technical abilities.

To prepare for a behavioral interview, you must first identify the skills and strengths that the
employer is seeking.  Next, reflect on your past experiences (educational, employment, extra-
curricular, personal) in order to identify situations in which you clearly demonstrated the identified
skills.  During the interview, you must be able to recount these circumstances articulately and in a
manner which showcases your strengths.  A thorough answer should describe the Situation, the
Tasks with which you were charged, the Action you took, and the Result of your action.  We refer
to this as the STAR Method of responding to behavioral interview questions.

Problem Solving or Case Interview

Employers utilize this style of questioning to test a candidate's analytical ability and communication
skills.  In a problem solving or case interview, you will be presented with a real or simulated problem
to consider and solve.  You are not necessarily expected to arrive at the "correct answer." What
the interviewer is most concerned with is your thought process, so be sure to "think out loud" when
responding to this type of question.  An effective answer is one which demonstrates your ability to
break a problem down into manageable pieces and to think clearly under pressure.

Panel Interview

Employers often like to gather the opinions of several members of their staff prior to deciding
which candidate to hire.  To accomplish this, panel interviews are often used where one candidate
may be interviewed by a few people at once.  In a panel interview, take note of each interviewer’s
name, and refer to them by their names.  When giving your answers, focus on the person who asked
you the question, but make eye contact with the other members in the group from time to time. 
Panel interviews can vary in style and tone, but generally they will be more formal and include
behavioral based questions.

Preparing for Interviews

In interviews, your job is to convince a recruiter that you have the skills, knowledge and experience
for the job. Show motivation and convince a recruiter that you fit the organization's culture and
job description, and you get that much closer to an offer. 
7-Step Interview Prep Plan
1. Research the organization.
This will help you answer questions — and stand out from less-prepared candidates.
Seek background information. 
Visit the organization’s website to ensure that you understand the breadth of what they do.
Review the organization's background and mission statement.
Assess their products, services and client-base.
Read recent press releases for insight on projected growth and stability.
Get perspective. Review trade or business publications. Seek perspective and a glimpse into their
industry standing.
Develop a question list. Prepare to ask about the organization or position based on your research.
2. Compare your skills and qualifications to the job requirements.
Analyze the job description. Outline the knowledge, skills and abilities required.
Examine the hierarchy. Determine where the position fits within the organization.
Look side-by-side. Compare what the employer is seeking to your qualifications.
3. Prepare responses.
Most interviews involve a combination of resume-based, behavioral and case questions. We
encourage you to meet with us to practice telling your story in the best possible way.
4. Plan what to wear.
Go neutral. Conservative business attire, such as a neutral-colored suit and professional shoes, is
best.
Err formal. If instructed to dress “business casual,” use good judgment.
Plug in that iron. Make sure your clothes are neat and wrinkle-free.
Dress to impress. Be sure that your overall appearance is neat and clean.
5. Plan what to bring.
Extra copies of your resume on quality paper
A notepad or professional binder and pen
A list of references
Information you might need to complete an application
A portfolio with samples of your work, if relevant
6. Pay attention to non-verbal communication.
Be mindful. Nonverbal communication speaks volumes. 
Start ahead. Remember that waiting room behaviors may be reported.
Project confidence. Smile, establish eye contact and use a firm handshake.
Posture counts. Sit up straight yet comfortably. Be aware of nervous gestures such as foot-tapping.
Be attentive.  Don't stare, but maintain good eye contact, while addressing all aspects of an
interviewer's questions.
Respect their space. Do not place anything on their desk.
Manage reactions. Facial expressions provide clues to your feelings. Manage how you react, and
project a positive image.
7. Follow up.
Many interviews end with “Do you have any questions?” 
Bring a list. You may say, “In preparing for today's meeting, I took some time to jot down a few
questions. Please allow me to review my notes.” 
Be strategic. Cover information not discussed or clarify a previous topic — do not ask for
information that can be found on the organization’s website.
In your opinion, what makes this organization a great place to work?
What do you consider the most important criteria for success in this job?
Tell me about the organization’s culture.
How will my performance be evaluated?
What are the opportunities for advancement?
What are the next steps in the hiring process?

How to be a good interviewer

Good interviewers make a conscious effort to get the most out of the interview process.
Interviewing is hard work, but getting to hire great people and strengthening your employer’s brand
is worthwhile.

Prepare well

Unprepared interviewers risk appearing indifferent. And they may not be able to evaluate a
candidate correctly or persuade them to accept a job offer.

Before you interview, cross these items off your checklist:

1. Read the candidate’s resume and print out a copy for reference during the interview.
2. Review any work samples that a candidate submitted (this is particularly important if you’re
hiring designers or writers.)
3. Check the job description again to make sure you can discuss the role and its requirements.
4. Prepare a list of questions to ask (use interview scorecards to manage questions more easily
and take notes.)
5. Refresh your knowledge of your company’s mission and structure, as well as the benefits and
perks for the position you’re hiring for.
It’s also a good idea to think about whether there’s anything specific you want to clarify during an
interview. Denise Wilton, Workable’s VP Creative, says:

“I think about that candidate specifically: what made them seem like a good fit and how could I
check that in their interview? What concerns do I have and how can I address them?”

Be methodical

Unstructured interviews (that feel like free-flowing conversations that lack an agenda) can easily
become subjective and non-job-related. Unstructured interviews help candidates feel more
comfortable, but they don’t result in the best hiring decisions.

Adding some structure to your interviews will make them more effective. Even if you don’t have
time to structure your interviews completely, try to simulate a structured interview as much as
possible:

 Choose questions carefully. Generic interview questions (like “what’s your greatest
weakness?”) are overused and brain teasers are ineffective. Prepare a short list of
questions tailored to the role you’re hiring for. Behavioral and situational questions help you
judge a candidate’s soft skills (like problem-solving and critical thinking.) Aim to ask the
same questions to all candidates and be aware of illegal questions to avoid.
 Practice note-taking. Use effective note-taking techniques, like the Cornell Method. Be
sure to focus on candidates’ answers, instead of your judgements (for example, write “he
told us he hasn’t dealt with difficult customers before” instead of “he’s inexperienced.”)
 Rate candidates’ answers with a consistent scale. A ‘poor’ to ‘excellent’ or ‘low’ to ‘high’
scale can work well. To reduce the halo effect, use your notes to rate all candidates’
answers at the same time, after conducting all of your interviews, instead of rating
candidates individually right after each interview. Rate every candidate on one question,
before moving to the next question.

Show you care

Caring about candidates makes for good candidate experience and boosts your employer brand. Even
if a candidate doesn’t get a job offer, they may still feel good about a company that treated them
well. When interviewing candidates:

 Open on a positive note. Greet interviewees on time and make them feel welcome: smile,
offer them something to drink and maintain eye contact as much as possible.
 Ease them into the process. Introduce yourself and your fellow interviewers, briefly
describe your role and why you’re hiring. This helps humanize your hiring process for
candidates. Then, ask candidates to introduce themselves or walk you through their
portfolio or work samples, if applicable.
 Focus on the conversation. Being distracted by calls or thoughts about future meetings can
damage your rapport with interviewees. Instead, focus on what the candidates says.
  Answer their questions. Candidates want to learn about your company and open role. Give
them the chance to ask questions and give them honest and direct answers. Answering
questions will also give you the chance to pitch your company to candidates.
 Take your time. If possible, don’t schedule anything directly after an interview. Some
candidates may have more questions than others and will appreciate more time with you.
Rushing candidates out isn’t a pleasant way to close an interview.

Improve your judgement

Unconscious biases can cloud our judgement and lead us to wrong decisions. Combating those biases
is key for good interviewers. Here are some ideas to achieve this:

 Take an Implicit Association Test (IAT.) The first step in fighting biases is becoming
aware of them. Harvard’s IAT can help you become more aware of your biases.
 Learn how cognitive biases work. Understanding different kinds of bias can help you
recognize them when they’re at work.
 Think about your unique prejudices. Personal concerns, preferences and experience may
interfere with our judgement. For example, if an interviewer believes that overqualified
employees will eventually get bored with their job, they may refuse to hire them. That way,
they may miss out on talented people who might still have been valuable team members.
 Slow down. Resist the urge to made a decision about a candidate before their interview
ends. It’s best to make your decisions after you’ve met all candidates and have consulted
your notes.
 Distrust body language cues. Body language isn’t an exact science; some non verbal cues
may indicate many different things and vary across cultures.
 Team up with someone. If possible, ask one of your team members to join you when
interviewing candidates. Your team member’s unique perspective paired with your own can
help you make more informed and objective hiring decisions.

Learn from your mistakes

A good interviewer views mistakes and failures as opportunities to improve. Here are a few things
you can do to learn from your interviewing experience more deliberately:

 Keep records. Recording and filing your notes helps you as an interviewer since you can
refer back to them any time. And your company can also use them in court, in the unlikely
event that they face a lawsuit.
 Monitor results. Ask your teammates who are responsible for tracking recruiting metrics
for information about candidate experience and quality of hire metrics. It’s also a good idea
to keep track of your company’s online reviews on Glassdoor. Take constructive feedback to
heart and work to improve on feedback you receive.
 Seek advice. Look for resources online (e.g. videos and tutorials) and, if possible, ask more
experienced recruiters or interviewers in your company for advice. If you plan to interview
often, you could also make a case for attending interview trainings or workshops.

How to Conduct Yourself During an Interview

A job interview is your opportunity to make a great first impression and demonstrate your poise,
sincerity and respect. Demonstrating personal likability and positive mannerisms can have as much
or more influence on the hiring decision than what is listed on your resume. A hiring manager
assesses your talents and abilities relative to the needs of a position, but will also look at your
attitudes and behavior as projected in the way you conduct yourself.

First Impressions

It may sound like a cliche, but the first few moments of an interview carry lots of weight in the
hiring manager's impression of you. Walk in with a friendly smile, a warm greeting and firm,
professional handshake to get things off on the right foot. Engage the interviewer in some friendly
conversation by complimenting his office decor or a recent company accomplishment. You might also
bring up a current event, such as a major sporting event, to potentially uncover a mutual interest.

Poise

In many cases, interviewers want to see how well you handle yourself on the hot seat. This is
especially true in jobs that require grace under pressure, such as sales, paralegal work or teaching.
Some amount of nervousness is normal in an interview. Making small talk and taking a few deep but
not overly obvious breaths at the onset can help alleviate the jitters. Sit with a relaxed but firm
posture, maintain eye contact and smile.

Sincerity

You may spend hours researching a job, preparing your answers and rehearsing with a friend.
However, the hiring manager wants to see you as a sincere, genuine person, rather than a robot
reciting a script. Remain engaged with the interviewer and answer questions concisely and honestly.

Politeness and Respect

The line between confidence and arrogance is a fine one. If you act too much like you deserve the
job, the hiring manager may view you as disrespectful. Show basic politeness and courtesy in your
mannerisms and answers. Don't interrupt or talk over the interviewer. Don't mess with items on his
desk. Avoid any types of disrespectful or abrasive answers or potentially controversial topics.
Thank the interviewer for his time and ask some insightful questions about the job that show a
genuine interest.
 Customer Care

CHAPTER 21

Customer Service is an organization's ability to supply their customers' wants and needs.
Customers and business managers alike like to talk about what good customer service is (and isn't),
but I think this definition by ACA Group sums up what excellent customer service is beautifully:
"excellent customer service (is) the ability of an organization to constantly and consistently exceed
the customer's expectations."
Customer service is an integral part of our job and should not be seen as an extension of it. A
company’s most vital asset is its customers. Without them, we would not and could not exist in
business. When you satisfy our customers, they not only help us grow by continuing to do business
with you, but recommend you to friends and associates.
The practice of customer service should be as present on the show floor as it is in any other sales
environment.
Identify different types of customers
In the retail industry, it seems as though we are constantly faced with the issue of trying to find
new customers. Most of us are obsessed with making sure our advertising, displays, and pricing all
“scream out” to attract new customers. This focus on pursuing new customers is certainly prudent
and necessary, but, at the same time, it can wind up hurting us. Therefore, our focus really should
be on the 20 percent of our clients who currently are our best customers.

In retail, this idea of focusing on the best current customers should be seen as an on-going
opportunity. To better understand the rationale behind this theory and to face the challenge of
building customer loyalty, we need to break down shoppers into five main types:

 Loyal Customers: They represent no more than 20 percent of our customer base, but make up
more than 50 percent of our sales.

 Discount Customers: They shop our stores frequently, but make their decisions based on the size
of our markdowns.
 Impulse Customers: They do not have buying a particular item at the top of their “To Do”
list, but come into the store on a whim. They will purchase what seems good at the time.
 Need-Based Customers: They have a specific intention to buy a particular type of item.
 Wandering Customers: They have no specific need or desire in mind when they come into
the store. Rather, they want a sense of experience and/or community.
If we are serious about growing our business, we need to focus our effort on the loyal customers,
and merchandise our store to leverage the impulse shoppers. The other three types of customers
do represent a segment of our business, but they can also cause us to misdirect our resources if we
put too much emphasis on them.
Let me further explain the five types of customers and elaborate on what we should be doing with
them.
 Loyal Customers
Naturally, we need to be communicating with these customers on a regular basis by telephone, mail,
email, etc. These people are the ones who can and should influence our buying and merchandising
decisions. Nothing will make a Loyal Customer feel better than soliciting their input and showing
them how much you value it. In my mind, you can never do enough for them. Many times, the more
you do for them, the more they will recommend you to others.
 Discount Customers This category helps ensure your inventory is turning over and, as a
result, it is a key contributor to cash flow. This same group, however, can often wind up
costing you money because they are more inclined to return product.

 Impulse Customers
Clearly, this is the segment of our clientele that we all like to serve. There is nothing moreexciting
than assisting an Impulse shopper and having them respond favourably to our recommendations. We
want to target our displays towards this group because they will provide us with a significant
amount of customer insight and knowledge.
 Need-Based Customers

People in this category are driven by a specific need. When they enter the store, they will look to
see if they can have that need filled quickly. If not, they will leave right away. They buy for a
variety of reasons such as a specific occasion, a specific need, or an absolute price point. As
difficult as it can be to satisfy these people, they can also become Loyal Customers if they are well
taken care of. Salespeople may not find them to be a lot of fun to serve, but, in the end, they can
often represent your greatest source of long-term growth.
It is important to remember that Need-Based Customers can easily be lost to Internet sales or a
different retailer. To overcome this threat, positive personal interaction is required, usually from
one of your top salespeople. If they are treated to a level of service not available from the Web or
another retail location, there is a very strong chance of making them Loyal Customers. For this
reason, Need-Based Customers offer the greatest long-term potential, surpassing even the Impulse
segment.
 Wandering Customers

For many stores, this is the largest segment in terms of traffic, while, at the same time, they make
up the smallest percentage of sales. There is not a whole lot you can do about this group because
the number of Wanderers you have is driven more by your store location than anything else.
Keep in mind, however, that although they may not represent a large percentage of your immediate
sales, they are a real voice for you in the community. Many Wanderers shop merely for the
interaction and experience it provides them. Shopping is no different to them than it is for another
person to go to the gym on a regular basis. Since they are merely looking for interaction, they are
also very likely to communicate to others What they had in the store. Therefore, although
Wandering Customers cannot be ignored, the time spent with them needs to be minimized.
Retail is an art, backed up by science. The science is the information we have from financials to
research data (the "backroom stuff"). The art is in how we operate on the floor: our merchandising,
our people, and, ultimately, our customers. For all of us, the competitive pressure has never been
greater and it is only going to become more difficult. To be successful, it will require patience and
understanding in knowing our customers and the behaviour patterns that drive their decision-making
process.
Using this understanding to help turn Discount, Impulse, Need-Based, and even Wandering
Customers into Loyal ones will help grow our business. At the same time, ensuring that our Loyal
Customers have a positive experience each time they enter our store will only serve to increase our
bottom-line profits.
Customer Needs

There are three needs in customers that sales people seek when prospecting. This leads to three
types of customer that need different approaches.
Three factors
Although prospective customers have many different needs, there are three factors that the sales
person wants to know.
Know problem
The customer may or may not know that they have a problem that they need to solve. The sales
person needs to know so that the potential to make a sale that solve the problem is identified.
Motivated to solve the problem
When the customer knows that they have a problem, they must be motivated to solve it. If they see
it as unimportant or not worth spending time and money on it, then the sales person has an uphill
job.
 Know what's needed to solve the problem
The customer may also know what they need in order to solve the problem. This can be good news
for the sales person. It can also be problematic.
The knowing customer
The knowing customer understands the problem, wants to solve it and knows what they need. They
approach the sales person with the question 'I need an X, do you have one?'
If the sales person has what is wanted, the sale is easy and quicker than the qualification, which
may be minimal (and particularly when the customer makes the first approach).
This can be problematic if the sales person does not have what is wanted. They may need to
question the customer to understand the problem and might offer an alternative solution, although
this requires convincing the customer that what is being sold is better than what the customer
initially asked for. This is a common situation in selling.
The solution seeker
The solution-seeking customer knows that they have a problem and are motivated to solve it, but do
not know the solution. They approach the sales person with a 'Help me' request.
In many ways this is the ideal customer as the sales person is cast as a rescuer who helps the
customer solve the problem and makes a sale in the process. The trick in qualification is to quickly
find out whether the products being sold actually can solve the problem.
The clueless customer
Finally is a customer who many sales people avoid as they often require more selling. These
prospective customers do not know they have a problem or are not motivated to solve it. They thus
repel initial advances by the salesperson.
The dilemma for the sales person is that there are many prospective customers in this class, which
is good, but the work needed to sell to them is significant, which is bad.
This leads to two types of selling that requires quite different attitudes.
Two types of selling
The points above lead to two types of selling, rooted either in the carrot or the stick.
Problem-solving
The first type of selling seeks the easier sell. Significant prospecting is done in order to qualify out
the clueless. A few early questions are used to decide this before spending more time with the
customer.
The focus of this style of selling is thus on solving the agreed problem with the products the sales
person has. It spends more time in creating pull for the carrot of the product.
Problem-creating
The second type of selling qualifies out far fewer and is more common when getting to prospective
customers is difficult or where relatively few customers know they have a problem.
This type of selling expects to start with convincing customers that they have a problem and this is
thus a 'problem-creating' sales style in that the major breakthrough happens when the customer
realizes that they have a problem. Although it may use later pull, it starts more with a push as it
focuses on creating the discomfort of realizing the problem.
The Ten Commandments of Customer Service

1. Know who is boss. You are in business to service customer needs, and you can only do that if you
know what it is your customers want. When you truly listen to your customers, they let you know
what they want and how you can provide good service. Never forget that the customer pays our
salary and makes your job possible.

2. Be a good listener. Take the time to identify customer needs by asking questions and
concentrating on what the customer is really saying. Listen to their words, tone of voice, body
language, and most importantly, how they feel. Beware of making assumptions - thinking
you intuitively know what the customer wants. Do you know what three things are most important to
your customer?
3. Effective listening and undivided attention are particularly important on the show floor where
there is a great danger of preoccupation - looking around to see to whom else we could be selling to.
4. Identify and anticipate needs. Customers don't buy products or services. They buy good
feelings and solutions to problems. Most customer needs are emotional rather than logical. The
more you know your customers, the better you become at anticipating their needs. Communicate
regularly so that you are aware of problems or upcoming needs.
5. Make customers feel important and appreciated. Treat them as individuals. Always use their
name and find ways to compliment them, but be sincere. People value sincerity. It creates good
feeling and trust. Think about ways to generate good feelings about doing business with you.
Customers are very sensitive and know whether or not you really care about them. Thank them
every time you get a chance.
6. On the show floor be sure that your body language conveys sincerity. Your words and actions
should be congruent.
7. Help customers understand your systems. Your organization may have the world's best systems
for getting things done, but if customers don't understand them, they can get confused, impatient
and angry. Take time to explain how your systems work and how they simplify transactions. Be
careful that your systems don't reduce the human element of your organization.
8. Appreciate the power of "Yes". Always look for ways to help your customers. When they have a
request (as long as it is reasonable) tell them that you can do it. Figure out how afterwards. Look
for ways to
make doing business with you easy. Always do what you say you are going to do.
9. Know how to apologize. When something goes wrong, apologize. It's easy and customers like it.
The customer may not always be right, but the customer must always win. Deal with problems
immediately and let customers know what you have done. Make it simple for customers to complain.
Value their complaints. As much as we dislike it, it gives us an opportunity to improve. Even if
customers are having a bad day, go out of your way to make them feel comfortable.
10. Give more than expected. Since the future of all companies lies in keeping customers happy,
think of ways to elevate you above the competition. Consider the following:
a. What can you give customers that they cannot get elsewhere?

b. What can you do to follow-up and thank people even when they don't buy?

c. What can you give customers that are totally unexpected?

Get regular feedback. Encourage and welcome suggestions about how you could improve. There are
several ways in which you can find out what customers think and feel about your services.
 Listen carefully to what they say.
 Check back regularly to see how things are going.
 Provide a method that invites constructive criticism, comments and suggestions.

Treat employees well. Employees are your internal customers and need a regular dose of
appreciation. Thank them and find ways to let them know how important they are. Treat your
employees with respect and chances are they will have a higher regard for customers. Appreciation
stems from the top. Treating customers and employees well is equally important.
8 Rules for Good Customer Service

Good customer service is the lifeblood of any business. You can offer promotions and slash prices to
bring in as many new customers as you want, but unless you can get some of those customers to
come back, your business won't be profitable for long.
Good customer service is all about bringing customers back. And about sending them away happy -
happy enough to pass positive feedback about your business along to others, who may then try the
product or service you offer for themselves and in their turn become repeat customers.
If you're a good salesperson, you can sell anything to anyone once. But it will be your approach to
customer service that determines whether or not you’ll ever be able to sell that person anything
else. The essence of good customer service is forming a relationship with customers – a relationship
that that individual customer feels that he would like to pursue.
How do you go about forming such a relationship? By remembering the one true secret of good
customer service and acting accordingly; "You will be judged by what you do, not what you say."
I know this verges on the kind of statement that's often seen on a sampler, but providing good
customer service IS a simple thing. If you truly want to have good customer service, all you have to
do is ensure that your business consistently does these things:
1) Answer your phone.
Get call forwarding. Or an answering service. But make sure that someone is picking up the phone
when someone calls your business. (Notice I say "someone". People who call want to talk to a live
person, not a fake "recorded robot".)
Phone Answering Tips to Win Business.
Phone answering skills are critical for businesses. The telephone is still most business's primary
point of contact with customers. And the way you answer your company's phone will form your
customer's first impression of your business. These phone answering tips will ensure that callers
know they're dealing with a winning business:
1) Answer all incoming phone calls before the third ring.
2) When you answer the phone, be warm and enthusiastic. Your voice at the end of the telephone
line is sometimes the only impression of your company a caller will get
3) When answering the phone, welcome callers courteously and identify yourself and your
organization. Say, for instance, "Good morning. Cypress Technologies.Susan speaking. How may I
help you?" No one should ever have to ask if they've reached such and such a business.
4) Enunciate clearly, keep your voice volume moderate, and speak slowly and clearly when answering
the phone, so your caller can understand you easily.
5) Control your language when answering the phone. Don't use slang or jargon. Instead of saying,
"OK", or "No problem", for instance, say "Certainly", "Very well", or "All right". If you're a person
who uses fillers when you speak, such as "uh huh", "um", or phrases such as "like" or "you know",
train yourself carefully not to use these when you speak on the phone.
6) Train your voice and vocabulary to be positive when phone answering, even on a "down" day. For
example, rather than saying, "I don't know", say, "Let me find out about that for you."
7) Take telephone messages completely and accurately. If there's something you don't understand
or can't spell, such as a person's surname, ask the caller to repeat it or spell it for you. Then make
sure the message gets to the intended recipient.
8) Answer all your calls within one business day. I can't emphasize this one enough. Remember the
early bird? The early caller can get the contract, the
sale, the problem solved... and reinforce the favorable impression of your business that you want to
circulate.
9) Always ask the caller if it's all right to put her on hold when answering the phone, and don't
leave people on hold. Provide callers on hold with progress reports every 30 to 45 seconds. Offer
them choices if possible, such as "That line is still busy. Will you continue to hold or should I have
________ call you back?"
10) Don't use a speaker phone unless absolutely necessary. Speaker phones give the caller the
impression that you're not fully concentrating on his call, and make him think that his call isn't
private. The only time to use a speaker phone is when you need more than one person to be in on the
conversation at your end.
11) If you use an answering machine to answer calls when you can't, make sure that you have a
professional message recorded, that does the same thing as tip # 3, and gives callers any other
pertinent information before it records their messages. Update your answering machine message as
needed. For instance, if your business is going to be closed for a holiday, update your recorded
answering machine message to say so and to say when your business will reopen.
12) Train everyone else who answers the phone to answer the same way, including other family
members if you're running a home-based business. Check on how your business's phone is being
answered by calling in and seeing if the phone is being answered in a professional manner. If they
don't pass the test, go over this telephone answering tips list with them.
2) Don't make promises unless you will keep them.
Not plan to keep them. Will keep them. Reliability is one of the keys to any good relationship, and
good customer service is no exception. If you say, “Your new bedroom furniture will be delivered on
Tuesday”, make sure it is delivered on Tuesday. Otherwise, don't say it. The same rule applies to
client appointments, deadlines, etc.. Think before you give any promise - because nothing annoys
customers more than a broken one
3) Listen to your customers.
Is there anything more exasperating than telling someone what you want or what your problem is
and then discovering that that person hasn't been paying attention and needs to have it explained
again? From a customer's point of view, I doubt it. Can the sales pitches and the product babble.
Let your customer talk and show him that you are listening by making the appropriate responses,
such as suggesting how to solve the problem.
4) Deal with complaints.
No one likes hearing complaints, and many of us have developed a reflex shrug, saying, "You can't
please all the people all the time". Maybe not, but if you give the complaint your attention, you may
be able to please this one person this one time - and position your business to reap the benefits of
good customer service.
5) Be helpful - even if there's no immediate profit in it.
The other day I popped into a local watch shop because I had lost the small piece that clips the
pieces of my watch band together. When I explained the problem, the proprietor said that he
thought he might have one lying around. He found it, attached it to my watch band – and charged me
nothing! Where do you think I'll go when I need a new watch band or even a new watch? And how
many people do you think I've told this story to?
6) Train your staff (if you have any) to be always helpful, courteous, and knowledgeable.
Do it yourself or hire someone to train them. Talk to them about good customer service and what it
is (and isn't) regularly. Most importantly, give every member of your staff enough information and
power to make those small customer-pleasing decisions, so he never has to say, "I don't know, but
so-and-so will be back at..."
7) Take the extra step.
For instance, if someone walks into your store and asks you to help them find something, don't just
say, "It's in Aisle 3". Lead the customer to the item. Better yet, wait and see if he has questions
about it, or further needs. Whatever the extra step may be, if you want to provide good customer
service, take it. They may not say so to you, but people notice when people make an extra effort and
will tell other people.
8) Throw in something extra.
Whether it's a coupon for a future discount, additional information on how to use the product, or a
genuine smile, people love to get more than they thought they were getting. And don’t think that a
gesture has to be large to be effective. The local art framer that we use attaches a package of
picture hangers to every picture he frames. A small thing, but so appreciated.
If you apply these eight simple rules consistently, your business will become known for its good
customer service. And the best part? The irony of good customer service is that over time it will
bring in more new customers than promotions and price slashing ever did!
The Communication Process
Communicating is a two way process which requires the basic elements of speaking, listening,
reading and writing. One could say that communication takes place when messages of various kinds
are sent and received, so the communication process involves senders and receivers of messages.
There are several mediums that can be used to send messages to the receiver - verbal, letter, fax,
telephone, electronic mail etc. Although a message may be transmitted, there is no guarantee that
the receiver will get the message. The receiver also needs skills such as being able to listen and
concentrate. In anyworking environment there can be other barriers to effective communication
including noise. Other impediments to the smooth flow of communication include:
* language problems such as accent if one of the parties come from a different part of the country
or abroad.
* Prejudice - the sender may have already got pre set views and is not prepared to listen.
* Cultural differences - The receiver may receive the message correctly worded but due to cultural
differences take the message to have a different meaning.
* Complicated - If the message is to long or technical, it may not be properly understood.
* Concentration. If the receiver has his/her mind on other matters, the message may not be
properly understood.
Every message should have a purpose. A travel brochure communicates a message to the potential
consumer that it is the holiday that he or she should take, it's purpose is to persuade as well as
inform. A poster advertising a concert is there to persuade people to attend. Even what is commonly
known as 'chit chat' has a purpose of developing social relationship. The model below classifies some
purposes of communication.
Customer Behaviour
Whatever the quality of customer service, there will always be some customers who are impossible
to appease. These are the people who will find fault when none is there and who will by nature be as
awkward as one can be. Good customer service training includes dealing with such people and
possible advice can include:
* keep calm and don't take it personally
* just listen and don't get involved in an argument
Types of Communication Systems
The type of communication system used will depend on the volume, type and nature of information
that needs to be transmitted. It will also depend on whether the communicating needs to be
internal or external.
A Guide to Methods of Communication
One way communication is used when there is no immediate response to the message sent whereas a
two way communication requires an interaction between receiver and sender. Many large
organisations will communicate with their staff by means of a regular newsletter although some
staff will respond and write to the editor, others will regard it as a one way communication and not
respond. Such means of communication may help to motivate employees and improve teamwork and
make staff feel part of an organisation. Hotels regularly make announcement of a general nature,
maybe informing members of the special cuisine available that evening. Other one way
communication systems include signs, notices, press announcements. It is basically to inform the
public at large or a segment of the public where individual communication would be too costly and
time consuming. An example of a one way communication is shown below although a response will be
obtained from some individuals.
Two way communication generally takes place between an organisation and its customers. In a
Booking agency, the initial meeting will generally be two way but subsequently it may b one way such
as confirmation and tickets with no response required unless an error has occurred within the
process.
Internal communication will coordinate the activities within departments or teams and may flow –
* downwards - from senior to junior levels
* upwards - in the opposite direction
* horizontally - between staff within the same level
* general - a general announcement to all
It is important to realise that dealing with customers is not always about selling them something.
There are many different situations where customer service is provided including –
 providing information (e.g. about products/services, directions etc.)
 giving advice (e.g. about safety, equipment, service etc)
 taking and relaying messages (e.g. in person or on the telephone)
 keeping records (e.g. of financial transactions and customer details)
 providing assistance (e.g. help with access to buildings)
 dealing with problems (e.g. stolen personal belongings, injuries etc)

 handling complaints (e.g. timetable delays, cancelled services etc)

 Everybody working in travel and tourism will, at some time, have contact with customers. This may
be face to face, over the telephone or in writing. Staff will need to know how to communicate with
customers and use different skills in different situations. When communicating with customers you
will need to use appropriate:

I. language
II. pitch and tone of voice
III. pauses and silences
IV. body language
It is also important to be able to -
 work accurately
 listen and respond to customers
 ask appropriate question (using open and closed questions)

Effective method of communication

Many times, when people think of the word communication, they think of an exchange of information
and ideas through words. However, verbal communication is just one small part of communication.
There are many different methods of communications, and determining which is right for you and
your organization is an important decision.
What are the different methods of communication?
The following are some different methods of communication that are commonly used within the
workplace:
 Verbal Verbal communication is simply speaking. This can be done one-on-one,
in a group setting, over the phone, etc. Verbal communication is a personal means of communication
and should be utilized more than just emails or phone calls when possible. Being able to see the
person you are communicating with face to face can help you gauge their response by reading their
body language and actively participating in dialogue.

When you use verbal communication, be aware of your tone of voice, speed, and inflection. Avoid
sarcasm or angry tones, as they can put the people you are speaking with on the defensive. When
speaking to a group or your team, make sure you speak loudly and clearly so everyone can
understand you. Arrange for a microphone if you are addressing a group in a large room.
Verbal communication is best when you need to discuss something in detail, or when complimenting
or reprimanding someone.
 Written You can't avoid written communication in the workplace; it's everywhere. Emails, memos,
reports, and other written documents are all part of every day business life.

Written communication is the most appropriate when detailed instructions are required, when
something needs to be documented, or when the person is too far away to easily speak with over the
phone or in person.
Email is a lifesaver for many people, especially in the business world. If you rely on emails and
memos to conduct your business, it's very important to portray a professional image. Don't use
abbreviations unless they pertain to your field, and always use spell check and read over your email
before Yousend it to make sure it's clear and concise. Emails should be brief and to the point.
 Non-verbal communication plays a large role in the way you communicate with others. Unless
you're using sign language, however, you probably don't want to rely on it as your sole means
of communication.

You do, however, need to be aware of it. Your gestures, eye contact and movement, and the way you
stand and sit all convey a message to the person you are communicating with. Use gestures
appropriately, or leave your hands at your sides. Don't fidget, which is distracting, and avoid
crossing your arms, which sends off the appearance of being angry or closed off. Always look the
person you are speaking to in the eye, and don't roll your eyes or stare while they talk.
 Which method is right for me?

There is not one "right" way to communicate, but you should be aware of what is appropriate and
when. Your chosen method of communication is dependant on the situation. Put yourself in your
employees' shoes. If you needed to have a certain message conveyed to you, think first how you
would like to receive it. Use your good judgment of the situation and be considerate of your
employees, and you will be an effective communicator.
Body Language – Non-Verbal Communication Good communication is the foundation of successful
relationships, both personally and professionally. But we communicate with much more than words.
In fact, research shows that the majority of our communication is nonverbal. Nonverbal
communication, or body language, includes our facial expressions, gestures, eye contact, posture,
and even the tone of our voice.
The ability to understand and use nonverbal communication is a powerful tool that will help you
connect with others, express what you really mean, navigate challenging situations, and build better
relationships at home and work.
The power of nonverbal communication and body language
Nonverbal communication, or body language, is a vital form of communication. When we interact with
others, we continuously give and receive countless wordless signals. All of our nonverbal behaviors—
the gestures we make, the way we sit, how fast or how loud we talk, how close we stand, how much
eye contact we make—send strong messages.
The way you listen, look, move, and react tell the other person whether or not you care and how well
you’re listening. The nonverbal signals you send either produce a sense of interest, trust, and desire
for connection—or they generate disinterest, distrust, and confusion.
Nonverbal communication cues can play five roles:
 Repetition: they can repeat the message the person is making verbally
 Contradiction: they can contradict a message the individual is trying to convey
  Substitution: they can substitute for a verbal message. For example, a person's eyes can
often convey a far more vivid message than words and often do
 Complementing: they may add to or complement a verbal message. A boss who pats a person
on the back in addition to giving praise can increase the impact of the message.
 Accenting: they may accent or underline a verbal message. Pounding the table, for example,
can underline a message. It takes more than words to create fulfilling, strong relationships.
Nonverbal communication has a huge impact on the quality of our relationships. Nonverbal
communication skills improve relationships by helping you:
 Accurately read other people, including the emotions they’re feeling and the unspoken
messages they’re sending.
 Create trust and transparency in relationships by sending nonverbal signals that match up
with your words.
 Respond with nonverbal cues that show others that you understand, notice, and care.

Unfortunately, many people send confusing or negative nonverbal signals without even knowing it.
When this happens, both connection and trust are lost in our relationships.
Types of nonverbal communication and body language
There are many different types of nonverbal communication. Together, the following nonverbal
signals and cues communicate your interest and investment in others.
Facial expressions
The human face is extremely expressive, able to express countless emotions without saying a word.
And unlike some forms of nonverbal communication, facial expressions are universal. The facial
expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, surprise, fear, and disgust are the same across cultures.
Body movements and posture
Consider how your perceptions of people are affected by the way they sit, walk, stand up, or hold
their head. The way you move and carry yourself communicates a wealth of information to the
world. This type of nonverbal communication includes your posture, bearing, stance, and subtle
movements. Gestures are woven into the fabric of our daily lives. We wave, point, beckon, and use
our hands when we’re arguing or speaking animatedly—expressing ourselves with gestures often
without thinking. However, the meaning of gestures can be very different across cultures and
regions, so it’s important to be careful to avoid misinterpretation.
Eye contact
Since the visual sense is dominant for most people, eye contact is an especially important type of
nonverbal communication. The way you look at someone can communicate many things, including
interest, affection, hostility, or attraction. Eye contact is also important in maintaining the flow of
conversation and for gauging the other person’s response.
Touch
We communicate a great deal through touch. Think about the messages given by the following: a
firm handshake, a timid tap on the shoulder, a warm bear hug, a reassuring pat on the back, a
patronizing pat on the head, or a controlling grip on your arm.
Space
Have you ever felt uncomfortable during a conversation because the other person was standing too
close and invading your space? We all have a need for physical space, although that need differs
depending on the culture, the situation, and the closeness of the relationship. You can use physical
space to communicate many different nonverbal messages, including signals of intimacy, aggression,
dominance, or affection.
Voice
We communicate with our voices, even when we are not using words. Nonverbal speech sounds such
as tone, pitch, volume, inflection, rhythm, and rate are important communication elements. When we
speak, other people “read” our voices in addition to listening to our words. These nonverbal speech
sounds provide subtle but powerful clues into our true feelings and what we really mean. Think
about how tone of voice, for example, can indicate sarcasm, anger, affection, or confidence.

Handling Customer Complaints

Establishing a Customer Complaint Resolution Process
Management finds out about customer dissatisfaction through two mechanisms: Voice and Exit.
“Voice” represents complaints … the voice of the customer. “Exit” occurs when the customer stops
buying or using the services. All of us have exited at one time or another, for example, if you’ve
changed your doctor, telephone carrier, or plumber due to poor service. Service providers employ all
sorts of strategies to avoid customer turnover. Smart organizations know that it is not enough to
have the lowest price or the best technology – there always seems to be a competitor who can do it
better or cheaper. There are no guarantees, but one of the best customer retention strategies is
to provide superior customer service. And that means listening to your customers.
How well do you listen and respond to complaints from your customers? We all aim to be customer
focused ... we claim to be customer focused ... but we need to become MORE
CUSTOMERFOCUSED.
Although listening and responding is necessary, it’s not good enough. Too often, a response is
reactionary and you can easily find yourself reacting over and over again to the same complaint
(sometimes this is called “firefighting”). We need to listen and PROACT. That means listening to
the voice of the customer and making process improvements based on that feedback so that the
same complaints don’t recur.
A complaint is any measure of dissatisfaction with your product or service, even if it’s unfair,
untrue, or painful to hear! Complaints may be about:
To increase the visibility of complaints, you should:
Listen to the Customer - Complaints don’t always identify themselves. Someone who is requesting
the same information for the 5th time isn’t asking for information anymore … it’s a complaint!
Solicit Complaints - Everyone in the organization should collect and report complaints. All this input
should funnel to one place where your objective is to build a valid database of complaints. Most of
us are accustomed to environments in which receiving customer complaints is considered negative –
an interruption to doing business. But in the Customer Complaint Resolution Process,
• Response Time
• Documentation
• Billing
• Follow Up
• Service Content, Delivery or Quality
• Personnel
• Requests
• Communication
the more complaints you log, the better! This is one of the biggest cultural issues for organizations
to overcome.
Record Complaints - Create complaint categories that make sense for your organization. For
example, data that tells you that you had 123 complaints about adoptions last month tells you
nothing. The 123 complaints need to be broken down into categories so that you can get to a root
cause analysis. If you only respond to complaints without correcting the root cause, you’re spinning
your wheels and you’ll find yourself fighting fires instead of putting them out for good. You can
identify root cause if you collect, categorize, and analyze complaints. As a result, process
improvements will be complaint-driven and thus should be high-priority.
This is a customer complaint resolution process that anyone can implement:
Focus on the Customer
If you can’t immediately solve the problem, respond to the customer and identify an “owner” who
will be responsible for final resolution. Complete the communications loop with customer. If you’ve
referred the complaint to others, make sure there’s closure. If you’ve left the customer hanging
without a response, you’ve become part of the problem.
Focus on the Complaint
Collect all complaints from all external customers and categorize them in a way that allows you to
analyze data to see trends, patterns, concentrations, tendencies, etc.
Focus on Process Improvement
Use the database of complaints to define processes that are important from the customer’s
perspective and to improve the most critical ones. Based on analysis of the database, make
appropriate investments to prevent issues that result in customer complaints. Look for permanent
improvements to response time, cycle time, internal processes related to the complaints, and
complaint frequency.
If you can think of complaints as useful data for making process improvements in your organization,
you will go a long way towards making changes that will differentiate you and make your work life
easier, more fun, and more responsive to customer needs.
Remember always to give the best customer care practice these 5 points
Tangibles: - These are the physical aspects of the service and include staff and the way in which
they are presented; the appearance of the companies premises; the quality of the products and
certification to provide clients to prove their capability.
Reliability: - Whatever service has been promised to the customer through the company's mission
statement should be delivered consistently and precisely. Recruitment of trustworthy staff that
are discrete is important. A well staffed reception desk for large companies or a helpdesk for out
of hour's information service. A website for information and feedback would also be a good idea.
Responsiveness: - The promptness of service and the willingness of the staff to be of assistance
are paramount to good customer service. The confidence a customer has in the knowledge, courtesy
and professionalism of the service will build their trust and encourage loyalty and the retention of
their business. Training of staff should be ongoing and further encouragement through pay
initiatives, hiring the right staff and man management will encourage the staff to work well, gaining
experience and continuously striving to provide a higher level of satisfaction.
Assurance: - Is the knowledge, courtesy and professionalism that build a customer's trust.
Ensuring staff are knowledgeable about the company's policies and procedures required that the
company invest in effective training initiatives. Other incentives such as paying appropriately,
coaching effectively, measuring accurately and rewarding often are critical success factors for
developing knowledgeable employees who can resolve most issues on the spot.
Empathy: - A caring, personal service where employees are polite and courteous makes a customer
feel special and valued and is, therefore, more likely to retain their business. Keep records of their
activities with the company, log all praise and criticism and work on feedback they provide. Through
these records you will be able to develop a more personalised service, without prompting, thus
exceeding their expectations.
Staff should be able to deal with complaints if no supervisor is available.
Most cleaning work is undertaken out of office hours, ensure that staff abides by this and do not
interfere with clients' business.