CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. PROJECT BACKGROUND

Transportation is a key infrastructure of a country. A country’s economic status depends upon
how well served the country is by its roads, railways, airports, ports, pipe lines and shipping. The
rate at which country’s economy growth is very closely linked to the rate at which the transport
sector grows.
In addition to this, the road is the primary factor that plays a vital role on the development of
towns as well as countries, mostly the government gives a priority on the construction of roads in
order to increase nations economic output by reducing journey times and costs, making a region
more accessible and economical the economic growth through transportation system

1.2 Strategic Reason of the Project

The project consist two strategic reasons. These are:

1, the existing road between Maraki and Autoparko is a single lane road that is not adequate to
accommodate the current huge traffic volume. In addition to this, Gondar is the historical place
that so many tourists visit it, so there is a rapid traffic growth in the town. As well as, in this
route Gondar university Hospital exists that is the only Hospital in North Gondar zone. This
indicates the selected road is a traffic congested route.
2, Road construction is capital incentive project. Hence improper pavement design is required
extra capital to maintain it regularly. Our project is concerned mainly to achieve qualified
pavement design to reduce road maintenance budget in our country.

1.3 Significance of the Projects

In our country the knowledge about the qualified pavement design (high performance pavement
design) is not well developed to resist large axle load traffic and high speed roads like
expressways. Therefore, to overcome this problem our project provides basic pavement design
skills.
The project is more of concerned upgrade the existing road between Maraki and Autoparko that
could provide the passengers and drivers a more comfortable and high speed path. As the
highway is designed carefully taking into account the agricultural impact, residential impact,
visual impact, environmental impact, and electrical system consideration it will provide the
society with easy access to the trade stations and sell their products whenever they want and with
speed. The new road will also facilitate the national trade by making it easier and comfortable for
transfer of goods. In short, our project mainly concerned with getting a pavement that has a
high performance to with stand the traffic load within a minimum repairing period using the
traffic flow data. And; this helps to increase the serviceability of the road and to be economical

1.4 Objective of the Project

Major objective
The objective of our project is mainly on pavement design. But through the way of designing we
need to study:

 The existing roads geometric problem like stopping sight distance, minimum
curve radius, absence of shoulder
 The drainage problem since the existing road doesn’t have ditch that used to
facilitate the withdrawal of runoff water from the road.
 The traffic problem i.e. the existing road doesn’t have enough capacity to provide
smooth traffic flow
 The traffic data to forecast the expected traffic flow during the design period.
 The axel load based on the data
 The axle load to determine the proper layer and their thickness
 The pavement design
 The pavement materials

1.5 Statement of the problem

Our project is mainly concerned about pavement design of a road which covers about 5.3km
from “Maraki” to “autoparco”. Since it is about to be widen over the existing road ,that have
different traffic problems like drainage, stopping site distance, traffic jam….etc; Our project also
gives a recommendation to solve these problems. The topography of the area is massively
mountainous this shows there is a high probability of flood that comes from the high land areas
and lead to different failures like potholes and corrugation. In order to overcome such kind of
failure, we should provide a drainage system. Drainage is the most important factor in the design
of pavement. Among the problem we have propose to solve some of them
 Checking whether the pavement road is adequate for the given traffic volume
 Across this road there is a problem of stopping site distance ,it needs modification of
geometrical design
 In this proposed project road around the hospital there is high traffic flow from passing of
vehicles and pedestrian (flow students from their dormitory and their class ,library
,hospital to cafeteria) needs over passing bridge
 This route affected by fundamental pavement road quality criteria that is, travel time,
travel speed and cost of customer.
1.6 Methodology

1.6.1 Site Description:

The project is located in Gondar town between Maraki to Autoparko that cover 5.3km.

Project area
Autoparko

1.6.2 GEOLOGY
Geological formation of North Gondar belongs to volcanic nature. The rock types in North
Gondar zone include the older Tarmaber basalts, Post-Tarmaber basalts, Lacustrine sediments,
and Alluvial sediments. The Gonder area consists of Tertiary (Tarmaber) basalts. Layers of
volcanic flows make up the mountains and very few areas are covered by agglomerates and
younger Tertiary basaltic flows. Alluvial and lacustrine deposits cover the plain areas to the
north of Lake Tana, the western lowlands and areas with flat and gentle slopes in the eastern
highlands.
1.6.3 Terrain Classes of the project Area
During the survey of the project route corridors, the terrain of the route corridor through which
the surveyed and designed route passes was assessed and has been classified according to the
transversal slopes of the ground (based on ERA Geometric Design Manual, 2002). Identification
and classification of the landform component of the route corridor in to different terrain is
always an important tool and clue for searching for any particular type of construction material.
It is to be noted that climate, drainage, type and weathering extent of earth materials (soil and
rock) ,vegetation cover and other features of the project are greatly related with the terrain or
topography traversed by the road alignment. In addition, the diversity of the terrain is
fundamental to regional variations in climate, natural vegetation, soil composition, and
settlement patterns.

1.6.3 Data Collection and Review of Previous Works

The first stage of the work involved collection of relevant topographical maps, associated reports
and research papers from different sources relevant to the project. This is mainly to have an
insight regarding the type and distribution of the litho-structural elements in a very wide
perspective. Most of the information gathered from ERA manual, road administration of Gondar
town, and from other related sources.

1.7 Topography
Topography of the area has a very large effect in highway work. Topographic variation has a
direct impact on the geomorphologic, drainage and climatic conditions of an area.

CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
 2.1 INTRODUCTION
The construction of road is a composition of different structures that lead to gives a safe and
convenient service for the people by improving their economic level through facilitating the
transportation system. Indeed; since a road gives these services, we should consider the design
life of the road structures through designing a proper pavement and providing a bridges to pass
obstacles like a river, valley, road or railway.
2.2. PAVEMENT DESIGN
Pavement design is dynamic process. The concepts are changing with time as technology
develops and new equipment emerges for site investigation, material testing and traffic data
collection, and new data become available. In the early stage, pavement design was carried out
by a rule-of-thumb procedure based on entirely past experience. Through the observation of
performances of the already constructed roads, highway engineers became aware that pavement
performance is dependent on the sub-grade soils. Pavements constructed over plastic soils
showed higher distress than those constructed over granular deposits. With the knowledge of soil
mechanics, pavement design was made with soil classification.
A pavement structure is a layer structure which supports the vehicle load on its surface and
transfers and spreads the load to the sub grade without exceeding either the strength of the sub-
grade or the internal strength of the pavement itself. The basic idea in building a pavement for
all-weather use by vehicles is to prepare a suitable sub-grade, provide necessary drainage, and
construct a pavement that will:
Have sufficient total thickness and internal strength to carry expected traffic loads, and distribute
them over the sub-grade soil without overstressing;
Have adequate properties to prevent or minimize the penetration or internal accumulation of
moisture; and Have a surface that is reasonably smooth and skid resistant at the same time, as
well as reasonably resistant to wear, distortion and deterioration by vehicle loads and weather.
For a very low traffic where the soil can be trafficable and when there is economic limitation, the
natural sub-grade soil can be made to carry the traffic load after clearing and shaping. Such earth
roads give seasonal services and require reshaping after seasonal changes. Better than earth
roads, gravel surfaced roads are also constructed by spreading gravel over the sub-grade, shaping
and compacting to avoid excessive strain at the sub-grade level and to give services usually in all
seasons. In the case of gravel-surfaced roads, reshaping is necessary, but not as frequent as in
earth roads.
2.2.1. Function of pavement structure
The function of the pavement structure is:-
 o To distribute imposed wheel loads over a large area of the natural soil. If vehicles where
to travel on the natural soil itself, shear failures would occur in the wheel path in most
soils and ruts would form. The shear strength of the soil is usually not high enough to
support the load.
o To reduce the high unit stresses imposed by vehicle on the surface to stresses on the sub
grade that are low enough to be carried without failure due to rutting, excessive
settlement, or other types of distress.
o To provide stable and even surface for the traffic.
o To use the road by vehicle for all- weather condition.
Basic pavement design Factors.Pavement design is governed by a number of factors. Some of
them are;
o Traffic loading
o Environment
o Materials
o Failure Criteria
2.2.2. Purposes of pavement design
A high way pavement is designed to support the wheel loads imposed on it from traffic moving
over it. Additional stresses are also imposed by changes in the environment. It should be strong
enough to resists the stresses imposed on it and it should be thick enough to distribute the
external loads on the earthen sub grade.
For satisfactorily per forming of this designed the pavement should have;
a) Structurally sound enough to withstand the stresses imposed on it.
b) Sufficiently thick to distribute the loads and stresses to a safe value on the sub grade
soil.
c) Provide a reasonably hard wearing surface, so that the abrading Catron of wheels.
d) Should be impervious so that water does not get into the lower layers of the pavement
and the sub – grade and cause deterioration.
e) Long life and the cost of maintaining it annually should be low.
2.2.3. Types of Pavement
2.2.3.1. Flexible pavement
A flexible pavement is one, which has low flexural strength, and the load is largely transmitted to
the sub-grade soil through the lateral distribution of stresses with increasing depth as shown on
the figure below. The pavement trickiness is designed such that the stresses on the sub-grade soil
are kept within its bearing capacity and the sub-grade is prevented from excessive deformation.
The strength and smoothness of flexible pavement structure depends to a large extent on the
deformation of the sub-grade soil.
To give satisfactory service, a flexible pavement must satisfy a number of structural criteria or
considerations. Some of the important considerations are:
(1) the sub-grade should be able to sustain traffic loading without excessive deformation; this
is controlled by the vertical compressive stress or strain at this level,
(2) Bituminous materials and cement-bound materials used in road base design should not
crack under the influence of traffic; this is controlled by the horizontal tensile stress or
strain at the bottom of the road base,
(3) The road base is often considered the main structural layer of the pavement, required to
distribute the applied traffic loading so that the underlying materials are not overstressed.
It must be able to sustain the stress and strain generated within itself without excessive or
rapid deterioration of any kind.
(4) In pavements containing a considerable thickness of bituminous materials, the internal
deformation of these materials must be limited; their deformation is a function of their
creep characteristics,
(5) The load spreading ability of granular sub-base and capping layers must be adequate to
provide a satisfactory construction platform.

Generally, two types of construction have been used for flexible pavements: conventional

Figure 2.1 Stress distributions through flexible pavement structure

flexible pavement and full-depth asphalt pavement. A third type, known as contained rock
asphalt mat (CRAM) construction is still in the experimental stage and has not been widely
accepted for practical use.
2.2.3.1.1. Conventional Flexible pavements
Conventional flexible pavements are multilayered structures with better materials on top where
the intensity of stress is high and inferior materials at the bottom where the intensity is low. This
design principle makes possible to use local materials and usually results in a most economical
design. This is particularly true in regions where high-quality materials are expensive but local
materials of inferior quality are readily available. Figure 2.2 shows the cross section of a
conventional flexible pavement. Starting from the top, a conventional flexible pavement
normally consists of surface course, base course, sub-base course, compacted subgrade, and
natural subgrade. The use of the various courses is based on either necessity or economy and
some of the courses may be omitted.

Fig. 2.2 cross section and load distribution in flexible pavement

Surface Course The surface course is the top course of an asphalt pavement, sometimes called
the wearing course. It is usually constructed by dense graded hot-mix asphalt. It is a structural
part of the pavement, which must be tough to resist distortion under traffic and provide a smooth
and skid-resistant riding surface. The surface course must be waterproof to protect the entire
pavement and sub-grade from the weakening effect of water.
Base Course : the base course is the layer of material immediately beneath the surface course.
It may be composed of well-graded crushed stone (unbounded), granular material mixed with
binder, or stabilized materials. It is the main structural part of the pavement and provides a level
surface for laying the surface layer. If constructed directly over the sub-grade, it prevents
intrusions of the fine sub-grade soils into the pavement structure.
Sub base Course: The sub base course is the layer of material beneath the base course
constructed using local and cheaper materials for economic reason on top of the sub-grade. It
provides additional help to the base and the upper layers in distributing the load. It facilitates
drainage of free water that might get accumulated below the pavement. If the base course is open
graded, the sub base course with more fines can serve as a filter between the sub-grade and the
base course.
Sub grade: Sub-grade is the foundation on which the vehicle load and the weight of the
pavement layers finally rest. It is an in situ or a layer of selected material compacted to the
desirable density near the optimum moisture content. It is graded into a proper shape, properly
drained, and compacted to receive the pavement layers.

2.2.3.1.2. Full-Depth Asphalt Pavements

Full-depth asphalt pavements are constructed by placing one or more layers of hot-mix asphalt
directly on the sub-grade or improved sub-grade. This concept was conceived by the Asphalt
Institute and is generally considered the most cost-effective and dependable type of asphalt
pavement for heavy traffic and quite popular in areas where local materials are not available.
This shows the typical cross section for a full-depth asphalt pavement.

Figure 2.3 Full depth asphalt construction

2.2.3.2. Rigid Pavements

Rigid pavements are pavement structures constructed of cement concrete slabs, which derive
their capacity to withstand vehicle loads from flexural strength or beam strength due to high
modulus of elasticity. Because of high flexural strength, the vehicle load on cement concrete slab
is distributed over a relatively wider area of the soil than flexible pavements and thus, variation
in the subgrade soil strength has little influence. The flexural strength also permits the slab to
bridge over minor irregularities under it. Thus, the performance of rigid pavements is more
governed by the strength of the concrete slab that the subgrade supports. Hence, the major factor
considered in the design of rigid pavement is the structural strength of the concrete.
The subgrade may provide a uniform support for the slab. However, where the subgrade soil
cannot provide a uniform support, or for one or more of the following reasons described here
under, there is always a necessity to build a base course under cement concrete slab and it is
widely used for rigid pavements.

Control of pumping
Pumping is defined as the ejection of water and subgrade soil through joints, cracks, and along
the edges of the pavements caused by the downward movements of due to heavy axle loads.
Pumping occurs when there is void space under the slab due to temperature curling of the slab,
deformation of the sub-grade or both and erodible material under the slab is saturated. It leads to
faulting and cracking of the slab if not corrected in time.
Control of frost action
Heave caused by the increase in volume of freeze water and the formation and continuing
expansion of ice lenses causes the concrete slab to break and softens the sub-grade during frost
melts period. This occurs when the soil within the depth of frost penetration is frost susceptible
(e.g. clay), there is supply of moisture, and the temperature freezes for a sufficient period of
time.
Improve the drainage system,
When the water table is high and close to the ground surface, a base course can raise the
pavement to a desirable elevation above the water table. An open-graded base course provides an
internal drainage system capable of rapidly removing water that seeps through pavement cracks
and joints carry it away to the roadside. A dense-graded or stabilized base course can also serve
as a waterproofing layer.
Control of shrinkage and swell.
When the change in moisture causes sub-grade to shrink or swell, the base course can serve as a
surcharge load to reduce the amount of shrinkage and swell in addition to its use of improving
drainage. Measures that are taken to reduce entering water into the sub-grade further reduce the
shrinkage and swell potentials.
Expedition of Construction
A base course can be used as a working platform for heavy construction equipment. Under
severe weather conditions, a base course can keep the surface clean and dry and facilitate the
construction work.

2.2.3.2.1. Types of Concrete Pavement

Concrete pavements can be classified into four types:
jointed plain concrete pavement (JPCP),
jointed reinforced concrete pavements (JRCP),
continuous reinforced concrete pavements (CRCP), and
pre stressed concrete pavement (PCP).
Jointed plain concrete pavements are plain concrete pavements constructed with closely spaced
contraction joints. Dowels or aggregate interlocks may be used for load transfer across the joints.
In jointed reinforced concrete pavements are concrete pavements with steel reinforcements in the
form of wire mesh or deformed bars mainly to allow the use of longer joint spacing but do not
increase the structural capacity of pavements. Because of the longer panel length, dowels are
required for load transfer across the joints. The amount of distributed steel increases with the
increase in joint spacing and is designed to hold the slab together after cracking. Continuous
reinforced concrete pavements are reinforced concrete pavements designed joint-free for the
purpose of eliminating joints, which are the weak spots in rigid pavements. The elimination of
joints would decrease the thickness of pavement required.
Concrete is weak in tension but strong in compression. The thickness of concrete pavement
required is governed by its modulus of rupture, which varies, with the tensile strength of the
concrete. The pre application of a compressive stress to the concrete greatly reduces the tensile
stress caused by the traffic loads and thus decreases the thickness of concrete required. The pre
stressed concrete pavements have less probability of cracking and fewer transverse joints and
therefore result in less maintenance and longer pavement life. Pre stressed concrete has been
used more frequently for airport pavements than for highway pavements because the saving in
thickness for airport pavements is much greater than that for highway pavements.

2.2.3.3. Composite Pavements

Composite pavements are pavements composed of cement concrete as a bottom layer and hot-
mix asphalt as a top layer to obtain an ideal pavement with the most desirable characteristics.
The cement concrete slab provides a strong base and the hot-mix asphalt provides a smooth and
non-reflective surface. However, this type of pavement is very expensive and is rarely used as a
new construction. Composite pavements include rehabilitated concrete pavements using asphalt
overlays, and asphalt pavements with stabilized bases. For flexible pavements with untreated
bases, the most critical tensile stress or strain is located at the bottom of asphalt layer, while for
composite pavements the most critical location is at the bottom of the cement concrete slab or
stabilized bases. A disadvantage of this construction is the occurrence of reflection cracks on the
asphalt surface due to the joints and cracks in the rigid base layer.

2.2.3.4. Comparison of rigid and flexible pavement

The essential difference between the two types of pavements is the manner in which they
distribute the load over the sub-grade. The rigid pavement, because of its rigidity and high
modulus of elasticity, tends to distribute the load over a relatively wide area of soil; thus, the slab
itself supplies a major portion of the structural capacity. The major factor considered in the
design of rigid pavements is the structural strength of the concrete, and a certain amount of
variation in sub-grade strength has little influence upon the structural capacity of the pavement.
Main difference between rigid and flexible pavement is as follows:

 The manner in which the load transmitted to the sub-grade soil

 Durability and serviceability
 Initial cost and Maintenance requirements
 Characteristics of the surface
 Resistance of runoff

2.3. Geometric Design Modification

2.3.1. Horizontal alignment and route location

2.3.1.1. Terrain
The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which the road
passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
o Flat or gently: country, which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 5
percent).
o ROLLING: Rolling, hilly or foothill country
  Where the slopes generally rise and fall moderately
 Where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some restrictions in
alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 percent to 25 percent).
o MOUNTAINOUS: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This class
of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and often
involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from
25percent to 50 percent).
o ESCARPMENT: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is added to
cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above terrain
types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback roadway
sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are considerable,
with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent.
2.3.2. Horizontal Alignment

The design element of the horizontal alignment is the tangent or straight section, circular
curve, the transition curve spiral and the super elevation section.

The horizontal alignment of a road must be carefully chosen in order:-

o To provide good drainage

o To avoid soft or swampy areas.
o To minimize earthworks
o to avoid shortage of construction materials
o To break monotony and avoid glare from head light and setting sun ,the maximum length
of tangents should not exceed 4000m.If necessary a 4 degree curve should be introduced
(left and right).Avoid short or sharp curves at end of long straights ;or short length of
straights between two curves should be 100m.

Replace compound curves by a single curve. Avoid the combination of vertical and horizontal
curves; if not the vertical curves should be wholly within the horizontal curve. A horizontal
circular curve is a curve in plane to provide change in direction to the center line of the road and
there are different types of curves such as:-

o -Simple horizontal curves

o Compound horizontal curves
o Reverse horizontal curves

The requirement of good horizontal curve is

 Sufficient stopping sight distance

 Sufficient passing sight distance
 Smooth turning possibility and as much as possible approximate large radius.
2.4. Pedestrian Bridge Design
A bridge is a structure providing passage over an obstacle. The obstacle may be a river, valley,
road or railway. The passage may be for highway or railway traffic, pedestrian, canal or
pipeline.
Many cities and towns are established near rivers and bridges add to the beauty of cities and
towns. Bridges aid the social, cultural and economic improvements of the locations around
them.
Bridge engineering is one of the fascinating fields in civil engineering calling for expertise in
many areas: structural analysis and design, geo-techniques, traffic projection, surveying, runoff
calculation and methods of construction. A bridge engineer has to have an appreciation of
economics and aesthetics besides ability in analysis and design. The materials and procedures
involved in the construction of any sizable bridge are quite varied
Bridges shall be designed for specified limit states to achieve the objectives of safety,
serviceability, economy, constructability and aesthetics.

2.4.1. Bridge Design objective

The objectives in a bridge design are safety, serviceability, economy, constructability and
aesthetics.
 Safety – the primary responsibility of the engineer is to ensure public safety in the
design by ensuring adequate structural safety.
 Serviceability – consists of satisfying requirements of deformation, durability, inspect
ability, maintainability and ride ability.
 Deformation – Bridges should be designed to avoid excessive deformations that cause
undesirable structural or psychological effects.
 Durability – contract documents specify quality of materials to be used and standards of
fabrication and erection of elements to ensure durability. Self - protecting measures of
the structure from the effects of the weather will be taken during design and construction.
 Inspect ability – inspection ladders, walkways, catwalks and covered access holes will
be provided where other means of inspection are not practical.
 Maintainability – structural systems whose maintenance is expected to be difficult
should be avoided .
 Readability – the deck of the bridge will be designed to permit smooth movement of
traffic. The number of deck joints will be kept to a practicable minimum.
 Economy – structural types, span lengths and materials should be selected based on
cost. The cost of future expenditures during the projected service life of the bridge
should be considered
  Constructability – bridges should be designed in a manner such that fabrication and
erection can be performed without undue difficulty or distress and that construction force
effects are within tolerable limits
 Aesthetics – Aesthetics aspect and space requirement of buildings are designed by
architects. Aesthetic, space requirement, hydraulic and structural aspects of bridges are
designed by civil engineers. Bridges should complement their surroundings, be graceful
in form and present an appearance of adequate strength. Because the major structural
components are the largest parts and are seen first, they determine the appearance of a
bridge.

2.4.2. TYPES OF BRIDGES

Bridges can be classified based on their structure, services, materials they are made up of, span
length…etc.
I. Based on structure
 Beam bridge
 Arch bridge
 Suspension bridge
 Rigid frame bridge
 Combined system bridge
II. Based on their function
 Pedestrian bridge
 Highway bridge
 Railway bridge
 Canal or pipeline bridge
III. Based on material type
 tone bridge
 Wooden bridge
 Concrete bridge
 Steel bridge
IV. Based on span length
 Long bridge (>100m)
 Medium bridge (30m – 100m)
 Short bridge (6m – 30m)

2.5. Design Standard

Providing design standard is essential to prepare the road design according to the constructions
areas; weather condition, traffic condition, to create convenience parameter etc. Generally it
helps to optimize the investment of being a capital intensive project as well as to be cost
effective since it is the major factor.
The major parameters in the design of a pavement are
 the material contained within layer of the pavement,
 the type of vehicles in the traffic stream,
 the volume of traffic predicted to use the highway over its design life and
 Determining the strength of the underlying sub grade soil.
The design standards conforming to the applicable standards are set to ensure the safe pavement,
to convey the intended traffic safely and to proportion the structural elements economically.
Various pavement design methods have been developed in different parts of the world. Each
method has been developed based on local experience and conditions with respect to climate,
availability of materials, sub grade conditions, traffic type, volume and composition, economic
trends and traffic growth trends, pavement performance records, etc. The design standards
conforming to the applicable standards are set to ensure the safe pavement, to convey the
intended traffic safely and to proportion the structural elements economically.
The most design standard documents that we used for our design is as follows:
o AASHTO pavement design standard
o ERA Standard Manuals Pavement Design Manual 2002
o ERA Standard Manuals Pavement Design Manual 2013
Design of a pavement Standards followed by those design standards. Each of standards based on
economic aspects projected traffic and environmental conditions are considered to be crucial.

2.5.1. AASHTO pavement design standard

This manual uses the concept of the structural number (SN) for the pavement thickness
determination. This method considers the terminal serviceability and environmental factor in
addition to the traffic and sub grade soil strength. The structural number (number expressing the
structural strength of a pavement) has to be converted to actual thickness of the pavement
components by means of appropriate layer coefficients representing the relative strength of the
construction materials.
The AASHTO guide uses the concept of structural number that considers several variables for
pavement thickness determination. It is difficult to clearly determine variables such as the
reliability, serviceability, swell rate and others, and use directly for pavement thickness
determination. Hence the AASHTO guide is used directly as a guide for the determination of
economical and structural pavement thickness.
AASHTO design method of flexible pavement is based on extensive road test. This method
include, various design inputs including: - traffic loading, environment, sub-grade soil, material
of construction, drainage, & reliability. In the AASHTO method of design, sub grade loading
condition is characterized by its resilient modules (MR) value. The American Asphalt Institution
recommends the following formula for the computation of MR.
MR= 1500*CBR value
Material of construction
The materials of the construction are classified in to three groups. These are Sub base, base, &
surfacing. For this materials the coefficients a3, a2, & a1 are used respectively whose values
depends on the quality of the material based on CBR value, MR, & modules of elasticity.
The steps involved in designing a flexible pavement using AASHTO
1. Determine the effective resilient modulus of the sub-grade.
2. Select the design serviceability loss.
3. Estimate the total number of 80 KN equivalent single-axle loads for the design period.
4. Select a level of reliability and the overall standard deviation.
5. Determine the pavement structural number.
6. Select the layer material type and determine the layer thickness.

2.5.2. ERA Standard Manuals

ERA pavement design manual gives recommendations for the structural design of flexible
pavement and gravel roads in Ethiopia. The manual is intended for engineers responsible for the
design of new road pavements and is appropriate for roads which are required to carry up to 30
million cumulative equivalent standard axles in one direction. This upper limit is suitable at
present for the most trafficked roads in Ethiopia.
The main steps involved in designing a new road pavement are as presented below
o Surveying possible route (usually part of the feasibility study)When potential route
corridors have been identified from the desk study analysis, then a reconnaissance survey
is usually employed to verify interpretations, to help determine the preferred corridor, and
to identify factors that will influence the feasibility design concept and cost comparisons.
The reconnaissance survey will significantly modify the desk study interpretations.
During the reconnaissance survey, Terrain classification, the location of topographical
 constrains, Slope stability and the location of pre-existing landslides, Rock types,
geological structures, Materials sources, presence & distribution Soil types and depth
should be determined.
o Estimating the traffic; in terms of the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles
that will use the road over the selected design life .The deterioration of paved roads
caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the individual wheel loads and the
number of times these loads are applied. It is necessary to consider not only the total
number of vehicles that will use the road but also the wheel loads (or, for convenience,
the axle loads) of these vehicles. Equivalency factors are used to convert traffic volumes
into cumulative standard axle loads and are discussed in this section. Traffic classes are
defined for paved roads, for pavement design purposes, by ranges of cumulative number
of equivalent standard axles (ESAs).
o Assessing the strength of the sub-grade soil over which the road is to be built.The
strength of the road sub-grade for flexible pavements is commonly assessed in terms of
the California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density,
and its moisture content. Direct assessment of the likely strength or CBR of the sub-grade
soil under the completed road pavement is often difficult to make. Its value, however, can
be inferred from an estimate of the density and equilibrium (or ultimate) moisture content
of the sub-grade together with knowledge of the relationship between strength, density
and moisture content for the soil in question. This relationship must be determined in the
laboratory. The density of the sub-grade soil can be controlled within limits by
compaction at suitable moisture content at the time of construction. The moisture content
of the sub-grade soil is governed by the local climate and the depth of the water table
below the road surface.
Selecting an adequate pavement structure; selecting the most economical combination of
pavement materials and layer thicknesses. That will provide satisfactory service over the design
life of the pavement.
 Summery note pavement design process

Figure 2.4 pavement design process

CHAPTER THREE
3. TRAFFIC ANALYSIS
3.1. INTRODUCTION

The deterioration of paved roads is caused by traffic results from both the magnitude of the
individual wheel loads and the number of times these loads are applied. Hence, to design a paved
highway, it is necessary to consider not only the traffic volume or the total number of vehicles
that will use the road but also to predict the number of repetitions of each axle load group (or
wheel load group) during the design period. To convert the traffic volumes into cumulative
equivalent standard axle loads (ESAL or CESAL which is one design parameter in pavement
design) equivalency factors are used.

On the other hand, the mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads differs from that of paved
roads. Design of thickness of gravel roads is directly related to the number of vehicles using the
road rather than the number of equivalent standard axles as that for paved roads. The traffic
volume is therefore used in the design of unpaved roads (gravel roads), as opposed to the paved
roads which require the conversion of traffic volumes into the appropriate cumulative number of
equivalent standard axles.

In this section, method of determining the traffic volume and CESAL with reference to Ethiopian
Roads Authority (ERA) Pavement Design Manual will be discussed.

o The deterioration of paved roads by traffic results both from

 Magnitude of Load
 Repetition of Load
o Hence, to design a paved highway, it is necessary to consider
 the traffic volume or the total number of vehicles that will use the road &
 To predict the number of repetitions of each axle load group (or wheel load group)
during the design period.
 The traffic volume is converted into cumulative equivalent standard axle loads (ESAL
or CESAL) using equivalency factors (EALF).
 CESAL is one design parameter in pavement design
o Gravel Roads - mechanism of deterioration of gravel roads different from that of paved roads.
 Design of thickness of gravel roads is more related to the number of vehicles
using the road rather than the CESAL.
 The Traffic Volume in terms of initial AADT is used in the design of unpaved
roads (gravel roads),

The following Parameters and Considerations/Steps are involved in Traffic Analysis for
pavement design.

3.2 Design period

The length or duration of time during which the pavement structure is expected to function
satisfactorily without the need for major intervention (rehabilitation such as overlays or
reconstruction) or the duration in time until the pavement structure reaches its terminal condition
(failure condition). Selecting appropriate design period depends on
 Functional importance of the road
 Traffic volume
 Location and terrain of the project
 Financial constraints
 Difficulty in forecasting traffic

Longer Design Period – for important roads, high traffic volume, roads in difficult location and
terrain where regular maintenance is costly and difficult due to access problems or lack of
construction material. Where rehabilitation would cause major inconvenience to road users, a
longer period may be recommended

Short Design Period – if there is problem in traffic forecasting, financial constraints, etc

Table 3.1 Design period based on ERA

Road Classification Design Period (years)

Trunk Road 20
Link Road 20
From these considerations
Main Access Road 15 the design period of this
Other Roads 10 road will be 20 years,
even though traffic
forecasting is difficult but other parameters will guide to use this design period from era
recommended.
Figure 3.1 pavement design process

3.3 Determine Traffic Volume (ADT, AADT)

i) Vehicle classification
For determination of traffic volume first classify vehicles is important aspect according to
adopted codes.
 o Small axle loads from private cars and other light vehicles do not cause significant
pavement damage.
o Damage caused by heavier vehicles (commercial vehicles)
o Hence, important to distinguish
 the proportion of vehicles which cause pavement damage (commercial vehicles)
from total traffic
o To do this, we need to have a vehicle classification system –
 To distinguish between commercial vehicles and small cars
 Distinguish between the different types of commercial vehicles and group them
according to their type, size (loading), configuration, etc.
ERA vehicle classification system

Table 3.2 vehicle classification

ii) traffic count

Traffic Count necessary:
o To assess the traffic-carrying capacity of different types of roads.
o Examine the distribution of traffic between the available traffic lanes.
o In the preparation of maintenance schedules for in-service roads.
 o In the forecasting of expected traffic on a proposed new road from traffic studies on the
surrounding road system.

Traffic volume data determined from:

 Historical traffic data available in relevant authorities (ERA conducts regular 3
times a year (Feb., Jul., Nov.) traffic counts on its major road network) and/or
 By conducting classified traffic counts:
 On the road to be designed – if the road is an existing road and the project is
Upgrading, Rehabilitation, Maintenance, reconstruction, etc
 On other parallel routes and/or adjacent roads – for new roads
o Traffic volume data may vary daily, weekly, seasonally.
o Hence to avoid error in traffic analysis and capture the average yearly trend, minimum 7
days count recommended
o ERA recommended procedure
 Conduct 7 days classified traffic count
 5 days for 16 hrs
 Minimum 2 days for 24 hrs (one week day and one weekend)

For long projects, there may be large difference in traffic volume along the road and hence it is
necessary to make the traffic counts at several locations.

iii) Average Daily Traffic(ADT)

ADT is obtained for a road project at any time of the year after performing traffic count for seven
consecutive days.

ADT is determined from the traffic count data as follows

 Adjust the 16hrs traffic count data into 24hr data by multiplying with the average
night adjustment factor
 Night adjustment factor = (24hr traffic)/(16hr traffic) :- obtained from the two
days 24hr count data.
 (ADT)o = the current Average Daily Traffic= Average of the 7 days 24 hr traffic
volume data

3.4. Determination of AADTo

The AADT is defined as the total annual traffic summed for both directions and divided by365.
It is usually obtained by recording actual traffic volumes over a shorter period from which the
AADT is then estimated. It should be noted that for structural design purposes the traffic loading
in one direction is required and for this reason care is always required when interpreting AADT
figures. For long projects, large differences in traffic along the road may make it necessary to
estimate the flow at several locations.

In order to determine the total traffic over the design life of the road, the first step is to
estimate initial traffic volumes

o In order to capture the average annual traffic flow trend, adjustment must be made for
seasonal traffic variation, this is because of
 Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the AADT can
Produce estimates which are subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have
large daily, weekly, monthly and seasonal variations.
 Traffic volumes vary more from day-to-day than from week to Week over the year.
Thus there are large errors associated with estimating annual
AADTs from traffic counts of only a few days duration, or excluding the weekend
o Hence traffic count as above must be made at different representative seasons (ERA
conducts traffic counts on February, July and November)

Make adjustment Traffic counts carried out over a short period as a basis for estimating the AADT
can produce estimates which are subject to large errors because traffic volumes can have large daily,
weekly, monthly and seasonal variations. The daily variability in traffic volume depends on the
volume of traffic, with particularly high variability on roads carrying less than 1000 vehicles per day.
Traffic volumes vary more from day-to-day than from week to-week over the year. Thus there are
large errors associated with estimating annual AADT from traffic counts of only a few days duration,
or excluding the weekend. For the same reason there is a rapid decrease in the likely error as the
duration of the counting period increases up to one week. For counts of longer duration,
improvements in accuracy are less pronounced. Traffic volumes also vary from month-to-month
(seasonal variation), so that a weekly traffic count repeated at intervals during the year provides a
better base for estimating the annual volume of traffic than a continuous traffic count of the same
total

o Duration. to (ADT)o – based on the season at which the current traffic count belongs to
and based on seasonal adjustment factors for the road (or similar roads) derived from
historic traffic data (ERA or other regional/national sources)
o (AADT)o = (ADT)o adjusted for seasonal variation

Growth Rate
The rate traffic growth depends on the activity and economic development of the area in
consideration. In order to estimate future traffic possible growth in traffic need to be evaluated.
Growth rate is often best when derived from past traffic trend. In the meantime to supplement
this economic indicators have also been taken in to account.
3.5. Traffic forecast

3.5.1 Determining traffic growth rate over the design period

o Very uncertain process

o Requires making analysis and forecast of past and future traffic growth trends, social and
economic development trends, etc
o In forecasting, Traffic categorized into the following:

 Normal Traffic: Traffic that would pass along the existing road or track even if no
new or improved pavement were provided.
o Forecasted by extrapolating data on traffic levels and assume that growth will
remain either constant in absolute terms i.e. a fixed number of vehicles per
year or constant in relative terms i.e. a fixed percentage increase.
o Growth rate can also be related linearly to anticipate Gross Domestic Product
(GDP).
 Diverted Traffic: Traffic that changes from another route (or mode of transport) to the
project road because of the improved pavement, but still travels between the same
origin and destination.
o Origin and destination surveys (O/D survey) should preferably be carried out
to provide data on the traffic diversions likely to arise.

 Generated Traffic:
Additional traffic, which occur in response to the provision or improvement of the road.
It may arise either because a journey becomes more attractive by virtue of a cost or time
reduction or because of the increased development that is brought about by the road investment.
Generated traffic is also difficult to forecast accurately and can be easily overestimated.
From thorough analysis of economic, social and development trends, determine overall growth
rate r for all vehicle categories or separate growth rate ri for each vehicle category.

Determination of Cumulative Traffic Volumes

Traffic volume is major factor which influences the development of road design standards. The
volume and composition of traffic increase from time to time, in this case there is a need of
expanding an existing road when ever which is not adequate for increasing traffic volume.
Therefore, as the road is aimed to carry traffic safely, and the amount of traffic that is to use the
road is one of the basic parameters on which highway designs based.
 In order to determine the cumulative number of vehicles over the design period of the road, the
following procedure should be followed:
1. Determine the initial traffic volume, AADT (m) 0, of each traffic class (m) using the results of
the traffic survey and any other recent traffic count information that is available.
2. Estimate the annual growth rate “i” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the anticipated
number of years “n” between the traffic survey and the opening of the road.
3. For each vehicle class, estimate the traffic in the first year that the road is opened to traffic.
For normal traffic this is given by

AADT (m)1 = AADT(m)0 (1+i)n ……………………………………………

Equation 3.1
4. For each vehicle class, add the estimate for diverted traffic and for generated traffic if any are
anticipated.

Table 3.3 our traffic count for seven day

type Vehicle Car 4 Smal Bus(coach Smal Medium Heavy truck Artic
wheel l bus ) l truck ulate
truck d
truck
Day Hour 2 3 4
axle axle axle
 Sunday 12 1679 719 29 27 35 64 71 26 14 32
Monday 12 2437 815 74 89 73 107 63 15 17 55
Tuesday 12 2671 643 55 125 69 105 59 19 13 43
Wednesday 12 2183 1028 86 91 43 121 74 12 12 39
Thursday 12 2086 926 78 113 121 82 89 18 19 63
Friday 12 2246 765 74 93 96 75 73 12 9 44
Friday 24 2583 896 97 114 105 96 64 21 14 47
Night 1.15 1.17 1.31 1.22 1.09 1.27 1.29 1.75 1.67 1.07
factor(Friday)
Saturday 12 1572 901 13 52 66 73 126 29 27 38
Saturday 24 1886 973 18 66 87 111 150 31 31 40
Night 1.2 1.08 1.39 1.27 1.32 1.52 1.19 1.07 1.15 1.05
factor(Saturda
y)

For structural pavement design the cumulative traffic loading of each of the motorized vehicle
classes over the design life of the road in one direction is required. For a given class, m, this is
given by the following equation:
T(m) = 0.5 x 365 x AADT (m)0 [(1+i/100)N – 1]/(i/100) ………… Equation 3.2

Where
T(m) = the cumulative traffic of traffic class m
AADT(m)1 = The AADT of traffic class m in the first
N = the design period in years
i = annual growth rate

Table 3.4 initial ADT calculation

Vehicle type Car 4 Smal Bus(coach Smal Medium Heavy truck Articulate
wheel l bus ) l truck d truck
truck
Day Hour 2 3 4
axle axle axle
Monday 12 2437 815 74 89 73 107 63 15 17 55
Tuesday 12 2671 643 55 125 69 105 59 19 13 43
Wednesday 12 2183 1028 86 91 43 121 74 12 12 39
Thursday 12 2086 926 78 113 121 82 89 18 19 63
Night 1.15 1.17 1.31 1.22 1.09 1.27 1.29 1.75 1.67 1.07
factor(Friday)
Average 1 24 2696 998 96 128 77 132 92 28 23 53
Friday 24 2583 896 97 114 105 96 64 21 14 47
Saturday 24 1886 973 18 66 87 111 150 31 31 40
Sunday • 1679 719 29 27 35 64 71 26 14 32

Night 1.2 1.08 1.39 1.27 1.32 1.52 1.19 1.07 1.15 1.05
factor(Saturda
y)
Sunday 24 2015 777 41 35 47 98 85 28 21 34
ADT INITIAL 2467 949 78 104 79 119 100 28 23 48

The cumulative traffic for each class of vehicle is multiplied by the average number of
equivalent standard axles of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of
equivalent standard axles over the life of the road.

Construction period complete after 1 year

Normal growth rate = 5%
Seasonal variation factor
Generated and diverted traffic at the opening is 20% of normal traffic
To forecast vehicle for design period 20 years consider 5% of normal growth and 20% of normal
growth of diverted and generated traffic growth therefore total growth rate should be 6% of
AADT ̥
1. Other recent traffic count information that is available. For paved roads, detail the AADT in
terms of car, bus, truck, and truck-trailer
2. Estimate the annual growth rate “i” expressed as a decimal fraction, and the anticipated
number of years “x” between the traffic survey and the opening of the road.
3. Determine AADT1 the traffic volume in both directions on the year of the road opening by:
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+i)x
For paved roads, also determine the corresponding daily one-directional traffic volume for each
type of vehicle.

Table 3.5 AADT calculation for design period

AADT 2591 997 82 110 83 125 105 30 25 51

Growth 20% 20% 20 20 20% 20 20 20 20 20%
rate % % % % % %
AADT ̥ 3110 1017 99 132 100 150 126 36 30 62

4. The cumulative number of vehicles, T over the chosen design period N ( in years) is obtained
by:
T = 365 AADT1 [ (1+i)N – 1] / ( i )
For paved roads, conduct a similar calculation to determine the cumulative volume in each
direction for each type of vehicle.

Table 3.6 calculation of cumulative vehicle

type Vehicle AADT0 Growth rate Cumulative

(%) Vehicles
Car 3110 6 20878582
4-wheel 1017 6 6827498
Small buss 99 6 664624
Bus (coach) 132 6 886165
Small truck 100 6 671338
Medium truck 150 6 1007006
Heavy truck(2- 126 6 345885
axle)
Heavy truck(3- 36 6 241682
axle)
 Heavy truck(4- 30 6 201402
axle)
Trailer truck 62 6 416229
32140411

3.6 AXLE LOADS

The damage that vehicles do to a paved road is highly dependent on the axle loads of the
vehicles. For pavement design purposes the damaging power of axles is related to a “standard”
axle of 8.16 metric tons using empirical equivalency factors. In order to determine the
cumulative axle load damage that a pavement will sustain during its design life, it is necessary to
express the total number of heavy vehicles that will use the road over this period in terms of the
cumulative number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs).

Axle loads can be converted and compared using standard factors to determine the damaging
power of different vehicle types. A vehicle’s damaging power, or Equivalency Factor (EF), can
be expressed as the number of equivalent standard axles (ESAs), in units of 80 kN. The design
lives of pavements are expressed in terms of the ESAs they are designed to carry.

3.6.1. AXLE LOAD SURVEYS

Axle load surveys must be carried out to determine the axle load distribution of a sample of the
heavy vehicles (vehicles with codes of 2 to 5) using the road. Data collected from these surveys
are used to calculate the mean number of ESA for a typical vehicle in each class. These values
are then used in conjunction with traffic forecasts to determine the predicted cumulative
equivalent standard axles that the road will carry over its design life.

Most of the countries have regulations on the size and weight of vehicles to ensure road safety
and to contain the weight of vehicles within the carrying capacity of the road pavements and
bridges. However, in developing countries like Ethiopia, enforcement has usually proved to be
quite impracticable. Vehicles are grossly overloaded. Examples were reported where axle loads
are as much as 60 per cent higher than those permitted in the regulations. In such cases, a
pavement design which assumes that the vehicles would be conforming to the country’s
regulations on vehicle weight and axle loading is bound to fail.
Hence, it is emphasized here that the designer should consider the factors:

1. Overloaded vehicles using the road

 2. Ability to undertake effective road maintenance in his pavement design analysis on
case by case basis.

The types of construction must be robust, capable of carrying the heavy loads, as far as possible,
be capable withstanding some neglect of routine and periodic maintenance.

No regular axle load surveys are conducted in Ethiopia at present. Each individual project
depends on its own axle load survey data. As mentioned earlier, since these surveys are for a
limited time period, they may not give a representative data. Hence it is recommended that, a
very thorough and conservative axle load survey over extended periods be carried out to
determine the axle loads as accurately as possible. The accuracy of these surveys will have
influence on the determination of traffic class.

Ideally, several surveys at periods that will reflect seasonal changes in the magnitude of axle
loads are recommended. Portable vehicle-wheel weighing devices are available which enable a
small team to weigh up to 90 vehicles per hour.
On certain roads it may be necessary to consider whether the axle load distribution of the traffic
travelling in one direction is the same as that of the traffic travelling in the opposite direction.
Significant differences between the two streams can occur on roads serving ports, quarries,
cement works, etc., where the vehicles travelling one way are heavily loaded but are empty on
the return journey. In such cases the results from the more heavily trafficked lane should be used
when converting volumes to ESA for pavement design. Similarly, special allowance must be
made for unusual axle loads on roads which mainly serve one specific economic activity, since
this can result in a particular vehicle type being predominant in the traffic spectrum. This is often
the case, for example, in such areas as timber extraction areas or mining areas.

Once the axle load data has been gathered, it remains to be used to determine the mean
equivalency factor for each class of vehicle.

The following method of analysis is recommended:

a. Determine the equivalency factors for each of the wheel loads measured during the axle
load survey, using Table 2-3 or the accompanying equation, in order to obtain the
equivalency factors for vehicle axles. The factors for the axles are totaled to give the
equivalency factor for each of the vehicles. For vehicles with multiple axles i.e. tandems,
triples etc., each axle in the multiple group is considered separately.

b. Determine the mean equivalency factor for each class of heavy vehicle (i.e. bus, truck and
truck-trailer) travelling in each direction. It is customary to assume that the axle load
 distribution of the heavy vehicles will remain unchanged for the design period of the
pavement.

3.6.2. CUMULATIVE EQUIVALENT STANDARD AXLES OVER THE DESIGN

PERIOD

Finally, the cumulative ESAs over the design period (N) are calculated as the products of the
cumulative one-directional traffic volume (T) for each class of vehicle by the mean equivalency
factor for that class and added together for each direction. The higher of the two directional
values should be used for design.

The relationship between a vehicle’s EF and its axle loading is normally considered in terms of
the axle mass measured in kilograms. The relationship takes the form:

n
Equivalency factor = Axle i
8160

Where
axlei = mass of axle i
n = a power factor that varies depending on the pavement construction type and sub-grade but
which can be assumed to have a value of 4.5 and the standard axle load is taken as
8 160kg with the summation taken over the number of axles on the vehicle in
question.

3.6.2. Design Traffic Loading

The data and parameters obtained from the studies discussed in the preceding sections can now
be used to estimate the design cumulative design traffic volume and loading.

i) Adjustment for Lane and Directional Distribution of Traffic – the AADT should be adjusted
as follows

Lane Distribution Factor (P): accounts for the proportion of commercial vehicles in the
design lane. For two lane highways, the lane in each direction is the design lane, so the lane
distribution factor is 100%. For multilane highways, the design lane is the heavily loaded
lane (outside lane).

Table 3.7 lane Distribution factor (ERA)

Number of Lanes Percent Traffic (ESAL) in

 in each direction design Lane
1 100
2 80 – 100
3 60 – 80
4 50 – 75

Directional Distribution Factor (D): factor that accounts for any directional variation in total
traffic volume or loading pattern. It is usually 0.5 (50%). However, could be adjusted based
on actual condition (if there is directional tendency to commercial vehicle distribution
(volume or loading); for example if the heavy vehicles in one direction are loaded and come
back empty in the other direction).

ii) Calculating (AADT)1

o AADT1 = Annual Average Daily Traffic (both directions) at year of Road Opening (year
at which construction works are completed and the whole road is made open for traffic).
o If time between traffic count year (design time) and estimated year of road opening = x,
then
AADT1 = AADT0 (1+r)x
o Note that AADT1 is used as the Design Traffic Parameter for Gravel Roads (ERA
Pavement Design Manual)

iii) Cumulative Traffic Volume (T) – can be computed for all traffic (T) or for each vehicle
class (Ti)

Ti = 365 (P) (D) AADT1i [(1+ri)N – 1] / ( ri )

Ti = cumulative volume of traffic for the ith commercial vehicle class in the design lane
over the design period (adjusted for lane distribution and direction).
ri = annual growth rate for the ith commercial vehicle class
P = Lane distribution factor; D = Directional distribution factor
N = Design Period in years

iv) Design Traffic (Cumulative Equivalent Standard Axle Load - CESAL) – is computed by
multiplying the total traffic volume for each vehicle category (Ti) by its corresponding truck
factor (TFi)
 Design Traffic Load = CESAL=∑(Ti x TFi)

Table: average equivalency factors for different vehicle types

Table 3.8 Axle load factor (ERA 2013 malual)

v) The CESAL is used to determine the traffic class to be employed for pavement design.

Table 3.9 Average equivalency factor for our case

Class Vehicle type No of axle

1 Car 2
2 4-wheel 2
3.7. Traffic classes for flexible pavement
3 Small buss 2 0.3
design
4 Bus (coach) 2 2
Accurate estimate of cumulative traffics are
5 Small truck 2 1.5
difficult to achieve due to errors in the survey and
6 Medium 2 5 uncertain with regarded to traffic growth, axle
truck loads and axle equivalencies. to reasonable extent,
7 Heavy 2 10 however, pavement thickness design is not very
truck(2-axle) sensitive to cumulative axle load and the method
8 Heavy 3 12
truck(3-axle)
9 Heavy 4 15
truck(4-axle)
12 Trailer truck 10
recommended in ERA manual provide fixed structure of paved roads for a range of traffic is
shown below.(source: ERA manual 2013 )
The cumulative traffic for each class of vehicle is multiplied by the average number of
equivalent standard axles of vehicles in that class to calculate the cumulative total number of
equivalent standard axles over the life of the road.

Table 3.10 Cumulative equivalency axle load

type Vehicle AADT Growth rate Cumulative ESA Cumulative ESAL*10⁶

0 (%) Vehicles L

Car 3110 6 20878582

4-wheel 1017 6 6827498
Small buss 99 6 664624 0.3 0.1994
Bus (coach) 132 6 886165 2 1.77233
Small truck 100 6 671338 1.5 1.007
Medium truck 150 6 1007006 5 5.035
Heavy truck(2- 126 6 345885 10 8.4589
axle)
Heavy truck(3- 36 6 241682 12 2.900182
axle)
Heavy truck(4- 30 6 201402 15 3.02103
axle)
Trailer truck 62 6 416229 10 4.16229
ΣESA=26.5561*10⁶
Table 3.11 Traffic class for flexible pavement design (ERA manual 2013)

From our calculation based on ESAs = 26.5561*10⁶the traffic class is T8

CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 SOIL INVESTIGATION
The type of sub-grade soil is largely determined by the location of the road. However, where the
soils within the possible corridor for the road vary significantly in strength from place to place, it
is clearly desirable to locate the pavement on the stronger soils if this doesn’t conflict with other
constraints. For this reason, the pavement engineer should be involved in the route corridor
selection process when choice made this regard influence the pavement structure and the
construction costs.
The strength of the road sub-grade for flexible pavement is commonly assessed in terms of the
California Bearing Ratio (CBR) and this is dependent on the type of soil, its density, and its
moisture content. Direct assessment of the likely strength or CBR of the sub-grade soil under the
completed road pavement is often difficult to make. It’s value, however, can be inferred from an
estimate of the density and equilibrium or ultimate moisture content of the sub-grade together
with knowledge of the relationship between strength, density and moisture content for the soil in
question. This relationship must be determined in the laboratory. The density of the sub-grade
soil can be controlled within limits by compaction at suitable moisture content at the time of
construction. The moisture content of the sub-grade soil is governed by the local climate and the
depth of the water table below the road surface.
In the following sections, it has been considered useful to first recall some basic relationships
involved in the modifications imposed on the sub-grade soil during and after the road
construction, and how they affect the final sub-grade strength

4.2 General Density-Moisture Content-Strength Relationships Of The Sub

Grade

As indicated above, the strength of the sub-grade is assessed in terms of CBR. The CBR depends
on the nature of the soil, its density and its moisture content.

The nature of the soil is dictated by the route location and the selected longitudinal profile for the
road, and does not change except for the influence of the borrow materials and the movement of
materials between cut and fill during earthworks operations.

By contrast, the (dry) density of the sub-grade soil will be modified from its original state at the
time of the road construction, by compaction at sub-grade level in cuts and by compaction of the
excavated materials used in embankments. Similarly, the moisture content of the natural sub-
grade soil will be altered during construction, in order to approach the optimum (indicated by
laboratory tests) which is conducive to a greater increase in density and in corresponding CBR
strength. Upon completion of the construction operations, the natural soils will have been
brought to a second state of moisture, density and strength. This second state is not the final state
of the sub-grade, however, and except in few particular cases (see Category 1 below), should not
be used in design.
Following the construction, the compacted sub-grade soil will approximately keep the same dry
density, except for compaction under traffic and possible volume variations of certain sensitive
soils. However, even if the pavement was constructed immediately after finishing the sub-grade
and if the pavement could be considered perfectly waterproof, the moisture content of the sub-
grade would nevertheless evolve due to local soil, groundwater or seasonal conditions. It is this
third ultimate state of the sub-grade that generally needs to be considered in design.

4.3 Design Sub-Grade Strength

To determine the sub-grade strength to use for the design of the road pavement, it is apparent
from the above that it is necessary to ascertain the density-moisture content strength
relationship(s) specific to the sub-grade soil(s) encountered along the road under study. It is also
necessary to select the density which will be representative of the sub-grade once compacted.
Estimating the sub-grade moisture content that will ultimately govern the design, i.e. the
moisture content following the construction, is also required. It is recommended to determine the
moisture content as a first step in the process, as this could influence the subsequent ones.

4.4 Sub Grade Soil Investigation

4.4.1 Test Pit Investigatigation
The Engineering properties of the soil are determined by test pit investigation by classifying and
characterizing the material based on various testing method. According to the information and
data we obtained, further investigation on type and extent of soil was conducted by test pits dug
at an average intervals to get representative and reliable result which has even distribution along
the road alignment. Test pit digging and sampling of alignment soils was done for classification
and CBR tests.

4.4.2 Digging and Sampling Methods

The representative soil samples were taken at an average of 1 km intervals depending on actual
site conditions (road sections with erratic (variable) soil extension or long homogenous stretches
of road respectively). Representative samples were retrieved from the full depth of the material
represented starting from 10 - 20cm depth below ground level (to avoid top soil) for sub grade
and extending up to 40-90 cm depth.
The intervals of the sampling stations were adjusted on field based on assessment of actual soil
conditions and such that all soil types along the route are properly represented. Minimum of one
sample was retrieved from each test pit from the full depth of the soil layer that it represents.

IV.4.3 Laboratory Test Methods

Laboratory tests were conducted on the samples taken from sub-grade soil. The following
tests were conducted in laboratory:
 Practice for dry preparation of the sample
 Particle size analysis of soil
 Liquid limit of soil
 Plastic limit and plasticity index of soils
 Moisture-density relationship of soil
 California bearing ratio (CBR)
 Moisture content of soil
 Compaction

4.5 Analysis of Laboratory Test Result on Sub-Grade Soil

Soil Classification tests were conducted on all of the samples. Classification tests (Atterberg’s
limits and grain size analysis tests) are indicative of the physical and mechanical characteristics
of soils. Generally speaking, soils with low plasticity (Low Liquid limit and Plasticity Index) and
fewer fines are more physically and mechanically stable than high plastic, fine soils. In addition,
the CBR test is a penetration test specifically developed for road design (indirect measurement of
shear strength of the sub-grade soil). Delineation of homogeneous sections, determination of sub-
grade strength category and final pavement thickness design are carried out based on this
fundamental design parameter.
In general in our project site which is 5.4 kilometer from maraki to autoparco we have take 4
representative soil sample per kilometer. But from laboratory data the two representative soil
samples have the same property. So the soil test conducted on three different samples.

4.5.1 Liquid Limit of soil

1. Determination of liquid limit of soil by calculating liquid limit of soil in casagranda
method, the soil can be classified.
A). sample one
Data and calculation for liquid limit

Table 4.1 Liquid limit test for sample one

Test no 1 2 3 4
Container no B-2 B-5 B-4 B-7
No of blows 32 29 24 18
Mass of wet soil + container (gm) 32.1 46.9 31.9 50.3
Mass of dried soil + container 28.9 43.3 28.8 46.1
(gm)
Mass of container (gm) 23.08 36.0 22.63 37.91
Mass of moisture (gm) 3.2 3.6 3.1 4.2
Mass of dry soil (gm) 5.82 7.3 6.175 8.187
Moisture content (%) 48.2 49.3 50.205 51.3
 51.5

51

50.5
moisture content (%)

50

49.5
Moisthure content (%)
Linear (Moisthure content
49 (%))

48.5

48

47.5
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
No of blow

Figure 4.1 graph of liquid limit From the graph the Liquid limit is 49.99%

Table 4.2 Liquid limit test for sample two

Test no 1 2 3 4
Container no C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4
No of blows 33 29 24 19
Mass of wet soil + container (gm) 59.78 56.89 43.54 54.44
Mass of dried soil + container 52.14 50.36 36.45 48.85
(gm)
Mass of container (gm) 36.09 36.81 22 36.6
Mass of moisture (gm) 7.64 6.53 7.09 5.59
Mass of dry soil (gm) 16.05 13.55 14.49 12.27
Moisture content (%) 47.6 48.2 48.9 49.6
 50

49.5

49
Moisture content (%)

48.5

48 Moisture content (%)

Linear (Moisture content (%))

47.5

47

46.5
18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
No of blow

Figure 4.2 graph of liquid limit for sample two

From the graph of moisture content verses no of blow at 25 blows,

The moisture content is 48.75%

C) Sample three

Table 4.3 liquid limit test for sample three

Test no 1 2 3 4
Container no A-1 A-2 A-3 A-4
No of blows 32 28 24 18
Mass of wet soil + container (gm) 59.2 58.5 55 54.4
Mass of dried soil + container 52.3 50.2 48.7 49.5
(gm)
Mass of container (gm) 38.78 34.36 37 37.3
Mass of moisture (gm) 6.9 8.3 6.6 4.9
Mass of dry soil (gm) 13.52 15.84 11.72 12.2
Moisture content (%) 51.02 52.4 53.75 55.77
 57

56

55

54
moisture content (%)

53 Moisture content (%)

Linear (Moisture content (%))
52

51

50

49

48
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
No of blow

Figure 4.3 graph of liquid limit for sample three

From the graph of moisture Vs no of blow the liquid limit is 53.4%

4.5.2 Determination of plastic limit of soil

This experiment is to determine the plastic limit of grained soil. Plastic limit is determined by
rolling a soil paste, then finding the water content when 3mm diameter paste starts
crumbling. The plastic limit of the soil is the water content at the boundary between the
plastic and semisolid state. The water content at this boundary defined as the water content at
which soil begins to crumble when rolled of threads of specified size (3mm).
A) Sample one

Table 4.4 plastic limit test for sample one

Determination no
Container no B-3 B-6
Weight of container 23.4 37.3
Weight of containers + wet soil 28.4 42.3
 (gm)
Weight of container + dry soil (gm) 26.7 40.6
Weight of water (gm) 1.7 1.7
Weight of dry soil (gm) 3.3 3.3
Moisture content % 51.52 51.52
Average 51.52
B) sample two

Tble 4.5 plastic limit for sample two

Determination no
Container no C-5 C-6
Weight of container 37.33 37.23
Weight of containers + wet soil 42.96 45.65
(gm)
Weight of container + dry soil (gm) 41.16 43.09
Weight of water (gm) 1.8 2.56
Weight of dry soil (gm) 3.83 5.86
Moisture content % 46.997 43.69
Average 45.34
PI= LL-PL = 48.75% - 45.34%= 3.41%

C) sample three

Table 4.6 plastic limit for sample three

Determination no
Container no D-5 D-6
Weight of container 36.1 36.26
Weight of containers + wet soil 43.12 45.77
(gm)
Weight of container + dry soil (gm) 40.9 42.86
Weight of water (gm) 2.22 2.91
Weight of dry soil (gm) 4.8 6.6
Moisture content % 45.83 44.09
Average 44.96
PI= LL-PL =53.4% - 44.96% =8.44%
From the above two tests for each sample the liquid limit, plastic limit and plastic index of the
soil sample determined, which used for determination of type of soil or soil classification.

4.5.3 Sieve Analysis of Soil

Sieve analysis consists of consists of shaking the soil through a stake of wire screens with
opening of known size. From the weight retained on each sieve opening it is possible to
determine particle size distribution in a soil mass. A particle size distribution analysis is a
necessary classification test for soils, especially coarse soils, in that it presents the relative
portion of different size of particles. From this it is possible to determine whether the soil
consists of predominantly gravel, sand, silt, or clay size and to a limited extent, which of these
size ranges is likely to control the engineering properties of the soil.
For each sample a representative test conducted.
Soils are primarily identified as coarse grained, fine grained, and organic. On textural basis,
coarse-grained soils have 50% or more by weight of the overall soil sample retained on the 75
µm sieve (No.200 sieve) and fine grained soils are those that have more than 50% by weight
passing the 75 µm sieve (No.200 sieve). The coarse grained soils are subdivided into gravel and
gravelly soils (G) and sands and sandy soils (S). Fine-grained soils are subdivided on the basis of
their liquid limit (LL) and plasticity properties.
AASHTO soil terminology comes from AASHTO M 145, “Classification of Soils and Soil-
Aggregate Mixtures for Highway Construction Purposes.” According to the AASHTO system,
soil is classified into seven major groups, A-1 through A-7. Soils classified under groups A-1, A-
2 and A-3 are granular materials where 35% or less of the particles pass through the 75µm (No.
20 sieve). Soils where more than 35% pass the 75 µm (No. 200 sieve) are classified under groups
A-4, A-5, A-6 and A-7. Soils where more than 35% pass the 75 µm (No. 200 sieve) are mostly
silt and clay size materials. To evaluate the quality of the soil as a sub-grade material, the group
index (GI) is also used along with the groups and subgroups of the soil.
Material retained on a 75-mm (3-inch) sieve.
Boulders & Cobbles
Material passing a 75-mm (3-inch) sieve and retained on a 2.00-mm
 Gravel (No10) sieve.
Materials passing a 2.00-mm sieve (No. 10) and retained on a 0.475-
 Coarse Sand mm (No. 40) sieve.
Materials passing a 0.475-mm (No. 40) sieve and retained on a 0.075-
 Fine Sand mm (No. 200) sieve.
Material passing a 0.075-mm (No. 200) sieve.
 Silt-Clay
Materials passing the 0.075 mm and larger than 0.002 mm.
 Silt Fraction
Materials smaller than 0.002 mm.
 Clay Fraction
Material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve with a PI  10
 Silty
Material passing a 4.75-mm (No. 4) sieve with a PI  11
 ``Clayey
Table 4.7 soil gradation for sample one

Sieve size Weight of Percentage of Percentage of

(mm) retained Retained (%) Passing (%)
(gm)
75 100
50 100
37.5 170.8 6.97 93.03
28 95.6 3.9 89.13
20 172.5 7.04 82.09
14 139.8 5.705 76.385
10 157 6.407 69.978
6.3 245.9 10.035 59.943
4 137.3 5.603 54.34
5 131.9 5.383 48.957
3.35 68.2 2.783 46.174
2.36 190.6 7.778 38.396
2 110.1 4.493 33.903
1.18 281 11.468 22.435
1 71.1 2.902 19.533
0.6 192.2 7.844 11.689
0.425 8.8 0.359 11.33
0.3 99.8 4.074 7.256
0.15 140.2 5.722 1.534
0.075 37.6 1.534 0
Total weight 2450.4 100
 120
100
percentage passings

80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
particle size mm

Figure 4.4 graph of grain distribution for sample one

For this sample, the total amount of the sample taken = 3000mg
Amount of sample retained on 75µm sieve = 2450.4mg
Mass of sample pass on 75µm sieve =3000-2450.4
=549.6mg
Therefore percent of pass on sieve 75 µm =549.6/3000
=18.32%
Sample two
Table 4.8 Soil gradation for sample two

Sieve size Weight of Percentage of Percentage of

(mm) retained Retained (%) Passing (%)
(gm)
75 100
50 100
37.5 100
28 44.5 1.921 98.079
20 269.4 11.628 86.451
14 253 10.920 75.531
10 253.9 10.959 64.572
 6.3 287.6 12.413 52.159
4 99.3 4.286 47.873
5 117.2 5.058 42.815
3.35 53.3 2.300 40.515
2.36 115.6 4.989 35.526
2 59.5 2.568 32.958
1.18 162.6 7.018 25.94
1 38.6 1.666 24.274
0.6 108.1 4.666 19.608
0.425 74 3.194 16.414
0.3 92.6 3.997 12.417
0.15 173.6 7.493 4.924
0.075 114.1 4.924 0
Total weight 2316.9

120
100
percentage pass

80
60
40
20
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
particle size (mm)

Figure 4.5 graph of grain distribution for sample two

For this sample, the total amount of the sample taken = 3000mg
Amount of sample retained on 75µm sieve = 2316.9mg
Mass of sample pass on 75µm sieve =3000-2316.9
=683.1mg
Therefore percent of pass on sieve 75 µm =683.1/3000
=22.77%
Sample three

Table 4.9 Soil gradation for sample three

Sieve size Weight of Percentage of Percentage of

(mm) retained Retained (%) Passing (%)
(gm)
75 100
50 100
37.5 100
28 148.2 7.717 92.283
20 183.1 9.534 82.749
14 99.7 5.192 77.557
10 149 7.759 69.798
6.3 177.6 9.348 60.45
5 83 4.332 56.118
4 83.4 4.343 51.775
3.35 47.8 2.489 49.286
2.36 107.2 5.582 43.704
2 65.2 3.395 40.309
1.18 172.8 8.998 31.311
1 48.3 2.315 28.996
0.6 141.2 7.353 21.643
0.425 90.6 4.718 16.925
0.3 92.2 4.891 12.034
0.15 178.6 9.30 2.734
0.075 52.5 2.734 0
Total weight 1920.4 100

150
percentage passes

100

50

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
particle size mm

Figure 4.6 graph of grain distribution

For this sample, the
total amount of the sample taken = 3000mg
 Amount of sample retained on 75µm sieve = 1920.4mg
Mass of sample pass on 75µm sieve =3000-1920.4.4
=1079.6mg
Therefore percent of pass on sieve 75 µm =1079.6/300
=36%z

4.5.4 Proctor Compaction Test

The major objective of laboratory compaction test is to determine:
 The optimum amount of mixing water use when compacting the soil in the field and
 The resulting degree of denseness, which can be expected from compaction at this
optimum moisture content.
o Optimum moisture content (OMC) is the water content at with a soil can be compacted to
a maximum dry unit weight by a given compacted effort.
o Maximum dry density is the peak value of the compaction curve.
A). sample one
Table 4.10 Compaction test for sample one

Determination Sapm.1 Samp. Samp.3 Samp.4 Samp.5

Number (5% of 2 (15% (20% of (25%
water) (10% of water) of
of water) water)
water)
Weight of mold + base + 5408 5508 5645 5790 6045
Compacted soil (kg)
Weight of mold (kg) 3477 3477 3477 3477 3477
Weight of compacted soil 1431 1531 1718 2013 2068
(kg)
Wet density (kg/cm³) 1.516 1.622 1.817 2.13 2.19
Dry density (kg/cm²) 1.368 1.488 1.684 1.578 1.51
Water content
Container no B-1 B-2 B-3 B-4 B-5
Weight of container (gm) 25 25 25 25 25
Weight of container + wet 130 104 75 79 83
soil
(gm)
Weight of container + dry 119.8 95 67 65 65
soil
 (gm)
Weight of water (gm) 10.2 9 8 14 18
Weight of dry soil (gm) 94.8 70 42 40 40
Moisture content (%) 10.76 12.86 19.05 35 45

1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2
dry density g/cc

0.8
dry density in g/cc
0.6

0.4

0.2

0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
moisture content (%)

Figure4.7 graph of proctor test for sample one

From graph of moisture content Vs dry density

MDD=1.64 g/cc
OMC=19.1%
Sample calculation
For trial 1
 Weight of compacted soil(gm)
= (Weight of mold + base +compacted soil)-Weight of mold (gm)
=5408-3477
 =1431gm
 Wet density (gm/cm³)
= weight of compacted soil/volume of mold
= 1431/944
= 1.516 gm/cm³
 Dry density (kg/cm²)
= wet density /(1+ moisture content)
= 1.516/(1+10.76%)
=1.368 kg/cm²
 Weight of water (gm)
= (Weight of container + wet soil (gm)) – (Weight of container + dry soil(gm))
= 130-119.8
=10.2 gm
 Weight of dry soil (gm)
= Weight of container + dry soil (gm) – weight of container (gm)
= 119.8-25
= 94.8 gm
 Moisture content(%)= weight of water /weight of dry soil
=10.2/94.8
=10.76 %

B). sample two

Table 4. 11 compaction test for sample two

Determination Sapm.1 Samp.2 Samp.3 Samp.4

Number (5% of (10% (15% (20% of
water) of of water)
water) water)
Weight of mold + base + 5774 6025 5910
Compacted soil (gm)
Weight of mold (gm) 3973 3973 3973
Weight of compacted soil 1801 2052 1973
(gm)
Wet density (gm/cm³) 1.907 2.17 2.054
Dry density (gm/cm²) 1.58 1.798 1.54
Water content
Container no H P-3 A-26
Weight of container (gm) 18 30.9 38.6
Weight of container + wet 67 90.5 84.6
soil
(gm)
Weight of container + dry 58.8 80.3 73.2
soil
(gm)
Weight of water (gm) 8.2 10.2 11.4
Weight of dry soil (gm) 40.8 49.4 34.6
Moisture content (%) 20.09 20.64 32.94
 1.85
1.8
1.75
dry density (g/cc)

1.7
1.65
1.6
Dry density (g/cc)
1.55
1.5
1.45
14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
moisture content (%)

Figure 4.8 proctor test result for sample two

From graph of moisture content Vs dry density

MDD=1.8 g/cc
OMC=22.9%
C). sample three

Table 4.12 proctor test for sample

Determination Sapm. Samp. Samp.3 Samp.4

Number 1 2 (15% (20% of
(5% of (10% of water)
water) of water)
water)
Weight of mold + base + 5653 5815 5972 5915
Compacted soil (kg)
Weight of mold (kg) 3973 3973 3973 3973
Weight of compacted soil 1680 1842 1999 1942
(kg)
Wet density (kg/cm³) 1.78 1.85 2.118 2.06
Dry density (kg/cm²) 1.53 1.65 1.705 1.68
Water content
Container no D A-80 A-11 H-9
Weight of container (gm) 18 38 39 49.2
Weight of container + wet soil 85 88 76.7 88
(gm)
Weight of container + dry soil 75.4 80.2 77.4 77.9
(gm)
Weight of water (gm) 9.6 7.8 9.3 10.1
Weight of dry soil (gm) 57.4 42.2 38.4 28.7
Moisture content (%) 16.72 18.48 24.22 35.2
 1.75

1.7

1.65
dry density (g/cc)

1.6

1.55
Dry density (kg/cm²)
1.5

1.45

1.4
15 20 25 30 35 40
moisture content (%)

Figure 4.9 proctor test for sample three

From graph of moisture content Vs dry density

MDD=1.708 g/cc
OMC=24.9%
Results: From this compaction test optimum moisture content (OMC), maximum dry density
(MDD) of the soil determined. And also the natural moisture content of the soil determined
before proctor test. This laboratory results used for determining CBR value of sub-grade, sub-
base and base course materials. Based on this OMC and MDD we have prepared soil sample for
strength test of sample materials.

4.5.5. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) Test

The strength of the sub-grade is the factor in determining the required thickness of flexible
pavements for roads and airfields. The strength of sub-grade, sub-base, and base course material
are expressed in terms of their California bearing ratio (CBR) value. CBR is the strength test
conducted on soils and other unbound road making materials. In this test, laboratory specimens
compacted in a CBR mold at the OMC are tested to give a relative strength of the material for a
pavement structure with respect to crushed rock, which is considered an excellent coarse base
material. Depending up on the prevailing climatic conditions of the site, CBR specimens are
soaked in water for four days to obtain a saturation condition similar to what may occur in the
field. During this period, the sample is loaded with a surcharge load that simulates the estimate
of pavement layer over the material tested. Any swell due to soaking is also measure and the
CBR value is reported as a percentage of a standard value which is intended to represent the
value that would be obtained with compacted crushed stone.
CBR Laboratory Results for sample One
Table 4.13 CBR test for sample one

Before After
Number of blows soaking soaking
Weight of wet
soil+ mold 9761 10048
weight of mold 6155.6 6155.4

weight of wet soil 3605.4 3892.4

volume of mould 2209 2209

wet density of soil 1.632 1.762

dry density of soil 1.362 1.28

moisture content
container No. B-2 B-1
weight of wet soil
+container 92.6 106.14
weight of dry soil+
container 81.44 86.89

weight of container 22.8 35.77

weight of moisture 11.6 19.25

weight of dry soil 58.64 51.12

moisture content,% 19.78 37.66

Load Penetration,
plunger penetration dial reading (KN) (N/mm²)
0 0 0 0
0.64 22 0.9394 0.485
1.27 30 1.281 0.662
1.91 35 1.495 0.772
2.54 40 1.708 0.88
3.18 43 of specimen
height 1.836 0.949 125mm
3.81 plunger
51 cross-section
2.178 area 1.125 1935.5mm²
4.45 standard
55 load N/mm²
2.647 1.368
at 2.54mm 6.89
5.08 61at 5.08mm 2.6 1.34 10.34
ring factor,N/division 0.0427
Penetration 2.54mm 5.08mm CBR at 56 blows
CBR,% 13 13 13

1.6
1.4
1.2
Stress (N/mm²

1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
penetration (mm)

Figure 4.10 CBR test for sample one

CBR laboratory result for sample two

Table 4.13 CBR test for sample two

before
Number of blows soaking After soaking
weight of wet soil + mold 10364 10556
weight of mold 6182 6182
weight of wet soil 4182 4374
volume of mould 2209 2209
wet density of soil 1.89 1.98
dry density of soil 1.5 1.49
moisture content
container No. B-4 B-1
weight of wet soil
+container 39.6 70.16
weight of dry soil+
container 36.4 58.9
weight of container 24.8 24.31
weight of moisture 3.2 11.26
weight of dry soil 11.6 34.59
moisture content,% 27.6 32.5

Penetration,
plunger penetration dial reading load(KN) (N/mm²)
0 0 0 0
0.64 14 0.859 0.444
1.27 36 1.537 0.794
1.91 74 3.16 1.632
2.54 120 5.124 2.647
3.18 140 5.978 3.088
3.81 162 6.917 3.574
4.45 181 7.301 3.772
5.08 181 7.729 3.993

height of specimen 125mm

plunger cross-section area 1935.5mm²
standard load N/mm²
at 2.54mm 6.89
at 5.08mm 10.34
ring factor, N/division 0.0427

penetration 2.54mm 5.08mm CBR at 56 blows

CBR,% 38 38 38
 4.5
4
3.5
penetration (N/mm² )

3
2.5
2
Penetration, (N/mm²)
1.5
1
0.5
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
penetration (mm)

Figure 4.11 CBR test for sample two

CBR laboratory result for sample three

Table 4.14 CBR test for sample three

before
Number of blows soaking After soaking
weight of wet soil+ mold 10565 10654
weight of mold 6178 6178
weight of wet soil 4387 4476
volume of mould 2209 2209
wet density of soil 1.98 2.026
dry density of soil 1.66 1.72
moisture content
container No. A-2 B-1
weight of wet soil
+container 76.6 85.36
weight of dry soil+
container 70.3 76.2
weight of container 25.4 25.4
weight of moisture 6.3 9.16
weight of dry soil 44.9 50.8
moisture content,% 14 18
 Penetration,
plunger penetration dial reading load(KN) (N/mm²)
0 0 0 0
0.64 20 0.854 0.44
1.27 35 1.496 0.773
1.91 49 2.092 1.081
2.54 59 2.519 1.301
3.18 67 2.861 1.478
3.81 75 3.203 1.655
4.45 81 3.459 1.787
5.08 87 3.715 1.919

height of specimen 125mm

plunger cross-section area 1935.5mm²
standard load N/mm²
at 2.54mm 6.89
at 5.08mm 10.34
ring factor, N/division 0.0427

penetration 2.54mm 5.08mm CBR at 56 blows

CBR,% 19 19 19

2.5

2
penetration (N/mm²)

1.5

1 Penetration, (N/mm²)

0.5

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
penetration (mm)

Figure 4.12 CBR test for sample three

RESULTS FROM LABORATRY FOR SOIL SAMPLE TAKEN

From the above laboratory test results the following value of the soil sample determined.
Table CBR value, plastic index and the corresponding soil type

Atterberg limit Soil type

No Station CBR at MDD & OMC

AASHTO

5.08 (mm) LL PL PI

1 0+000- 13 13 51.5 49.9 1.62 A-2(A-2-5) Silty or clayey

0+200 2 gravel and
sand
2 2+000- 38 38 48.7 45.34 3.41 A-2 (A-2-5) Silty or clayey
3+000 5 gravel and
sand
3 3+000- 19 19 53.4 44.96 8.44 A-5 Silty soil
4+000

CHAPTER FIVE
5. Structural Design of Pavement Thickness
One of the basic requirements for a pavement is that it should be of sufficient thickness to spread
the surface loading to a pressure intensity that the underlying sub-grade is able to withstand, with
the pavement itself sufficiently robust to deal with the stresses incident on it. Where required, the
pavement should be sufficiently thick to prevent damage to a frost-susceptible sub-grade.
Thickness is thus a central factor in the pavement design process.
The pavement should be neither too thick nor too thin. If it is too thick, the cost will become
excessive. If it is too thin, it will fail to protect the underlying unbound layers, causing rutting at
formation. Flexible pavement is defined as one where the surface course, binder course and base
materials are bitumen bound. Permitted materials include hot rolled asphalt (HRA), high density
macadam (HDM), dense bitumen macadam (DBM) and dense bitumen macadam with 50-
penetration bitumen (DBM50). Flexible composite pavements involve surface course and upper
base materials bound with macadam built on a lower base of cement bound material (CBM).
Wearing courses are either 45mm or 50mm of hot rolled asphalt or 50mm of porous asphalt
(PA). (If PA is used, it is assumed to contribute only 20mm to the overall thickness of the
pavement for design purposes.) The bitumen within dense bitumen macadam road bases and base
courses must be at least 100 penetration grades, with hot-rolled asphalt containing 50 pen
binders. A flexible pavement is one, which has low flexural strength, and the load is largely
transmitted to the sub-grade soil through the lateral distribution of stresses with increasing depth
as shown on the figure below. The pavement trickiness is designed such that the stresses on the
sub-grade soil are kept within its bearing capacity and the sub-grade is prevented from excessive
deformation. The strength and smoothness of flexible pavement structure depends to a large
extent on the deformation of the sub-grade soil.
5.1. Basic Procedure to Pavement Design

The road base is assumed to satisfy the entire strength requirements for the entire pavement, with
the surfacing considered to make no significant contribution to the strength of the pavement. The
primary function of the surface material is to provide surface texture and regularity. To design
flexible pavement with required standard the following procedure is necessary.

Step 1
Determine the cumulative number of commercial vehicles expected to use the highway from its
first day of use to the end of its design life, taken as 20 years.
Step 2
Determine the cumulative number of commercial vehicles expected to use the design lane’ over
its design lifetime. (The design lane is the most heavily trafficked lane in any given direction.)
Step 3
Determine the equivalent number of standard axle’s incident on the road over its design life,
based on the commercial vehicle usage. Based on a standard axle of 80kN, the required value is
obtained from the product of the cumulative number of commercial vehicles and a term called
the damage factor which varies for different road types.
Step 4
Determine the sub-base thickness. This is dependent on both the CBR of the sub-grade and the
cumulative number of standard axles over the design life of the highway.

Step 5
Determine the road base and surfacing thickness. This parameter depends purely on the
cumulative number of standard axles over the pavement’s design life. For cumulative standard
axles in excess of 10 million, the surfacing should be 100 mm thick (60 mm base course plus
40mm wearing course). If dense bitumen macadam is used, a road base thickness of just under
150 mm is required to cater for 10 msa, giving a total bound thickness of 250mm.

Sub-grade strength
The CBR test is taken as a direct measure of the strength of the in-situ sub-grade material.
Despite concerns regarding the limited accuracy of this test, it is utilized on the basis that it is
widely used and accepted by both theorists and practitioners.
The design criteria adopted by ERA manual were:
(1) The sub-grade must be able to sustain traffic loading without excessively deforming. This is
achieved by limiting the vertical stress at formation level.
(2) Bituminous or cement bound materials used in the flexible pavement must not be subject to
fatigue cracking. This is achieved by limiting the horizontal tensile stresses at the bottom of the
bituminous/cement bound road base.
(3) The load spreading capability of granular sub-bases should be enough to provide an
acceptable construction platform.
(4) When a pavement is composed of a considerable depth of bituminous material, its creep must
be restricted in order to stop the rutting which arises from internal deformation.
Figure 5.1 Critical stresses/strains in a bituminous highway pavement slab

The choice of chart will depend on a variety of factors but should be based on minimizing total
transport costs. Factors that will need to be taken into account in a full evaluation include:
• The likely level and timing of maintenance
• The probable behavior of the structure
• The experience and skill of the contractors and the availability of suitable equipment
• The cost of the different materials that might be used
• Other risk factors

5.2 Pavement Layers Using ERA Design Manual

The design of flexible pavements is based on the catalogue of pavement structures published in
TRL’s Overseas Road Note 31 but updated, improved and extended to higher traffic levels based
on the latest research Use of the Catalogue, Although the thicknesses of layers should follow the
design charts whenever possible, some limited substitution of materials between sub-base and
selected fill is allowable based on the structural number principles outlined in the AASHTO
Guide for Design of Pavement Structures and Appendix H. Where substitution is allowed, a note
is included with the design chart. Although a range of ‘qualities’ of granular material are
specified within the charts, when they are used for high traffic levels (above T5) and even though
they may be underneath high quality asphaltic concrete, it is important that they are of the
highest quality crushed stone. For low traffic levels from T1 to T3 in Charts A1, A2 and A3, a
gravel road base (GB3) may be considered. For hydraulically (cement or lime) stabilized
materials, the charts define the layers with different symbols and thereby indicate the underlying
assumptions regarding the strength of material.

5.2.1 Pavement material

Roads will be built where they can or need to be regardless of the sub-grade
and aggregate is usually taken from the closest source as long as it meets
minimum standard.

Aggregates
Aggregate is the major component in HMA and the quality and physical properties of this
material has a large influence on mix performance. The qualities required of aggregates are
described in terms of
o Particle shape and surface texture,
o Toughness and abrasion resistance
o Durability and soundness
o Cleanliness and deleterious materials,
o Bitumen affinity and porosity,

Smooth-surfaced river gravel, even partly crushed, may not generate as much internal friction as
a totally crushed aggregate from particles having a coarse micro texture.
The coarse aggregates used for making HMA should be produced by crushing sound, un
weathered rock or natural gravel. Gravel should be crushed to produce at least two fractured
faces on each particle.
The aggregate should have the following characteristics;
1. Be angular and not excessively flaky, to provide good mechanical interlock;
2. Be clean and free of clay and organic material;
 3. Be strong enough to resist crushing during mixing and laying as well as in service;
4. Be resistant to abrasion and polishing when exposed to traffic;
5. Be non-absorptive - highly absorptive aggregates are wasteful of bitumen and also
give rise to problems in mix design; and
6. Have good affinity with bitumen - hydrophilic aggregates may be acceptable only
where protection from water can be guaranteed or a suitable adhesion agent is used.
Filler (material finer than 0.075 mm) can be crushed rock fines, Portland cement or hydrated
lime. Portland cement or hydrated lime is often added to natural filler (1-2 per cent by mass of
total mix) to improve the adhesion of the bitumen to the aggregate.
Aggregate particle size distribution for HMA
There may be sufficient knowledge to justify the use of locally derived aggregate particle size
distributions for HMA, otherwise the distributions given below should be considered.
Irrespective of the particle size distribution that is chosen, a blend of aggregate particles suitable
for dense AC surfacing must produce a mix which will:
1. Have sufficient VMA to accommodate enough bitumen to make it workable during
construction
2. Be durable in service; and
3. Retain a minimum of 3 per cent VIM after secondary compaction by traffic.
An aggregate blend for HMA is characterized by:
1. The nominal maximum stone size – defined as one sieve size larger than the first
sieve to retain more than ten per cent; and
2. The maximum stone size - defined as one sieve size larger than the nominal
maximum size.

The nominal maximum stone size determines the minimum VMA required in the aggregate
blend and the maximum stone size that can be used in a mix is governed by the proposed
thickness of the HMA layer. To achieve good compaction the layer thickness will normally have
to be between 2 x the maximum stone size for fine mixes and 4 x the maximum stone size for
mixes with a high content of coarse aggregates such as those normally recommended for severe
traffic loading.
Table 5.1 1 aggregate gradation for A
AGGREGATE
  A      
sieve cumulative
size weight retained %Retained retained % pass
37.5mm 0 0 0 100
28mm 83.2 2.788 2.788 97.212
20mm 554.8 18.592 21.38 78.62
14mm 1340.5 44.291 65.671 34.329
10mm 805 26.976 92.647 7.353
6.3mm 133.8 4.484 97.131 2.869
5mm 53.9 1.806 98.937 1.063
4mm 12.9 0.432 99.369 0.631
3.35mm 0 0 100 0
2.36mm 0 0 100 0

2mm 0 0 100 0
1.18mm 0 0 100 0
1mm 0 0 100 0
600µm 0 0 100 0
425µm 0 0 100 0
300µm 0 0 100 0
150µm 0 0 100 0
75µm 0 0 100 0
  sum=2984.1      
Table 5.2 Aggregate gradation for B

AGGREGATE
  B      
sieve cumulative
size weight retained %Retained retained % Pass
37.5mm 0 0 0 100
28mm 0 0 0 100
20mm 0 0 0 100
14mm 16.8 0.5699 0.35 99.65
10mm 486 16.4869 17.0568 82.9432
6.3mm 970.6 32.9263 49.9831 50.0169
5mm 557.2 18.9022 68.8853 31.1147
4mm 306.6 10.4001 79.2854 20.7146
3.35mm 167.6 5.6856 84.971 15.029
2.36mm 185.2 6.2827 91.2537 8.7463
2mm 155.3 5.2683 96.522 3.478
1.18mm 36.1 1.2246 97.7466 2.2534
1mm 61 2.069 99.8156 0.1844
600µm 5 0.1696 99.9852 0.0148
425µm 0 0 100 0
300µm 0 0 100 0
150µm 0 0 100 0
75µm 0 0 100 0
  sum=2947.4      
Table 5.3 Aggregate gradation for C

AGGREGATE
  C      
sieve cumulative
size weight retained %Retained retained % passé
37.5mm 0 0 0 100
28mm 0 0 0 100
20mm 0 0 0 100
14mm 0 0 0 100
10mm 16.6 0.5538 0.5538 99.4462
6.3mm 27.9 0.4378 0.9916 99.0084
5mm 26.4 0.8807 1.8723 98.1277
4mm 58.4 1.4483 3.3206 96.6794
3.35mm 113.1 3.7731 7.0937 92.9063
2.36mm 144.4 4.8173 11.911 88.089
2mm 217.5 5.256 17.167 82.833
1.18mm 357 11.9099 29.0769 70.9231
1mm 257.1 8.5771 37.654 62.346
600µm 310.8 10.3686 48.0226 51.9774
425µm 280.9 9.3711 57.3937 42.6063
300µm 121.1 4.04 61.4337 38.5663
150µm 519 17.3144 78.7481 21.2519
75µm 361.8 12.0701 90.8182 9.1818
  sum=2812      

5.2.2 Aggregate Blending

It is difficult to find a single natural or artificial source that may provide the aggregate grading
required to get the most dense bituminous concrete. To achieve this project several separate
aggregate may have to be mixed in different proportions to get the most suitable grading of the
aggregate while the major reason of blending is to improve the grading of the aggregate. The
best considered is that which has the lowest cost and also which meets all the gradation
specifications. As well as blending enables to obtain an aggregate of specified gradation by
mixing aggregates mechanically this contains two or more different sizes.
Table 5.4 Aggregate Blending

  Aggregat          
 e
blending
  % Passing   specification    
sieve Aggregat Aggregat Average Combined
size e Aggregate e percent by mass for Specification aggregate
Total aggregate.
  A B C passing test sieve Aa+Bb+Cc
37.5mm 100 100 100 100-100 100 100
28mm 97.21 100 100 100- 100 100 99.34
20mm 78.62 100 100 95-100 97.5 95
14mm 33.7 99.65 100 65-85 75 83.9
10mm 6.72 82.4 99.45 52-72 62 69.69
6.3mm 2.24 50.02 98.52 39-55 47 54.07
5mm 0.43 30.88 97.63 _   44.93
4mm 0 20.71 95.69 _   39.73
3.35mm 0 15.03 91.91 32-46 39 36.02
2.36mm 0 8.75 87.1 _   31.72
2mm 0 3.18 79.84 _   26.95
1.18mm 0 2.25 67.93 _   22.73
1mm 0 0.18 59.35 _   19.07
600µm 0 0.01 48.98 _   15.68
425µm 0 0 39.61 _   12.68
300µm 0 0 35.57 7.00-21.00 14-Jan 11.38
150µm 0 0 18.26 _   5.84
75µm 0 0 6.19 2.00-8.00 5 2.01
  a=24% b=44% c=32%      
Figure1, aggregate blending

Aggregate Blending
120.00

100.00

80.00

Agg. A
60.00 Agg. B
Agg. C
Blending Agg.
40.00

20.00

0.00
m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m m
75m 15m .3m 25m .6m 1m 18m 2m 36m 35m 4m 5m .3m 10m 14m 20m 28m .5m
0 0. 0 .4 0 1. 2. 3. 6 37
0. 0

Figure 5.1 aggregate blending

Batch weight of aggregate

Table 5.5 Aggregate batch weight

proportioning of the mix per batch of 1200 gm.

  stock pile retained  
proportion % 24 44 32
aggregate aggregate
sieve size A aggregate B C
37.5mm 0 0 0
28mm 2.788 0 0
20mm 18.592 0 0
14mm 44.291 0.5699 0
10mm 26.976 16.4869 0.5538
6.3mm 4.484 32.9263 0.4378
5mm 1.806 18.9022 0.8807
4mm 0.432 10.4001 1.4483
3.35mm 0 5.6856 3.7731
2.36mm 0 6.2827 4.8173
2mm 0 5.2683 5.256
1.18mm 0 1.2246 11.9099
1mm 0 2.069 8.5771
600µm 0 0.1696 10.3686
425µm 0 0 9.3711
300µm 0 0 4.04
150µm 0 0 17.3144
75µm 0 0 12.0701

Table 5.6 Aggregate batch weight

stock pile
  retained Batch weight gm
aggregate
seiv size A aggregate B aggregate C
 37.5mm 0 0 0
28mm 8.02944 0 0
20mm 53.54496 0 0
14mm 127.55808 3.009072 0
10mm 77.69088 87.050832 2.126592
6.3mm 12.91392 173.850864 1.681152
5mm 5.20128 99.803616 3.381888
4mm 1.24416 54.912528 5.561472
3.35mm 0 30.019968 14.488704
2.36mm 0 33.172656 18.498432
2mm 0 27.816624 20.18304
1.18mm 0 6.465888 45.734016
1mm 0 10.92432 32.936064
600µm 0 0.895488 39.815424
425µm 0 0 35.985024
300µm 0 0 15.5136
150µm 0 0 66.487296
75µm 0 0 46.349184
total mass 286.18272 527.921856 348.741888

5.2.3 Bitumen for HMA

There are three important properties or characteristics of paving grade bitumen. These are
consistency (usually called viscosity), purity and safety.
Traditionally, paving grade bitumen’s have been specified in term of their penetration but the
measurement of viscosity provides a more accurate method of specifying binder consistency and
a more effective method of determining the temperature susceptibility of the bitumen. This
allows the most appropriate mixing and compaction temperature for the asphalt mix to be
established by using the Bitumen Test Data Chart (BTDC) (White oak, 1990) which is illustrated
in ERA 2013.

Mix Design for HMA

5.3.1 Introduction to mix design methods

Ideally the design of an HMA mix involves the following iterative process;
(i) Establish candidate mixes with satisfactory volumetric composition;
 (ii) Testing to confirm that the compacted mix has the required properties for the
expected traffic; and, if necessary,
(iii) Adjust the mix composition and re-test until the design requirements are satisfied.

Volumetric design of HMA mixes

For convenience, mix components are blended in proportion by mass and expressed as
percentages of the complete mix. However, the controlling factor in the design of mixes for all
traffic levels is the volume of each mix component. This is affected by;
(i) The proportions of the different aggregates and filler;
(ii) The specific gravity of the different materials;
(iii) Where porous aggregate is present, the amount of bitumen absorbed; and
(iv) The amount of non-absorbed bitumen.

Effective Bitumen Content (PBE)

This governs the performance of the mix. It is the portion of bitumen that remains as a coating on
the outside of the aggregate particles. Any bitumen that is absorbed into the aggregate particles
does not play a part in the performance characteristics of the mix but has the effect of changing
the specific gravity of the aggregate.

5.2 Mix Characteristics and Behavior

When a sample of HMA is prepared in the laboratory, the HMA is analyzed to determine the
probable performance in a pavement structure. The analysis focuses on five characteristics of
the HMA and the influence those characteristics are likely to have on HMA behavior. The five
characteristics are:
o Mix density
o Air voids
o Voids in the Mineral aggregate(VMA)
o Voids with Asphalt (VFA)

Bulk Specific Gravity or Density

The density of the compacted mix is the unit weight of the mixture (the weight of a specific
volume of HMA). Density is important because proper density in the finished product is
essential for lasting pavement performance. Mix properties are required to be measured in
volumetric terms as well as weight. Density allows us to convert from units of weight to
volume. In mix design testing and analysis, density of the compacted specimen is usually
expressed in pounds per cubic foot (lb/ft3).

Air Voids

Air voids are small air spaces or pockets of air that occur between the coated aggregate particles
in the final compacted HMA. A certain percentage of air voids is necessary in all dense-graded
mixes to prevent the pavement from flushing, shoving, and rutting.
The durability of an asphalt pavement is a function of the air void content. Too high an air void
content provides passageways through the HMA for the entrance of damaging air and water.
Too low an air void content, on the other hand, may lead to flushing, a condition where excess
binder squeezes out of the HMA to the surface.
Density and air void content are directly related. The higher the density, the lower the
percentage of air voids in the HMA. Specifications require pavement densities that produce the
proper amount of air voids in the pavement.

Voids in the Mineral Aggregates

Voids in the mineral aggregate (VMA) are the void spaces that exist between the aggregate
particles in the compacted paving HMA, including the space filled with the binder.Minimum
VMA values are required so that a durable binder film thickness may be achieved. Increasing
the density of the HMA by changing the gradation of the aggregate may result in minimum
VMA values with thin films of binder and a dry looking, low durability HMA. Therefore,
economizing in binder content by lowering VMA is actually counterproductive and detrimental
to pavement quality. Low VMA mixes are also very sensitive to slight changes in binder. If
binder content varies even slightly during production, the air voids may fill with binder resulting
in a pavement that flushes and ruts.

Voids Filled With Asphalt

Voids filled with asphalt (VFA) are the void spaces that exist between the aggregate particles in
the compacted paving HMA that are filled with binder. VFA is expressed as a percentage of the
VMA that contains binder.
Including the VFA requirement in a mix design helps prevent the design of HMA with
marginally acceptable VMA. The main effect of the VFA is to limit maximum levels of VMA
and subsequently maximum levels of binder content.
VFA also restricts the allowable air void content for HMA that are near the minimum VMA
criteria. HMA designed for lower traffic volumes may not pass the VFA requirement with a
relatively high percent air voids in the field even though the air void requirement range is met.
The purpose for the VFA is to avoid less durable HMA resulting from thin films of binder on the
aggregate particles in light traffic situations.
Because low air void contents may be very critical in terms of permanent deformation, the VFA
requirement helps to avoid those mixes that are susceptible to rutting in heavy traffic situations.

Binder Content

The proportion of binder in the HMA is critical and is required to be accurately determined in the
laboratory and then precisely controlled at the plant. The binder content for a particular HMA is
established by the mix design.

The optimum binder content of the HMA is highly dependent on aggregate characteristics such
as gradation and absorptiveness. Aggregate gradation is directly related to optimum binder
content. The finer the HMA gradation, the larger the total surface area of the aggregate, and the
greater the amount of binder required to uniformly coats the particles. Conversely, because
coarser HMA has less total aggregate surface area, the aggregates require less binder. This is
why surface HMA requires more binder than base HMA.

5.3 Properties Considered In Mix Design

Good HMA pavements function well because they are designed, produced and placed in such a
way as to give them certain desirable properties. There are several properties that contribute to
the quality of HMA pavements. They include stability, durability, impermeability, workability,
flexibility, and fatigue resistance.

5.3.1 Stability

Stability of a HMA pavement is the ability of the mixture to resist shoving and rutting under
loads (traffic). A stable pavement maintains the shape and smoothness required under repeated
loading; an unstable pavement develops ruts (channels), ripples (wash boarding or corrugation),
raveling and other signs of shifting of the HMA.
Because stability for a pavement depends on the traffic expected to use the pavement, stability
may be established only after a thorough traffic analysis.
The stability of a mix depends on internal friction and cohesion. Internal friction among the
aggregate particles (inter-particle friction) is related to aggregate characteristics such as shape
and surface texture. Cohesion results from the bonding ability of the binder. A proper degree of
both internal friction and cohesion in HMA prevents the aggregate particles from being moved
past each other by the forces exerted by traffic.

Table 5.7 cause and effects of pavement instability

Low Stability
Causes Effects
Wash boarding, rutting, and
Excess binder in HMA
flushing or bleeding
Tenderness during rolling and for a
Excess medium size sand in
period after construction, and
HMA
difficulty in compacting
Rounded aggregate, little or no
Rutting and channeling
crushed surfaces

5.3.2 Durability

The durability of a HMA pavement is the ability of the HMA pavement to resist changes in the
binder oxidation and disintegration of the aggregate. These factors may be the result of weather,
traffic, or a combination of the two.
Generally, durability of a HMA may be enhanced by three methods. They are: using maximum
binder content, using a sound aggregate, and designing and compacting the HMA for maximum
impermeability.
Maximum binder content increases durability because thick binder films do not age and harden
as rapidly as thin films. Consequently, the binder retains the original characteristics longer.
Also, maximum binder content effectively seals off a greater percentage of interconnected air
voids in the pavement, making the penetration of water and air difficult. A certain percentage of
air voids is required to be left in the pavement to allow for expansion of the binder in hot
weather.

Table 5.8 cause and effect of lack of durability

Poor Durability
Causes Effects
 Low binder content Dryness or raveling
High void content through Early hardening of binder followed by
design or lack of compaction cracking or disintegration
Water Susceptible (hydrophic) Films of binder strip from aggregate leaving
aggregate in HMA an abraded, raveled, or mushy pavement

5.3.3 Impermeability
Impermeability is the resistance of a HMA pavement to the passage of air and water into or
through the mixture. This characteristic is related to the void content of the compacted HMA,
and much of the discussion on voids in the mix design relates to the impermeability. Even
though void content is an indication of the potential for passage of air and water through a
pavement, the character of these voids is more important than the number of voids. The size of
the voids, whether or not the voids are interconnected, and the access of the voids to the surface
of the pavement all determine the degree of impermeability.
Although impermeability is important for the durability of a compacted paving HMA, virtually
all HMA used in highway construction is permeable to some degree. This is acceptable as long
as the permeability is within specified limits.
Table 5.9 cause and effect of permeability

Mix too Permeable

Causes Effects
Thin binder films that causes early aging and raveling
Low binder content

High void content Water and air may easily enter pavement causing oxidation and
in design HMA disintegration

Inadequate Results in high voids in pavement leading to water infiltration and low
compaction strength

5.3.4 Workability
Workability describes the ease with which a paving HMA may be placed and compacted.
Workability may be improved by changing mix design parameters, aggregate sources, and/or
gradation. Harsh HMA (HMA containing a high percentage of coarse aggregate) has a tendency
to segregate during handling and also may be difficult to compact. Through the use of trial
mixes in the laboratory, additional fine aggregate and perhaps binder may be added to a harsh
HMA to make the mixture more workable. Care is required to be taken to ensure that the altered
HMA meets all the other design criteria.
Excess fines may also affect workability. Depending on the characteristics of the fines, the fines
may cause the HMA to become tough or gummy, making the mixture difficult to compact.
Workability is especially important where excessive hand placement and raking (luting) around
manhole covers, sharp curves, and other obstacles is required. HMA used in such areas is
required to be highly workable.
Table 5.11 cause and effect of workability problem

Poor Workability
Causes Effects
Large maximum size particle Rough surface, difficult to place
Excessive coarse aggregate May be hard to compact
Uncoated aggregate, not durable,
Too low a HMA temperature
rough surface, hard to compact
Too much medium sized HMA shoves under roller, remains
sand tender
Low fines content Tender HMA, highly permeable
HMA may be dry or gummy, hard
High fines content
to handle, not durable

5.3.5 Flexibility
Flexibility is the ability of a HMA pavement to adjust to gradual settlements and movements in
the sub-grade without cracking. Since virtually all sub-grades settle (under loading) or rise (from
soil expansion), flexibility is a desirable characteristic for all HMA pavements.
An open graded HMA with high binder content is generally more flexible than dense graded, low
binder content HMA. Sometimes the need for flexibility conflicts with stability requirements, so
that tradeoffs are required to be made.

5.3.6 Fatigue Resistance

Fatigue resistance is the pavement's resistance to repeated bending under wheel loads (traffic).
Air voids (related to binder content) and binder viscosities have a significant effect on fatigue
resistance. As the percentage of air voids in the pavement increases, either by design or lack of
compaction, pavement fatigue life (the length of time during which an in-service pavement is
adequately fatigue-resistant) is drastically shortened. Likewise, a pavement containing binder
that has aged and hardened significantly has reduced resistance to fatigue.
The thickness and strength characteristics of the pavement and the supporting strength of the
sub-grade also have an effect on the pavement life and prevention of load associated cracking.
Thick, well supported pavements do not bend as much under loading as thin or poorly supported
pavements. Therefore, thick well supported pavements have longer fatigue lives.
Table 5.12 cause and effect of poor fatigue resistance

Poor Fatigue Resistance

Causes Effects
Low asphalt binder content Fatigue cracking
Early aging of binder followed
High design voids
by fatigue cracking
Early aging of binder followed
Lack of compaction
by fatigue cracking
Excessive bending followed by
Inadequate pavement thickness
fatigue cracking

5.4 Laboratory result for pavement material

Tests on Bitumen
Bitumen is defined as a viscose liquid, or a solid, consisting essentially of hydrocarbons and their
derivatives, which is soluble in carbon disulphide. It is substantially, non- volatile and softness
gradually when heated. It is black or brown in colure and possesses waterproofing and adhesive
properties.
For satisfactory performance as a road material, bitumen should have the following desirable
properties:
1. It should be fluid enough at the time of mixing to coat the aggregates evenly by a thin
film.
2. It should have low temperature susceptibility, or other words it should exhibit little
change in viscosity with change in temperature.
3. It should have a good amount of volatiles in it, and it should be not lose them
excessively when subjected to higher temperature so as to ensure its durability.
4. It should be ductile and not brittle.
5. It should be capable of being heated to the temperature at which it can be easily mixed
without only fire hazards.
 6. It should have good affinity to the aggregates and should not be stripped of in the
continued presence of water
In order to find out about these and other properties for specific bitumen, different tests are
carried out.

Marshall Method of Asphalt Concrete Design (Hot Mix Design)

To determine the content of bitumen in mixing with aggregate to have the maximum density.
This test covers the measurement of the resistance to plastic flow and stability of cylindrical
specimens of bituminous paving mixture. This test was intended to heavy traffic.
A good bituminous paving mix should exhibit stability, durability, workability and skid
resistance properties besides economy. Hot mix design works on the bases of the deflection of
the optimum bitumen content for a particular grading of aggregate which result good stability
and flow that satisfies the requirement when a cylindrical specimen of bituminous paving
mixture loaded on the lateral surface by means of the marshal apparatus. A series of specimens
are prepared for a range of deferent bitumen contents so that the test data curves show a well
defined optimum value of bitumen.
The two principal futures of the Marshall method of mix design are:
Density-void analysis and stability-flow test of the compacted test specimen. The stability of the
test specimen is the maximum load resistance in Newton that the standard test specimen will
develop at 60◦c when tested.
The flow value is the total movement or strain, in units of .25mm occurring in the specimen
between no load and the point of maximum load during the stability test.
The test should be planed to be planned on basis of 0.5% increment of asphalt content with at
least two asphalt contents above the expected design value and at least two below this value. The
expected design asphalt content can be based on experience, computational formula and others.
One example of a computational formula is
P =.035a+.045b+KC+F
Where p=approximate asphalt content of mix,% by weight of mix
a=%(expressed on whole number) of mineral aggregate retained on 2.36mm sieve.
b=%(expressed on whole number) of mineral aggregate passing the 2.36mm sieve and
retained on the 75µm.
K=.15 for 11-15% passing 75µm,.18 for 6-10% passing 75µm sieve,0.20 for 5% or less.
 passing in 75µm sieve
F=0-2% based on absoption of light or heavy aggregate.
Based our aggregate blending and stock pile batch weight:
a=69%
b=29%
K=0.20
F=1%
P=.035a+.045b+KC+F=3.94%
Generally by taking 1200mg of blending aggregate and filler material, heat to temperature of not
exceeding the mixing temperature by more than approximately 28◦c or heat to a temperature of
175 to 190◦c

Table 5.13 different asphalt content

  Asphalt bacth weight  

asphalt percent by asphalt weight total weight of mix
weight of total mix
(%)    
2.94 35.28 1235.28
3.44 41.28 1241.28
3.94 47.28 1247.28
4.44 53.28 1253.28
4.94 59.28 1259.28

Outline of procedures for void analysis of a compacted paving mixtures

a) Measure the bulk specific gravity of the coarse aggregate and of the fine aggregate
b) Measure the specific gravity of the asphalt cement and for the mineral filler
c) Calculate the bulk specific gravity of the aggregate combination in the paving mixture.
 d) Measure the maximum specific gravity of the loose paving mixture
e) Measure the specific gravity of the compacted paving mixture.
f) Calculate the effective specific gravity of the aggregate
g) Calculate the maximum specific gravity of the mix at other asphalt content.
h) Calculate the asphalt absorption/n of the aggregate.

A, Bulk specific gravity of aggregate: when the aggregate consists of separate fraction of
coarse aggregate and fine mineral, all having different specific gravity, the bulk specific gravity,
the bulk specific gravity for the total aggregate is calculated
Table 5.14 coarse and fine aggregate specific gravity

Coarse aggregates
Sample no. aggregate aggregate
A(gm.) B(gm.)
Wt. oven dry of sample(A) 1146.9 423.6
Wt. SSD sample (B) 1156.3 436.3
Wt. saturated sample(C) 750 250
Bulk specific gravity A/(B-C)=2.83 A/(B-C)=2.27
Apparent specific gravity A(A-C)=3.00 A(A-C)=2.758
Absorption% (B-A)/A=.863 (B-A)/A=2.998

Fine aggregate Aggregate C(gm.)

A ) wt. oven dry sample(A) 422.5
B)wt. pycnometer+water to calibration 1515.1
mark(B)
C)wt. pycnometer+water+sample to 1790.2
calibration mark ( C )
D) wt. SSD sample(D) 431.5
Bulk specific gravity 2.188
Apparent specific gravity 2.292
Absorption % 2.06
Bulk specific gravity of the combined aggregate
P1+ P 2+ P 3
Gsb=
p1 P2 P3
( + + )
G 1 G 2 G3
.24 +.44+.32
Gsb= =2.273
.24 .44
+ +.32/1.98
2.83 2.27
A) Bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture: Asphalt content is mixed with
aggregate and compacted into sample then its bulk specific gravity is:
Gmb = A / (B - C)
A = mass of dry sample
B = mass of SSD sample
C = mass of sample under water
Table 5.15 Bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture

Asphalt No. Of Dry Submerged SSD Gmb

content trail mass(gm) mass(gm) mass(gm)
(%)
3.94% ♯1 1137.5 618.3 1153.8 2.12
♯2 1064.5 518.5 1065.4 1.95
♯3 991.3 540 1000.8 2.15
4.44% ♯1 1169.5 640 1185 2.15
♯2 1188 650 1202 2.14
♯3 1043 535.4 1051 2.03
3.44% ♯1 1075.6 551.6 1080 2.036
♯2 1107.2 587 1116.2 2.09
♯3 1086.4 561 1091 2.05

Test for Theoretical Maximum Specific Gravity and Density of Bituminous

Paving Mixture
This test method covers the determination of the theoretical maximum specific gravity and
density of uncompacted bituminous paving mixture.
1) Specific gravity as determined by this test method is the ratio of a given mass of material
at 25oc to the mass of an equal volume of water at the same temperature.
2) The theoretical maximum specific gravity and density of bituminous paving mixtures are
fundamental properties whose values are influenced by the composition of the mixture in
terms of types and amounts of aggregate and bituminous material.
3) Maximum specific gravity is used:
 In the calculation of air voids in the compacted bituminous
paving mixture
 In calculating the amount of bitumen absorbed by the aggregate
 To provide target values for the compaction of paving mixture

Calculation
A
Gmm=
A + D−E
 Where: Gmm=maximum specific gravity of the mixture
A=mass of dry sample in air,(gm)
D=mass of lid and bowl with water (gm)
E=mass of lid, bowl, sample, and water (gm)

For Asphalt Content 3.94%:

A=601.8 gm

D=1553 gm
E=1875.6 gm
A
Hence,Gmm= =2.155
A + D−E

For Asphalt Content 4.44%:

A=346.7 gm
D=1533 gm
E=1721.6 gm
A
Hence,Gmm= =¿2.193
A + D−E

For Asphalt Content 3.44%:

A=501.8 mg

D=1553 mg
E=1824.6 mg
A
Hence, Gmm= =2.18
A + D−E

Percent VMA In Compacted Paving Mixture

The voids in the mineral aggregate,VMA, are defined as the inter granular void space between
the aggregate particles in a compacted paving mixture that includes the air voids and the
effective asphalt content, expressed as a % of the total volume. If the mixture is determined as
percentage by weight of the total mixture.
VMA=100− ( Gmb∗Ps
Gsb )

Where ,VMA=voids in mineral aggregate % of bulk volume

Gsb=bulk specific gravity of total aggregate
Gmb=bulk specific gravity of compacted mixture
Ps=aggregate content by weight of mixture
Maggregate 1200
Ps= = =96.2 %
Mtotal mixture 1247.28

For 3.94% asphalt content:

2.12+1.95+2.15
Gmb= =2.07
3
2.07∗96.2
Hence,VMA=100− =13 %
2.273

For 4.44% asphalt content:

2.15+ 2.14+2.03
Gmb= =2.1
3
2.1∗95.56
Hence,VMA=100− =12 %
2.273

For 3.44% asphalt content:

2.036+ 2.09+2.05
Gmb= =2.06
3
2.06∗95.6
Hence,VMA=100− =14 %
2.27

Percents Air Voids In Compacted Mixture

The air void Va,in the total compacted paving mixture consists of the small air spaces between
the coated aggregate particle
Gmm−Gmb
Va=100(. ¿
Gmm

Where, Va=air voids in compacted mixture % of total volume

Gmm=maximum specific gravity of paving mixture
For 3.94% asphalt content:

Va=100 ( 2.155−2.07
2.155 )=4 %
For 4.44% asphalt content:

Va=100∗ ( 2.193−2.1
2.193 )
=4.2 %

For 3.44% asphalt content:

Va=100∗ ( 2.18−2.06
2.18 )=5 %
Percent VFA in Compacted Mixture
The voids filled with asphalt, VFA,is the percentage of inter granular void space between the
aggregate particles that are filled with asphalt.
VMA−Va
VFA=100 ( )
VMA
Where, VFA=voids filled with asphalt, % of VMA

For 3.94% asphalt content:

13−4
VFA=100*( ¿=69 %
13

For 4.44% asphalt content:

VFA=100 ( 12−4.2
12 )
=66 %

For 3.44% asphalt content:

VFA=100 ( 14−5
14 )
=65 %

Table 5.16 summary calculation

Specimen Bitumen VMA (%) Va(%) VFA(%)

number Content
(%)
 #1 3.44 14 4 69
#2 3.94 12 4.2 66
#3 4.44 13 5 65

Stability and flow tests

Table 5.17 Stability and flow tests

Asphalt content Trial No. Flow(division) Stability(division)

3.94% ♯1 320 500
♯2 315 580
4.44% ♯1 340 600
♯2 350 690
3.44% ♯1 314 800
♯2 310 800
♯3 300 860
Conversion factors
For flow, 1revolution = 100 division For stability, 1revolution=200 division
1division = 0.01mm 1
division = 11.98N
Stability and Flow calculation
Diameter of mould =102mm
Volume of specimen, V=ЛD2*h/4
= 3.14*(10.2cm) 2*66.84/4= 545.89cm3
Stability, N = division*11.98N
Flow in 0.25mm = division*0.01mm/0.25mm
Table 5.18 stability flow calculation

Asphalt Trial No. Flow Stability

content Division 0.25mm division Load(N)
3.94% ♯1 320 12.8 670 8026.6
♯2 315 12.6 680 8266
4.44% ♯1 340 13.6 700 8386
♯2 350 14 720 8625.6
3.44% # 314 12.56 660 7906.8
# 310 12.4 620 7427.6
 # 300 12 580 6948.4

Discussion The main purpose of hot mix design is to find the optimum bitumen content that can
give the maximum density mix. The hot mix design that we conduct were based on AASHTO
procedure and recommendations. We have found different values for the different design
parameters for the three test specimens. The founded values and specification values have listed
below for the purpose of comparison
Table 5.19 summary on Marshal HMA Test result

Speci Bitume Air void Stability Flow VMA VFA

mens n Obtain Rec. Obtai Rec. Obtai Rec. obtai Rec. obtai Rec.
numbe content ed (%) ned (N) ned( (mm ned ned (%)
r (N) mm) )
#1 3.44% 5% 3-5 7427. >800 12.32 8-14 14% 14% 65% 65-
6 6 75
#2 3.94% 4% 3-5 8146. >800 12.7 8-14 12% 13% 69% 65-
3 6 75
#3 4.44% 4.2% 3-5 8505. >800 13.8 8-14 13% 13.5 66% 65-
8 6 % 75

The permissible air void for our design was 3-5%. Therefore, our bitumen content almost satisfy
the given specification.
Conclusion The final comparison has done between the specimens with different bitumen
content. This was done to select bitumen content more suitable. The outcome of the mixing
design shows that a specimen with bitumen content of 4.44% gives the maximum mix density.
As we have seen in the discussion part, this specimen fulfills most recommended criteria.
Therefore an asphalt mixture with bitumen content of 4.5% will give us the maximum mix
density which intern will give the maximum strength of the road. Therefore, for our grading and
proportioning bitumen content of 4.44% by weight is preferred.

Conclusion & Recommendation

High way material testing is a major key component of highway projects. If properly undertaken,
one can save a considerable amount of expenses thereby reducing the overall project cost. In
carrying out these tests, we were able to develop technical skills in doing so, along with team co-
operation experiences. And we are grateful for such a wonderful experience. In spite of all the
promising importance and advantage of highway tests, a lot of revising is needed in the area of
necessity of tests & also the specifications for most of the tests.
Summary of the Material Requirements for the Design Charts
Based on traffic analysis on chapter 3 our traffic is T-8 and from soil laboratory result the CBR
value of our project is as shown below
Table 5.20 CBR value

Station CBR value (%)

0+000 13
1+000 13
2+000 38
3+000 19

For the sake of common structural thickness we take the lower CBR value to account lower Sub-
grade Strength Classes soil therefore we provide S4 sub-grade strength class and T8 traffic class
from chapter 3.
For S4 and for T8 the thickness of pavement structure read from ERA chart No D
90mm - Bituminous (HMA) wearing course and binder course
170mm- bituminous road base
175mm - granular sub-base GS

The choice of chart will depend on a variety of factors but should be based on minimizing total
transport costs. Factors that will need to be taken into account in a full evaluation include:
· the likely level and timing of maintenance
· the probable behavior of the structure
· the experience and skill of the contractors and the availability of suitable equipment
· the cost of the different materials that might be used
· other risk factors
It is not possible to give detailed guidance on these issues. The charts have been developed on
the basis of reasonable assumptions concerning the first three of these and therefore the initial
choice should be based on the local costs of the feasible options. If any information is available
concerning the likely behavior of the structures under the local conditions, then a simple risk
analysis can also be carried out to select the most appropriate structure. For many roads,
especially those that are more lightly trafficked, local experience will dictate the most
appropriate structures and sophisticated analysis will not be warranted.
The following preliminary information has been derived from the simple cost comparison:
 The materials which may be considered for cement- or lime-stabilization have relatively low
percentages of fines and low plasticity, thus making cement-stabilization more promising.
 Granular sub-base materials are available in sufficient quantities and cement stabilization of
the sub-base is uneconomical when compared to bank-run materials. Stabilization of sub-
base materials will not be further considered.
 All other materials entering the composition of the possible pavement structures are
available, albeit in various quantities and associated transport/construction costs.
Based on the above, and with the combination of traffic and subgrade strength classes, the design
charts C1,C2 and D1 indicate the possible alternate pavement structures. Analyses of recent
contracts, production costs, hauling distances and associated costs have established relative costs
for the various alternate pavement layers.

Table 2 Analysis of Possible Pavement Structures for T8/S4

Design Chart No. C1 C2 D

Pavement Structure 1 Structure 2 Structure 3
Components(Possible
Structures)
Surfacing 150mm 150mm 90mm
Asphalt Concrete
Road base: 200mm 150mm 170mm
Asphaltic Concrete
road base
Crushed Stone
Cement stabilized (2.5
MPa UCS)
Granular sub base 225mm 225mm 175mm
Note: The asphaltic concrete surfacing is usually made up of 40mm of wearing course and 50mm
of binder course. An additional layer of binder or road base quality asphaltic concrete may be
required for surfacing exceeding 90 mm.
Table 3 Relative Unit Costs of Materials

Material Thickness (mm) Relative unit cost

Asphalt Concrete wearing 40 0.34
course
Asphalt Concrete binder 50 0.4
course
Asphaltic Concrete base 60 0.45
course
Asphalt road base 170 1.28
Crushed stone road base 150 0.82
200 1.0
Cement stabilized road base, 225 0.63
2.5 MPa
Granular sub base 325 0.60
175 0.33
125 0.25

Table 4 Relative Costs of the Possible Alternate Pavement Structures for T8/S4

Alternative Description Relative Unit

Pavement. Cost
1 40 mm wearing course 0.34
 50 mm binder course 0.40
60 mm asphalt base course 0.45
200 mm crushed stone road 1.0
base
325mm of sub-base 0.6
Total 2.79
2 40 mm wearing course 0.34
50 mm binder course 0.4
60 mm asphalt base course 0.45
150 mm crushed stone road 0.82
base
225 mm of cement stabilized 0.63
sub-base
Total 2.64
3 40 mm wearing course 0.34
50 mm binder course 0.4
170 mm asphalt road base 1.29
175 mm of sub-base 0.33
Total 2.36

This example indicates that structure 3 is the least expensive despite the greatest thickness of
asphaltic concrete in the structure. Structure 2 should have been competitive but the cost of the
cement-stabilized layer is higher than expected. All of these structures ought to perform well but
they are not expected to deteriorate in the same way.
From the above relative unit cost analysis alternative 3 is preferable to this pavement structure.

Chapter Six
Geometrical Design Modification
6.1. Horizontal Circular Curve
When a vehicle moves in a circular path, it is forced radially outward by centrifugal force. The
centrifugal force is counterbalanced by super elevation of the roadway land/or the side friction
developed between the tires and the road surface. For calculation of the minimum horizontal
radius, R min, for a particular design speed, the following equation shall be used:
Rmin=VD2/127(e+f)

Where
VD = Design Speed (km/h)
e = Maximum super elevation (%/100)
f = Side friction coefficient (given in Tables)
In our case the radius of all the curves are already specified in alignment. So here the speed of
curve should be under the ERA recommended

For curve typical curve

Rmin=VD2/127(e+f)
Rmin=502/127(.04+ 0.035)
= 50.14
But ERA recommended R min = 85 for speed of 50 km/ hr therefore the speed for the specified
radiuses are adjusted according to ERA manual

Table 6.1Minimum Radii of Horizontal curves 8% Super elevation

Design 20 30 40 50 60 70 85 100 120

speed
 V(km/hr.)
Min. 15 30 50 85 125 175 270 395 630
Horizontal
Radius
R(m)
Side 0.18 0.17 0.17 0.16 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.12 0.10
Friction
factor(f)

Table 6.2 Radius of curves and its corresponding speed and side friction

Curves 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Design 45 30 45 50 55 60 55 35 50 40 70
speed
V(km/hr)
Min.Hori 80 32 80 100 120 140 120 40 100 50 300
Radius
R(m)
Side 0.165 0.17 0.165 0.160 0.155 0.150 0.155 0.170 0.160 0.170 0.140
Friction 0
factor(f)

Element of Horizontal Curve

1. ∆: Deflection angle by arc definition (in degrees)
2. R: Radius of curve by arc definition ECC
3. T: Tangent distance T = R tan∆/2
4. E: External distance= R (sec∆/2-1)
5. L: Curve Length L = ∆*2R∏/360
6. M: Middle Ordinate M = R (1-cos∆/2)
7. C: Chord from P.C to P.T = 2Rsin∆/2
8. Point of Curvature (P.C) = P.I-T
9. Point of Tangency (P.T) = P.C+LC

Sample calculation of horizontal curve

Curve 1
Radius=85m, deflection angle=28.00, ∆/2=14
Tangent (T)= R tan∆/2= 85xtan14
=615.8m
External distance (E)= R (sec∆/2-1)= 85(sec14-1)
=536.63m
Middle Ordinate M = R (1-cos∆/2) = 85(1-cos14)
= 73.38m
Curve Length L =∆x2R∏/360 = 28 x 2x 85 x 3.14/360
= 41.52m
Chord from P.C to P.T = 2Rsin∆/2
= 2x85sin14 = 168.4m

Widening on Curves and Embankments

The use of long curves of tight radii should be avoided where possible, as drivers following the
design speed will find it difficult to remain in the traffic lane. Curve widening reduces such
problems. Widening on curves shall be provided to make operating conditions comparable to
those on tangents. This is necessary as the wheel tracking width is increased. Curve widening is
required on all standards of roads and should be sufficient to cater for the design vehicle. Table
below gives the values to be adopted in the design. Curve widening shall generally be applied to
both sides of the roadway. It should start at the beginning of the transition curve and be fully
widened at the start of the circular curve. Widening is also required for Design Standards DS1
through DS5 at high fills for the psychological comfort of the driver. Widening for curvature and
high embankment shall be added where both cases apply. The height of hill is measured from the
edge of the shoulder to the toe of the slope.
Table 6.3 Widening on Curves and High Fills

Radius Curve Curve widening Filling Widening

of curve widening
Two lane Height of fill(m) Amount(m)
single lane

>250 0.0 0.0 0.0-3 0

120-250 0.0 0.6 3-6 .3
60-120 0.0 0.9 6-9 .6
40-60 0.6 1.2 Over 9 .9
20-40 0.6 1.5 Over 9 .9
<20 Switchback

Widening of curve
 Curve R Speed e% L Widening Calculated Recommen
No. ded value
(KM/hr) We Value of
widening
emax (m) = 4.0% (m) (m)
1 R 80 = radius of45
curve 4 37 0.9 0.97 0.9
V = assumed design speed

2 e 32 = rate of super
30 elevation5.1 38manual 1.5
taken from ERA 1.59 1.5
3 L 80 = minimum45length of runoff(does
4 37 tangent
not include 0.9run out) taken from
0.81 ERA manual 0.8
4 n 100 = number 50
of lane =2 4 42 0.9 0.87 0.9
5 120 55 5 39 0.9 0.81 0.8
6 140 60 5.2 47 0.6 0.78 0.6
7 120 55 5 39 0.9 0.81 0.8
8 40 35 7.1 36 1.5 1.48 1.5
9 100 50 4 42 0.9 0.87 0.9
10 50 40 8 41 1.2 1.31 1.2
11 300 70 4 44 0.0 0.5 0

Sample calculation
nB ² V
We¿ +
2 R 10 √ R

Curve 1
n=2
B=6.1m B=wheel base (usually taken as =6.1m)
R=85m
V=50km/hr

2∗(6.1)² [ 50 ]
We¿ [ ]+
2∗85 10 √ 85
=0.98m

Stopping Sight Distance

The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling
at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. The minimum stopping
sight distance is determined from the following formula, which takes into account both the driver
reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The formula is:

2
V
d=(0 .278 )(t )(V )+
254 f
d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
F = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 7-1)

Table 6.4 : Sight Distances

Design Speed Coefficient of Stopping Passing Sight Reduced Passing

Friction (f) Sight Distance (m) Sight Distance
(km/h)
Distance (m) for design (m)
from formulae
20 .42 20 160 50
30 .40 30 217 75
40 .38 45 285 125
50 .35 55 345 175
60 .33 85 407 225
70 .31 110 482 275
85 .30 155 573 340
100 .29 205 670 375
120 .28 285 792 425
SSD calculation for the curve
Design speed= 50Km/hr
Time = 2.5 sec.
Coefficient of friction = 0.35

d 1=0.278∗v∗t=0.278∗50∗2.5=34.75 m

v²
d 2= G=0 since there is no gradiant ∈the curve
254 [ f ± G ]
50²
d 2= =28.12 m
254 [ 0.35 ]

SSD = d 1 +d 2=34.75+28.121=62.87 m> 55 m… .. ok (fro m ERA 2013)

Passing Sight Distance

Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single roadway roads that
must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle safely without
interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.

The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula with four components, as
follows:
d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction
d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

d1 = 0.278 t1 (v – m + at1)
2
Where
t1 = time of initial maneuver, s
a = average acceleration, km/h/s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

d2 = 0.278 vt2

Where
t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependent on
ambient speeds as per Table 7-2:

Table 7-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

Speed Group (km/h) 50-65 66-80 81-100 101-120

d3 (m) 30 55 80 100
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d 2 less the
portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:

d4 = 2d2/3
The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:
PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Resulting passing sight distances are as indicated in Table 7-1
Table 6.4 Guide Values for the Minimum Provision of Passing
Sight Distance

DESIGN PERCENT PASSING OPPORTUNITY vs. TERRAIN

STANDARD
Flat Rolling Mountainous Escarpment Urban/Peri-
Urban
DS2 50% 50% 25% 0% 20%
DS3 50% 33% 25% 0% 20%
DS4 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS5 25% 25% 15% 0% 20%
DS6 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%
DS7 20% 20% 15% 0% 20%

PSD for a typical curve

Curve design parameters v d=50 km/ hr , t 1=2.5 sec ., a = 2.4 km/hr/s, m = 10km/hr

at 2.4∗2.5
d1 = 0.278t1( v – m + ) = 0.278*2.5*( 50 – 10 + ) = 29.885m
2 2
d2 =0.278vt2 = 0.278*50*5 = 69.5m , t2= 5 sec.
d3 = 30m (from table 7.2)
2∗69.5
d4 = 2/3*d2 = = 46.33m
3

PSD = d1+d2+d3 +d4

= 29.885 + 69.5 + 30 + 46.33 = 175.71m > 175m (ok)…….take PSD= 175.71m

Horizontal curve sight Distance

In horizontal alignment sight distance across the inside of curve will be provided where sight
obstructions (such as walls, cut slopes, buildings, longitudinal barriers). For general use in design
of horizontal curve the sight lane is a chord of the curve and the applicable sight distance is
measured along the central line of the inside line around a defined horizontal curve.
Lateral clearance on simple horizontal curves with middle obstacle is given in three cases

πr ∆
Case 1 S= lc = , M = Rn[ 1−cos 4 /2 ]
180

Case 2 S<lc , M = Rn[ 1−cos 28.65∗s/ R n ]

lc(2∗s−lc)
Case 3 S >lc ,M=
8 Rn

For this curve sight distance is governed by passing sight distance since PSD > SSD

π∗85∗28
∴ S=175.71 mlc= =41.52 m
180
Use Case 3 since s >lc
 41.52(2∗175.71−41.52)
∴ M= =19m
8∗85

But the existing lateral clearance on the horizontal curve is much less than 19m. The sight
distance obstructed by vegetation can be removed for the purpose of safe and convenient driving
because the advantage of vegetation is less as compared to changing the alignment of the road

CHAPTER SEVEN
7. OVER PASS PEDESTRIAN BRIDGE
7.1 Strategic Reason
The traffic volume at Gondar university Hospitals is high. Because at this place there is so many
vehicles pedestrian ,service user and students use this road from their dormitory to class room,
library, café and hospitals. So that we provide over pass pedestrian bridge to avoid the
occurrence of possible traffic accident and to give smooth traffic flow.

7.2 Site Location

The over passé pedestrian should set at the side of the entrance of hospitals and the dormitory of
the students’. The over pass pedestrian bridge has 30m span length and that made from
composite steel. For pedestrian overpasses, the minimum width is 3.0 m, which can
accommodate three pedestrians, or a bicycle and a pedestrian in width.
See Table 7.1. for a listing of bridge configurations and corresponding widths

Application Width(m)
Two-lane in “urban” area 10.3
Two-lane in “rural” area 7.3
Single lane 4.2
Pedestrian over pass 3.0

Table 7.1 bridge configurations and corresponding widths based on ERA

7.3 Minimum Clearance above water, Roads and Railways

Bridges above water shall normally have a minimum clearance height according to ERA manual
Table2-3 unless refined hydraulic analyses have been made. For arched structures, the clearance
shall be measured at the quarter points of the span. Above roadways, the clearance shall be at
least 5.1 m according to the Geometric Design Manual-2002,
Chapter 9: Section 9.11: Vertical Clearances. Light superstructures (i.e. timber, steel trusses,
steel girders, etc) above roadways shall have a clearance height of at least 5.3 m

7.4 PEDESTRIAN LOADS

A pedestrian load of 4.0 KN/m2 shall be applied to all sidewalks wider than 0.6 m and
considered simultaneously with the vehicular design live load. See the provisions of above
subchapter Multiple Presence of Live Load for applying the pedestrian loads in combination with
the vehicular live load. Usually the 4 KN/m2 load will allow for small cars to pass. To avoid
accidents for bridges wider than 2.4 m, provision shall be making for an additional axle load.
Where sidewalks, pedestrian, and/or bicycle bridges are intended to be used by maintenance
and/or other incidental vehicles, these loads shall be considered in the design.

7.5. Composite bridge for pedestrian

The cantilever wall is the most commonly used retaining structure. It has a good cost efficiency
record for the walls less than 10m in height.

Design consideration
The calculations are based on ERA Bridge and ASSHTO bridge design manual 2005

Resistance factor steel

 Plate girders, ϕ f = ϕ c=1.0
 Shear connectors ϕ sc=0.85
 Bearing ϕ b=1.
 Axial connectors ϕc=0.9
 Resistance factor concret (table……..)
Flexure of reinforced concert ϕ=0.9
Materials steel
  E=20000mpa
 Poission rate =0.3
 Density γ=7850kg/m³
 Thermal expansion =11.7*10ˉ6/c˚

Yield strength
Rolled plate
ASHTO Design axial m=270 grade =345
Equivalent to European steel, S=300, FY =250mpa
Shear connectors
Shear connectors shall be made from cold AASHTO M=169
fy =345mpa
Fu=400mpa
Reinforcement bars,fy=350mpa
Material concrete
 Paission rate =0.2
 Thermal expansion =10.8*10ˉ⁶/c˚
 Grade, C-25, fc= 20mpa
 Density γc=2400kg/m³,
 Ec=22600mpa

7.5.1. Design the deck slab

Step1: Depth of the deck slab

h =1.2(s+300)/300 based on this
=132m<150m based on ERA minimum pedestrian bridge thick.
step 2 : Load and moment

From dead load of slab

From slab = y*t=25KN/M³*0.15 =3.75KN/M²
Wearing surface–the wearing surface is estimate to have a thickness of =30mm,
 Density =22.5KN/m³,
Load =¥*t =22.5*.03=0.675kN/m²
Total dead load =3.75+0.675=4.425KN/m²
Live load =4kN/m² for pedestrian load based ERA 3.12/2002
Factored load =1.25(dead load) +1.75(live load)
=1.25*4.425+1.75*4=12.54KN/m²

Design for flexure

Take 1m width of strip

12.54kN/m

3m
Mf=wl²/8=14.09KNMM ≈14.1KNM
Design for flexure negative moment
 Assume reinforcement ϕ 10mm
 Cover top surface=30mm
 Cover bottom surface =25mm
 Slab gross thickness =180mm
 d=180-30-25-15=120m
Check depth for flexure

d =√ (M / μsd f cd b) μsd=0.295

d=√ (14.1∗106 /¿ 0.29∗11.33∗1000) ¿

d=65.50mm<120mm………….ok
Reinforcement design
 Assume ϕ16
 D=180-30-25-5=120mm
AS∗fyd
 M=ϕASfyd(d-ɑ/2) and ɑ=cβ1=
0.85∗fcd∗bw
mu 14.1∗10⁶
 Ru= = =1.070N/m
ϕbd ² 0.4∗1000∗120²
fyd 300
 M= = =14.118
0.85∗fcd 0.85∗25
1 2∗m∗RU
 ρ= (1- 1−
m √ fy
)

1 2∗1.1445
=
14.118 √
(1- 1−
300
) =0.0002707

fc
Ρmin≥0.03 ( ) =0.03(25/300) =0.0025
fy
0.0002707<0.0025 Take ρ=0.002As required reinforcement
As=ρ*bd=0.0025*1000*120=300
 As
Use ϕ16= =3.846≈4
as
as
Provide 4ϕ10 per meter Maximum spacing = *1000 =200
As
Provide ϕ10 c/c 200mm (AASHTO) 5.14.4.1
The bottom transverse reinforcement may be calculated as a percentage of a main reinforcement
for positive moment
1750 1750
≤50% that is= =31.95<50
√l √ 3000
Main reinforcement at 200m
113
As= =0.390mm²pper meter
200

Require transverse reinforcement

=0.3195*0.377=0.1246mm²/m
Use ϕ clc 350 mm at transverse bottom bar
50
As= =0.14>0.120………….ok
390

Provide ϕ8c/c350mm for transverse bottom reinforcement

Determination of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (AASHTO 5.10.8)
AT
Temperature, As=0.75
FY
180
As=0.75 =0.45mm²/mm in both direction
300
0.45
Top layer = =0.225mm²/mm Use ϕ8 c/c 200mm transverse top bars
2
Detail sketch Load transfer to girder beam

30m
 1.5m
1.5m 1.5m

The lead transfer from slab to girder slab

Load=1.5*30*12.54=564.3KN @the center
W=load/30m=564.3/30=18.81kN/m

18.81kN/m

30m
7.5.2. Determine flexural design steel tructure beam
Span moment =wl²/8=2116.125kNm

18.81kN/m
 wl²/8 =2116.125KN

281.15KN

285

282.15KN
GIVEN
DESIGN LOAD
 Vsd=282.15KN
 Msd=2116.125kNm
Plastic section modules
 Mply=wply*fy/ᵧm1=ply=mply*ᵧm1
 Assume msd≤mply*Rd
Take Fe=430 and FY=275N/mm and fu=430N/mm

2116.125∗106∗1.1
Wply= =8464.5cm³ based on this value, we find out the section
275
Trial section and proprieties
=838*292*226 UB
Section properties
 Depth h=850.4
 Width b=293.8
 Use thick bw=16.1
 Flange thin if=26.8mm
 r=17.8
  depth between the flange=76.17mm
 c/tf=5.48
 d/tw=47.3mm
 Iy= 340000cm4 Iz=11400 iy=343
 Iz=627 i/t=7.15 a/t=194cm
 A of section=284cm²
 Wely=7990cm³ wely=773cm³
 Wpely=4160cm³ wpelz=1210cm³

Classification of cross section

As a simply supported beam is not required to have any plastic rotation capacity (only one hinge
required), it is sufficient to ensure that the section is at least "class 2" to develop plastic moment
resistance

tw d

Flange bucking c/cf≤11ε

Where c=half the width of the flange
tf=is the flange of the thickness
 235 235
ε=
√ √ fy
=
275
=0.424

For this section limit is 11ε=10.2

c/cf=5.48≤10.2………..ok
Web buckling d/tw=83ε=83*0.424=76.7
Where d is the depth between root radii
tw is the web thickness
d/tw=47.3<76.7……….ok
c/tf<11ε and d/tw<83ε
Therefore the section is at least class 2
Deflection check
Eurocode-3 requires that the deflection of the beam checked under the following serviceability
loading condition

 Variable action and

 Permanent and variable action

ẟ1 ẟo
ẟmax

ẟo –the pre camber

ẟ1-the deflection due to action
ẟ2-the total deflection caused by variable
ẟmax-the total deflection caused by permanent and variable action less any per camber
For a uniform load
5∗wl ³ 5∗18.81∗(30000) ³
ẟ= = =9.2mm
384∗EIy 384∗210000∗340000
 l l
For a plaster or similar brittle finish. The deflection limits are for ẟmax and for
250 350
ẟ2
Deflection check are based on servsibility loading
Table1 calculated and limiting deflection

Calculate deflection Deflection limit

ẟ1=9.2*4.42 40.66 l/350=85
ẟ2=9.2*4 36.8 l/250=120
ẟmax 77.46
The calculate deflection shows in table above are less than the limit. So no pre camber is
requiring. It should be noted that if the structure is open to public. There is a limit of 77.46mm
for the total deflection of ẟ1+ẟ2 (neglecting) any pre camber frequent combination to control
vibration
Shear on web
The shear resistance of the web must be checked
vsd≤vprd
The design plastic shear resistance of the web is given by

AVfy √ 3
Vprd=
γmo
For rolled I section loaded prairie to the web. Shear area av=1.04h+tw and the partial safety
factor γmo =1.05
1.04 h∗tw∗fy
V prd=
γmo∗√ 3
= (1.04*850.7*16.1*275)/(1.05*10³*√ 3)=2154.4KN

Vsd<vprd=282.15<2154.4KN……..OK
Inspection shows that vsd<0.5vprd,so no reduction in moment resistance due to shear is the
is necessary.
282.15KN<2154.4/2=282.15<1077.2kN……ok, no reduce in moment resistance
 Additional checks if section is one seating cleat
The following condition should be checked
a) Crushing of the web
 b) Crippling of the web
c) Buckling of the web

A. Crushing of the web

The crushing resistance is given by

(ss+ sy )∗tw∗fyw
Ryd = where
ᵧ m1
Ss-the length of the stiff bearing =75mm
Tw –the web thickness
Fyw-the yield strength of the web
ᵧm1-the materials partial property safety factor=1.05
sy-the length over which the effect take
sy=2tf(bt /tw ¿ ¿½(tyt / fyw ¿ ½ ¿(1-(bted /fyt ¿ ² ¿ ½ ¿
at the support, the stress in the beam flange ẟted is few,fyf=fyw, but the velocity of sy is hard
293.8
sy=2*26*( ¿ ½*1=228.917mm
16.1

Crushing resistance
(75+228.917)∗16.1∗275
= =1281.74KN.
1.05∗10³
This is greater than the reaction =282.15Kn
B. Chirping resistance
The chirping résistance is given by

Kard=0.5 t w2 ( Efyw ) ½ ¿ ¿

Ss is limiting to maximum of 0.2d

=0.2*761.7=152.34

Kard=0.5*16.1²
¿ ½[ ( 26.8
16.1 ) ½+3 (
16.1 152.34
28.6 )( 761.7 )
]

1.05∗10
 Kard=1527.04KN
This is greater than the reaction 282.15KN

C. Bulking resistance
The bulking resistance is deter main by taking a length of web as strut.
The length of web taken from Euro cod which in this case given a length
Leff=0.5(l²+ss²)½+a+ss/2 but ≤ (h²+ss²)½ where a=0
152.34
Leff=0.5(761.7²+152.34²)½+
2
=464.56mm
Provided that the construction is such that the top flange is held by a slab and the bottom by
seating creates against rotation and displacement. The effective high of web for buckling should
be taken as 0.7 distance between fillets
L=0.7*761.7=533.19mm
Radius of gradation for web
d
i= =0.29d
π2
L
Slenderness λ= =533.19 /(0.29*16.1)=114
i
Where λ 1=93.9 , ε=93.9∗0.924=86.8
λ 114
λˉ= (Ba)½= =1.315
λ1 86.8
Use buckling curve c and Ba=1 the value of x may deter main from table 4.9 EBCS-2 1995
X=0.383
0383∗275∗464.2∗16.1
Buckling resistance µbrd= =749.4KN
1.05∗10³

This is greater than the reaction 282.25KN

∴Satisfactory
7.5.3. Design of support column

Given
Nsd =564.5KN from the deck slab
Material c-25 s-300 effictive length of column pie=5.4m
Solustion
Step1designe constant
0.68∗fcu 0.68∗25
Fcd= = =11.33N/mm²
γs 1.5
fyk 300
Fyd= = =260.87
γs 1.15

Step2 analysis of the load

Wt of girder=226*9.81*30=66.51KN
Factor load =564.5+1.3*66.51=651KN
Step3 proportionate yhe size of the column by assuming the given axial load is carried by concert
capacity of the column
Pd =Ac*fcd+Ast*fyd
Pd=Ac*fcd
pd 651∗10³
Pd= = =57458.08mm²
fcd 11.33

b*h=57457.08 but b=h

b=239.7mm²
Provide 250*250mm*mm
Step4 check whether the column is longer or short
¿ 5400
b = 2500 =21.6>12
Therefore the given column is slender
¿ 5400
Cr=1.25- 48 b =1.25- =0.8
48∗250
pdl
Pdsh= =813KN
cr

Therefore we adjust the cross section

Pdsh=Ac*fcd +fyd*Ast
Pdsh=(Ag-Ast)fcd+fyd*Ast
813KN=(250²-Ast)*11.33+260.87*Ast
104875=-11.33Ast+260.87Ast
Ast=420.27mm²
Check the reinforcement is adequate
Astmin=0.008Ag=500mm²
Astmax=0.08Ag=5000mm²
Astmin>Ast calculated. Therefore the calculate reinforcement is not adequate. So we take
Ast=500mm²
Ast 500
ϕ14= = =3.24mm²
as 153.4

Provide=4ϕ14

Design for Y shape

AB
fx
fy
 45̊ 45̊

At joint B εfy=0325.5=fy∗sin 45̊

Fy =460.33KN
For this 460.33KN load proportionate the cross section
Pd=Ac*fcd+Ast*fyd
Pd=Ac*fcd
460.33∗10³
460.33KN =Ac*fcd⟹ Ac= =40629.3mm²
11.33

b*h=40629.3mm² take b=h

b²=40629.3mm²
b=201.6mm. so h=201.6mm
Provide 250*250mm*mm
Ac*fcd=200*250*11.33=566.5KN>460.3KN…..ok
The refore the concert can resist the load .so proved nominal reinforcement
Ast=0.008Ag=0.008*200*250=400mm²
Ast
Φ14= =2.6 ≈ 3but based on EBCS minimum
as

Reinforcement for rectangular cross section is "4 .so proved 4ϕ14 bares
Proved ϕ8 tiles
Spacing ≤ 12ϕ=12*14=168
b=200
300

Provide ϕ8c/c160mm
 3000mm
200mm 250mm 200mm

y y
1500mm

y y
45̊

250mm

3900mm 250mm

x x

250mm
7.5.5. Abutment Design
Preliminary dimensions
Abatement is the most commonly used retaining structure. It has good cost efficiency recorded
for the walls less than 10m in height.

0.4≤B/H≤.8
1/12≤ttop/H≤1/8
Ltoe      
≥300mm ≥ t bottom
foo t
For most
cases the
following
values can
be used as Minimum depth of spread
the initial footing for the abutement should
be assumptio 1.5m
n in the
Try reinforced h 1.5m
concrete From longitudinal cross
retaining sectional
wall
design Ha=5.4
process Therefore H=Ho+h=6.9m
X
H
    Use t bot= =6.9/10=.69
          10
         
          Tfot ≥ tbot tfot=0.8m
         
B=0.8H=5.5m
      Ho  
        H Ltoe=B/3=4.32/3=1.44m
         
          Lheel=B-(Ltoe+Tbot)=2.19m
         
The           back fil soil is selecting
tfoot     h   materials
         
  Lheel tbot Ltoe  

         
    B    
Bearing capacity of soil =225kpa
Ultimate bearing capacity=1.5*225=337.5kpa
Ultimate bearing capacity =3*225=675kpa
Load
Dead load reaction RDL=651kN
Lateral active earth pressure

The soil is selected backfill with ẟ=20°,θ=92.43 °

∅=25°,β=0 °

sin ( ϕ ֩ +δ ) sin ⁡(ϕ ֩ −β )

η=[1+
√ sin ( θ−δ ) sin ⁡(θ + β)
]²=2.434

sin ² ⁡(θ+ ϕ ֩ )
Ka= =0.340
ηsin² θ sin ⁡(θ−δ)

γs=19KN/m³
Pmax=Ka *γs*Z=183.458KN
the angle of Pa=67.579̊
ph=Pa*sin67.579°=169.577KN/m
pv=pA*cos67.579°=70.002KN/m
Combinations
Relevant load combination is trench 1considering the minimum and maximum load factor for
permanent loads, the load combination can be expanded to two as strength 1 and strength 1a as
shown in the table below.

DC EV EH LL BR WS WL WL ES
Strength1 1.25 1.35 1.50 1.75 1.75 0 0 0 1.50
Trength1a 0.90 1.00 0.90 1.75 1.75 0 0 0 0.75
Total cross sectional length=3.00m
ᵧC=24Kg/m³ γs=19kg/m³
 Unfactore Loads, Factored Loads Their moment
d design l and
Load Unfactored Factored Factored Arm Unfactored Factored Factored
loads forces force from A moment moments moments
strength strength strength strength
1 1a 1 1a

W1 198.000 247.500 178.200 0.917 181.500 226.875 163.350

W2 306.000 382.500 275.400 2.146 656.625 820.781 590.963
W3 6.618 8.272 5.956 2.396 15.855 19.819 14.269
W4 42.930 53.663 38.637 2.533 108.756 135.945 97.880
W5 12.960 16.200 11.664 2.571 33.318 41.648 29.986
W6 162.240 202.800 146.016 4.092 663.83 829.790 597.449
W7 67.973 91.763 67.973 2.608 177.295 239.348 177.295
W8 9.430 12.732 9.430 2.571 24.244 32.729 24.244
W9 968.97 1308.11 986.967 4.092 3964.69 5352.33 3964.69
RDL 564.300 705.375 507.870 2.083 1175.625 1469.531 1058.063
Pvact 210.005 315.008 189.005 5.500 1155.03 1732.545 1039.527
Total 1549.42 3343.92 2399.118 10901.34 7757.72
Horizontal Loads
PhEH 508.732 763.098 457.859 2.512 1277.817 1916.725 1150.035
Total 508.732 763.098 457.859 1916.725 1150.035
Stability and safety criteria
Eccentricity
In the LRFD method, the eccentricity design criteria are ensured by keeping the resultant force
within the middle half of the base. In the other words, the eccentricity should not be exceed emax
=B/4 in soil foundations. The results are summarized as follows.
emax−e EM
%= *100 xo=
emax V

V ℰM xo B emax Design
e= −¿xo
2 margin(%)

Strength 1 3343.92 8984.62 2.69 0.06 1.38 95.41

Strength 1a 2399.12 6607.68 2.75 0.00 1.38 100.31
There is no eccentricity problem

Sliding

The results of sliding criterion are summarized below

∅ sFr−H
%= x100
∅ sFr

V tanδb Fr=vtanδb ∅s ∅ sFr Hl Design

marigin(%)
Strength 1 3343.92 0.36 1217.09 0.80 973.67 763.10 21.63
Strength 2399.12 0.36 873.21 0.80 698.57 457.86 34.46
1a
The is no Sliding problem Ok

Bearing capacity

The result of bearing capacity criterion as summarize as follows

¿ H
%=∅ bRIqult−qmax¿ ∅ b=0.5
∅ bRIqult *100 RI=(1-
V
)³ qult=675kpa qmax=

V
b=5.500
2 XOb
Ho Vo Ho/Vo RI ∅ bRIqult qmax Design
marigin(%)
Strength 1 508.73 2549.42 0.20 0.51 173.09 113.14 34.64
Strength 1a 508.73 2549.42 0.20 0.51 173.09 79.19 54.25

There is no bearing capacity problem ok

The maximum bearing pressure should also be checked whether it is below the pressible or not

εv 6 Mn bεV
σ= ± Mm=Ma- Mm ismoment at as the centroid of the wall base
bw b ² w 2
σ max=1.5 σall =337.500kpa
Bearing pressure at the toe of the retaining should not exceed

b 11.2
Mm=Ma- εV =138290.18− (22708.05)=-211.154KNm
2 2

             
              

             

             

             
       
     
Toe
      heel    
 188.701Kp
      a      

             

         

           

             
εV 6 Mm 22708.05 6∗11125.115
σheel = − = − =216.622 Kpa
bw b ² w 11.2∗8.30 11.2²∗8.30
σtoe=188.701< σmax=337.5 ok

Structural design of Abutment Retaining wall

Class A concrete with fc=28Mpa will be used
Strengt  

hI
governs  
fy=400
mpaX       
           1.5m
  0.8m     1.8m  
           
  2m B 2.7m  
  D C   A
  toe  5.5m     heel
188.701KP 216.622Kp
a         a
           
       

259.44−σ c 11.22−3.5
= σ c =207.315 Kpa
σ c −173.891 3.5
259.44−σ D 11.22−4.4
= σ c =203.00 Kpa
σ D−173.891 4.4

Moment at C
202.276+ 173.891 3.52
M max = × =356.225 KNm
2 2

Using a cover of 50mm and ∅ 24 reinforcement

d= 1500 – 50 – 12 = 1438mm

ρ=
[ √
1− 1−
2.352 M max
∅ b d2 f 2 c ]
∗f c
=0.0005
1.176 fy

fc
ρmin =0.03
fy
= 0.0021

ρ=0.0005< ρmin =0.0021 take ρ=0.0021

A S= A S =ρmin bd=0.0021∗1000∗1438=3019.8 mm ²
MIN

π∗122∗1000
Spacing = =149.8 mm
3019.8
provide ∅ 24 c / c 140 mm

Development length
0.02 π r 2 f
y

Id= =683.948 mm take I d =700 mm

√f c
Distribution of reinforcement in the transvers direction
0.75∗1000∗1500
A S= =2812.5 mm ² Half on each face=1406.250 mm ²
400

Compare this value with A scrdis

A scrdis =0.00325∗100∗1000=325.000<1406.250

Take A S=1406.250 mm ²

π∗82∗1000
Ø 16, S = =142.977 mm
1460.25

π∗102∗1000
Ø 20, S = =223.402mm
1460.25
Provide Ø 16 c/c 140 mm

At the Top: Both directions

Distribute reinforcement
0.75∗1000∗1500
A S= =2812.5 mm ² Half on each face=1406.250 mm ²
400

Compare this value with A scrdis

A scrdis =0.00325∗100∗1000=325.000<1406.250

Take A S=1406.250 mm ²

π∗82∗1000
Ø 16, S = =142.977 mm
1460.25
Provide Ø 16 c/c 140 mm
At point D

293.538+226.023 62
M max = × =776.901 KNm
2 2

Using a cover of 50mm and ∅ 20 reinforcement

d= 1000 – 50 – 10 = 740mm

ρ=
[ √
1− 1−
2.352 M max
∅ b d2 f 2 c ]
∗f c
=0.0041
1.176 fy
 fc
ρmin =0.03
fy
= 0.0021

ρ=0.0041> ρmin =0.0021 take ρ=0.0041

A S= A S =ρmin bd=0.0041∗1000∗740=3019.8 mm ²
MIN

π∗162∗1000
Ø 32, S = =266.3 mm
3019.8
Provide Ø 32 c/c 250 mm

Development length
0.02 π r 2 f
y

Id= =1213.8 mm take I d =1220 mm

√f c
Distribution of reinforcement in the transvers direction
0.75∗1000∗0.8∗1000
A S= =1500 mm ² Half on each face=750 mm ²
400

π∗82∗1000
Ø 16, S = =268.1 mm
750
Provide Ø 16 c/c 250 mm

At the Top: Both directions

Distribute reinforcement
0.75∗1000∗1500
A S= =1500 mm ² Half on each face=750 mm ²
400

π∗82∗1000
Ø 16, S = =268.1 mm
750
Provide Ø 16 c/c 250 mm

At B
Strength limit state
M max = ( 1.5∗1899.431
9.97
∗1.958 ) + (
1.75∗432.35
9.97
∗3.437) + (
1.75∗162.5
9.97
∗9.884 )+ (
1.5∗89.895
9.97
∗3.437 )

M max =435.415 KNm

Using a cover of 50mm and ∅ 24 reinforcement

d= 0.8*1000 – 50 – 12 = 738mm

ρ=
[ √
1− 1−
2.352 M max
∅ b d2 f 2 c ]∗f c
=0.0023
1.176 fy

fc
ρmin =0.03
fy
= 0.0021

ρ=0.0023> ρmin =0.0021 take ρ=0.0023

A S= A S =ρmin bd=0.0023∗1000∗738=1697.4 mm ²
MIN

π∗162∗1000
Ø 32, S = =473.81 mm
1697.4
Provide Ø 32 c/c 450 mm

Distribution of reinforcement in the transverse direction

1000+500
b avg= =750 mm
2

0.75∗1000∗750
A S= =1406.25 mm ² Half on each face=703.125 mm ²
400

π∗82∗1000
Ø 16, S = =285.955 mm
703.125
Provide Ø 16 c/c 280 mm

Opposite face; Distribution of reinforcement in both directions

Vertical face: better the same spacing as footing reinforcement be used to tie the
vertical reinforcement to footing reinforcement. But smaller diameter may be used
π∗72∗1000
Ø 14, S = =218.934 mm
703.125
Provide Ø 14 c/c 210 mm Horizontal reinforcement
Provide Ø 14 c/c 210 mm

7.6 STAIR CASE DESIGN

Solution
Step-1 Design constant
0.68 fcu N
f cd = =11.3
γc mm2
f f yk 300 N
yd = = =260.87
γ 1.15 mm
2

Step-2 Depth determination based on deflection criterion

 0.6 f yk ¿
d ≥(0.4+ ) take β a=28
400 β a

0.6∗300 3600 mm
d ≥(0.4+ )
400 28
d ≥170.3 mm
∅
Assuming ∅ 10 bart ≥ d+ c+ =170+15+15=140mm
2

Take t=150mm

 For flight two

0.6 f yk ¿
d ≥(0.4+ ) take β a=31.5
400 β a

0.6∗300 2700
d ≥(0.4+ )
400 31.5
d ≥ 72.86mm
t ≥ 72.86+15+15 =92.86mm
t ≥92.86 mm
Therefore for both stair case, take common thickness t=150mm
This implies d=150-15-5 = 130mm
Step-3 Loads
Dead load on flight
0.15∗25∗2 KN
Weight of reinforced concrete slab = =7.955
0.88 m
2∗23∗0.015 KN
Weight of bottom plastering = =0.784
0.88 m
Weight of rc steps =0.5*0.15*2*25 =3.15 KN⁄m

0.03∗( 0.15+ 0.3 )∗23∗13∗2

Weight of cement screed = =2.243 KN ⁄ m
3.6

0.02∗( 0.15+ 0.3 )∗27∗13∗2

Weight of marble = =1.755 KN ⁄ m
3.6
Total dead load = 7.955+0.784+3.75+2.243+1.755
=16.487 ≈ 16.5KN ⁄ m
Dead load on landing
Weight of rc slab = 7.955 * 0.88 = 7KN ⁄ m
Weight of bottom plastering = 0.69KN ⁄ m
Weight of cement screed = 1.38KN ⁄ m
Weight of marble = 1.08KN ⁄ m
Total dead load = 7+0.69+1.38+1.08 = 10.15KN ⁄ m

 Live load from ERA manual 2002 for pedestrian bridge take 4 KN ⁄ m²

Design load = 1.3DL + 1.6LL

For flight = (1.3*16.487) + 1.6*(4*2)
=34.23KN ⁄ m
For landing = 1.3*10.15 + 1.6*8
=26KN ⁄ m

Analysis for Type I and III

 34.23∗3.62
∑ M a =0 , R B∗3.6− 2
+26

R B=54.39 KN

∑ f y =0 , R A + RB =34.23∗3.6
R A =68.84 KN

From sec 1-1 m(x) will be

1.58m
v x =0 , at x =¿

m x ( 1.58 )=43.21 KNm

For second flight

∑ f y =0 , R A + RB =w l=144.36
R A =R B ⇒ 2 R A =144.26

R A =72.32 KN =RB
  Check depth for flexure

Take M max= 99.06 kNm

To insure ductility take μs d s = 0.245

M sd 99.06∗10⁶
d≥
√ √
μs d s f cd b
= 0.245∗11.33∗1000

d ≥ 121.73mm < 130mm……..ok

FLEXURAL DESIGN
 For flight one and three

at support, M sd =26 KNm

M sd 26∗10⁶
μs d s = = =0.068
f cd bd ² 11.33∗2000∗130²

k x =1.25 ¿ ) = 0.088
1.25∗μs d s M sd
k z= =0.466 A scal = =743.40 mm ²
kx k z d f yd

Calculate spacing
 b as 2000∗78
Normal spacing = = =197 m
A scal 793.40

a smin= ρmin −bd=433. .3 mm ²

Sm ax as per EBCS

b as 2000∗78
Smax ≤ = =362 mm
asmin 433.3

2ts =300mm
350mm

Take Smax =300mm, but greater than 190mm

Therefore provide ∅ 10c/c 190mm at support

At span
M sd =43.21 KNm

M sd 43.21∗10⁶
μs d s = = =0.113
f cd bd ² 11.33∗2000∗130²

k x =0.15

k z=0.441

M sd
A scal = =1353.5 mm ²
k z d f yd

Calculate spacing
b as 2000∗78.5
Normal spacing = = =116 mm<S max =300mm
A scal 1353.5

Therefore provide ∅ 10c/c 115mm at span

 For flight two

At support has the same value as the above calculation

i.e. provide ∅ 10c/c 190mm at support

At spanassume ∅ 12bar
M sd =99.06 KNm

M sd 99.06∗10⁶
μs d s = = =0.2627
f cd bd ² 11.33∗2000∗130²

k x =0.389

k z=0.844

M sd
A scal = =3485 mm ²
k z d f yd

Calculate spacing
b as 2000∗113
Normal spacing = = =64.89 mm<S max =300mm
A scal 3485

Therefore provide ∅ 12c/c 60mm at span

 Checking for shear

Diagonal compression resistance of the concrete
v rd =0.25 f c d bd=0.25∗11.33∗2000∗130=736.45 KN v rd >v max =72.32 KN ……..ok

Capacity of the concrete

v c =0.25 f ctd k 1 k 2 d bw but k 2=1.6−d=1.6−0.13=1.47> 1……ok

k 1=1+ 50 ρ=1.08 ≤2……ok

N
f ctd=1.03
mm ²
v c =106.2 KN > v max=72.32 KN

Implies the section is adequate without shear reinforcement