Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice

DL Jones, Bangor University, Bangor, UK

EC Rowe, Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Bangor, UK
Ó 2017 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
This article is a revision of the previous edition article by D.L. Jones, E.C. Rowe, volume 2, pp. 741–748, Ó 2003, Elsevier Ltd.

Glossary
Bioaccumulation Becoming concentrated at higher trophic Sequestration Storage for a long period.
levels in a food web. Sparging Injecting air into groundwater to volatilize
Fallow Vegetation grown for its fertility benefit, without contaminants and enhance biodegradation.
harvesting. Symbionts Organisms closely associated for mutual
Morphotype A group of similar, but not necessarily benefit.
taxonomically identical, organisms.
Phytotoxic Toxic to plants.

Introduction ‘reclamation’ will be used synonymously to describe the

process by which land is brought back into useful function.
This article describes the major problems affecting degraded In most reclamation schemes, end users require the growth
land and some of the remediation options that may be of various types of vegetation, which also implies that a biolog-
employed to overcome these. Causes and types of agricultural ically functioning and stable soil environment is required.
and industrial dereliction are considered. Methods for over- Plant growth may be constrained by a variety of soil physical,
coming contamination and for bringing soil conditions back chemical, or biological factors as well as by wider environ-
into the range suitable for plant growth are discussed, with mental variables such as climate (Table 1). Physical or chemi-
emphasis on practical considerations. Requirements for cal stresses decrease productivity and extreme stress can prevent
different end uses, such as agriculture or nature conservation, the growth of plants entirely. However, what is a stress for one
are described. species may benefit another. In particular, species that are
adapted for unusual or extreme environments are easily out-
competed if stress is reduced. Even small changes in environ-
Principles mental stress are likely to affect the relative success of
different species and thus change the composition of the
Degradation and Reclamation
species assemblage. The aim when reclaiming land for agricul-
Degradation implies a reduction in the utility of land, whether ture and forestry is to normalize soil conditions and reduce
this be in terms of its agricultural or forest productivity or of its plant stress, but if the end use is nature conservation it may
ability to support other beneficial processes (i.e., ecosystem be appropriate to maintain certain stresses to prevent the domi-
services), such as filtering pollutants or use for recreation nance of common species (e.g., grasses during heathland
purposes. Other ecosystem processes that are of less direct restoration).
benefit to humanity, such as carbon sequestration, or maintain-
ing and promoting biodiversity, may also be viable aims for
Degrees of Degradation
land reclamation schemes. The methods used for reclaiming
land depend on the type of degradation that the land has The degree of land degradation can vary from slight distur-
undergone and, fundamentally, on the desired end use. End bance or perturbation of a plant species assemblage to extreme
uses include agriculture, forestry, nature conservation, indus- toxic contamination. Between these two extremes, the terms
trial development, and amenity/recreation. Therefore, the ‘degraded’ and ‘derelict’ are used, particularly for agricultural
term ‘reclamation,’ which originally referred to creating land and postindustrial sites, respectively.
productive agricultural land from wetlands or other inhospi-
table terrain, has come to encompass a variety of activities,
Causes and Types of Agricultural Degradation
including, for example, the conversion of arable land back to
wetlands for nature conservation. The term ‘remediation’ is In many areas of the world, inappropriate agricultural practices
most often associated with the removal and cleaning up of have stripped the available resources from the land leaving the
industrially contaminated sites that contain heavy metals soil in a very degraded state and practically useless for agricul-
and/or organic chemical pollutants. Less-common contami- tural production. Agriculture, and in particular arable cultiva-
nants that may also need cleaning up include radionuclides, tion, tends to accelerate the loss of soil and soil nutrients
biological agents (e.g., viruses, bacteria), or synthetic nanoma- through erosion, leaching, and crop removal. The cultivation
terials. Within the text, the terms ‘remediation’ and of soil, while often resulting in a release of nutrients in the short

304 Encyclopedia of Applied Plant Sciences, 2nd edition, Volume 3 http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-394807-6.00014-9

 Plants and the Environment j Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice 305

Table 1 Typical factors constraining plant growth on degraded land

Category Constraint Examples Effect

Chemical Deficiency of plant macronutrients N, P, K, Mg, Ca Plant growth reduced

Deficiency of plant micronutrients Cu, Zn, Mn, Fe Plant growth reduced
Toxicity of metals Pb, Cu, Zn, Al Root growth reduced or prevented
Salinity Na Root growth reduced or prevented
Toxicity of hydrocarbons Diesel, crude oil Root growth reduced or prevented
Toxicity of other organic compounds Chlorinated solvents, pesticides Root growth reduced or prevented,
bioaccumulation
Exposure to extreme pH < pH 4 or > pH 8 Growth of nonadapted plants prevented
3
Exposure to radionuclides H,14C,36Cl,90Sr,129I,137Cs,239Pu Mutagenesis
Physical Instability and disturbance Coal waste, new spoil tips Root establishment prevented, erosion
Soil compaction Industrial sites, mining waste Root exploration prevented, erosion
Excessive drainage Hard rock waste Water stress
Insufficient drainage Mining waste Waterlogging and anoxia
Exposure Mountain or coastal sites Wind damage, water stress
Biological Lack of propagules New or isolated sites Colonization prevented
Lack of symbionts N2-fixing bacteria, mycorrhizas Plant growth reduced
Competition from other plants Grasses Growth of desired species suppressed
Herbivory from large animals Rabbits, sheep, deer Plant growth reduced
Herbivory from small animals Caterpillars, snails Plant growth reduced
Plant disease Fungal and bacterial pathogens Plant growth reduced

term, is also typically associated with a loss in soil organic estimates, we estimate that the global figure for degraded
matter. This leads to a loss of soil structure, reduction in soil land therefore lies somewhere between 1.2 and 1.9 billion
microbial activity and diversity, and reduced chemical buff- ha. A recent report published in 2015 by the Economics of
ering capacity, all of which are crucial factors controlling plant Land Degradation (ELD) Initiative estimated that land degra-
growth. Loss of soil structure tends to reduce the rate of water dation is costing the world as much as $10.6 trillion every year.
infiltration during rainfall events that consequently increases
runoff and thus enhances soil erosion, placing agroecosystems
Causes and Types of Industrial Dereliction and Land
into a downward degradation spiral. In addition, the continued
Contamination
removal of nutrient cations (e.g., NHþ þ
4 , K , Ca
2þ
and Mg2þ)
from the soil by crop off-take and leaching leads to their Human industrial activity has been driven by the possession of
replacement on soil cation exchange sites by protons (Hþ) natural resources (e.g., coal, oil, mineral ores) and by global
and phytotoxic aluminum (Al3þ) making the soil increasingly market forces and regional economics. Changing resource
acidic and accelerating the spiral of degradation. Unless the bases and increasingly dynamic markets have led to a continual
nutrients are replaced (e.g., by fertilizers) and the pH rectified movement of industry around the world and thus the
(e.g., by lime application), yields gradually decline over time, continual production of postindustrial sites. Current estimates
and eventually crops fail because of nutrient deficiencies or suggest that there are tens of millions of such sites around the
the toxic effects of the acidification of soil. world in need of restoration. A quantitative assessment,
Overgrazing of pastures also leads to soil degradation, by however, remains difficult as sites vary greatly in area (from
removing the protective cover of vegetation and increasing 0.001 to >100 km2) and comprehensive surveys are lacking,
surface compaction, thus increasing runoff and accelerating particularly in less economically developed countries. In
soil erosion by wind and water. In addition, large areas of irri- many cases, these sites are not heavily polluted, but redundant
gated land have also become degraded because of excessive salt infrastructure remaining from the previous industrial activity
accumulation in surface soils causing phytotoxicity. Soil salini- still requires removal before the desired end use can be
zation is typically due to the high rates of water evaporation/ achieved (e.g., mineral waste tips, concrete buildings, etc.).
evapotranspiration that occurs in irrigated areas, inducing the Sometimes, however, human activity has caused the contami-
surface accumulation of salts previously present in the irriga- nation of land with organic and inorganic compounds, which
tion water or inducing the rise of saline groundwater to the pose threats to freshwater, marine, and terrestrial ecosystems,
surface. Localized sources of environmental damage may also and to human health. The range of pollutants that may be
result from overuse or spills of fertilizers, manures, and pesti- found at these contaminated sites is shown in Table 2 and
cides. In many regions of the world, large areas of agricultural Figure 1. The contamination of many sites is frequently caused
land are eventually abandoned due to invasion by weeds, by human error during handling allowing spills and leaks to
such as Striga spp. and Imperata cylindrica. It is not easy to assess occur. This can result in either a localized contamination of
the total amount of land that has been severely degraded by the environment (point source; e.g., from a single underground
agriculture, but according to the United Nations Millennium gasoline storage tank) or in the widespread contamination of
Ecosystem Assessment, approximately 40% of the world’s agri- the environment (diffuse source; e.g., benzene emissions
cultural land is seriously degraded. Based on this and other from vehicles). In many cases, the contamination of industrial
306 Plants and the Environment j Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice

Table 2 Classes of contaminants found at postindustrial sites sites and the surrounding environment occurred decades ago
when the environmental and human impact of chemical
Category Examples release was not fully appreciated (e.g., radionuclides released
Organic contaminants during weapons testing; chemical release into ground and
Fuel hydrocarbons Benzene, Toluene, Xylene, MTBE surface waters from leach and disperse municipal solid waste
Polynuclear aromatic Creosote, Pyrene, Anthracene sites).
hydrocarbons
Polychlorinated biphenyls Arochlor 1221, Arochlor 1254
Chlorinated solvents Trichloroethylene, Vinyl chloride Parallels Between Land Reclamation and Natural Succession
Phenolics Pentachlorophenol
Since the early days of plant ecology, many studies have
Pesticides Atrazine, DDT, Lindane
Explosives Trinitrotoluene looked at the changes in plant community assemblages (i.e.,
Detergents Nonylphenol ethoxylates the set of species growing in a locality) that occur following
Phthalates Bis-2-ethylhexylphthalate disturbance. The colonization of naturally denuded surfaces,
Ketones Acetone such as on new volcanic islands or under retreating glaciers,
Complexing agents EDTA, Nitriloacetic acid is referred to as primary succession. Subsequent changes in
Organic acids Citric acid, Benzoic acid plant species assemblages, and the colonization of disturbed
Alkyl phosphates Tributyl phosphate surfaces that retain soil and plant propagules, are referred to
Inorganic contaminants as secondary succession. In the classic model of plant succes-
Heavy metals Hg, Cr, Pb, Zn, Cu, Cd, As, Ni, Se
3 14 90 sion, one cohort of species replaces another until a climax
Radionuclides H, C, Sr,129I,137Cs,239Pu
assemblage is reached, which is predictable from soil and
Salts NaCl, KCl
Acids HCl, H2SO4 climatic conditions. Lichens and lower plants can colonize
Alkalis NaOH, Na2CO3 bare rock surfaces, and ameliorate conditions sufficiently for
Biological contaminants ‘pioneer’ species of herbs and woody plants to grow. These
Bacterial, fungal and viral Escherichia coli O157, Anthrax facilitate the development of soil and further ameliorate
pathogens conditions, allowing the colonization of climax species.
Prion agents BSE Where there is continuing stress, for example from herbivory,
the succession may be maintained at an intermediate stable
state known as a plagioclimax. This model has, however,

80

Groundwater
Soil
Frequency of contamination (%)

60

40

20

0
Chlorinated solvents

Fuel hydrocarbons

Alkyl phosphates
Phthalates
Organic acids
Metals

Anions

Ketones

Pesticides

Explosives

Complexing agents
Radionuclides

PCBs

Figure 1 Frequency of occurrence of contaminant classes in either the groundwater or soil of 91 United States department of energy hazardous
waste sites. Data from Lenhard, R.J., Skeen, R.S., Brouns, T.M., 1995. Contaminants at U.S. DOE sites and their susceptibility to bioremediation.
SSSA Special Publication 43. In: Skipper H.D., Turco, R.F. (Eds.), Bioremediation: Science and Applications. Soil Science Society of America,
Madison, WI, pp. 157–172.
 Plants and the Environment j Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice 307

been criticized. Some species are early colonists but also pollutants are rarely distributed uniformly either vertically
appear in climax assemblages; and stable climaxes may be or horizontally throughout the site, but are usually concen-
rare because of variation in climate, or the effects of disease. trated in ‘hot spots’ of contamination.
The composition of an assemblage may also be affected by
stochastic events such as seed dispersal.
Theories of plant succession have been of use in guiding Required Soil Conditions
reclamation of degraded land. Alleviating stresses may not be
Soil characteristics must be brought into a range suitable for
enough to encourage the growth of appropriate plants; propa-
plant growth. Table 3 shows the range of soil conditions neces-
gules and symbionts (e.g., mycorrhizas) may need to be intro-
sary for the growth of most plants, though certain species may
duced. Local species that act as pioneers on denuded substrates
grow optimally under more extreme conditions. Nitrogen
are obvious choices when selecting species to introduce. Inter-
content is worth particular note as plants possess a high
mediate stages may be necessary, in which ‘nurse species’
demand for N and require a continued supply (e.g.,
chosen for their ameliorative qualities, such as nitrogen-fixing
100 kg N ha1 year1), but available nitrogen (NHþ 
4 , NO3 ,
Alnus species, are used to improve conditions so that the
and dissolved organic nitrogen compounds) is easily leached
desired plant species can then establish.
from soils. In established ecosystems, nitrogen is made contin-
ually available through the mineralization of soil organic
matter. The aim for sustainable reclamation should therefore
Practice
be to ensure a sustained supply of nitrogen and other nutrients
Site Assessment by recapitalizing the soil with organic matter. Usually the best
and cheapest way to achieve this is to incorporate nitrogen-
The starting point for any reclamation project is an assessment
fixing plant species into the reclamation scheme. Suitable trees,
of the problems and potentials of the land. The age of the site
shrubs, and herbs are to be found in the Fabaceae (‘legumes’) as
and amount of vegetation cover already achieved indicate the
well as in certain other groups such as alders (Alnus spp.) and
severity of constraints to plant growth. Surveys and analyses
casuarinas (Casuarina spp.). The symbiotic microorganisms
of vegetation and soil are useful. For nature conservation,
(e.g., Rhizobium, Frankia) that allow the plants to fix nitrogen
any small areas of remaining habitat should be carefully
may also need to be introduced, for instance, by watering
retained, to act as sources of propagules. Surveys may also
beds of seedlings with a suspension of homogenized nodules.
reveal rare species that are adapted to the degraded condi-
It is also good practice to apply an inoculum of soil from estab-
tions, leading to a redefinition of the restoration objectives.
lished target vegetation, to introduce beneficial decomposers
It is also important to examine the history of the site in order
and mycorrhizal symbionts. In the case of contaminated
to determine the cause of the degradation. This preliminary
land, the concentration of pollutants must be low enough to
site assessment is vital before undertaking a survey and moni-
allow some degree of plant growth. It must be noted that
toring of pollutant levels, since cost and time constraints
some contaminants may be more phytotoxic in combination
rarely make it possible to screen for all potential
with other chemicals (i.e., in cocktails) than on their own
contaminants.
(e.g., toluene in the presence of methyl tertiary butyl ether),
Surveys should aim to identify the factors that currently
while in other cases one pollutant may reduce the toxicity of
limit development of the target vegetation. These may not
another (e.g., heavy metals may be complexed by organic
be the same as the initial cause of degradation; for example,
grazing animals or competition from weeds may be prevent-
ing vegetation regeneration. Any continuing causes of stress
must be brought under control. Laboratory experiments or Table 3 Normal range of soil characteristics required for
successful plant growth
field trials in which individual limitations are removed
may be necessary to identify the main constraints. However, Parameter Target range
different limitations interact, and some may be easier to
overcome than others. On loose mining waste, for example, pH 5–7.5
drought is often the cause of plant death, but increasing the Cation exchange capacity (meq kg1) 100–300
nutrient supply can allow plants to develop deeper root Electrical conductivity (dS m1) 0–4
Bulk density (g cm3) 0.8–1.4
systems and increase their drought tolerance – applying
Volumetric water content (cm3 cm3) 0.15–0.35
fertilizer is considerably easier than applying soil. In the Temperature ( C) 10–25
case of contaminated sites, the site survey must explore Redox potential (mV) >500
the type, concentrations, and spatial distribution of the Nutrients (mg gL1)
contaminant. At most contaminated sites, it is common to K 100–300
find mixtures of pollutants present at different levels and Ca 500–2000
of varying toxicity. This is often due to the primary contam- Mg 50–300
inant being broken down in situ by soil microorganisms to Fe 5–200
produce secondary contaminants (e.g., dichloroethane, vinyl P (available) 5–20
chloride from trichloroethylene). The presence of these NHþ4 N 2–20
NO3 N 2–20
pollutant cocktails may cause some of the chemicals to
Mineralizable N 50–200
behave differently than if they were present on their own Total N 1000–10 000
(e.g., altered water solubility, bioavailability, etc.). Further,
308 Plants and the Environment j Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice

contaminants). Most heavy metals become increasingly soluble at contaminated sites include by-products from other industrial
and therefore more toxic at low pH. processes, including paper processing waste, composted waste,
water treatment aluminum, and iron hydroxide biosolids, bio-
char/charcoal sewage sludge, etc. However, careful attention
Strategies for Reclaiming Land Degraded by Agriculture
must be paid to the chemistry of these amendments so as not
Reclamation of degraded agricultural land is commonly aimed to cause further contamination (e.g., by heavy metals in sewage
at returning the land to productivity. Degradation is associated sludge) or nutrient imbalances in the soil (e.g., nitrogen immo-
with loss of soil organic matter and nutrients, loss of topsoil bilization and deficiency by the addition of paper waste with
through erosion, accumulation of salts, and/or weed infesta- a high carbon-to-nitrogen ratio; phosphorus deficiency by the
tion. Where nutrient deficiencies constrain production, these addition of water treatment aluminum and iron hydroxide
may be overcome by adding fertilizer or organic wastes (e.g., biosolids). If topsoil is being brought back to the site after
composts, biosolids, charcoal, manures). Increasing soil stockpiling elsewhere during the previous industrial opera-
organic matter content is likely to be of benefit, providing tions, it is important that the prior storage does not promote
slow-release pools of nutrients, and increasing the protection soil degradation. Often workers unfamiliar with the living
of nutrients by increasing soil structure and ionic exchange nature of topsoil will store it in one big pile, causing excessive
capacity. Soil organic matter content may be increased by fal- compaction and anaerobic conditions. These activities lead to
lowing, though an addition of nutrients may still be necessary a ‘souring’ of soil from which topsoil remediation is needed
to ensure good growth of the fallow. Improved fallows and prior to use.
green manures have been successful in some situations, using After this stage, plants can be introduced onto the site. The
introduced species, particularly nitrogen fixers, to increase type of plants employed depends on both the end use of the
soil fertility. Physical erosion of soil is worsened by a lack of land and the type of contamination. In some cases, these
vegetation, and erosion control often starts with overcoming aims can be contradictory. One example of this can be seen
nutrient constraints or controlling grazing to maintain cover. during the restoration of municipal solid waste (landfill) sites.
Erosion control measures should be carefully located in rela- The planting of trees can significantly enhance the amenity
tion to water flows, for example, grass strips along contours. value of these sites, but may increase the risk of environmental
The reclamation of salinized soils is made difficult because contamination by promoting drying and rupturing of the
high salt concentrations destroy soil structure and so make it protective clay cap, releasing noxious and potentially explosive
difficult to wash out the salts. Adequate drainage is the first gasses in an uncontrolled manner. This can be avoided by care-
priority, providing an exit route for salts. Liming (CaCO3) or ful construction of landfill caps with a layer of highly com-
gypsum (CaSO4) addition is another key process in reclaiming pacted soil through which tree roots cannot penetrate. The
salinized soils, since the calcium ions from the lime are able to actual planting can also be problematic, expensive, and time-
replace sodium ions on soil exchange sites, allowing clay parti- consuming in some environments (e.g., remote locations
cles to clump together and improving structure and drainage. with uneven and unstable topography). In addition, environ-
Strategies for reclaiming weed-infested land include cultiva- mental constraints need to be overcome which may require
tion, herbicide, and the use of improved fallows, cover crops, significant technological investment (e.g., irrigation schemes,
and tree planting to shade out weeds. Adding fertilizer may etc.). Plant propagation and planting techniques developed
help when the weed is adapted for infertile conditions. for silviculture, agriculture, and horticulture are appropriate.
While the biophysical factors described above are the most However, there are techniques specific to land reclamation.
immediately obvious causes of agricultural degradation and Hydroseeding is a method of delivering seeds over large or
indicate where interventions are likely to help restore produc- inaccessible areas using a low pressure hose to deliver
tivity, many other factors profoundly affect agricultural liveli- a water-based slurry of organic material and seeds. This tech-
hoods. Reversing land degradation thus also depends on nique aids both in the adhesion of seeds to the ground and
examining the factors (e.g., land tenure, access to markets, also enhances soil quality through the addition of nutrients,
availability of labor) influencing the investment of time and microbial propagules, and organic matter.
resources which people are able to make into land restoration. A wide variety of phytoremediation strategies can be
employed to reclaim polluted sites and the major features of
these are summarized in Table 4. In many of these remediation
Phytoremediation Strategies for Post-Industrial and
schemes, the contaminants in the soil are not actually removed,
Contaminated Land
but their movement and bioavailability are controlled, at least
The first part of any remediation strategy is the creation of site in the short term. Where actual decontamination of the pollut-
conditions that will be conducive to plant growth. Typically, ants occurs, this normally only takes place in the rooting zone,
this will involve the removal of compacted layers and industrial often leaving large amounts of contaminants remaining at
structures, the control of water flow on the site, the addition of depth. These pollutants must be treated by other mechanisms
substrate amendments, and the landscaping of the site. The (e.g., pump and treat, air sparging, bioremediation using added
substrate amendments may include protective covers to bacteria, chemical remediation, natural attenuation using natu-
enhance substrate stability and prevent soil erosion (e.g., geo- rally present microorganisms). One major drawback with phy-
synthetic textile matting, plastic netting) alongside addition toremediation schemes is the uncertainties and risks associated
of fertilizers and organic materials to promote soil biological with them (Table 5). In many instances this has prevented
activity, long-term nutrient supply, pollutant buffering, and adoption of the technology by industrial companies who are
soil structural stability. Organic amendments commonly used looking for a rapid, economically viable, legally secure, and
 Plants and the Environment j Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice 309

Table 4 Summary of phytoremediation strategies for cleaning up and restoring contaminated and postindustrial sites

Pollutant type Mode of operation Examples of plants

Inorganic pollutants
Phytoextraction High biomass yielding plants which take up and accumulate heavy metals (e.g., Specific Brassica spp., trees and ferns
 þ
As, Cd, Zn), excess cations (e.g., Na) or nutrients (e.g., PO3
4 , NO3 , NH4 ) in the for heavy metals. Halophytic plants
shoots. These are then harvested and disposed of safely. Metal-complexing for Na. Most plants for NO þ
3 , NH4
agents (e.g., EDTA) can be added to the soil to aid metal uptake by the plant and PO34
Rhizofiltration Plants are grown on hydroponic rafts allowing the roots to grow into contaminated Sunflowers, water hyacinth
water. The roots take up or immobilize toxic metals (e.g., U, NO 3
3 , PO4 )
Phytostabilization Plants stabilize the soil and consequently the pollutants contained within them Many grasses and trees
(e.g., Cu, Zn). Prevents erosion and reduces pollutant leaching. Normally the
plants are nonaccumulators (excluders)
Phytovolatilization Plants take up the inorganic pollutants and release them from the leaves to the Willows (often genetically engineered
atmosphere in a gaseous (volatile) form (e.g., Se and Hg) to enhance volatilization potential)
Organic pollutants
Phytodegradation Pollutants are taken up into the plants and metabolized in the roots and leaves into Many grasses and trees
nontoxic by-products
Rhizodegradation Stimulation by plants (via root exudation and root turnover) of soil Many grasses and trees
microorganisms living in the rhizosphere which biodegrade the pollutants
Hydraulic pumping Plants roots take up water lowering the water table preventing the sideways Deep-rooted trees
migration of pollutants and enhancing the loss of volatile organic compounds
from the soil surface
Phytovolatilization Plants take up the pollutants from the soil, transport them up to the shoots and Many grasses and trees
then release them from the leaves into the atmosphere
Phytosorption The absorption of pollutants by plant leaves and roots preventing them migrating Many grasses and trees
through the soil
Phytocapping Plant interception of rainfall reducing the amount of leaching and runoff and Many grasses and trees
consequently pollutant migration through the soil

Table 5 Advantages and disadvantages of phytoremediation environment (e.g., freak weather events, attack by pathogens
strategies for cleaning up and restoring contaminated and postindustrial or herbivores) and the inability to predict the long-term
sites in comparison to other remediation strategies (e.g., excavation and management of phytoremediation schemes.
landfilling)

Positive points Negative points

Land Reclamation and Restoration of Biodiversity
Cheap Slower than other methods Any of a range of habitats could be created on a degraded site,
Likely to cause less pollution May mobilize toxins into biological depending upon the resources available. Where biodiversity
systems
conservation is the main objective of land reclamation, some
Visually appealing Expensive if it goes wrong
Faster than natural attenuation Few plants to choose from for some
comparison of the conservation value of the possible habitats
restoration scenarios is essential. Costs must also be considered. While habitats of
Generates less secondary waste Effectiveness is very dependent on conservation value are likely to be cheap to establish and main-
the type and level of contaminants tain compared with agricultural or amenity end uses, this is not
Soils still useable at the end Labor intensive always the case. All habitats require monitoring and manage-
Requires little equipment Mainly applicable to shallow ment, and operations such as maintaining grazing or removing
contaminated sites weeds can be expensive. Before beginning reclamation works,
Plants are capable of being The use of genetically engineered a target habitat must be selected after weighing conservation
genetically engineering to plants is not allowed in many benefits and costs. The criteria used in selecting statutory nature
enhance remediation areas of the world
conservation sites are useful in comparing the conservation
Longer timescale of intervention and
greater uncertainties
value of potential targets. These include naturalness, diversity,
typicalness, size, rarity, and fragility.
Local conservation experts will be able to advise on the
habitats and species that are priorities for conservation locally.
guaranteed way of decontaminating land. In many situations, These may include habitats that are already present on the site,
phytoremediation of degraded sites is a long-term strategy in such as remnants of the original vegetation, or new habitats
which complete pollutant removal or revegetation cannot be that have developed as a result of disturbance. Creating several
guaranteed; however, certainly these strategies are better than habitats is likely to increase the total species diversity within
taking no action at all (i.e., relying on natural attenuation by a site, and favors species that require several habitats, or edge
leaching or by indigenous plants and microorganisms). Uncer- habitats. However, certain species require large contiguous
tainties mainly center on the lack of control over the areas of a single habitat.
310 Plants and the Environment j Land Reclamation and Remediation, Principles and Practice

Reclamation for nature conservation generally does not obtained from a similar ecosystem to the target and used to
require all stresses to be removed. Soils that present no nutrient introduce propagules of a range of species.
or water availability restrictions are rarely valuable for nature
conservation, since they become dominated by common
species. Postindustrial sites often support unusual species Conclusions
because their soils present restrictions to the growth of these
common species. The diversity of soils on many postindustrial The restoration of land to useful function will be a critical
sites encourages biodiversity and should be retained. Areas that human activity so long as land is used in ways that are
support little plant growth reduce the visual appeal of a site to not sustainable, or desired end uses are subject to change.
most people, but not necessarily its conservation value. This The key components in any restoration strategy are a clear
depends on the relative value of skeletal habitats (e.g., scree, definition of the desired end use, the identification of
bare rock, sparse grassland) and more vegetated habitats (e.g., limiting factors, the design and management of measures
closed swards, heath, scrub, woodland), which will vary with to remove these constraints, and monitoring so that success
local conservation priorities. Successional habitats have gener- can be evaluated and any necessary modifications made to
ally been considered a low priority for nature conservation, but the restoration scheme. Land restoration can be very expen-
perceptions of their value are changing, in part because of the sive and its costs should be taken into account when consid-
obvious conservation value of many old quarries and other ering the economics of processes that result in the
postindustrial sites. Shifting the emphasis from conservation degradation of land.
of climax to dynamic habitats could, however, allow any
impoverished habitat to be justified in nature conservation See also: Horticulture Production and Quality: Amenity
terms as a successional stage. Horticulture. Plants and the Environment: Phytoremediation.
It is essential to establish criteria for assessing whether
habitat targets have been achieved and to plan for a program
of monitoring. Occurrence of priority species can be used as
an indicator of the success of habitat creation. Alternatively, Further Reading
the target can be expressed as a threshold abundance or cover
of species that are viewed as essential to the structure of the Ali, H., Khan, E., Sajad, M.A., 2013. Phytoremediation of heavy metals: concepts and
applications. Chemosphere 91, 869–881.
habitat. Measurements of biodiversity, whether simple species Bradshaw, A.D., Chadwick, M.J., 1980. The Restoration of Land the Ecology and
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